critical awareness in education

Critical Pedagogy

Through the landmark text, Pedagogy of the Oppressed , Paulo Freire became widely regarded as the founder of critical pedagogy. Critical pedagogy embraces the belief that educators should encourage learners to examine power structures and patterns of inequality through an awakening of critical consciousness in pursuit of emancipation from oppression. A central tenet of Freire’s critical pedagogy is "conscientizacao" or critical awareness that precedes action. Critical awareness begins when learners become aware of sociopolitical inequities and then take action to mitigate those contradictions.

Freire was critical of the “banking” model of education, which views learners as empty, inferior, passive recipients of a teacher’s knowledge. Freire argued this approach discourages critical thinking and dehumanizes both the learner and the teacher. Alternatively, Freire advocated for a “problem-posing education," fueled by dialogue where:

Learners are agentic – they have the power to control their own goals, actions, and destiny.
Learning takes place through problem-solving.
Learning should be both theoretical and practical.
Teachers should not be the authoritative distributors of knowledge.
New possibilities emerge when students and teachers are co-learners.
Learning is an endless process of becoming.

Freire Institute. (n.d.). Who was Paulo Freire?

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed . London: Penguin Random House.

Image Credit: Paulo Freire image

Infographic source: Smith A, Seal M. The Contested Terrain of Critical Pedagogy and Teaching Informal Education in Higher Education. Education Sciences . 2021; 11(9):476. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11090476

Infographic text: Critical Pedagogy text

Paulo Freire

Concepts Used by Paulo Freire

Transformational educator, pedagogical thinker and radical practitioner

Paulo Freire's pedagogical approach has been applied in many contexts, but it is more than simply a collection of methods or techniques. Here we outline briefly some of the key concepts in Freire's work.

Praxis (Action/Reflection)

It is not enough for people to come together in dialogue in order to gain knowledge of their social reality. They must act together upon their environment in order critically to reflect upon their reality and so transform it through further action and critical reflection.

Generative Themes

According to Paulo Freire, an epoch “is characterized by a complex of ideas, concepts, hopes, doubts, values and challenges in dialectical interaction with their opposites striving towards their fulfilment”. The concrete representation of these constitute the themes of the epoch. For example, we may say that in our society some of these themes would include the power of bureaucratic control or the social exclusion of the elderly and disabled. In social analysis these themes may be discovered in a concrete representation in which the opposite theme is also revealed (i.e., each theme interacts with its opposite).

Easter Experience

Paulo Freire says that “those who authentically commit themselves to the people must re-examine themselves constantly. This conversion is so radical as not to allow for ambivalent behaviour… Conversion to the people requires a profound rebirth. Those who undergo it must take on a new form of existence; they can no longer remain as they were.”

To enter into dialogue presupposes equality amongst participants. Each must trust the others; there must be mutual respect and love (care and commitment). Each one must question what he or she knows and realize that through dialogue existing thoughts will change and new knowledge will be created.

Conscientization

The process of developing a critical awareness of one’s social reality through reflection and action. Action is fundamental because it is the process of changing the reality. Paulo Freire says that we all acquire social myths which have a dominant tendency, and so learning is a critical process which depends upon uncovering real problems and actual needs.

Codificati on

This is a way of gathering information in order to build up a picture (codify) around real situations and real people. Decodification is a process whereby the people in a group begin to identify with aspects of the situation until they feel themselves to be in the situation and so able to reflect critically upon its various aspects, thus gathering understanding. It is like a photographer bringing a picture into focu s.

Banking concept of knowledge

The concept of education in which “knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing”.

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Critical Pedagogy

Getting Started with Critical Pedagogy
Introduction to Critical Pedagogy
Types of Critical Pedagogy

How to Get Started

Understanding key concepts, know the scholars, put it into practice.

Publications in Critical Pedagogy

If you are wondering how to incorporate critical pedagogy into your own research, teaching, and practice, here are some suggestions to get you started!

These concepts are introduced in Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed and are essential to understanding critical pedagogy.

Banking Concept of Education - The idea that education is the "act of depositing" whereby "students are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor" representing an imbalance of power in which the teacher knows all and bestows knowledge onto the student who knows nothing.
Conscientization - A term that "refers to learning to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality" by which a person develops a critical awareness of the social reality one lives in.
Critical Consciousness - Taken together, conscientization and praxis (or the process by which one becomes critically conscious for the purpose of freedom and liberation) are what is widely referred to as Critical Consciousness, and is comprised of three iterative components: critical reflection, critical motivation, and critical action (Diemer et al., 2016).
Praxis - A process of action and reflection in which ideas are put into practice in order to gain knowledge of one's social reality from a critical lens.

In addition to Paulo Freire, there are other leading scholars who have helped shape public discourse around critical pedagogy. Learn more about them at the sites listed below.

Paulo Freire | Freire Institute
bell hooks | Bell Hooks Center
Henry Giroux | Personal Website
Joe Kincheloe | Interview
Peter McLaren | UCLA
Shirley Steinberg | University of Calgary

Here are some actionable items one can implement in order to begin a critical practice:

Dialogue - Encourage dialogue with students, faculty, and colleagues towards amplifying marginalized voices and perspectives.
Active learning - Adopt strategies that utilize multiple methods of engagement in teaching and learning.
Diverse perspectives - Incorporate multiple and alternative perspectives that promote critical thinking and introspection.
Critical consciousness - Practice reflection, motivation, and action as an approach to analyzing and redressing social inequities in education and society at-large.

