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Answered By: Sarah Naomi Campbell Last Updated: Sep 07, 2018     Views: 213754

Watch this short video to learn about types of scholarly articles, including research articles and literature reviews!

Not in the mood for a video? Read on!

What's the difference between a research article and a review article?

Research articles , sometimes referred to as empirical  or primary sources , report on original research. They will typically include sections such as an introduction, methods, results, and discussion.

Here is a more detailed explanation of research articles .

Review articles , sometimes called literature reviews  or secondary sources , synthesize or analyze research already conducted in primary sources. They generally summarize the current state of research on a given topic.

Here is a more detailed explanation of review articles .

The video above was created by the Virginia Commonwealth University Libraries .

The defintions, and the linked detailed explanations, are paraphrased from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 6th ed .

The linked explanations are provided by the Mohawk Valley Community College Libraries .

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NFS 4021 Contemporary Topics in Nutrition: Research Articles vs Review Articles

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Research Articles and Review Articles Defined Review

"A  research article  is a  primary source ...that is, it  reports the methods and results of an original study performed by the authors . The kind of study may vary (it could have been an experiment, survey, interview, etc.), but in all cases, raw data have been collected and analyzed by the authors, and conclusions drawn from the results of that analysis.

A  review article  is a  secondary source ...it is written about other articles, and does not report original research of its own.  Review articles are very important, as they draw upon the articles that they review to suggest new research directions, to strengthen support for existing theories and/or identify patterns among existing research studies.   For student researchers, review articles provide a great overview of the existing literature on a topic.    If you find a literature review that fits your topic, take a look at its references/works cited list for leads on other relevant articles and books!"

From  https://apus.libanswers.com/faq/2324 , "What's the difference between a research and a review article?"

• Example of a RESEARCH Article Lin CL, Huang LC, Chang YT, Chen RY, Yang SH. Effectiveness of Health Coaching in Diabetes Control and Lifestyle Improvement: A Randomized-Controlled Trial. Nutrients. 2021 Oct 29;13(11):3878.
• Example of a REVIEW Article Ojo O, Ojo OO, Adebowale F, Wang XH. The Effect of Dietary Glycaemic Index on Glycaemia in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2018 Mar 19;10(3):373.

Difference between Reviews and Research Articles

Research Article Break Down Review

Research articles follow a particular format.  Look for:

• A brief  introduction  will often include a review of the existing literature on the topic studied, and explain the rationale of the author's study.
• A  methods  section, where authors describe how they collected and analyzed data.  Statistical analysis are included.  
• A  results  section describes the outcomes of the data analysis.  Charts and graphs illustrating the results are typically included.
• In the  discussion , authors will explain their interpretation of their results and theorize on their importance to existing and future research.
• References  or  works cited  are always included.  These are the articles and books that the authors drew upon to plan their study and to support their discussion.
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What Is The Difference Between A Scholarly Research Article And A Review Article?

If you are new in the academic world, you may find the types of academic articles dizziying. The more common ones include research articles, and also review articles. How are they similar and different from each other? Distinguishing between research and review articles is crucial. 

In this post, let’s explore what research and review articles are, and how are they different.

Research Article vs. Review Article

What is a research article .

A research article serves as the cornerstone of the academic and scientific community, standing as a detailed report on original findings.

Unlike review articles which synthesise existing literature to provide an overview, research articles present primary research with fresh data, exploring uncharted territories within a specific field.

The devil is in the details when it comes to these scholarly works. Original studies not only pose a research question but delve into methodologies that range from complex experimental designs to detailed observations.

Scholarly articles are often peer-reviewed, meaning that other experts in the field scrutinise the work before publication to ensure its validity and contribution to the field.

The empirical nature of research articles means that the raw data and analysis methods are laid bare for replication—a fundamental tenet of scientific inquiry. These papers typically include:

• Introduction: Introduces the problem
• Methodology: T he means by which the study was conducted
• Results: F indings from the study
• Discussion: Connects the findings to the bigger picture, highlighting implications and potential for future research.

While some journals accept such articles readily, the journey of a paper from research question to published research is fraught with meticulous data collection and rigorous peer evaluation.

For the keen observer, it’s the systematic reviews and meta-analyses that truly offer a glimpse into the current state of understanding, weaving through the tapestry of existing knowledge to pinpoint gaps and suggest paths forward.

It’s this level of detail—often hidden in plain sight in methods and results—that serves as a rich vein of information for those looking to conduct systematic reviews or embark on a similar empirical journey.

Whether it’s a clinical case study or a large-scale trial, the research article is an essential treasure in the scholarly literature, serving as a building block for academic writing and future exploration.

What Is A Review Article?

A review article stands out in the scholarly world as a synthesis of existing research, providing a critical and comprehensive analysis of a particular topic.

Unlike original research articles that report new empirical findings, review articles serve as a bridge connecting a myriad of studies, offering an overview that discerns patterns, strengths, and gaps within published work.

Peer-reviewed and systematically organised, these articles are essential for scholars who wish to familiarise themselves with the current state of knowledge on a given subject without having to delve into each individual research paper.

Insiders know that the crafting of a review article is an art in itself. Authors meticulously collect and analyse data from various sources, often employing methods like meta-analysis or systematic review searches to compare and combine findings.

They don’t just summarise existing literature; they synthesise it, providing new insights or revealing unexplored areas that could benefit from future research. It’s a rigorous process, often involving the intricate task of:

• Comparing clinical trials,
• Conducting extensive literature reviews, or even
• Generating new frameworks for understanding complex academic concepts.

The value of a well-conducted review is immense. Journals publishing these articles often see them as keystones, providing a foundation upon which other researchers can build.

Such reviews can point to the need for new primary research, challenge existing paradigms, or even sometimes shift the direction of scholarly inquiry.

For the discerning academic, a review article is not just a summary—it’s a roadmap for what comes next in the quest for knowledge.

How Are Review And Research Articles Different?

In the scholarly cosmos, the distinction between a research article and a review article is fundamental, yet it’s a source of perplexity for budding academics. Diving into the anatomy of these articles reveals their distinct roles in academia.

Original Research vs Synthesised Knowledge

A research article is an original study, presenting novel findings. It follows a stringent structure: an abstract to summarize the study, an introduction to set the stage, followed by methods, results, and a discussion that connects the findings to broader implications.

A review article instead synthesises the information from one or many of these original studies, into an article to allow easier reading. Some also offer additional insights for the readers. 

Anatomy & Structure

An original research article is usually brimming with original data, charts, and perhaps phrases like “we investigated” or “the study found,” signifying fresh empirical insights. At the most basic, a research article usually contains sections such as:

• Introduction
• Methodology
• Future research ideas

A review article usually begins with an abstract summarising the scope and findings of the review. The main body is divided into sections that often include:

• An introduction to the topic
• A discussion segment that synthesises and analyses the compiled research
• Subtopics that further categorise the research by themes or methodologies. 

Finally, it concludes with a summary or conclusion that reflects on the current state of research, identifies gaps, and may suggest directions for future studies, accompanied by a thorough list of references.

A research article is written to share new findings and original data on a particular research. This means the information are fresh, and new to the scientific community.

An example title of a research article may be “Investigating Necrotic Enteritis in 15 Californian Broiler Chicken Farms.”

A review article is more akin to an academic digest, offering a synthesis of existing research on a topic. It typically lacks the methodology and results sections found in research papers.

The main goal is to give a panoramic view of the existing literature, gaps, and sometimes, a meta-analysis combining findings from various studies to distill a more substantial conclusion.

An example of a review article about Necrotic Enteritis may be something like this: “Necrotic Enteritis in Broiler Chickens – What We Know So Far.” 

Impact and Use in Academia

Research articles are the primary sources, documenting original work from scientists, as they conduct researches in their fields.

Original research articles are crucial in academia as they contribute new knowledge, support evidence-based advancements, and form the foundation for subsequent scholarly inquiry.

Research articles: 

• Provide detailed methodology and results for peer scrutiny
• Foster academic dialogue,
• Often the preferred source for cutting-edge information in a given field, and
• Directly impacting teaching, policy-making, and further research.

Review articles are summaries that distill wisdom from multiple sources to shed light on the current state of knowledge, often guiding future research.

They are usually seen as secondary sources, containing insights that research articles might not individually convey.

Journals prize them for their ability to provide a systematic overview, and while they may not require the substantial funding necessary for conducting original research, their scholarly impact is substantial.

Wrapping Up

In the academic landscape, research articles and review articles form the backbone of knowledge dissemination and scholarly progress.

Research articles introduce novel insights, pushing the boundaries of understanding, while review articles offer a synthesis of existing findings, guiding future studies.

Both are essential: one for its fresh empirical contributions, the other for its comprehensive overviews and analytical prowess.

Together, they underpin the scientific method, spur academic debate, and serve as the keystones of educational advancement and informed decision-making in the quest for enlightenment and innovation.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

Thank you for visiting Academia Insider.

We are here to help you navigate Academia as painlessly as possible. We are supported by our readers and by visiting you are helping us earn a small amount through ads and affiliate revenue - Thank you!

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Types of journal articles

It is helpful to familiarise yourself with the different types of articles published by journals. Although it may appear there are a large number of types of articles published due to the wide variety of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the following types; Original Research, Review Articles, Short reports or Letters, Case Studies, Methodologies.

Original Research:

This is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish full reports of data from research. It may be called an  Original Article, Research Article, Research, or just  Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable for many different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections.

Short reports or Letters:

These papers communicate brief reports of data from original research that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate further research in the field. As they are relatively short the format is useful for scientists with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full Original Research manuscript. These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications .

Review Articles:

Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline after invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles.

TIP: If you would like to write a Review but have not been invited by a journal, be sure to check the journal website as some journals to not consider unsolicited Reviews. If the website does not mention whether Reviews are commissioned it is wise to send a pre-submission enquiry letter to the journal editor to propose your Review manuscript before you spend time writing it.  

Case Studies:

These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case Studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur. This type of study is often used in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies.

Methodologies or Methods

These articles present a new experimental method, test or procedure. The method described may either be completely new, or may offer a better version of an existing method. The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently available.

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Some databases like Web of Science allow you to filter results to only see review articles. There are also journals that only publish review articles, like Chemical Reviews, Chemical Society Reviews, and the Annual Reviews series. But review and research articles can also be published in the same journal, and even within the same issue.

The best way to determine if you have a research or review article is by reading the abstract.

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Q. What's the difference between a research article (or research study) and a review article?

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Answered By: Priscilla Coulter Last Updated: Jul 29, 2022     Views: 231293

A research paper is a primary source ...that is, it reports the methods and results of an original study performed by the authors . The kind of study may vary (it could have been an experiment, survey, interview, etc.), but in all cases, raw data have been collected and analyzed by the authors , and conclusions drawn from the results of that analysis.

Research papers follow a particular format.  Look for:

• A brief introduction will often include a review of the existing literature on the topic studied, and explain the rationale of the author's study.  This is important because it demonstrates that the authors are aware of existing studies, and are planning to contribute to this existing body of research in a meaningful way (that is, they're not just doing what others have already done).
• A methods section, where authors describe how they collected and analyzed data.  Statistical analyses are included.  This section is quite detailed, as it's important that other researchers be able to verify and/or replicate these methods.
• A results section describes the outcomes of the data analysis.  Charts and graphs illustrating the results are typically included.
• In the discussion , authors will explain their interpretation of their results and theorize on their importance to existing and future research.
• References or works cited are always included.  These are the articles and books that the authors drew upon to plan their study and to support their discussion.

You can use the library's article databases to search for research articles:

• A research article will nearly always be published in a peer-reviewed journal; click here for instructions on limiting your searches to peer-reviewed articles.  
• If you have a particular type of study in mind, you can include keywords to describe it in your search .  For instance, if you would like to see studies that used surveys to collect data, you can add "survey" to your topic in the database's search box. See this example search in our EBSCO databases: " bullying and survey ".   
• Several of our databases have special limiting options that allow you to select specific methodologies.  See, for instance, the " Methodology " box in ProQuest's PsycARTICLES Advanced Search (scroll down a bit to see it).  It includes options like "Empirical Study" and "Qualitative Study", among many others.  

A review article is a secondary source ...it is written about other articles, and does not report original research of its own.  Review articles are very important, as they draw upon the articles that they review to suggest new research directions, to strengthen support for existing theories and/or identify patterns among exising research studies.  For student researchers, review articles provide a great overview of the existing literature on a topic.    If you find a literature review that fits your topic, take a look at its references/works cited list for leads on other relevant articles and books!

You can use the library's article databases to find literature reviews as well!  Click here for tips.

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Know the difference between empirical and review articles.

Empirical article An empirical (research) article reports methods and findings of an original research study conducted by the authors of the article.  

Literature Review article A review article or "literature review" discusses past research studies on a given topic.

Definition of an empirical study:  An empirical research article reports the results of a study that uses data derived from actual observation or experimentation. Empirical research articles are examples of primary research.

Parts of a standard empirical research article:  (articles will not necessary use the exact terms listed below.)