For examples of how critical pedagogy is implemented in the classroom, read these case studies:

Berube, J. (2022). Through students' eyes: Case study of a critical pedagogy initiative in accounting education. Accounting Education, 31 (4), 394-430. https://www-tandfonline-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/doi/full/10.1080/09639284.2021.1997768
Gambino, A. (2021, July). Critical pedagogies in praxis: A multiple case study with graduate teaching assistants' co-constructing community and amplifying undergraduate student agency through dialogic discourse. InterActions: UCLA Journal of Education and Information Studies, 17 (1). https://hollis.harvard.edu/permalink/f/1mdq5o5/TN_cdi_unpaywall_primary_10_5070_d417154033
Kareepadath, V. P. (2018, December). Critical pedagogy in practice: A case study from Kerala, India. Journal of Pedagogy, 9 (2), 33-54. https://sciendo.com/article/10.2478/jped-2018-0010
de los Rios, C. V., Lopez, J., & Morrell, E. (2015, January 8). Toward a critical pedagogy of race: Ethnic studies and literacies of power in high school classrooms. Race and Social Problems, 7 (1), 84-96. https://hollis.harvard.edu/permalink/f/1mdq5o5/TN_cdi_webofscience_primary_000416723800008

Diemer, M. A., Rapa, L. J., Voight, A. M., & McWhirter, E. H. (2016). Critical consciousness: A developmental approach to addressing marginalization and oppression. Child Development Perspectives, 10 (4), 216-221.

Freire, P. (2018). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.

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Focus 2.1 - Identification: Critical Awareness

leads to , which is an active, persistent and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (John Dewey, 1909) is the product.
is the refusal of something that is requested or desired..
is a process that helps people gain control over their own lives and act on issues that are important to them. It is also a social process because it occurs in relationship to others.
is a prolonged cruel or unjust treatment or control.
implies fairness and mutual obligation in society, meaning that we are responsible for one another, and that we should ensure that all have equal chances to succeed in life.

Purpose - Questioning Root Causes

Classroom learning activities.

by John C. Ryan and Alan Thein Durning
This small book explores a very simple but critical meme: most of the seemingly benign stuff in our everyday lives has a very complicated past that’s energy-intensive and environmentally damaging. To convey this, Stuff follows a typical North American citizen through a single day and backtracks the inputs required for their coffee, T-shirt, computer, hamburger, etc. The findings are startling: did you know that it takes 700 gallons of water just so you can have your Quarter-Pounder? Statistics like this create a kind of social unease, hopefully enough to bring awareness to the significant environmental aftermath of our everyday lives. TreeHugger hopes that Stuff will spur readers on to vote against needless waste with their every purchase.

Stuff Curriculum and Resource Guide : This curriculum package was developed by NEW BC, a nonprofit organization based in Victoria, British Columbia, to accompany a 1997 book by Northwest Environment Watch (now Sightline Institute) called Stuff: The Secret Lives of Everyday Things. As an approach to science, social studies and environmental education, this material has a simple premise: that young people are curious about their world. Stuff gives students the opportunity to explore their world in a new way. For example, students will be encouraged to think about and explore what really goes into their lunchtime french fries – where were the potatoes grown? What fertilizers and pesticides were used? How were the potatoes harvested and transported? How much energy was used in processing? How about the salt and ketchup? An entire web of connections and impacts is revealed behind those everyday items we normally don’t even think about. In learning about their stuff, students will also explore new ways of looking at their world, making links between the environment, their society, and themselves.

Relevant Convention Articles

Online resources and references.

Child Empowerment International .
Free the Children - Take Action Camp .
IUS - Definitions of Critical Thinking .
Kids Can Make a Difference - What Kids Can Do.
Morrell, Ernest. (2008). Critical literacy and urban youth. Pedagogies of access, dissent, and liberation. Retrieved from: http://www.biblioteca.unlpam.edu.ar/pubpdf/anuario_fch/n09a26basabe.pdf .
Ontario Ministry of Education - Capacity Building Series: Critical Literacy .
Shor, Ira. (1997). What is Critical Literacy? Journal for Pedagogy, Pluralism & Practice. Retrieved from: http://newhavenleon.org/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/OutreachWhat_is_critical_literacy_-_shor.13071914.pdf .
Sustainability Funders .
TedXKids@BC - Power in Me .
UNICEF - Advocacy: People's Power and Participation Guide - Important Concepts for Social Justice Advocacy

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Critical literacy.

Vivian Maria Vasquez Vivian Maria Vasquez American University
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.20
Published online: 29 March 2017

Changing student demographics, globalization, and flows of people resulting in classrooms where students have variable linguistic repertoire, in combination with new technologies, has resulted in new definitions of what it means to be literate and how to teach literacy. Today, more than ever, we need frameworks for literacy teaching and learning that can withstand such shifting conditions across time, space, place, and circumstance, and thrive in challenging conditions. Critical literacy is a theoretical and practical framework that can readily take on such challenges creating spaces for literacy work that can contribute to creating a more critically informed and just world. It begins with the roots of critical literacy and the Frankfurt School from the 1920s along with the work of Paulo Freire in the late 1940s (McLaren, 1999; Morrell, 2008) and ends with new directions in the field of critical literacy including finding new ways to engage with multimodalities and new technologies, engaging with spatiality- and place-based pedagogies, and working across the curriculum in the content areas in multilingual settings. Theoretical orientations and critical literacy practices are used around the globe along with models that have been adopted in various state jurisdictions such as Ontario, in Canada, and Queensland, in Australia.

critical literacy
critical pedagogy
social justice
multiliteracies
text analysis
discourse analysis
everyday politics
language ideologies

Historical Orientation

Luke ( 2014 ) describes critical literacy as “the object of a half-century of theoretical debate and practical innovation in the field of education” (p. 21). Discussion about the roots of critical literacy often begin with principles associated with the Frankfurt School from the 1920s and their focus on Critical Theory. The Frankfurt School was created by intellectuals who carved out a space for developing theories of Marxism within the academy and independently of political parties. While focusing on political and economic philosophy, they emphasized the importance of class struggle in society. More prominently associated with the roots of critical literacy is Paulo Freire, beginning with his work in the late 1940s (McLaren, 1999 ; Morrell, 2008 ), which focused on critical consciousness and critical pedagogy. Freire’s work was centered on key concepts, which included the notion that literacy education should highlight the critical consciousness of learners. In his work in the 1970s Freire wrote that if we consider learning to read and write as acts of knowing, then readers and writers must assume the role of creative subjects who reflect critically on the process of reading and writing itself along with reflecting on the significance of language ( 1972 ). Together with Macedo in the 1980s, Freire popularized the concept that reading is not just about decoding words. In their work, Freire and Macedo ( 1987 ) noted that reading the word is simultaneously about reading the world. This means that our reading of any text is mediated through our day-to-day experience and the places, spaces, and languages that we encounter, use, and occupy. This critical reading can lead to disrupting and “unpacking myths and distortions and building new ways of knowing and acting upon the world” (Luke, 2014 , p. 22). As such this conceptualization of critical literacy disrupts the notion of false consciousness described earlier by Hegel and Marx (Luke, 2014 ).

The Frankfurt School scholars and Freire focused their work on adult education. For instance in the 1960s Freire organized a campaign for hundreds of sugar cane workers in Brazil to participate in a literacy program that centered on critical pedagogy. His work became known as liberatory, whereby he worked to empower oppressed workers. Critiques of Freire have focused primarily on claims that the liberatory pedagogy he espoused was unidirectional because educators liberated students. The binary represented here was also seen as problematic. Nevertheless his grounding work pushed to the fore the importance and effects of critical pedagogy as a way of making visible and examining relations of power to change inequitable ways of being. Work done by the Frankfurt School and Freire were overtly political and inspired the political nature and democratic potential of education as central to critical approaches to pedagogy (Comber, 2016 ) as seen in work done by researchers and educators such as Campano, Ghiso and Sánchez ( 2013 ), Janks ( 2010 ), and Vasquez ( 2004 ).

Luke ( 2014 ) noted antecedents to these approaches including early-twentieth-century exemplars of African-American community education in the United States that were established in many cities (Shannon, 1998 ), Brecht’s experiments with political drama in Europe (Weber & Heinen, 2010 ), and work by Hoggart ( 1957 ) and Williams ( 1977 ) on post-war cultural British studies amongst others.

Theoretical Orientations

Various theoretical paradigms and traditions of scholarship have influenced definitions of critical literacy and its circulation, as well as its practice. These include feminist poststructuralist theories (Davies, 1993 ; Gilbert, 1992 ) post colonialist traditions (Meacham, 2003 ), critical race theory (Ladson-Billings, 1999 , 2003 ), critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis (Fairclough, 1995 ; Janks, 2010 ), cultural studies (Pahl & Rowsell, 2011 ), critical media literacy (Share, 2009 , 2010 ), queer theory (Vicars, 2013 ), place conscious pedagogy (Comber, 2016 ), and critical sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology (Makoni & Pennycook, 2007 ; Blommaert, 2013 ; McKinney, 2016 ). Theoretical toolkits, or combinations of such theories have resulted in different orientations to critical literacy. As such it is viewed as a concept, a framework, or perspective for teaching and learning, a way of being in the classroom, and a stance or attitude toward literacy work in schools. These different theoretical orientations help shape different views. Regardless, “the project remains understanding the relationship between texts, meaning-making and power to undertake transformative social action that contributes to the achievement of a more equitable social order” (Janks & Vasquez, 2011 , p. 1). As such, regardless of the view one takes, a common understanding is that critical literacy focuses on unequal power relations—and issues of social justice and equity—in support of diverse learners. Diversity of learners includes taking the languages they bring with them to school seriously and understanding the ways in which multilingual children are treated unjustly when their linguistic repertoires are excluded from classrooms.

There are also those who argue that critical literacies are not just orientations to teaching literacy but a way of being, living, learning, and teaching (Vasquez, 2005 , 2014a , 2015 ; Zacher Pandya & Avila, 2014 ). Vasquez ( 2001 , 2010 , 2014b ) describes critical literacy as a perspective and way of being that should be constructed organically, using the inquiry questions of learners, beginning on the first day of school with the youngest learners. From this perspective it follows that such a perspective or way of being cuts across the curriculum. Similarly Zacher Pandya and Avila ( 2014 ) and Vasquez, Tate, and Harste ( 2013 ) note the need for critical literacy to be defined by individuals, within their own contexts, once they have learned about, and experienced, its central ideas. Comber discusses this in terms of teachers’ dispositions, which include their discursive resources and repertoires of practice (Comber, 2006 ). As such critical literacy can be described as “an evolving repertoire of practices of analysis and interrogation which move between the micro features of texts and the macro conditions of institutions, focusing on how relations of power work through these practices” (Comber, 2013 , p. 589). Janks ( 2010 ), Kamler ( 2001 ), and Luke ( 2013 ) have noted more recently the importance of not only analyzing text but also designing and producing it as well. In this regard, equally important is to understand the position(s) from which we analyze text and also the position(s) from which we design and produce texts.