• Abstract  ... A paragraph length description of what the study includes.
• Introduction ...Includes a statement of the hypotheses for the research and a review of other research on the topic.
• Who are participants
• Design of the study
• What the participants did
• What measures were used
• Results ...Describes the outcomes of the measures of the study.
• Discussion ...Contains the interpretations and implications of the study.
• References ...Contains citation information on the material cited in the report. (also called bibliography or works cited)

Characteristics of an Empirical Article:

• Empirical articles will include charts, graphs, or statistical analysis.
• Empirical research articles are usually substantial, maybe from 8-30 pages long.
• There is always a bibliography found at the end of the article.

Type of publications that publish empirical studies:

• Empirical research articles are published in scholarly or academic journals
• These journals are also called “peer-reviewed,” or “refereed” publications.

Examples of such publications include:

• Computers in Human Behavior
• Journal of Educational Psychology

Examples of databases that contain empirical research:  (selected list only)

• Web of Science

This page is adapted from the Sociology Research Guide: Identify Empirical Articles page at Cal State Fullerton Pollak Library.

Know the difference between scholarly and non-scholarly articles.

"Scholarly" journal = "Peer-Reviewed" journal = "Refereed" journal

When researching your topic, you may come across many different types of sources and articles. When evaluating these sources, it is important to think about: 

• Who is the author? 
• Who is the audience or why was this written? 
• Where was this published? 
• Is this relevant to your research? 
• When was this written? Has it been updated? 
• Are there any citations? Who do they cite?  

Helpful Links and Guides

Here are helpful links and guides to check out for more information on scholarly sources: 

• This database contains data on different types of serials and can be used to determine whether a periodical is peer-reviewed or not:  Ulrich's Periodicals Directory  
• The UC Berkeley Library published this useful guide on evaluating resources, including the differences between scholarly and popular sources, as well as how to find primary sources:  UC Berkeley's Evaluating Resources LibGuide
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Characteristics of a Primary Research Article

• Goal is to present the result of original research that makes a new contribution to the body of knowledge
• Sometimes referred to as an empirical research article
• Typically organized into sections that include:  Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion/Conclusion, and References.

Example of a Primary Research Article:

Flockhart, D.T.T., Fitz-gerald, B., Brower, L.P., Derbyshire, R., Altizer, S., Hobson, K.A., … Norris, D.R., (2017). Migration distance as a selective episode for wing morphology in a migratory insect. Movement Ecology , 5(1), 1-9. doi: doi.org/10.1186/s40462-017-0098-9

Characteristics of a Review Article

• Goal is to summarize important research on a particular topic and to represent the current body of knowledge about that topic.
• Not intended to provide original research but to help draw connections between research studies that have previously been published.  
• Help the reader understand how current understanding of a topic has developed over time and identify gaps or inconsistencies that need further exploration.

Example of a Review Article:

https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.oswego.edu/science/article/pii/S0960982218302537

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Science Research: Primary Sources and Original Research vs. Review Articles

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Original Research vs. Review Articles. How can I tell the Difference?

Research vs review articles.

It's often difficult to tell the difference between original research articles and review articles. Here are some explanations and tips that may help: "Review articles are often as lengthy or even longer that original research articles. What the authors of review articles are doing in analysing and evaluating current research and investigations related to a specific topic, field, or problem. They are not primary sources since they review previously published material. They can be of great value for identifying potentially good primary sources, but they aren't primary themselves. Primary research articles can be identified by a commonly used format. If an article contains the following elements, you can count on it being a primary research article. Look for sections titled:

Methods (sometimes with variations, such as Materials and Methods) Results (usually followed with charts and statistical tables) Discussion

You can also read the abstract to get a good sense of the kind of article that is being presented.

If it is a review article instead of a research article, the abstract should make that pretty clear. If there is no abstract at all, that in itself may be a sign that it is not a primary resource. Short research articles, such as those found in Science and similar scientific publications that mix news, editorials, and forums with research reports, however, may not include any of those elements. In those cases look at the words the authors use, phrases such as "we tested"  and "in our study, we measured" will tell you that the article is reporting on original research."*

*Taken from Ithca College Libraries

Primary and Secondary Sources for Science

In the Sciences, primary sources are documents that provide full description of the original research. For example, a primary source would be a journal article where scientists describe their research on the human immune system. A secondary source would be an article commenting or analyzing the scientists' research on the human immune system.

  EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

Source: The Evolution of Scientific Information (from  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science , vol. 26).

Primary Vs. Secondary Vs. Tertiary Sources

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What is a Primary Research Article?

How do you identify primary research articles, review articles.

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In a primary research article, author(s) present a new set of findings from original research after conducting an original experiment. Think of what you do in any of your various lab activities. If you were to write a scholarly paper on any of your biology labs (like the Flowers and Pollinators lab from BIO 191), it would be a primary research article.

Primary research articles are also referred to as original research or research articles.

How to Identify Primary Research Article

• Did the author(s) of the paper conduct the experiment themselves? This is the most important thing to look for in order to identify primary research. Look for language that indicates that the author(s) devised the experiment, carried it out, and analyzed the resulting data themselves.
• "Methods"/"Materials and Methods"/"Experimental Methods"(different journals title this section in different ways)
• "Results"
• "Discussion"

Here is One Example of a Primary Research Article and How to Determine that it is a Primary Research Article

"Effects of Salinity Stress on Survival, Metabolism, Limb Regeneration, and Ecdysis in UCA PUGNAX"

Read the Abstract

If you read the abstract, you can see that the author(s) themselves conducted an experiment:

• "This study investigated physiological and metabolic changes in the molt cycle of U. pugnax..."
• "For this study, a limb was removed and its regenerative growth was photographed every two days"
• "...crabs were dissected, and the tissues collected were analyzed for their protein and carbohydrate contents."

Read the Headings

• The article has Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion sections, all which indicate that the authors conducted an experiment and then analyzed the data they found.

Skim the Article

If you skim the article, it is clear that the authors tested a hypothesis using the scientific method. They are only really talking about research that was conducted by others in the "Introduction" section of the article, which is what you would expect for a primary research article.

Look for Textual Evidence

If you skim the article, you can easily find additional evidence that an experiment was conducted by the authors themselves.

• [They collected their sample i.e. crabs.]
• [They exposed their sample to different variables.]
• [They used statistical methods to analyze their data.]
• [They reported the results of their experiment.]
• [They drew a conclusion from their experimental results.]

What is a Review Article?

Review articles do not report new experiments. Rather, they attempt to provide a thorough review of a specific subject by assessing either all or the best available scholarly literature on that topic. By considering the findings of many primary research articles, review articles can provide a comprehensive background and analysis of all the available evidence on a subject. A single review article will summarize, analyze, and discuss the results of numerous primary research articles all at once, and often will provide comparisons with respect to each other.

For a review article, the authors do not design an experiment and carry it out in a lab. Rather, they search for, find, and read numerous primary research articles on a particular topic.  Then, they organize them into a cohesive narrative that provides an overall summary and analysis of a topic.

Review articles can help explain the basics of a particular area of science, provide an overview of all of the research that has been conducted on a particular topic, and/or provide insight into current topics of scholarly disagreement. They can also help identify where there are gaps in research and scientific knowledge.

How to Identify a Review Article 

• Author(s) summarize and analyze previously published research. NOTE: While primary research articles provide a background on their subject by summarizing previously conducted research, this typically occurs only in the "Introduction" section of the article. Review articles, however, will summarize previously conducted research throughout the entire paper.
• Author(s) did NOT do original research. Instead, they summarize and discuss the work of others.
• The article might attempt to (1) explain the basics of, (2) provide an overview of, or (3) shed light on aspects of disagreement or confusion regarding a topic.
• In order to provide insight into aspects of disagreement or confusion surrounding a research topic, the article might focus on a specific research question that has been investigated many times by other researchers. Here, they compare and contrast primary research articles in an attempt to answer a complicated question.
• Do not typically contain sections such as Methods (and Materials) or Results because the author(s) did not do any original research!

Practice: An Example of a Review Article

" Stem Cells, Cancer, and Cancer Stem Cells "

Step 1: Read the Abstract

If you read the abstract, there is nothing to indicate that the authors of this paper conducted an experiment themselves. The authors do not list their hypothesis, methods used to conduct an experiment, or specific results. Rather, it sounds like the authors are trying to provide the reader with an overview of recent research.

Step 2: Read the Headings

If you look through the headings of the different sections of this article (the words that are bolded), they do not indicate that an experiment was conducted by the authors.  This article does not have those specific section headings commonly found in primary research, such as "Materials and Methods," "Results," or "Discussion."

Step 3: Skim the Article

If you skim through the article, there is nothing to indicate that the authors tested a hypothesis in a lab or in the field. Instead, the article weaves together the findings from many primary research articles and then considers what the results could mean when viewed collectively.

Step 4: Look for Textual Evidence

If you skim through the article, there is more evidence that it is a review:

• [The article actually tells you that it is a review!]
• [The article is summarizing the findings from several studies. REMINDER: While primary research articles provide a background on their subject by summarizing previously conducted research, this typically occurs only in the Introduction section of the article. Review articles, however, will summarize previously conducted research throughout the entire paper. This is demonstrated throughout the entire article, not just in an Introduction section, which helps identify it as a review.]
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Difference Between a Research Article and a Review Article

Are you familiar with the differences between research articles and review articles? If not, then worry not; here we are going to let you know that these two have distinct purposes in the academic world, having unique roles and characteristics. In this blog, we will discuss the main difference points between a research article and a review article, like purpose, content, etc. So, keep reading!

What is a Research Article?

A research article is someone’s unique study essay in which their whole research process and results deliver new discoveries. The purpose of this is to add fresh knowledge to the particular field of study. This follows a standard format including an introduction, review of past research, process, results, discussions, and conclusion. This structure makes it easy for readers to understand the research journey and the author’s point.

What are Review Papers?

A review article is different from a regular research paper. A review paper essentially summarizes and assesses a recent research paper on a specific topic. This helps us find out what we already know and what we still need to find out. It is crucial because it points out what’s missing and suggests what researchers should study next.

Types of Review Paper

The review papers are of three types:

Narrative:   It’s like gathering and sharing all the information we know about a particular topic using research that has already been done and published.

Meta-analysis:   Think of it as a way to compare and put together the results of past research studies. Professionals do this regularly to see if a specific approach or treatment really works.

Systematic: This is like doing a thorough search of everything scientists have found about a topic.

Main Difference Points Between Review and Research Paper Publication

Ownership and purpose.

The main difference between research and review articles is in their rights and ultimate goals. A research article is like the brainchild of the author, who conducts original and thorough research for collecting and analyzing data. It represents the author’s sole contribution to the research disclosure for securing the recognition.

On the other hand, a review article is a collaborative approach. The motive of an author to publish review articles is to study and critique the work of others for the sake of establishing themselves as an expert in that particular field.

Research articles’ content presents new ideas and hypotheses and delivers discoveries for the first time. They serve as pioneers of knowledge, opening new paths to studying areas.

In contrast, review articles act as guides through the existing body of research. It includes the procedure of carefully examining previous studies and providing a simplified overview of the original research paper, which serves as a brief introduction to the topic.

Overall Difference

• A research paper typically shows in-depth and comprehensive information compared to a review paper.
• While research papers often undergo peer review, review papers may not always follow the same process.
• Research papers adopt a more formal style than review papers.
• Research papers maintain an objective tone, whereas review papers are a subjective approach.
• Research papers are commonly crafted in accordance with APA style guidelines, while review papers might adopt different formatting conventions.

The Role of Review Article Writing and Editing Services

These articles need to be very detailed during the complex research and review articles for academic purposes. At this time, professional services can help you by providing advanced services by following all the standard rules.

If you need professional work, then you can hire experts from the ARDA Conference to fulfill all your academic needs. We know all the rules of academic writing and ensure that your articles meet your standards.

At the ARDA Conference, we’re experts at providing top-notch services for writing and editing review articles. We can customize our help to fit your needs perfectly.

In a final say, research and review articles are different types of documents in the academic world. Already mentioned are some of the aspects that help you to differentiate between research and review articles. However, when you are working on your projects, do not forget to get the best review article writing service from us to ensure your work is of the highest quality.

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• Sep 14, 2021

What's the difference between a research article and a review article-The hidden secrets?

Are you getting more confused on what is review article and research article and what are their major differences? Here we have provided a clear idea to make you feel understand in a better way. Let’s see each one of the them more in detail.

What is a research article?

The research articles, occasionally termed to as primary sources or empirical paper which rely on original research report. They consist of the sections namely abstract, introduction, literature review, research methodology, results & discussion and conclusion. Primary or Empirical research studies report original research, highlighting the diverse steps involved in the research process.

The structure of an empirical paper is explained in detail as under:

Abstract : The abstract is the first and foremost section of the empirical paper and the content should be well written in a precise manner. The following key points are important for abstract formulation

It delivers a description of the research problem being examined

includes the contributors and relevant characteristics of those contributors

defines the research methodology of the study

précises the basic findings of the research study

contains the implications or applications and conclusions of the research study's findings.

Introduction: Traces the way the research problem that is being studied has developed and provides the determination for the examination.