Critical Literacy in Practice around the Globe

Critical literacy has taken root differently in different places around the world but most notably in South Africa (Granville, 1993 ; Janks, 1993a , 2010 ; Janks et al., 2013 ), Australia and New Zealand (Comber, 2001 , 2016 ; Luke, 2000 ; Morgan, 1997 ; O’Brien, 2001 ), and the United States and Canada (Larson & Marsh, 2015 ; Lewison, Leland, & Harste, 2014 ; Pahl & Rowsell, 2011 ; Vasquez, 2001 , 2010 , 2014b ).

For instance, in South Africa, Hilary Janks ( 1993a , 1993b , 2010 , 2014 ) used critical literacy as a tool in the struggle against apartheid. Her work focused primarily on young adults and adolescents “to increase students’ awareness of the way language was used to oppress the black majority, to win elections, to deny education, to construct others, to position readers, to hide the truth, and to legitimate oppression” ( 2010 , p. 12). To this end, she produced Critical Language Awareness (CLA) materials for use with older children in South African schools (Janks et al., 2013 ). In Australia, critical materials were created, in the form of workbooks, to deconstruct literary texts (Mellor, Patterson, & O’Neill, 1987 , 1991 ). Also in Australia, work deriving from postcolonial theory, was produced by Freemantle Press (Martino, 1997 ; Kenworthy & Kenworthy, 1997 ). Some of these materials informed work done in middle school and high school settings by educators and researchers such as Morgan ( 1992 , 1994 ), Gilbert ( 1989 ), and Davies ( 1993 ).

Critical literacy work with younger children began to take place in the 1990s in Australia, where Barbara Comber’s work has been very influential. In particular, her work with Jenny O’Brien on creating spaces for critical literacy in an elementary school classroom, using newspaper and magazine ads, has been highly cited in the literature (O’Brien, 2001 ). In the United States and Canada, Vivian Vasquez’s work with children between ages three to five opened the field for exploration in settings involving very young children by using their inquiries about the world around them to question issues of social justice and equity, using the everyday as text (i.e., food packaging, media ads, popular culture), as well as children’s literature. Although there are growing accounts of critical literacy work in early years classrooms (Sanchez, 2011 ; Vander Zanden, 2016 ; Vander Zanden & Wohlwend, 2011 ), more examples of practice are needed as demonstrations of possibility in school settings with young children.

Earlier critical literacy work in early childhood and elementary settings focused on critically reading and deconstructing texts as a way to help students question versions of reality in the world around them. For example, in Australia, O’Brien ( 2001 ) explored ways in which Mother’s Day ads worked to position readers of such texts in particular ways. She described this work as “helping her children probe representations of women, and setting them purposeful reading, writing, and talking tasks” (p. 52). At around the same time, researchers such as Ivanič ( 1998 ) and Kamler ( 2001 ) began highlighting critical writing in their work with older children. Janks ( 2010 ) refers to this as an important move that enabled us to think where we might go after critically reading a text. She notes, “because texts are constructed word by word, image by image, they can be deconstructed—unpicked, unmade, the positions produced for the reader laid bare” (Janks, 2010 , p. 18). A space is thus created for us to think about “how texts may be rewritten and how multimodal texts can be redesigned” (Janks, 2010 , p. 19). Such perspectives further informed the work of educators and researchers of critical literacy. Comber and Nixon ( 2014 ), for instance, attended “to the importance of children’s agency through text production and related social action” (p. 81). Examples of this include work done by Vasquez ( 2001 , 2004 , 2010 , 2014b ) in building critical curriculum using her preschool students’ inquiry questions about inequities within their school as a way to disrupt and dismantle such inequity and create new more equitable practices and places in which to engage in such practices. Reading the world as a text that could be deconstructed and reconstructed created a space for Vasquez and her students to disrupt and rewrite problematic school practices. As noted by Janks ( 2010 ), “if repositioning text is tied to an ethic of social justice then redesign can contribute to the kind of identity and social transformation that Freire’s work advocates” (p. 18).

The notion of design and redesign was introduced to the field through the New London Group ( 1996 ) in their paper on multiliteracies. Kress and his colleagues (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006 ; Mavers, 2011 ) extend this work stating the importance of design as “the shaping of available resources into a framework which can act as a blueprint for the production of the object, entity, or event” (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006 , p. 50). Janks ( 2003 ) refers to this as “a pedagogy of reconstruction,” while McKinney ( 2016 ) calls this transformative pedagogy. This pedagogy is integral to one of the most notable models to inform critical literacy practice, Janks’ Interdependent Model (Janks, 2010 ).

Critical literacy is also being used in state jurisdictions such as Ontario in Canada and Queensland in Australia, where governments have endorsed its use in school curricula. Its use is also growing in emerging and post colonial contexts (Norton, 2007 ; Lo et al., 2012 ). For instance, in her work in Karachi, Pakistan, Norton ( 2007 ) notes that students made frequent reference to the relationship between literacy, the distribution of resources, and international inequities. In Hong Kong, Lo et al. ( 2012 ) reported on “working with students to understand the social and political framing and consequences of texts” (p. 121). With regards to such work Luke ( 2004 ) has argued for the need to do justice to the lived experiences of physical and material deprivation in diverse communities throughout the globe. As such critical literacy should be adopted and adapted and should continue to emerge across a spectrum of political economies, nation states, and systems from autocratic/theocratic states to postcolonial states not only as an epistemic stance but also as a political and culturally transgressive position that works to create spaces for transformative social actions that can contribute to the achievement of a more equitable social order.

Influential Models

Different orientations to critical literacy have resulted in different models that impact critical pedagogy. Three influential models, in particular will be addressed here: Freebody and Luke’s Four Resources Model, Janks’ Interdependent Model, and Green’s 3D Model of Literacy.

Allan Luke and Peter Freebody have played a central role in making critical literacy accessible across continents. In particular their Four Resources Model (Luke & Freebody, 1999 ) has been widely adapted for use in classrooms from preschool to tertiary education settings. Their model focuses on different literacy practices that readers and writers should learn. These practices are learning to be code-breakers—recognizing, understanding, and using the fundamental features of written text such as the alphabet; learning to be text participants—using their own prior knowledge to interpret and make meaning from and bring meaning to text; understanding how to use different text forms; and becoming critical consumers of those forms—learning to critically analyze text and understand that texts are never neutral. Colin Lankshear and Michelle Knobel ( 2004 ) challenge Luke and Freebody’s model claiming it does not support literacy practices in a digitized world or for those who are “digitally at home”; those comfortable with and competent in using new technologies. In turn they offer examples of the kind of roles related to literacy practices in a digitized world assumed by authors of digital texts. These roles are as text designer, one who designs and produces multimedia or digital texts; text mediator or broker, one who summarizes or presents aspects of texts for others such as a blogger; text bricoleur, one who constructs or creates text using a range or collection of available things; and text jammer, one who re-presents text it in some way, such as by adding new words or phrases to an image as a way to subvert the original meaning (Lankshear & Knobel, 2004 ).

Larson and Marsh ( 2015 ), however, state that Lankshear and Knobel’s ( 2004 ) model focuses primarily on text production rather than text analysis. In comparison, Hilary Janks ( 2010 , 2014 ) in her model for critical literacy includes both text analysis and text design as integral elements. Janks’ model centers on a set of interdependent elements—namely access, domination/power, diversity, and design/re-design. She argues “different realizations of critical literacy operate with different conceptualizations of the relationship between language and power by foregrounding one or other of these elements” (Janks, 2010 , p. 23). She notes that these complementary and competing positions speak to the complexities of engaging with critical literacies and that they are crucially interdependent.

More recently, Comber reflected, “originally these approaches did not foreground the spatial dimensions of critical literacy”( 2016 , p. 11). Comber argues that insights from theories of space and place and literacy studies can create opportunities for designing and enacting culturally inclusive curriculum to support the needs of diverse learners. As such, in her work, one of the models she draws from is Green’s 3D Model of Literacy. This model is a multidimensional framework which argues that there are always three dimensions of literacy simultaneously at play: the operational, learning how the language works and ways that texts can be structured; the cultural, which involves the uses of literacy and in particular the ways that cultural learning is involved with content learning; and the critical, the ways in which we act and see in the world, along with how literacy can be used to shape lives in ways that better serve the interests of some over others. As such, Green’s model is a useful frame for unpacking links between literacy, place, and culture.

Debate, Controversy, and Critical Literacy

In spite of advances in the field with regards to critical literacy, there is still confusion about the difference between “critical” from the Enlightenment period, which focused on critical thinking and reasoning, and “critical” from Marx as an analysis of power. The debate and controversy around this continues. Definitions for critical literacy are often at the center of such debates, which are likely in response to attempts by some educators and researchers to pin down a specific definition for critical literacy. Theorists and educators including Comber ( 2016 ), Vasquez ( 2010 , 2014b ), and Luke ( 2014 ) maintain that as a framework for engaging in literacy work, it should look, feel, and sound different. As previously discussed, the models used as part of one’s critical literacy toolkit help contribute to the kinds of work one might accomplish from such a perspective. Critical literacy should also be used as a resource for accomplishing different sorts of life work depending on the context in which it is used as a perspective for teaching, learning, and participating with agency in different spaces and places. Vasquez ( 2010 , 2014b ) has referred to this framing as a way of being, where she has argued that critical literacy should not be an add-on but a frame through which to participate in the world in and outside of school. Such a frame does not necessarily involve taking a negative stance; rather, it means looking at an issue or topic in different ways, analyzing it, and being able to suggest possibilities for change and improvement. In this regard critical literacies can be pleasurable and transformational as well as pedagogical and transgressive.

Consequently, there is no such thing as a critical literacy text. Rather there are texts through which we may better be able to create spaces for critical literacies. The world as text, however, can be read from a critical literacy perspective, especially given that what constitutes a text has changed. For instance, a classroom can be read as a text, and water bottles can also be read as text (Janks, 2014 ). What this means is that issues and topics of interest that capture learners’ interests, based on their experiences, or artifacts with which they engage in the material world, as they participate in communities around them, can and should be used as text to build a curriculum that has significance in their lives.

Key Aspects of Critical Literacy

In spite of the fact that critical literacy does not have a set definition or a normative history, the following key aspects have been described in the literature. It should be noted that such key aspects or tenets would likely take different shape depending on one’s orientation to critical literacy.

Critical literacy should not be a topic to be covered or a unit to be studied. Instead it should be looked on as a lens, frame, or perspective for teaching throughout the day, across the curriculum, and perhaps beyond. What this means is that critical literacy involves having a critical perspective or way of being.