Research Methodology : Specifies how the examination was conducted; what measures were used.

Results : intelligences the findings and analyses of the research study

Discussion : summarizes, infers and discusses the implications of the examination results

Conclusion : Concludes the research study and its outcomes in a precise manner.

What is a review article ?

The review article is also sometimes called as survey article or literature reviews or secondary sources , synthesize or analyze research previously conducted in primary sources. The review articles usually summarize the current state of research on a given research topic.

The review articles critically evaluate the previously published research articles. The organization, combination of the previously published material, and evaluation of this material provide an understanding of the progress of research in clarifying a research problem. The Literature reviews provides the following key points:

gives a clear definition and explanation of the research problem

provides a summary of earlier research to inform the reader of what the research status is

identifies relationships, contradictions, problem gaps and discrepancies in the material

makes suggestions in the upcoming step to solve the problem.

The structure of a review paper is detailed as under:

Abstract: Notifies about the main objectives and result of each review article taken for development

Introduction: Provides information about the background, specifies the motivation for the review, describes the focus, the research question and describes the text structure.

Detailed literature survey and frame a Comparative table: In this section, we need to summarize each referred article in terms of author(s) name, year of publication, findings of the particular research article, advantages and limitations of the study

Future scope of the work (if applicable)

Below table gives you a clear understanding of the major difference between a review and a research article.

Hope this article is useful for the research aspirants and the scholars who are planning to publish their articles in journal

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Research Paper and Article: What’s the Difference?

Research Papers and Articles are distinct types of academic writing, but they share many of the same qualities. This article seeks to elucidate the differences between a research paper and an article while also highlighting some common elements shared by both. It will be argued that although there is some overlap between these two forms of scholarly communication, research papers tend to have a more substantial emphasis on data collection and analysis than articles do. In addition, it will be demonstrated how each type has its own unique purpose in terms of disseminating information about particular topics or fields of study. Finally, best practices for utilizing either form for optimal results will be discussed as well as how researchers should go about selecting which one suits their needs best.

1. Introduction to Research Papers and Articles

2. the definition of a research paper, 3. distinguishing characteristics of a research paper, 4. the definition of an article, 5. distinguishing characteristics of an article, 6. understanding the difference between a research paper and an article, 7. conclusion.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is an extended written work that presents and supports a thesis, or argument. It delves into the details of existing knowledge on the topic, including both primary sources (directly related to the subject) and secondary sources (related information used as evidence). Research papers often involve analysis from an academic perspective—one backed up with facts, figures, personal opinions, and other forms of supporting material.

What are Research Articles?

Research articles are typically shorter pieces of writing than full-length research papers. They may focus on one specific aspect of the topic or contain some preliminary findings based upon their own original research efforts in order to present new ideas for further study. Unlike lengthy research papers which require extensive background reading before any meaningful conclusions can be drawn from them; many short form articles do not need this level of depth in order to provide interesting insights into a given field.

A research paper is an in-depth academic writing that requires the author to have a thorough knowledge of the subject at hand. It often contains research conducted by a student or group, and it is used to demonstrate their understanding of said topic. In most cases, this type of work will be written with data from primary sources such as interviews or surveys.

Structural Specifications

A research paper has a distinct structure that needs to be respected in order for it to pass the test of scholarly review. This includes having an introduction, body and conclusion sections, all organized logically. Additionally, there should also be headings and subheadings throughout the text. It is crucial that each section clearly states its purpose while also building on any previous points made – ultimately leading up to answering the initial question posed at the beginning of the paper.

Article vs Paper

Understanding the Different Kinds of Written Pieces In order to craft a comprehensive and thoughtful piece of writing, it is essential that one understands the difference between various forms of written pieces. The two main types are research papers and articles, which have distinct features separating them from one another.

• Research paper: A scholarly work typically required for completion of an undergraduate or graduate degree.
• Research article: A document containing original findings in a given field.

The primary difference between these two formats lies in their purpose. Research papers often delve into historical contexts as well as theoretical concepts; they may also serve as repositories for acquired data sets pertaining to current topics or events in academia.

On the other hand, research articles focus primarily on exploring new ideas within disciplines such as science and medicine. They tend to be more concise than longer form works such as dissertations; however, both draw heavily upon factual evidence presented through detailed analysis or empirical experimentation. In this way, each type serves its own unique purpose while providing critical information towards better understanding relevant topics across many subject areas.

While reading any text, it is important to know the distinguishing characteristics of the article. A research paper and a research article are both valuable works that help inform readers about various topics or issues; however, they differ in terms of purpose, structure and audience.

• Research Paper : The primary purpose of this type of work is to explain an issue through detailed analysis from a variety of perspectives. Research papers use long blocks of text which include arguments supported by evidence gathered from sources such as published books or journals. Additionally, they often have footnotes or citations embedded within them.
• Research Article : This type written work usually takes less time than a research paper due its smaller size (e.g., 2000-3000 words). It has clear objectives for writing up results regarding new methods/techniques developed for solving problems related to science/technology etc.; hence uses technical language rather than storytelling style like narrative pieces do.

The research paper and the research article can seem like similar documents, however there are key differences to consider when examining them.

• Research Paper:

Whereas a traditional research paper may explore multiple avenues regarding one particular field or area of study, an article will instead focus solely on one aspect at hand – which could range from discussing current trends surrounding technological advancements to summarizing literature review findings related to behavioral studies conducted over extended periods of time. As such, articles tend to have narrower scopes while papers allow authors greater leeway due to their lengthier formats and higher degree levels associated with them.

Final Reflection The research presented in this paper has revealed that technology can greatly improve the learning experience. Technology-enhanced instruction offers a range of advantages, including improved student engagement and an ability to tailor teaching to individual students’ needs. However, it is important for educators to recognize that there are challenges associated with introducing tech into the classroom. Properly assessing how best to incorporate new technologies requires time and resources from both instructors and institutions alike.

Technology-infused lessons have great potential for enhancing educational outcomes, but only when implemented thoughtfully and deliberately. Educators must take into account factors such as costs associated with implementing or maintaining technological solutions; technical support infrastructure; availability of professional development opportunities; contextual variables specific to their classrooms (e.g., access disparities); content knowledge related to using appropriate tools effectively in different subject areas; alignment between instruction objectives/assessments/technology use; sufficient instructional preparation strategies prior introduction of digital media components across multiple grade levels curriculum standards etc.. This will ensure greater success within the classroom environment via incorporating current technologies alongside traditional approaches found successful over many generations now past.

Overall, technology integration presents tremendous potential for improving teaching practices while also providing students better opportunities for reaching long term academic goals than ever before without utilizing advances available today–allowing them easier paths towards more diverse successes later on in life irrespective one’s location geographically speaking be they close by or further abroad . It remains up still though ultimately upon us all–educators at every level globally whether directly involved presently or seeking those who already working along these lines willing capable going above beyond expected norms from fellow colleagues–as well society entire–to help realize full capabilities modern age holds whenever possible each given chance arises come our way through innovation applied nowadays moving forward continually despite any odds imposed once beforehand against us never fully yielding nor wavering trying no matter what justifiably so deserves future we aim build far brighter much grander scale imaginable arguably could dream create surely intending construct sustaining legacy regardless anyone else’s opinion right wrong even if alone knows why worth taking doing ultimate efforts needed effectuating lasting impacts felt everyone concerned after gone leaving end impressions indelibly marked those remain serve testament integrity conviction carried out job done successfully accordance plan initially laid forth accurately faithfully followed adhere expectations set agreed assured kept fixed focus mind’s eye view foresight completing task moment arrives due date determined arrive consequently utmost importance placed assignments taken seriously ensuring relevant requirements meet met satisfactorily overall satisfactory rating received satisfaction ones entrusting project results depend deliverables supplied highly esteemed pleased finish thank you

In conclusion, it is clear that there are distinct differences between a research paper and an article. Research papers tend to be longer than articles and involve more in-depth analysis of the topic at hand. Articles typically focus on one specific aspect or point while research papers investigate several different perspectives within the given subject matter. Furthermore, both types of writing use evidence from sources to support their arguments but differ in terms of formatting requirements as well as content organization structure. It is important for authors to understand these distinctions when determining which type of written work best suits their needs.

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There are many types of evidence synthesis projects, including systematic reviews as well as others. The selection of review type is wholly dependent on the research question. Not all research questions are well-suited for systematic reviews.

• Review Typologies (from LITR-EX) This site explores different review methodologies such as, systematic, scoping, realist, narrative, state of the art, meta-ethnography, critical, and integrative reviews. The LITR-EX site has a health professions education focus, but the advice and information is widely applicable.

Review the table to peruse review types and associated methodologies. Librarians can also help your team determine which review type might be appropriate for your project. 

Reproduced from Grant, M. J. and Booth, A. (2009), A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 26: 91-108.  doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x

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MINI REVIEW article

Intertemporal prosocial behavior: a review and research agenda.

• 1 Department of Management and Engineering, Division of Economics, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
• 2 Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences (HMV), The National Center for Priority Setting in Health Care, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
• 3 Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
• 4 Decision Research, Eugene, OR, United States

Research on intertemporal and prosocial decisions has largely developed in separate strands of literature. However, many of the decisions we make occur at the intersection of these two dimensions (intertemporal and prosocial). Trust is an example, where a decision today is made with the expectation that another person will reciprocate (or betray) later. A new literature is emerging to explore the role of time in these types of situations, where time and social considerations are intertwined. In many cases, time introduces (or magnifies) an element of uncertainty about future outcomes and utility that people need to deal with – what will happen, how good will it be, how will it feel. We review this emerging literature on intertemporal prosocial decision-making and discuss how new research can fill existing knowledge gaps.

1 Introduction

Time is a fundamental component in human behavior and interaction. Decisions, desires, views, experiences, and emotions act on and play out over time. Social norms evolve. Societies change. For these reasons, studying how prosocial decisions (here interpreted broadly as decisions affecting and being affected by others) are shaped by time, using controlled experiments, and developing theory, seems important. However, historically this perspective has received little attention. The literatures on intertemporal and prosocial decisions, although each large and vibrant, have mostly developed without significant transfer between them.

Lately, this perplexing isolation between research fields has begun to change. A new literature is emerging at the intersection of temporal and prosocial behavior. What “prosocial” brings to the table here is, primarily, that these decisions often involve a strategic component, where outcomes depend on decisions and expectations by more than one individual; and are to a greater degree influenced by context, norms, personal and social identity. These aspects of decision-making are amenable to time. For example, if people have different motivations for delayed rewards (discounting), then simply adding a time delay to a classic bargaining- or coordination game may substantially change the strategic landscape (and the corresponding game predictions).

Here, we review this emerging literature on intertemporal prosocial decision-making and discuss several promising directions for new research.

2 Emerging literature on intertemporal prosocial decision-making

The core research strategy for most papers in this emerging field has been to add a time delay to a standard prosocial decision-context normally run in the lab, e.g., a trust-, cooperation-, coordination-, or bargaining game. This has produced some thought-provoking findings and predictions, including that small differences in time preference may improve coordination and influence bargaining power (about resource distribution), but also that time may act as a barrier to cooperation. Moreover, initial results indicate that trust and trustworthiness is surprisingly robust to time delay, at least for short delays, and that altruism follows a different intertemporal pattern compared to decisions that are purely personal, including absence of classical time-inconsistent choosing.

Agranov et al. (2023) investigated how differential time preferences influenced coordination. They used a standard protocol for repeated coordination, where participants make decisions over many rounds and continuation is probabilistic. Interestingly, allowing for even a small difference in time preference influenced outcomes (fewer coordination failures), likely working as a coordination anchor; and larger differences gave rise to intertemporal trades, where individuals with steeper discounting received higher payoffs early on, and vice versa for individuals with less steep discounting.

Kim et al. (2023) used a similar approach allowing for discounting differentials to investigate the effect on bargaining behavior. In their experiment, participants bargained repeatedly (submitting alternating offers) about how to share a fix sum of money. Any offer that was rejected triggered a new round of bargaining but also pushed eventual payout further into the future. Here, patience is strategically relevant since it is less costly for more patient players to ‘wait’ for a good offer. Theoretically, opposing players who are less patient should recognize and submit better offers upfront. The results showed that players who faced a longer payoff delay (thus steeper effective discounting) indeed submitted less demanding proposals and enjoyed less favorable outcomes overall.

Two papers investigated the effects of time delay on cooperation. Kim (2023) incorporated time delay in payoffs in a repeated prisoner’s dilemma game. They used a classic repeated-games framework but with the temporal sequence of stage games mapped to staggered payouts for weeks or months, rather than all at once received immediately at the end of the experiment. There was lower cooperation when payoffs were delayed more, thus indicating that steeper discounting decreases cooperation in a repeated games framework. Kölle and Laurer (2024) investigated the effects of time delay on various payoff components in a linear public goods game. In the classic version of this game, participants can keep money for themselves or contribute to a common account that benefits everyone in the group. The parameters are usually set such that it is individually optimal for selfish persons to keep all money for themselves, but socially optimal if everyone contributes fully to the group account. Here, the authors systematically varied which type of benefit (personal, group, none, or both) that was paid immediately and which was paid with a 1 year delay. They found overall substantially lower cooperation rates when group benefits were delayed, and, conversely, increased cooperation when personal benefits were delayed instead. Together these studies suggest that time may act as a barrier to cooperation in the context of solving collective problems, like climate change.

Ederer and Schneider (2022) introduced a time dimension in the classic trust game. Unlike the papers surveyed above, here they kept delay to payout constant but instead systematically varied delay to decision. In the trust game, one player (the ‘trustor’) is given a sum of money and decides how much to send to another player, the ‘trustee.’ The amount sent is multiplied and then the trustee decides how much, if anything, to return to the trustor. Using a variant of this game, Ederer and Schneider introduced delay to the trustee’s decision. Participants as trustors thus decided how much to send to their assigned trustees knowing that the trustee would make their decisions either immediately, 1 day after the experiment, or in 3 weeks’ time. They speculate that trustees’ potential feelings of obligation or guilt might decrease as temporal distance (time since trustor’s decision) increases, and as a result, observed trustworthiness and trust should decrease. However, neither trust nor trustworthiness changed substantially for the delays considered in the experiment (max 3 weeks).

Finally, some papers have investigated the temporal dimension of altruistic behavior. Kölle and Wenner (2023) studied how people allocate effort (for payment) for themselves and others inside a time window of 3 weeks, using a task developed to measure time inconsistency ( Augenblick et al., 2015 ). In short, time inconsistency here means disproportionate valuation of rewards that are immediately available. The novel idea here was that people made temporal allocations not only for themselves but also for others and in particular for self vs. other. In line with previous literature (non-social decisions), they found evidence of time inconsistency when choosing for oneself. However, these results did not extend to choices for others or for self-other tradeoffs. The authors concluded that discounting in social situations appears to be conceptually different from personal discounting. Chopra et al. (2024) also investigated the temporal structure of self-other tradeoffs but used a different design, with substantially longer time frames (up to 1 year) and monetary donations to charity. Interestingly, they found that prosocial decisions in the form of self-other tradeoffs had a distinct temporal profile beyond people’s discounting in either domain (self and other when considered separately) and controlling for their atemporal preference for giving in this context. The authors interpreted this as the upshot of a conceptual distinction between temporal utility flows from consequences vs. choices ( Kovarik, 2009 ; Andreoni and Serra-Garcia, 2021 on the role of time in altruistic behavior).

3 Recent advances in the intertemporal choice literature

Discounting of future monetary rewards is probably one of the most well-researched topics in behavioral social science, and the literature is very active. Over the years a number of stylized patterns have been documented using experiments, e.g., hyperbolicity (i.e., insensitivity to the length of time intervals) and present bias (i.e., disproportionate valuation of immediate rewards), and different theories have been developed to explain them (see, e.g., review by Cohen et al., 2020 ). Traditionally, most of these explanations have focused on motivational factors – deep preference for sooner rewards, self-control failures, impulsivity ( Enke et al., 2023 ).

Interestingly, a newer set of papers has emphasized and begun to formalize temporal discounting from a different explanatory perspective, resulting from ‘cognitive noise’ or decision complexity. Gabaix and Laibson (2022) model temporal discounting as resulting from internal uncertainty about value of future events. Decision makers handle this uncertainty by generating noisy mental simulations of future value, which they combine with their prior beliefs. If noise increases with the horizon (time to delivery) this produces a classic discounting pattern, where future rewards are valued less, even for agents who have no real time preference. Vieider (2021) develops a discounting model based on a similar type of cognitive micro-foundation and Bayesian updating approach, except uncertainty here is tied to perception of time delay rather than future utilities. Gershman and Bhui (2020) extend Gabaix and Laibson’s baseline model to account for adaptive simulation noise. Assuming that attention to signals (mental representations of future utility) is costly, people will “think harder” when potential utility is larger and thus appear to adapt their discounting to reward magnitude, which reproduces a stylized discounting pattern known as ‘the magnitude effect.’ Enke et al. (2023) and Enke and Graeber (2023) operate along the same lines but also make a broader methodological point, noting that temporal choices belong to a class of complex decision problems where people may be reluctant, or unable, to engage in the type of cognitive operations required for optimal choice, and rather resort to simpler decision rules. And many of these rules will produce choice patterns that look like classic discounting even when this is not the underlying value guiding people’s choices.

These developments in the intertemporal choice literature may prove useful for understanding how prosocial decisions are made in an intertemporal context. Because both dimensions (intertemporal and prosocial, respectively) can be conceptualized in terms of mental perspective taking, focusing on current vs. future, or self vs. other. This idea is already a conceptual cornerstone for prosocial decisions, where it is important to understand how somebody else will feel, think, and react, and thus well aligned with the idea (echoed by some of the papers reviewed above) that intertemporal choices are influenced by the extent to which people can understand how something will be or play out in the future.

4 Research agenda

This new literature on intertemporal prosocial decision-making is just emerging and there are many open questions to address. A first line of inquiry should build on the ideas introduced in the papers written so far, where the focus has been to explore how an added time dimension changes the strategic landscape and what observable effects this may have on behavior. This is an exciting topic where much more research is needed, both to replicate patterns that emerged from the few existing studies and to extend to other contexts.

A second aspect to explore is temporal direction; what happens if decisions are extending into the past compared to into the future? Of course, answering this question will require some elaborate experimental-design work, but it is an important perspective to consider. It applies to most games where decisions (thus not only outcomes) are detached in time. The trust game is an example, where the trustor sees to the future but the trustee sees to the past. Conceptually it is not evident that the past and the future are symmetrically perceived. For instance, whereas the present can be experienced, the past and the future have to be mentally constructed ( Trope and Liberman, 2010 ). The source of these construals will be based on memory and imagination (prediction), the past, arguably, to a greater extent on memory, and the future on prediction ( Schacter et al., 2017 ). Down the line there will be interesting connections to be made with literatures on motivated memory and experience-based prediction.

A third, more fundamental task is to start building a conceptual home ground for prosocial decision-making in a temporal context. There is currently no established, unifying conceptual framework. This is not surprising, given that both temporal and prosocial decision-making are complex matters on their own, with a host of different theories existing in either domain, and these theories often rest on different psychological and neural foundations. However, eventually we need to break new ground here. A valuable first step in this process would be to shift focus a little bit by starting to collect large amounts of data within subjects, with the goal of building, and eventually estimating, temporal profiles of prosocial behavior in different contexts. The blueprint would be a densely populated (many different delays) delay discounting task adapted to prosocial choices. These profiles would then form the basis for exploring the effects of different experimental manipulations or looking for differences related to quantitative trait.

Going forward, one possible way to bridge the divide between prior separate conceptualizations of prosocial and temporal choice is to look to new conceptual work in the intertemporal choice literature (reviewed in short above), which emphasizes the role of noisy cognition (and decision complexity) in temporal discounting. One interesting line of thinking here is that decision makers may try to resolve uncertainty about the future by using mental simulations (what will happen, how good will it be, how will I feel), and that this results in temporal discounting. The focus on mental perspective-taking (mental simulations) for temporal decisions is key here because it is conceptually well aligned with the type of cognitive processes we typically attribute to prosocial decisions – “mentalizing” about what we believe other persons will do, how they will feel, what they expect from us, and so on ( Chang et al., 2023 ). This suggests a basic hypothesis about shared substrates in mental perspective taking that are relevant for prosocial decision-making in an intertemporal context. There are many ways in which new research could seek more evidence for (or refute) this hypothesis. One way would be to systematically manipulate temporal distance using episodic time cues ( Peters and Büchel, 2010 ) or emotional salience, e.g., fear of betrayal in the trust game, which should both have a predictable temporal component in their influence on behavior. Ideally this approach is then combined with a search for underlying neural mechanisms, which we touch on briefly below.

An emerging hypothesis in decision neuroscience is that overlapping brain networks are involved in both prosocial and intertemporal decisions. Correlational studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have shown that a specific set of brain areas are consistently activated for prosocial decisions, often referred to as the social brain network (or the mentalizing network) ( Alós-Ferrer and Farolfi, 2019 ; Chang et al., 2023 ). A key functionality facilitated by this network is the cognitive ability to understand and predict other persons’ intentions, beliefs, and actions; a form of mental perspective taking that is crucial for beneficial social interaction. Of note, a similar type of functionality (using a shared neural implementation) is thought to be operating also in temporal decisions ( Soutschek et al., 2016 ). Here the hypothesis is that the mentalizing network enables future perspective taking, thus influencing the extent to which the future is valued, from today’s perspective. This points to a novel mechanism that is quite different from classic temptation/self-control models of intertemporal choice.

Current thinking is that the regions involved in prosocial or temporal decision-making (e.g., the temporoparietal junction or the partially overlapping angular gyrus) provide higher-order cognitive functions that facilitate integration of multisensory input, and that this functionality is particularly useful when building mental representations of complex phenomena, like social context or temporal projection ( Jung et al., 2022 ; Humphreys and Tibon, 2023 ; Lugrin et al., 2023 ). Consistent with this conceptualization, Pietrzak et al. (2023) found that neural activity in angular gyrus and surrounding areas correlated with decisions in a standard temporal discounting task. An interesting and important avenue for future research is thus to establish the casual role (and connectivity) of key regions in the mentalizing network for prosocial decisions made in a temporal context.

5 Discussion

An exciting new literature is emerging at the intersection of temporal and prosocial decision-making. Our review highlighted directions this literature is taking and we discussed knowledge gaps to be filled by future research. Most of our focus was on the need for in-depth understanding of decisions and underlying processes, including unifying conceptualization. Ultimately such deeper understanding will be needed for extrapolating findings to the world outside the experimental lab. And this is where this new literature becomes relevant for real – because the intertemporal prosocial dimension is present in some of today’s biggest societal challenges. How to find behavioral solutions that can speed up climate change mitigation is perhaps the clearest example. Time is important here because costs will be borne now and benefits in the future. Same for health policy, which discounts the lives of future generations. And both of these decisions are made in a social context.

In the behavioral social-science literature, bottom-up climate change mitigation is often cast in a cooperation/social-dilemma type of framework. Here, the key problem for mitigation is the tension that exists between individually optimal behavior (selfishness) and socially optimal behavior (full cooperation). An important question for policy is therefore how to make people more cooperative, and when it comes to environment this often means increase willingness to bear personal costs of climate-friendly actions incurred today (e.g., price, effort, comfort) for common benefits at some point in the future. As noted by the few papers we surveyed on this topic above, time is important to consider here because willingness to cooperate is plausibly influenced by when the benefit (e.g., global warming kept below 1.5°C) is expected to materialize, or when everyone else make their decisions (e.g., overexploitation is often temporally detached among different actors). More research here can help us design better interventions to tackle these problems.

Of course, climate action is not the only topic where understanding the role of time is important. Motivated beliefs, teamwork, trust, economic hold-up are other examples where social outcomes are plausibly shaped by time. We anticipate new exciting research on these and other topics over the coming years, as the emerging literature on intertemporal prosocial choice continues to grow.

For policymaking, the question how to think about time in prosocial decision-making is not only relevant from a behavioral-descriptive point of view; it is also a highly normative matter, which has consequences for the well-being of both current and future generations. Increased knowledge about when and why time shapes behavior and preferences for policy is just a first step when discussing the more fundamental question of when and why time preferences should shape behavior and public policy. How prosocial choices are shaped by time in an intergenerational context is also a question of utmost importance not only for future generations but for the structure of governance if modern democracy as a mechanism for public decision-making is insufficiently sensitive to the concerns of future generations.

Author contributions

EP: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. GT: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. DV: Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: prosocial behavior, time, intertemporal, cognitive noise, social brain network

Citation: Persson E, Tinghög G and Västfjäll D (2024) Intertemporal prosocial behavior: a review and research agenda. Front. Psychol . 15:1359447. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1359447

Received: 21 December 2023; Accepted: 25 March 2024; Published: 08 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Persson, Tinghög and Västfjäll. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Emil Persson, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Research: Boards Still Have an ESG Expertise Gap — But They’re Improving

• Tensie Whelan

Over the last five years, the percentage of Fortune 100 board members possessing relevant credentials rose from 29% to 43%.

The role of U.S. public boards in managing environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues has significantly evolved over the past five years. Initially, boards were largely unprepared to handle materially financial ESG topics, lacking the necessary background and credentials. However, recent developments show a positive shift, with the percentage of Fortune 100 board members possessing relevant ESG credentials rising from 29% to 43%. This increase is primarily in environmental and governance credentials, while social credentials have seen less growth. Despite this progress, major gaps remain, particularly in climate change and worker welfare expertise. Notably, the creation of dedicated ESG/sustainability committees has surged, promoting better oversight of sustainability issues. This shift is crucial as companies increasingly face both regulatory pressures and strategic opportunities in transitioning to a low carbon economy.

Knowing the right questions to ask management on material environmental, social, and governance issues has become an important part of a board’s role. Five years ago, our research at NYU Stern Center for Sustainable Business found U.S. public boards were not fit for this purpose — very few had the background and credentials necessary to provide oversight of  ESG topics such as climate, employee welfare, financial hygiene, and cybersecurity. Today, we find that while boards are still woefully underprepared in certain areas, there has been some important progress .