While working across the curriculum, in the content areas, diverse students’ cultural knowledge (drawn from inside the classroom and the children’s everyday worlds, homes, and communities), their funds of knowledge (Gonzales, Moll, & Amanti, 2006 ), and multimodal and multilingual practices (Lau, 2012 ) should be used to build curriculum. Because students learn best when what they are learning has importance in their lives, using the topics, issues, and questions that they raise should therefore be an important part of creating the classroom curriculum.

From a critical literacy perspective the world is seen as a socially constructed text that can be read. The earlier students are introduced to this idea, the sooner they are able to understand what it means to be researchers of language, image, spaces, and objects, exploring such issues as what counts as language, whose language counts, and who decides as well as explore ways texts can be revised, rewritten, or reconstructed to shift or reframe the message(s) conveyed. As such, texts are never neutral. What this means is that all texts are created from a particular perspective with the intention of conveying particular messages. As such these texts work to position readers in certain ways. We therefore need to question the perspective of others.

Texts are socially constructed and created or designed from particular perspectives. As such, they work to have us think about and believe certain things in specific ways. Just as texts are never neutral, the ways we read text are also never neutral. Each time we read, write, or create, we draw from our past experiences and understanding about how the world works. We therefore should also analyze our own readings of text and unpack the position(s) from which we engage in literacy work.

Critical literacy involves making sense of the sociopolitical systems through which we live our lives and questioning these systems. This means our work in critical literacy needs to focus on social issues, such as race, class, gender, or disability and the ways in which we use language to shape our understanding of these issues. The discourses we use to take up such issues work to shape how people are able to—or not able to—live their lives in more or less powerful ways as well as determine such ways of being as who is given more or less powerful roles in society.

Critical literacy practices can be transformative and contribute to change inequitable ways of being and problematic social practices. As such, students who engage in critical literacy from a young age are likely going to be better able to contribute to a more equitably and socially just world by being better able to make informed decisions regarding such issues as power and control, practice democratic citizenship, and develop an ability to think and act ethically.

Text design and production are essential to critical literacy work. These practices can provide opportunities for transformation. Text design and production refer to the creation or construction of multimodal texts and the decisions that are part of that process. This includes the notion that it is not sufficient to simply create texts for the sake of “practicing a skill.” If students are to create texts they ought to be able to let those texts do the work intended. For instance, if students are writing surveys or creating petitions, they should be done with real-life intent for the purpose of dealing with a real issue. If students write petitions, they should be able to send them to whomever they were intended.

Finally, critical literacy is about imagining thoughtful ways of thinking about reconstructing and redesigning texts, images, and practices to convey different and more socially just and equitable messages and ways of being that have real-life effects and real-world impact. For instance critically reading a bottle of water as a text to be read could result in examining the practice of drinking bottled water and changing that practice in support of creating a more sustainable world.

New Directions

New directions in the field of critical literacy include finding new ways to engage with multimodalities and new technologies (Comber, 2016 ; Janks & Vasquez, 2010 ; Nixon, 2003 ; Nixon & Comber, 2005 ; Larson & Marsh, 2015 ), engaging with spatiality, time, and space (Dixon, 2004 ), place-based pedagogies (Comber, 2016 ; Comber & Nixon, 2014 ), working across the curriculum in the content areas (Comber & Nixon, 2014 ; Janks, 2014 ; Vasquez, 2017 ), and working with multilingual learners (Lau, 2012 , 2016 ). These new directions for critical literacy, amongst others that may develop, reiterate and remind us of what educators who have been working in the field of critical literacy for some time have maintained (Comber, 2016 ; Janks, 2014 ; Luke, 2014 ; Vasquez, 2014b )—that there is no correct or universal model of critical literacy. Instead “how educators deploy the tools, attitudes, and philosophies is utterly contingent … upon students’ and teachers’ everyday relations of power, their lived problems and struggles” (Luke, 2014 , p. 29) and the ways in which teachers are able to navigate the (P)politics of the places and spaces in which their work unfolds. Janks insists that critical literacy is essential to the ongoing project of education across the curriculum (Janks, 2014 ). She notes,

in a perfect world in which social differences did not determine who gets access to resources and opportunity, we would still need critical literacy to help us read the texts that construct the politics of everyday life. In the actual world—where a 17-year-old boy sells one of his kidneys for an iPad; … where millions of people lack access to drinking water or sanitation—the list is endless—it is even more important that education enables young people to read both the word and the world critically. (Janks, 2010 , p. 349)

as one way to engage learners in powerful and pleasurable literacies that could contribute to creating a more critically informed and just world.

Cultivating students' critical consciousness through global citizenship education: Six pedagogical priorities

Published: 11 August 2023

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Emiliano Bosio 1 &
Yusef Waghid 2

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This article conceptualizes Global Citizenship Education (GCE) as a liberating and dynamic journey of consciousness-mobilization that supports students' critical thinking about how they can contribute to social justice. The authors’ conceptualization of GCE for critical consciousness is entrenched in the work of Paulo Freire. It is political because it is meant to shape the learner into an emancipated, ethical, and critical global citizen. As such, GCE for critical consciousness is based on six pedagogical priorities: praxis, reflexive dialogue, decolonialism, ecocritical views, caring ethics, and empowering humanity. These six priorities are not meant to be comprehensive; they are aimed at boosting debate on the key levers needed to place GCE on a plausible critical, ethical, and sustainable path. Hence, those priorities explicitly challenge and move beyond Western-European-centric and neoliberal GCE conceptions. The article ends with a call for further academic action to (re)construct the momentum needed to push for their implementation.

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The Educator in Global Citizenship Education: Centering Context and Enabling Being

Global citizenship education in practice: A transformative approach to global learning in Zanzibar

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Critical Consciousness: A Critique and Critical Analysis of the Literature

Alexis jemal.

Silberman School of Social Work at Hunter College, 2180 3 rd Ave, New York, NY 10035, ude.ynuc.retnuh@3241ja ; 908-347-3447

The education system has been heralded as a tool of liberation and simultaneously critiqued as a tool of social control to maintain the oppressive status quo. Critical consciousness (CC), developed by the Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire, advanced an educational pedagogy to liberate the masses from systemic inequity maintained and perpetuated by process, practices and outcomes of interdependent systems and institutions. If people are not aware of inequity and do not act to constantly resist oppressive norms and ways of being, then the result is residual inequity in perpetuity. If inequity is likened to a disease or poison, then CC has been deemed the antidote to inequity and the prescription needed to break the cycle. As such, CC is a construct that has important scholarly, practice and policy implications. Scholars, noting the relevance and application of CC to current social problems, have advanced CC theory and practice. However, these innovative advancements have left fissures in the CC theoretical base in need of resolution and consensus to advance a collective and organized body of CC theory. This paper explores the divergent CC scholarship within CC theory and practice articles, provides an in-depth review of the inconsistencies, and suggests ideas to resolve the discrepancies from the literature to support the need for a new, CC-based construct, transformative potential. Without such a review, moving toward conceptual clarity, the lack of a coherent CC knowledgebase will impede the reflection and action needed to transform systems and institutions that maintain and perpetuate systemic inequity that have dehumanizing consequences. If implemented within urban education, theoretical models, grounded in CC theory, could help achieve a system of education that is just, equitable and liberating.

Transformative potential (TP), a theoretical framework informed by and developed in response to the theoretical limitations of Freire’s (2000) critical consciousness pedagogy, is defined as levels of consciousness and action that produce potential for change at one or more socio-ecosystemic (e.g., individual, institutional) levels ( Jemal 2016 ). A person with a high level of transformative potential critically reflects on the conditions that shape his or her life and actively works with self and/ or others to change problematic conditions ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ; Jemal 2016 ). The process of transformation requires the simultaneous and reciprocating processes of objectifying and acting ( Freire 2000 ). One cannot truly perceive the depth of the problem without being involved in some form of action confronting the problem ( Corcoran et al. 2015 ; Freire 2000 ). Thus, merely reflecting on realities without intervention will not lead to transformation. With these ideas in mind, and similar to how many scholars have conceptualized critical consciousness, TP comprises two dimensions: Transformative Consciousness (TC) and Transformative Action (TA). Although TP and CC have more in common than not, one major difference between TP and CC is that the two dimensions of TP each have three levels. For TC, the hierarchical levels of consciousness are denial, blame and critical. For TA, the tiered levels of action are destructive, avoidant, and critical. Thus, for TP, critical consciousness and critical action are the highest levels of each dimension and produce the most transformative potential.

There is no such thing as a neutral educational process. Education either functions as an instrument that is used to facilitate the integration of the younger generation into the logic of the present system and bring about conformity to it, or it becomes “the practice of freedom,” the means by which men and women deal critically and creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the transformation of their world. ( Freire, 2000 , p. 34)

Critical consciousness, or its derivative, transformative potential, could be used to inform the structure and content of urban education to address oppressive conditions for those most impacted ( Gay and Kirkland 2003 ). For much of the world’s citizenry, education is the key to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” ( U.S. Declaration of Independence 1776 ); though, some may argue that the education system is a tool of social control and means of maintaining the current, oppressive sociopolitical order ( Matthews 2004 ). Existing educational disparities suggest that the education system in the United States systematically denies equal access and opportunity to marginalized populations ( NASW 2015 ). The overrepresentation of African American students in special education classes for more than four decades ( Blanchett 2006 , 2009 ; Gardner and Miranda 2001 ); nationwide disparities in high school graduation rates for black, Hispanic, and white students (68, 76, and 85%, respectively) ( National Center for Education Statistics 2015 ); and the suspension and expulsion of black students at a rate three times greater than white students ( Gibson et al. 2014 ; Haight et al. 2014 ; U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights 2014 ) depict a dismal reality of racial oppression within the U.S. education system. Research investigating these issues can also be a tool of oppression, further burying the systemic causes of educational disparities. For example, one study found that the racial gap in suspension rates was completely accounted for by a measure of the prior problem behavior of the student ( Wright et al. 2014 ). This study suggested that the use of suspensions may not have been as racially biased as some scholars have argued ( Wright et al. 2014 ), completely ignoring the possibility that the identification of prior problem behavior itself can be racially biased, thus, integrally linking prior problem behavior and school suspension, such that one is a proxy for the other.