• TW Tensie Whelan is a clinical professor of business and society and the director of the NYU Stern Center for Sustainable Business, and she sits on the advisory boards of Arabesque and Inherent Group.

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• Open access
• Published: 20 April 2024

How are new nurses satisfied with their jobs? From the work value perspective of Generations Y and Z nurses

• Eunkyung Kim 1 ,
• Heejung Kim 2 &
• Taewha Lee 2  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  252 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Job satisfaction has garnered significant interest across multiple disciplines as it plays a vital role in shaping human resource strategies. In the field of nursing, enhancing job satisfaction can help prevent workforce shortages. Work values and job-related characteristics are significant predictors of job satisfaction. However, the influence of factors may change as younger generations join the nursing workforce. Although research on generational commonalities and differences in work values is increasing, there is insufficient information on generational differences in the interplay between work values and job satisfaction. This study investigated the factors associated with job satisfaction of new nurses in each generational group based on a work value perspective.

A total of 280 new nurses (151 from Generation Y and 129 from Generation Z) were selected from the Graduates Occupational Mobility Survey. Multiple linear regression analyses were performed to determine the factors associated with job satisfaction in both groups.

Most participants graduated with a diploma (61.1%), were paid less than the average salary of each group (60.4%), and conducted shift (72.9%) and overtime work (64.3%). Work values and job satisfaction levels were not significantly different between the two groups. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that career growth and task work values were associated with job satisfaction for Generation Z, while task, reputation, and environment work values were associated with job satisfaction for Generation Y. Among the job-related characteristics, nurses’ job tenure was associated with job satisfaction in both groups; salary and overtime had varying relationships with job satisfaction between the two generations.

Conclusions

Understanding generational differences is crucial for improving the effective management of new generational nurses. Our study findings support that different work value dimensions and job-related characteristics were associated with job satisfaction in each generation. Accordingly, it is essential to develop distinct initiatives, such as a well-structured program, to support the continued career growth of the new Generation Z nurses, thereby enhancing their job satisfaction. Furthermore, providing a conducive working environment that helps new-generation nurses overcome challenges and ensures personal lives should be considered.

Peer Review reports

In recent decades, job satisfaction has gained significant attention in various fields, such as management and organizational psychology [ 1 ]. Job satisfaction refers to the fulfillment of desired needs within a working environment and gratifying emotional responses toward working conditions [ 2 ]. In the nursing field, a recent systematic review found that nurses’ job satisfaction was related to their behaviors, quality of care, and organizational outcomes [ 3 ]. For example, previous research has found that Italian nurses with higher job satisfaction were more likely to successfully complete their tasks [ 4 ]. A Finnish study showed that nurses’ job satisfaction was positively associated with their patients’ perceived quality of care [ 5 ]. Conversely, nurses with lower job satisfaction tend to have a higher intention to leave their hospitals [ 6 ] or the nursing profession permanently [ 6 , 7 ]. Given that new nurses have a high prevalence of turnover [ 8 ], enhancing their job satisfaction is vital for retaining the nursing workforce [ 6 ]. For this reason, researchers have identified its related factors such as individual factors (e.g., age, education, and marital status), job-related factors (e.g., salary, shift, and overtime demand), and attitudes toward work [ 1 ]. Among the identified factors, work value should be considered when developing strategies to increase job satisfaction [ 9 , 10 ].

Value is a construct involved in evaluating one’s outcomes or activities [ 11 ], and work value is formed by considering work in terms of general values [ 9 ]. Work value refers to the satisfaction or reward that individuals seek from work [ 12 ] and can motivate their behaviors by influencing their attitudes and goals [ 11 ]. A growing body of research has shown significant relationships between work value and job satisfaction [ 10 , 13 , 14 ]. For example, higher work value among nurses has been associated with greater job satisfaction in Taiwan [ 14 ] and Italy [ 15 ].

Work value has conventionally been classified into two types: intrinsic (i.e., interest or satisfaction from the work itself, including personal growth and accomplishing challenging work) and extrinsic (i.e., preference toward external rewards, such as pay, work environment, or recognition) [ 16 ]. A considerable amount of literature has treated work values as these two components [ 13 , 15 ]. However, there is a view that it is necessary to focus on detailed dimensions to fully capture work value [ 17 ], and studies that classify work values in various ways have recently been conducted. For instance, one study measured work value using four aspects (i.e., extrinsic/instrumental, intrinsic/cognitive, social/altruistic, and prestige/status) [ 18 ], while another study assessed work value using altruism, professional autonomy, professional development, and achievement dimensions [ 19 ]. Although such measures would have the advantage of providing a specific understanding of the population, leading to various strategies for improving outcomes, studies investigating the association between specific dimensions of work values and job satisfaction are limited.

The nursing workforce is continuously changing. Recently, nurses from Generation Z, a new arising generation, have entered the workforce, replacing older generations [ 20 ]. The concept of a generation refers to a cohort that shares the same birth years and significant societal events, such as world events and technological, economic, and social shifts collectively [ 21 , 22 ]. Due to these formative experiences, cohorts develop distinctive characteristics that differentiate them across generations [ 21 ]. Given that generational theory suggests that although Generation Z (born between 1995 and 2012) shares many commonalities with Generation Y (born between 1980 and 1994), this generation possesses distinct characteristics [ 23 ]. For example, Generation Z tends to prioritize work-life balance and enjoyable work, whereas Generation Y assigns higher importance to careers and success and focuses more on the work itself [ 24 , 25 ]. Moreover, Generation Z has a greater preference for working independently over working in a team and prefers to receive continuous feedback on their performance compared with previous generations [ 26 ]. In other words, each generation has different views, attitudes, and work-related expectations; accordingly, job-related characteristics influencing job satisfaction, such as job tenure, hospital region, salary, shift, and overtime work may vary across generations [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. This implies that if managers fail to grasp the distinctions among generations in terms of how they fulfill job-related needs and preferences, it can lead to a decline in both job satisfaction and productivity [ 21 ]. Additionally, a previous study demonstrated that work values differ across multiple generations due to cohort effects [ 32 ]. While numerous previous research has explored generational differences and similarities in work values [ 33 , 34 ] and each generation’s perception toward work [ 18 , 35 ], the majority of such studies have struggled to distinguish differences arising from generational cohorts and those attributed to age because of the nature of cross-sectional data [ 36 ]. Moreover, evidence of the intergenerational difference in the associated factors of job satisfaction is lacking, especially from the work value perspective. Previous studies have reported that understanding generational differences in work values would help develop strategies and policies to motivate employees and satisfy their needs across different generations [ 11 , 37 ].

Given the differences between Generations Y and Z, who comprise a significant portion of the current nursing workforce, a better understanding of what contributes to job satisfaction for younger generations will help management develop effective strategies to retain these nurses. To address the aforementioned gap, this study aimed to determine which dimensions of work values and job-related characteristics were associated with job satisfaction among new Generations Y and Z nurses in South Korea.

This correlational study used a secondary data analysis of the national data from the Graduates Occupational Mobility Survey (GOMS).

Description of GOMS data

The GOMS is an annually conducted nationally representative survey of college graduates, meticulously quality-controlled by the Korean Employment Information Service [ 38 ]. The purpose of the survey is to provide fundamental data for the establishment of policies to decrease the disparity between education and the labor market by investigating career development and job transfer paths for college graduates. The GOMS has 18 domains including college graduates' educational curriculum, job search and experience, vocational training, and the transition from school to the labor market. The survey participants were graduates who had completed an associate’s degree or higher in the previous year. The interviewers visited graduates who agreed to participate, asked questions, and recorded their responses. The data were collected from September 1st to November 30th each year and released in February of the following year.

Sampling for the secondary data analysis

The data in the present study were derived from the 2014–2015 and 2017–2018 GOMS. The study samples for this secondary data analysis were Generation Y or Z registered nurses working full-time in hospitals. Although varying opinions exist regarding the exact time frames defining generational cohorts [ 36 ], in this study, Generation Y was defined as those born between 1990 and 1991, and Generation Z as those born between 1995 and 1996. This comparison aimed to explore relatively close generational groups in the context of rapid social changes during recent decades [ 22 ] and to contribute to the sensitive adaptation of organizations to emerging generations. Furthermore, these operational definitions of Generations Y and Z were determined based on: (a) the definitions of birth years of Generations Y and Z by researchers [ 39 , 40 ]; and (b) the utilization of common survey questions with slight variations in survey items each year. The exclusion criteria were nurses who (a) were male; (b) completed a transfer program for a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) degree; (c) were working at public agencies, clinics, or research agencies; and (d) had any missing data on key variables. Male nurses were excluded because most were required to complete two years of military service during their college years in South Korea. Due to this military service, male nurses exhibit different patterns in interpersonal relationships, organizational adaption, and school-life adjustment compared to other students [ 41 , 42 ]. The analyses included 280 new nurses, 151 from Generation Y, and 129 from Generation Z (Figs.  1 and 2 ).

Flowchart of samples for Generation Y

Flowchart of samples for Generation Z

• Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction was measured with the question, “How satisfied are you with each aspect of your current job?” and a total of 13 items (e.g., quality of work environment, work autonomy, and promotion systems) were included, which have been used to assess job satisfaction in previous research [ 43 ]. All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly dissatisfied; 5 = strongly satisfied). In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was 0.89.

Work value was determined with the question, “How important is each aspect when choosing the work?” and these 15 items were classified into four dimensions according to a previous study [ 44 ]. The dimensions were as follows: (a) career growth (four items: own aptitude and interest, personal development potential, job prospects, and employment stability), (b) task (three items: relevance to the major, task difficulty, and workload), (c) reputation (three items: workplace size, social reputation for a job, and social reputation for work), and (d) environment (five items: salary, working time, work environment, welfare benefits system, and commuting distance). All items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly not important; 5 = strongly important), and mean scores were calculated for each dimension. McDonald’s omega is widely regarded as a robust and accurate estimator of reliability due to its reduced reliance on stringent statistical assumptions [ 45 ]. It also proves beneficial for evaluating the formative [ 46 ] and multidimensional constructs [ 47 ]. In this study, the McDonald’s omega for reputation was 0.84, career growth 0.73, task 0.74, and environment 0.70.

Individual and job-related characteristics

The individual characteristics included age and school type. School type was dichotomized into (a) diplomas and (b) BSN. The job-related characteristics included job tenure, hospital region, salary, shift work, and overtime. Job tenure was classified as (a) 12 months or less and (b) 13 months or more. The hospital region had two options: capital and non-capital. Salary was dichotomized into (a) average or above and (b) below average based on the average salary of each generational group according to self-reports. Those who answered “yes” to the question “Are you a shift worker?” were classified as shift workers, and the others were classified as non-shift workers. Overtime status was assessed using self-reports of weekly average hours for overtime work, and respondents with one or more hours were categorized as having worked overtime.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Version 26.0 (SPSS Corp., College Station, TX, USA), with the two-tailed significance level set at 0.05. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize participants. Two separate multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to determine how work value dimensions and job-related characteristics were associated with job satisfaction in each generational group. When examining the data distribution, it was confirmed that normality was satisfied; common methods variance analysis and outlier testing revealed no identifiable problems. For collinearity diagnosis, the tolerance, variance inflation factor (VIF), and Durbin-Watson statistics were examined. The tolerance ranged from 0.61 to 0.96 for Generation Y and 0.57 to 0.92 for Generation Z, that is, lower than 1. The values of VIF were 1.04–1.65 for Generation Y and 1.09–1.75 for Generation Z, lower than 10, and Durbin-Watson statistics were 1.45 for Generation Y and 1.26 for Generation Z; therefore, issues regarding multi-collinearity and autocorrelation were not found for this study.

Ethical considerations

The collection of GOMS data followed the acquisition of participant consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Since the anonymized data is openly available for scientific purposes, the Institutional Review Board of Eulji University Health System waived the necessity for informed consent for this study (Approval No: EUIRB2023-050).

Participants’ characteristics

The mean age of nurses ( N  = 280) was 24.26 ± 0.64 years, and more than half had completed diploma degrees. Most had worked for 13 months or more at a hospital in a non-capital area. Most participants also received a salary below average for each generation and engaged in shift and overtime work. When comparing two generational groups, Generation Y ( n  = 151) was statistically older than Generation Z ( n  = 129) (24.53 vs. 23.93, p  < 0.001). Compared to Generation Y, Generation Z was more likely to complete BSN courses (32.5% vs. 46.5%, p  = 0.016), receive a salary with an average of or more than their generation group (29.8% vs. 51.2%, p  < 0.001), engage in shift work (62.9% vs. 84.5%, p  < 0.001), and have less overtime work (70.9% vs. 56.6%, p  = 0.013) (Table  1 ).

Levels of job satisfaction and the work value of new Generations Y and Z nurses

The results showed that environment value was the most important work value dimension for both generational groups, followed by career growth, task, and reputation. Generation Y nurses exhibited higher levels of career growth (4.24 vs. 4.14, p = 0.100) and reputation (3.78 vs. 3.76, p = 0.885) in contrast to Generation Z, while task (4.04 vs. 4.07, p = 0.634) and environment (4.30 vs. 4.36, p = 0.238) values were comparatively lower; however, no significant differences were detected between these two groups. When comparing job satisfaction levels between Generations Y and Z nurses, although the average for Generation Z nurses was higher than that of Generation Y nurses, it was also not statistically different ( t  = -0.387, p  = 0.699) (Table  1 ).

Factors associated with job satisfaction in Generations Y and Z

The multiple regression model for Generation Y explained a 22.9% variance in job satisfaction and a 12.4% variance for Generation Z. Among work value dimensions, career growth value (β = 0.301, p  = 0.003) was associated with job satisfaction in Generation Z; while reputation (β = 0.343, p  < 0.001) and environment value (β = -0.292, p  = 0.001) were significant in Generation Y. Task value was a common factor of job satisfaction in both Generations Y and Z. It was positively associated with job satisfaction in Generation Y (β = 0.188, p  = 0.031); however, a negative association between task value and job satisfaction was revealed in Generation Z (β = -0.195, p  = 0.044). Among job-related characteristics, job tenure was identified as a related factor of job satisfaction in both generational groups (β = -0.223, p  = 0.003 for Generation Y, β = -0.187, p  = 0.038 for Generation Z). Salary (β = 0.215, p  = 0.013) was associated with Generation Y’s job satisfaction, and overtime work (β = -0.176, p  = 0.043) was associated with Generation Z’s job satisfaction (Table  2 ).

This study identified the factors associated with job satisfaction for Generations Y and Z. Among the work value dimensions, career growth, and task values were associated with job satisfaction for Generation Z, while reputation, task, and environment values were factors of job satisfaction for Generation Y. Additionally, job tenure was a common factor of job satisfaction in both generational groups; salary and overtime work were differentially associated with job satisfaction in each group. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of what is associated with job satisfaction of new-generation nurses compared to a previous generational cohort.

Our study findings confirmed that there are no significant differences in work values between Generations Y and Z. This is similar to existing evidence which reports that empirical differences between generations are generally very limited due to exceeding within-group differences [ 36 ]. This phenomenon might be attributed to the fact that the social identity of the generation is shaped by both shared experiences (i.e., commonality) and the uniqueness of each member (i.e., heterogeneity) [ 48 ]. Furthermore, in the context of historical, technological, behavioral, and attitudinal data revealing a continuum across generations rather than a distinct threshold [ 22 ], rising generations are influenced by and reflective of previous generations [ 21 ]. This study also affirmed the prioritization of work values within Generations Y and Z, wherein the hierarchical order was as follows: environment, career growth, task, and reputation values. These findings align with trends observed in prior studies in the nursing field indicating that Generation Z nurses, who represent an emerging generation, place more value on tangible rewards, such as pay and benefits, than work itself and prestige [ 18 , 49 ]. However, this finding differs from Indonesian evidence on Generation Z employees at the beginning of their careers, which indicates that the top work value was self-development through jobs, followed by salary or social appreciation [ 50 ]. Additionally, it was revealed that intrinsic values such as sustainable growth, were of utmost priority beyond extrinsic aspects (e.g., promotion and salary) [ 51 ]. These gaps across occupational fields may reflect nurses’ poor work environment, such as overtime and shift work [ 52 ] since work values reflect individuals’ awareness of what they want to accomplish in their work [ 53 ]. Although the current study contributes to the understanding of the new generations, more research should be conducted to gain deeper insights into these generations’ work attitudes through comparisons across occupations.

Notably, although the level of each work value dimension was not significantly different between the two groups, there were differences in the work value dimensions that contributed to job satisfaction for each group. Reputation and environment values, related factors of Generation Y’s job satisfaction, can be categorized as extrinsic work value, whereas career growth value, a factor of Generation Z’s job satisfaction, can be categorized as an intrinsic aspect [ 44 ]. Based on this classification, our findings are similar to existing evidence. For example, a Chinese study of Generation Y hotel employees found that extrinsic work values regarding being well-paid or good working conditions had greater effects on job satisfaction than intrinsic aspects [ 54 ]. Moreover, a systematic review comparing perceptions of job satisfaction between Generations Y and Z revealed that Generation Y perceived job satisfaction as having adequate opportunities for promotion and well-paid wages based on their work experience and performance [ 55 ], which are extrinsic aspects of work value [ 56 ]. Dissimilar to Generation Y’s perception, job satisfaction for Generation Z indicates personal growth in skill and knowledge, that is, intrinsic work value [ 56 ]. Furthermore, Generation Z employees expect opportunities for professional development and growth in the workplace, distinct from other generations [ 57 ]. Hence, to promote job satisfaction among new-generation nurses, this study’s findings highlight that it is crucial to establish initiatives that consider the differences in the dimensions of work values associated with job satisfaction. To address the career growth value of Generation Z nurses, effective strategies such as residency programs for promoting the continued growth of clinical knowledge, communication skills, and professional development in the clinical context are necessary to encourage them to seek career growth value in the workplace [ 58 ].

Interestingly, task value was associated with job satisfaction in both generational groups; however, it was positively related to job satisfaction for Generation Y and negatively related to job satisfaction for Generation Z. This study revealed that the trend of the relationship between task value and job satisfaction has changed. Task value was relevant to the importance of task difficulty and workload when choosing a job; therefore, performing challenging tasks and working hard might have positive effects on job satisfaction for Generation Y but not for Generation Z. This could be related to the distinct attitudes toward work between Generations Y and Z. A previous study found that Generation Y perceives work as meaningful and considers taking on new challenges as important to their individual careers [ 35 ]. However, Generation Z does not consider taking on challenging tasks or hard work relative to their abilities as important [ 18 ]. Moreover, they look for an enjoyable workplace [ 26 ] and are satisfied with their job when it is viewed as interesting [ 56 ]. Although comparative research on attitudes toward work between Generations Y and Z is limited, most prior studies have reported that the more recent generations tend to be less interested in hard-working [ 59 ]. Considering that many new nurses have achieved clinical competencies in numerous challenging and stressful situations [ 60 , 61 , 62 ], this study suggests that new nurses in Generation Y feel fulfilled by working hard with challenging tasks, which increases their job satisfaction, whereas Generation Z has a negative perception of challenges that deviate from their work expectations (i.e., work should be interesting), showing a negative association between their task value and job satisfaction. Thus, new-generation nurses may require enhanced organizational support, such as mentorship, to help them overcome difficulties and hardships [ 60 ]. Moreover, a friendly working environment that provides tangible support and feedback [ 63 ] can facilitate new nurses’ perceptions of a workplace and lead them to consider it as a good place to work. Such managerial efforts should be considered to promote job satisfaction among new generations.

Among the various job-related characteristics, our findings revealed that job tenure was a common factor of job satisfaction in both generational groups and that nurses with more than 12 months of employment were more likely to have a lower level of job satisfaction. These results are supported by prior research showing that new nurses’ job satisfaction decreases as their working experience increases [ 27 , 64 ]. A previous study found that a significant number of new nurses still lack confidence in their skills and feel uncomfortable even after 12 months [ 65 ]; however, the majority of intensive programmed support for new nurses has been provided for less than the first 12 months [ 66 ]. Moreover, although the new generation values personal attention, feedback, and information [ 26 ], they perceive that the amount of feedback and information they receive diminishes over time [ 27 ]. Such insufficient timed support would negatively affect the job satisfaction of new nurses with more than 12 months of job tenure. Therefore, nurse leaders and senior nurses should consistently offer support, provide feedback on work performance, and keep nurses updated on workplace-related information [ 67 ]. This helps cultivate a sense of respect and value among nurses during their early careers [ 68 , 69 ], ultimately contributing to enhanced job satisfaction.

Additionally, salary was significantly associated with job satisfaction for Generation Y and overtime status for Generation Z. These findings are supported by previous research showing that the recent generation is more likely to be central to their personal lives and value leisure more than the older generation [ 59 , 70 ]. Moreover, our findings were similar to those of a previous study demonstrating that the newer generation was more dissatisfied with their lack of personal life and overtime than the older cohort [ 71 ]. As evidenced by prior research findings, it can be inferred that the newer generations value personal time more. A recent study on Generation Y nurses in New Zealand revealed that the most desired change in the nursing field was related to salary, prioritized over personal time [ 72 ], indicating a tendency to place greater emphasis on monetary compensation. Generation Z prioritizes flexible working schedules and paid vacation over salary when choosing a job [ 73 , 74 ], suggesting that a healthy work-life balance is crucial for job decisions [ 57 , 75 ]. Over an extended period, the growing disparity between the demand and supply of nurses has given rise to a worldwide issue [ 76 ]. To ensure a sufficient nursing workforce, organizations are increasingly prioritizing the proactive enhancement of work-life balance and adopting greater flexibility in working hours [ 77 ]. This is to respond to the demands of new generations entering the workforce who advocate for a fluid and flexible work environment [ 75 ]. With such labor market changes, the status of overtime work among Generation Z nurses might influence the result of this study. Therefore, this study’s noteworthy findings suggest establishing systematic support to tackle overtime work and ensure the personal time and lives of new generation nursing staff.

Our study has several limitations. First, due to the nature of secondary data analysis, we could not include a few variables that are known predictors of nurses’ job satisfaction, such as work environment (e.g., patient assignments, and working schedule). Additionally, salary was assessed based on subjective self-report data. Second, two variables, job satisfaction, and work values, were assessed using items developed through experts’ meetings for GOMS. It is advisable to employ instruments with high validity to measure these constructs in future research. Moreover, given that measures for work values appear formative, suggesting that the items collectively define the concept of work values rather than reflecting an existing construct [ 78 ], this aspect deserves careful consideration when interpreting our study’s findings. Future studies should carefully investigate the measurement properties of work values and explore potential variations in the relationship between work values and job satisfaction. This will help enhance the understanding of work values and their implications for job satisfaction. Third, the current study exclusively focused on female Korean nurses; therefore, the findings might be limited in their generalizability to female nurses only. Since work value could differ across nations [ 48 ], sex [ 32 ], or occupational fields [ 79 ], further studies are required to fully understand the associations between work value and job satisfaction for new-generation nurses. Finally, since this was a cross-sectional study, inferring causation between work values and job satisfaction and controlling for variations that might arise during individuals’ development or labor market changes were not feasible. Despite these limitations, this study used a nationally representative dataset to compare two generational groups of similar ages (i.e., time-lag research). Given previous literature reporting that work values are influenced more by generation than by age or maturity [ 80 ], the current study provides a greater understanding of how work values contribute to job satisfaction according to generation.

The influx of Generation Z into the workplace has resulted in a remarkable change in the workforce. Generational differences in work values and attitudes contribute to the complexity of the work environment and present challenges for nursing leaders and administrators in maintaining a stable workforce. Therefore, it has become more important to understand the new generation’s unique characteristics, and nurse leaders and organizations should prioritize successful initiatives and policies for this workforce. Thus, previous generations, including Generation Y, should understand the notable aspects of Generation Z to effectively manage them using distinct human resource management strategies. The results of this study provide evidence that work value dimensions are differentially associated with job satisfaction across generations. Hence, nursing leaders should establish a structured support program for new Generation Z nurses to fulfill their career growth value and provide a good working environment to help these nurses overcome challenging tasks. Additionally, it is essential to ensure personal time while minimizing overtime to improve Generation Z’s job satisfaction.

Availability of data and materials

The data supporting the findings of this study are available to the public at: https://survey.keis.or.kr/goms/gomsdownload/List.jsp .

Abbreviations

Bachelor of Science in Nursing

Graduates Occupational Mobility Survey

Standard deviation

Standard error

Variance inflation factor

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Dr. Misook L. Chung and Dr. Terry A. Lennie from the University of Kentucky for their consultations on the design and writing of this study.

This research was supported by Eulji University in 2023. This research was supported by the Brain Korea 21 FOUR Project funded by National Research Foundation(NRF) of Korea, Yonsei University College of Nursing.

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All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript. EK conceptualized and designed the study, searched the literature, prepared the data, conducted statistical analyses, wrote the first draft, and revised the manuscript. HK conceptualized the study and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. TL revised the manuscript and supervised the overall research processes.

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Kim, E., Kim, H. & Lee, T. How are new nurses satisfied with their jobs? From the work value perspective of Generations Y and Z nurses. BMC Nurs 23 , 252 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-01928-7

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What the data says about gun deaths in the U.S.

More Americans died of gun-related injuries in 2021 than in any other year on record, according to the latest available statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). That included record numbers of both gun murders and gun suicides. Despite the increase in such fatalities, the rate of gun deaths – a statistic that accounts for the nation’s growing population – remained below the levels of earlier decades.

Here’s a closer look at gun deaths in the United States, based on a Pew Research Center analysis of data from the CDC, the FBI and other sources. You can also read key public opinion findings about U.S. gun violence and gun policy .

This Pew Research Center analysis examines the changing number and rate of gun deaths in the United States. It is based primarily on data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The CDC’s statistics are based on information contained in official death certificates, while the FBI’s figures are based on information voluntarily submitted by thousands of police departments around the country.

For the number and rate of gun deaths over time, we relied on mortality statistics in the CDC’s WONDER database covering four distinct time periods:  1968 to 1978 ,  1979 to 1998 ,  1999 to 2020 , and 2021 . While these statistics are mostly comparable for the full 1968-2021 period, gun murders and suicides between 1968 and 1978 are classified by the CDC as involving firearms  and  explosives; those between 1979 and 2021 are classified as involving firearms only. Similarly, gun deaths involving law enforcement between 1968 and 1978 exclude those caused by “operations of war”; those between 1979 and 2021 include that category, which refers to gun deaths among military personnel or civilians  due to war or civil insurrection in the U.S . All CDC gun death estimates in this analysis are adjusted to account for age differences over time and across states.

The FBI’s statistics about the types of firearms used in gun murders in 2020 come from the bureau’s  Crime Data Explorer website . Specifically, they are drawn from the expanded homicide tables of the agency’s  2020 Crime in the United States report . The FBI’s statistics include murders and non-negligent manslaughters involving firearms.

How many people die from gun-related injuries in the U.S. each year?

In 2021, the most recent year for which complete data is available, 48,830 people died from gun-related injuries in the U.S., according to the CDC. That figure includes gun murders and gun suicides, along with three less common types of gun-related deaths tracked by the CDC: those that were accidental, those that involved law enforcement and those whose circumstances could not be determined. The total excludes deaths in which gunshot injuries played a contributing, but not principal, role. (CDC fatality statistics are based on information contained in official death certificates, which identify a single cause of death.)

What share of U.S. gun deaths are murders and what share are suicides?

Though they tend to get less public attention than gun-related murders, suicides have long accounted for the majority of U.S. gun deaths . In 2021, 54% of all gun-related deaths in the U.S. were suicides (26,328), while 43% were murders (20,958), according to the CDC. The remaining gun deaths that year were accidental (549), involved law enforcement (537) or had undetermined circumstances (458).

What share of all murders and suicides in the U.S. involve a gun?

About eight-in-ten U.S. murders in 2021 – 20,958 out of 26,031, or 81% – involved a firearm. That marked the highest percentage since at least 1968, the earliest year for which the CDC has online records. More than half of all suicides in 2021 – 26,328 out of 48,183, or 55% – also involved a gun, the highest percentage since 2001.

How has the number of U.S. gun deaths changed over time?

The record 48,830 total gun deaths in 2021 reflect a 23% increase since 2019, before the onset of the coronavirus pandemic .

Gun murders, in particular, have climbed sharply during the pandemic, increasing 45% between 2019 and 2021, while the number of gun suicides rose 10% during that span.

The overall increase in U.S. gun deaths since the beginning of the pandemic includes an especially stark rise in such fatalities among children and teens under the age of 18. Gun deaths among children and teens rose 50% in just two years , from 1,732 in 2019 to 2,590 in 2021.

How has the rate of U.S. gun deaths changed over time?

While 2021 saw the highest total number of gun deaths in the U.S., this statistic does not take into account the nation’s growing population. On a per capita basis, there were 14.6 gun deaths per 100,000 people in 2021 – the highest rate since the early 1990s, but still well below the peak of 16.3 gun deaths per 100,000 people in 1974.

The gun murder rate in the U.S. remains below its peak level despite rising sharply during the pandemic. There were 6.7 gun murders per 100,000 people in 2021, below the 7.2 recorded in 1974.

The gun suicide rate, on the other hand, is now on par with its historical peak. There were 7.5 gun suicides per 100,000 people in 2021, statistically similar to the 7.7 measured in 1977. (One caveat when considering the 1970s figures: In the CDC’s database, gun murders and gun suicides between 1968 and 1978 are classified as those caused by firearms and explosives. In subsequent years, they are classified as deaths involving firearms only.)

Which states have the highest and lowest gun death rates in the U.S.?

The rate of gun fatalities varies widely from state to state. In 2021, the states with the highest total rates of gun-related deaths – counting murders, suicides and all other categories tracked by the CDC – included Mississippi (33.9 per 100,000 people), Louisiana (29.1), New Mexico (27.8), Alabama (26.4) and Wyoming (26.1). The states with the lowest total rates included Massachusetts (3.4), Hawaii (4.8), New Jersey (5.2), New York (5.4) and Rhode Island (5.6).

The results are somewhat different when looking at gun murder and gun suicide rates separately. The places with the highest gun murder rates in 2021 included the District of Columbia (22.3 per 100,000 people), Mississippi (21.2), Louisiana (18.4), Alabama (13.9) and New Mexico (11.7). Those with the lowest gun murder rates included Massachusetts (1.5), Idaho (1.5), Hawaii (1.6), Utah (2.1) and Iowa (2.2). Rate estimates are not available for Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont or Wyoming.

The states with the highest gun suicide rates in 2021 included Wyoming (22.8 per 100,000 people), Montana (21.1), Alaska (19.9), New Mexico (13.9) and Oklahoma (13.7). The states with the lowest gun suicide rates were Massachusetts (1.7), New Jersey (1.9), New York (2.0), Hawaii (2.8) and Connecticut (2.9). Rate estimates are not available for the District of Columbia.

How does the gun death rate in the U.S. compare with other countries?

The gun death rate in the U.S. is much higher than in most other nations, particularly developed nations. But it is still far below the rates in several Latin American countries, according to a 2018 study of 195 countries and territories by researchers at the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation at the University of Washington.

The U.S. gun death rate was 10.6 per 100,000 people in 2016, the most recent year in the study, which used a somewhat different methodology from the CDC. That was far higher than in countries such as Canada (2.1 per 100,000) and Australia (1.0), as well as European nations such as France (2.7), Germany (0.9) and Spain (0.6). But the rate in the U.S. was much lower than in El Salvador (39.2 per 100,000 people), Venezuela (38.7), Guatemala (32.3), Colombia (25.9) and Honduras (22.5), the study found. Overall, the U.S. ranked 20th in its gun fatality rate that year .

How many people are killed in mass shootings in the U.S. every year?

This is a difficult question to answer because there is no single, agreed-upon definition of the term “mass shooting.” Definitions can vary depending on factors including the number of victims and the circumstances of the shooting.

The FBI collects data on “active shooter incidents,” which it defines as “one or more individuals actively engaged in killing or attempting to kill people in a populated area.” Using the FBI’s definition, 103 people – excluding the shooters – died in such incidents in 2021 .

The Gun Violence Archive, an online database of gun violence incidents in the U.S., defines mass shootings as incidents in which four or more people are shot, even if no one was killed (again excluding the shooters). Using this definition, 706 people died in these incidents in 2021 .

Regardless of the definition being used, fatalities in mass shooting incidents in the U.S. account for a small fraction of all gun murders that occur nationwide each year.

How has the number of mass shootings in the U.S. changed over time?

The same definitional issue that makes it challenging to calculate mass shooting fatalities comes into play when trying to determine the frequency of U.S. mass shootings over time. The unpredictability of these incidents also complicates matters: As Rand Corp. noted in a research brief , “Chance variability in the annual number of mass shooting incidents makes it challenging to discern a clear trend, and trend estimates will be sensitive to outliers and to the time frame chosen for analysis.”

The FBI found an increase in active shooter incidents between 2000 and 2021. There were three such incidents in 2000. By 2021, that figure had increased to 61.

Which types of firearms are most commonly used in gun murders in the U.S.?

In 2020, the most recent year for which the FBI has published data, handguns were involved in 59% of the 13,620 U.S. gun murders and non-negligent manslaughters for which data is available. Rifles – the category that includes guns sometimes referred to as “assault weapons” – were involved in 3% of firearm murders. Shotguns were involved in 1%. The remainder of gun homicides and non-negligent manslaughters (36%) involved other kinds of firearms or those classified as “type not stated.”

It’s important to note that the FBI’s statistics do not capture the details on all gun murders in the U.S. each year. The FBI’s data is based on information voluntarily submitted by police departments around the country, and not all agencies participate or provide complete information each year.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Aug. 16, 2019.

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• Published: 22 April 2024

The effect of peer mentoring program on clinical academic progress and psychological characteristics of operating room students: a parallel randomized controlled trial

• Amin Sedigh 1 ,
• Sara Bagheri 2 ,
• Pariya Naeimi 3 ,
• Vahid Rahmanian 4 &
• Nader Sharifi 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  438 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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One of the new educational systems is the mentorship method. This study aimed to investigate the effect of peer mentoring program on clinical academic progress and psychological characteristics of operating room students.

This research was a randomized controlled trial that was conducted on undergraduate students in the operating room department of Khomein Faculty of Medical Sciences, Markazi Province in Iran. The number of operating room students were 70 that were divided into intervention and control groups by random allocation using Permuted Block Randomization. Inclusion criteria included all operating room students who were in internship, and exclusion criteria included failure to complete the questionnaires. The data collection tools were the demographic questionnaire, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Situational Motivational Scale. In the control group, clinical training was done in the traditional way. In the intervention group, training was done by peer mentoring method. The obtained data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, independent t-test, paired t-test, chi-square test, ANCOVA, univariable and multivariable linear regression.

The study revealed significant differences between the intervention and control groups. Post-intervention, the intervention group demonstrated substantial increases in self-confidence (mean difference = 5.97, p  < 0.001) and significant reductions in stress levels (mean difference = -3.22, p  < 0.001). Conversely, minimal changes were noted in the control group for both self-confidence (mean difference = 0.057, p  = 0.934) and stress levels (mean difference = 0.142, p  = 0.656). Although both groups experienced decreases in anxiety and depression levels, these changes were not statistically significant ( p  > 0.05). Furthermore, the intervention significantly enhanced academic progress in the intervention group compared to the control group (mean difference = 20.31, p  < 0.001).

The results showed that the implementation of the peer mentoring program was effective in improving academic progress, self-confidence, and reducing the stress of operating room students. Therefore, this educational method can be used in addition to the usual methods to improve the education of operating room students.

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Introduction

Using effective training methods can increase people's motivation and commitment, increase productivity and reduce mistakes [ 1 ]. Clinical training is an important part of training in medical sciences, which plays an essential role in shaping the basic skills and professional abilities of students, including students of the operating room [ 2 , 3 ]. Learning and mastering work roles and tasks in the operating room environment is challenging; In addition, operating room students should be trained in many interventions in the surgical process before, during and after surgery [ 4 ].

Operating room students are affected by various stresses during the course of clinical training, and various contextual and environmental factors play a role in creating this stress [ 5 ]. The results of a study among nursing students showed the prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress symptoms to be 28.7%, 41.7% and 20.2%, respectively [ 6 ]. Also, studies have shown students' self-efficacy at an average level [ 7 ]. The experience of stress in the clinical environment can affect students' learning and acquisition of clinical skills and lead to a drop in their academic performance [ 8 , 9 ]. Considering the high level of stress and the fact that mistakes have no place in the operating room, it is important to pay attention to the quality of training of operating room students and to strengthen the knowledge and skills of future operating room personnel [ 10 ].

Learners and students prefer new educational methods to traditional and passive methods. Active approach is a form of teacher-learner interaction in which learners are no longer passive listeners, but active participants in the learning process [ 11 , 12 ]. The basis of active and comprehensive learning methods is that learning is based on experience and learners actively create knowledge based on their personal experience [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. The importance of active learning has led professional associations and accreditation organizations, as well as organizations such as UNESCO, to recommend active learning methods in education [ 16 ].

One of the new educational systems is the mentorship method. In this educational method, the mentor and mentee establish a long-term relationship based on friendship with each other. Positive attitude, experience and volunteering are characteristics of mentorship [ 17 , 18 ]. For the first time, Whitman and Fife examined the peer teaching strategy in university education. In this method, higher year students teach practical and theoretical lessons to lower year students [ 19 , 20 ]. The implementation of the mentorship program increases self-confidence, emotional support, and increases students' interactions [ 21 , 22 ]. When students, despite having knowledge and ability in clinical practice, lack sufficient competence, the reason may be a lack of self-confidence, confidence in their own ability, or understanding of the necessary self-efficacy [ 23 , 24 ]. This study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of peer mentoring program on clinical academic progress and psychological characteristics of operating room students.

Study design

This research was a parallel randomized controlled trial that was conducted on undergraduate students in the operating room department of Khomein Faculty of Medical Sciences, Markazi Province in Iran from September 2022 to April 2023.

Participants

The number of operating room students were 70, who were included in the study by census method. Inclusion criteria included all operating room students who were in internship, and exclusion criteria included failure to complete the questionnaires.

Randomization and blindness

First, the students completed the written consent to participate in the study, and then they were divided into intervention and control groups by random allocation using Permuted Block Randomization [ 25 ]. Therefore, 35 participants were placed in each group. Then the participants of the intervention and control groups completed the questionnaires before the beginning of the internship. Due to the nature of the intervention in the present study, it was not possible to blind the subjects under the study. Therefore, blinding was performed on those who collected and recorded the data and those who performed the analysis. This research was designed and implemented according to the CONSORT guidelines (Fig.  1 ).

Consort -flow- diagram

Instrument and data collection

The demographic questionnaire included gender, age, marital status, economic status of the family, education level of parents and occupation of parents.

Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS) consists of three subscales including 7 questions for each. Each question is scored from 0 (does not apply to me at all) to 3 (completely applies to me). Each of the areas of stress, anxiety and depression has 7 questions and the minimum score for each area is 0 and the maximum score is 21. The score of each area is obtained from the sum of the scores of the answers given to the questions of that area. Antony et al. analyzed the mentioned scale; The results of the correlation calculation indicated a correlation coefficient of 0.48 between the two factors of depression and stress, a correlation coefficient of 0.53 between anxiety and stress, and a correlation coefficient of 0.28 between anxiety and depression [ 26 ]. The reliability of this scale in Iran in a sample of 400 participants was reported as 0.7 for depression, 0.66 for anxiety and 0.76 for stress [ 27 ]. Also, in the validation study of this questionnaire in Iran by Sahebi et al. the reliability of this scale was investigated through internal consistency and its validity using factor analysis and criterion validity with the simultaneous implementation of Beck depression, Zang anxiety and perceived stress tests. In general, the obtained reliability and validity coefficients were very satisfactory and significant at the p  < 0.001 level. The correlations between DASS depression subscale with Beck depression test were 0.70, DASS anxiety subscale with Zang anxiety test was 0.67, and DASS stress subscale with perceived stress test was 0.49. The internal consistency of DASS scales was also calculated using Cronbach's alpha and these results were obtained: depression 0.77, anxiety 0.79 and stress 0.78 [ 28 ].

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) consists of 10 two-choice questions. Every statement that applies to the person receives the answer "I agree" and every statement that does not apply to the person receives the answer "I disagree". A positive answer to each of statements 1 to 5 will receive a positive score of one, a negative response to statements 1 to 5 will receive a negative score of one, a positive response to statements 6 to 10 will receive a negative score of one, and a negative response to statements 6 to 10 will receive a positive score of one. Then the total score is calculated. A positive score of 10 indicates the highest level of self-esteem, and a negative score of 10 indicates very low self-esteem. The retest correlation is in the range of 0.82–0.88 and the internal consistency coefficient or Cronbach's alpha is in the range of 0.77–0.88, this scale has satisfactory validity (0.77). It also has a high correlation with the New York and Guttman National Questionnaire in measuring self-esteem, so its content validity is also confirmed [ 29 ]. In Iran, Cronbach's alpha coefficients of 0.84 to 0.92 have been reported for this scale. Also, the reliability and validity of this tool has been checked by factor analysis, dichotomization and re-sampling methods, and the results show that this scale can be used in Iran as well [ 30 ].

The Situational Motivational Scale (SIMS): After confirming the content validity of the tool in Iran, its reliability has been confirmed by retest method (73.76) and Cronbach's alpha has been reported as 74–88%. The short form of this questionnaire was made by Bahrani in Shiraz. This questionnaire has 49 statements that are arranged on a Likert scale from completely disagree [ 1 ] to completely agree [ 5 ]. Reliability of the 49-question questionnaire used in this research was measured by Bahrani by retesting and calculating Cronbach's alpha. In the retest method, the reliability coefficient of the whole test was 0.95. Also, the internal consistency of the questionnaire was calculated as 0.77 [ 31 , 32 ].

Intervention program

In the control group, clinical training was done in the traditional way with the help of a trainer. In the intervention group, training was done by peer mentoring method with the help of fourth year operating room students and under the supervision of the instructor. Based on the overall GPA criteria, the first to sixth ranked students were selected as mentor students. Before using the students as mentors in the internship, 3 training sessions were held for them by the professors of the operating room.

In these meetings, the lesson plan of the internship course was fully explained based on the last chapter of the operating room field, and the necessary points regarding training and how to deal with students were explained.

Then, these students participated in three tests and the first to third students of each test were selected as mentors. Therefore, a total of nine students were selected as mentors. In the intervention group, internship training was carried out with the implementation of peer mentoring program during one academic semester. Students of the intervention group (35 participants) were placed in five groups of seven according to the internship program. The total training sessions of each group were 18 sessions, nine of which were conducted by the method of peer mentoring program. A total of 45 peer mentoring sessions were conducted for all groups. Each of the mentors mentored a seven-person group of mentees during nine sessions. At the beginning of each session, the mentor briefly explained the topics to the mentees according to the educational topics and guided them practically during the session. It should be noted that all the meetings were held under the supervision of the main teacher of the course and if necessary, this person provided the necessary guidance.

At the end of the academic semester, the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) and Situational Motivational Scale (SIMS) were completed again by the students of the intervention and control groups.

Statistical analysis

Stata software version 14 was used for the data analysis process. Initially, the data's normality was verified using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. The results were presented as mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage in the section on descriptive statistics.

The means of the study variable between the intervention and control groups were compared using an independent t-test, and the means before and after the intervention were compared using a paired t-test in the analytical statistics section. The Chi-square test was used to compare the associations between qualitative variables in the various groups.

The ANCOVA test was conducted after the intervention to control for any baseline differences in scores of self-confidence, stress, perceived anxiety, depression and academic progress between the two groups before the intervention (pre-test). This adjustment was made to account for any potential confounding factors that may have influenced the outcomes.

Univariable and multivariable linear regression by the backward method was applied to examine the association between self-confidence, stress, perceived anxiety, depression, gender, mother's education, father's education, family economic, and academic progress. A significance threshold of less than 0.05 was used.

The mean age of participants was 22.31 ± 2.59. Thirty-six individuals (51.4%) were female, and 50 individuals (71.4%) were single. Regarding education, 22 participants (31.4%) held diplomas from their fathers, and 21 participants (30%) held diplomas from their mothers. In terms of mothers' occupations, 35 individuals (52.9%) were housewives, and 31 individuals (44.3%) reported their family's economic status as medium (Table  1 ). On the other hand, there were no significant differences in age, gender, marital status, mothers' education, fathers' education, fathers' occupation, mothers' occupation, and family economic status between the intervention and control groups( p  > 0.05) (Table  1 ). Also, in terms of variables of self-confidence, stress, anxiety, depression and academic progress between the intervention and control groups, no significant difference was observed before the intervention ( p  > 0.05) (Table  2 ).

Before the intervention, high levels of stress (12.65; 12.25), anxiety (11.34; 11.02) and depression (10.08; 10.42) and low levels of self-confidence (1.31; 1.22) were observed in the intervention and control groups.

The results indicated a significant difference in the mean scores of self-confidence ( p  < 0.001), stress ( p  < 0.001), and academic progress ( p  < 0.001), between the intervention and control groups after the educational intervention. Furthermore, this difference was also statistically significant in the intervention group before and after the educational intervention ( p  < 0.05). However, there was no significant difference in the mean scores of anxiety and depression before and after the intervention, as well as in comparison with the control group ( p  > 0.05) (Table  2 ).

The results showed significant differences between the intervention and control groups. Post-intervention, the intervention group showed substantial increases in self-confidence (mean difference = 5.97, p  < 0.001) and significant reductions in stress levels (mean difference = -3.22, p  < 0.001). In contrast, minimal changes were observed in the control group for both self-confidence (mean difference = 0.057, p  = 0.934) and stress levels (mean difference = 0.142, p  = 0.656). While both groups exhibited decreases in anxiety and depression levels, these changes were not statistically significant ( p  > 0.05). Moreover, the intervention significantly improved academic progress in the intervention group compared to the control group (mean difference = 20.31, p  < 0.001) (Table  2 ).

The ANCOVA test was used to compare the means of self-confidence, stress, anxiety, depression and academic progress in the two groups after adjusting the Pre-test as a covariate. Results showed there was a significant difference between the means in the self-confidence, stress and academic progress before and after intervention with adjusted pre- test score (before intervention) (Table  3 ).

The results of the univariate linear regression analysis showed that self-confidence and stress are associated with academic progress ( p  < 0.05) (Table  4 ). Additionally, the results of the multiple regression analysis revealed that for a one-unit increase in the stress score, the mean academic progress score decreases by 0.520 (B = -0.520, P  < 0.001). Furthermore, for a one-unit increase in age, the mean academic progress score increases by 0.220(B = 0.220, P  = 0.029). Moreover, students whose fathers have university education have, on mean, a higher academic progress score compared to students whose fathers are illiterate, with an increase of 0.212 for each unit difference in paternal education level (B = 0.212, P  = 0.036). According to the multiple regression model, 33.4% of the variations in academic progress can be predicted by stress, age, and father’s education (Table  4 ).

This research was conducted to determine the effect of peer mentoring program on clinical academic progress and psychological characteristics of operating room students.

The results showed that before the educational intervention, there was no significant difference between the control and intervention groups in demographic variables, academic progress, self-confidence, stress, anxiety and depression. It is noteworthy that according to the regression analysis, students whose fathers had a university education had a higher academic progress score compared to students whose fathers were illiterate.

The results of the study before the intervention show a high level of stress, anxiety and depression and a low level of self-confidence in students. Mohammadi's study showed the mean situational anxiety scores of the operating room students to be at a medium–high level [ 33 ]. Of course, according to Findik's study, the stress level of nursing students was low on the first day of operating room practice. It was found that students use the self-confidence approach in dealing with stress [ 34 ]. According to Norouzi's study, insufficient skills of students in communicating with staff, discrimination between paramedical students and assistants, lack of practical prerequisite skills, weak supportive performance of instructors and psychological needs are among the stressful factors of operating room students [ 3 ]. According to the students, practice with the support of staff and instructors in clinical training leads to better training. Improper interaction between staff and students negatively affects the clinical education process [ 35 , 36 ]. The results of Mohibi's research report the existence of discrimination as one of the main complaints of students in the clinical environment [ 37 ].

The results showed that training using the peer mentor method improved the mean scores of self-confidence, stress and academic progress variables in the intervention group after the educational intervention. Also, compared to the control group, the intervention group had achieved a significant improvement in the mentioned variables. In addition, the results showed that self-confidence and stress are related to academic progress, and as the stress score increases, the mean academic progress decreases. The results of Raymond's study showed that the implementation of the mentorship program was effective in reducing the stress and loneliness of first-year nursing students. In addition, an increase in their sense of self-efficacy and sense of psychological belonging was also reported [ 38 ]. According to Yoon's study, peer mentoring program increased students' self-confidence in basic nursing skills and critical thinking skills [ 39 ]. Considering that clinical educators play a fundamental role in controlling stress, creating a supportive environment and promoting students' self-confidence in the clinical learning environment [ 40 ], it seems that the use of students in the role of peer mentoring has been able to act as an important factor in increasing self-confidence, reducing stress and enjoying clinical experiences and thus improving their academic progress.

While in Walker's study, a significant reduction in the anxiety of a specific clinical situation was observed among nursing students who were guided by their peers [ 41 ], in the present study, no significant improvement was observed in the students' anxiety. It can be said that the special conditions of the operating room distinguish it from other clinical skills training departments, therefore peer training alone cannot be effective in reducing the anxiety of operating room students. Also, depression did not decrease significantly in any of the intervention and control groups. It should be said that anxiety and depression are more complex than stress and their reduction in operating room students requires the use of psychological interventions along with peer mentoring program.

Due to the limitation of the statistical population, sampling was not possible and the students were selected by census method. On the other hand, due to the special considerations of the operating room space, the implementation of the peer mentoring program faced limitations. Although the main teacher of the course was present in all the implementation sessions of the mentorship program, physicians and other clinical personnel did not trust the mentors to some extent.

Of course, the use of this training method could not be effective in reducing anxiety and depression, which can be aggravated as a result of working in the tense environment of the operating room, and it seems necessary to conduct more investigations in this field.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available because they contain raw data from study participants, and sharing these data requires participants' permission. But are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors of this study wish to express their gratitude to all the students, especially Miss Azadeh Nasiri and the officials of Khomein University of Medical Sciences.

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All participants provided written informed consent.

This research was supported by Khomain University of Medical Sciences (No: 400000009).

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Molecular and Medicine Research Center, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran

Amin Sedigh

Department of Medical Education, School of Medical Education and Learning Technologies, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Sara Bagheri

Student Research Committee, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran

Pariya Naeimi

Department of Public Health, Torbat Jam Faculty of Medical Sciences, Torbat Jam, Iran

Vahid Rahmanian

Department of Public Health, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran

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Conceptualization: A S, S B; Data curation: A S, P N; Formal analysis:  N SH, V R; Methodology: A S, S B, N SH; Project administration: A S, P N, N SH; Writing–original draft: N SH, V R; Writing–review & editing: all authors.

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Ethical approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee at the Khomain University of Medical Sciences (Code IR.KHOMEIN.REC.1400.010). All study participants provided written informed consent. Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were by the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration.

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Sedigh, A., Bagheri, S., Naeimi, P. et al. The effect of peer mentoring program on clinical academic progress and psychological characteristics of operating room students: a parallel randomized controlled trial. BMC Med Educ 24 , 438 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05424-z

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Received : 29 December 2023

Accepted : 12 April 2024

Published : 22 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05424-z

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