Similar disparities to suspension rates are illustrated by the overrepresentation of youth of color in the child welfare system ( Boyd 2014 ). These different but mirroring institutions reflect how U.S. systems–e.g., Education, Criminal Justice, Employment –are interrelated, such that occupying a substandard position in one system will likely guarantee an equivalent position in other systems. Further evidence of integrated systemic failure for racial minorities and economically disadvantaged populations is the school-to-prison pipeline ( Amurao 2013 ). Because African Americans are incarcerated at higher rates than whites ( U.S. Census Bureau 2015 ; U.S. Department of Justice 2014 ), the impact of a criminal record on employment is confounded with race ( Alexander 2010 ; Pager 2003 ; Smith and Jemal 2015 ). Income and education factors, which are integrally related and occur along racial and ethnic lines, are significant predictors of health status ( Sambamoorthi and McAlpine 2003 ; Viruell-Fuentes et al. 2012 ). Oppression and the associated toxic stress have been identified as a fundamental cause of disease ( Gee and Ford 2011 ; Link and Phelan 1995 ; Williams et al. 1997 ) and critical consciousness, its antidote ( Watts et al. 1999 ).

The theoretical framework of critical consciousness (CC) has the objective of addressing multi-systemic oppression at its core ( Freire 2000 ). From a critical consciousness perspective, internalized and structural oppression are at the heart of most individual (e.g., substance use) and social (e.g., community violence) dysfunction ( Chronister and McWhirter 2006 ; Mullaly 2002 ; Windsor et al. 2014a ). The cyclical nature between processes (e.g., community policing practices) and outcomes (e.g., racial disparity in mass incarceration) of social injustice create a self-perpetuating phenomenon; like a virus, social injustice infects the host system from individuals to families to institutions. The under-recognized role of systemic inequity in individual and social problems, that is, the lack of CC, creates the necessary environment for oppression to rampantly spread through systems from the individual to the macro levels, causing massive, widespread system failure.

For Freire, oppression amounted to a dehumanization process for both the oppressed and the oppressor. Freire (2000) determined that it was necessary for people to think critically about oppressive realities and challenge inequitable social conditions to reclaim their humanity. “[T]he process whereby people achieve an illuminating awareness both of the socioeconomic and cultural circumstances that shape their lives and their capacity to transform that reality” ( Prilleltensky 1989 , p. 800) is parallel with an empowerment process; an active, participatory process through which individuals and groups gain greater control over their identities and lives, protect human rights, and reduce social injustice ( Maton 2008 ; Peterson 2014 ; Rappaport 1987). Critical consciousness is an empowering, strengths-based, nonexpert directed approach that fosters insight and active engagement in solutions to challenge inequity ( Baxamusa 2008 ; Ozer et al. 2013 ; Peterson 2014 ; Prati and Zani 2013 ; Zippay 1995 ) underlying major social (e.g., racial disparities in criminal justice system) and health (HIV epidemic in communities of color) crises ( Capone and Petrillo 2013 ; Fawcett et al. 2010 ; Peterson 2014 ). Moreover, opportunities for self-determination and control over one’s life contribute to health, wellness and quality of life ( Prilleltensky et al. 2001 ). To date, there has been significant and innovative scholarship and reformulation of critical consciousness to prevent or ameliorate inequitable conditions that cause social and health disparities ( Diemer et al. 2014 ).

Critical consciousness theory has been used in health and outcome research to address disparities, such as health interventions to reduce HIV risk ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ), domestic violence ( Chronister and McWhirter 2006 ), and substance use ( Windsor et al. 2014a ). Accordingly, CC has been associated with a host of desirable individual-level outcomes among marginalized people, such as healthier sexual decision-making among South African youth of color ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ), reduction of substance use among adult African American men and women with recent incarceration history ( Windsor et al. 2014a ), mental health among urban adolescents ( Zimmerman et al. 1999 ), academic achievement and school engagement among urban African American youth ( O’Connor 1997 ), civic participation among poor and working-class youth of color ( Diemer et al. 2010 ; Diemer and Li 2011 ), positive career outcomes among female survivors of domestic violence ( Chronister and McWhirter 2006 ), future career planning among urban youth ( Diemer and Blustein 2006 ) and, when measured during adolescence, the attainment of higher-paying and more prestigious occupations in early adulthood ( Diemer 2009 ). Hatcher et al. (2010) noted that outcomes, such as reduction of intimate partner violence, unprotected sex among young women, and improved communication between parents and their children about sex, can be theoretically linked to critical consciousness. Thus, research seems to support a relationship between CC and positive outcomes and the reduction of negative consequences associated with oppression.

Critical consciousness has important scholarly and practice implications. However, Freire did not provide a conceptual model of CC, and thus, many scholars spanning the education, community psychology, social work, public health, and social science fields have adopted, interpreted, applied and expanded CC in various directions ( Green 2009 ; Thomas et al. 2014 ). The purpose of this paper is to provide an in-depth review and critique of the CC literature that delves beyond highlighting the current state of the CC literature (e.g., Diemer et al. 2015 ; Diemer et al. 2016 ; Watts et al. 2011 ; Watts and Hipolito-Delgado 2015 ) to identify the conceptual inconsistencies, ambiguities and gaps that dominate and weaken CC theory to support the need to develop the new construct, transformative potential.

Conceptualization of Critical Consciousness

One component.

Some researchers conceptualize CC as a unidimensional construct with critical reflection as the single component ( Mustakova-Possardt 1998 ; Watts et al. 1998 ), a purely cognitive state that derives from the critical analysis of sociopolitical inequity ( Diemer and Li 2011 ; Mustakova-Possardt 1998 ; Watts and Abdul-Adil 1998 ). The intellectual analyses of the sociopolitical and cultural environment permit the identification of oppression and inquiry about its existence ( Freire 2000 ; Watts and Abdul-Adil 1998 ). This critical awareness incorporates perspectives of relationships between self and society and requires a metacognitive experience in that one must think about their thinking, be aware of the existence of consciousness, and mindful of its ever-evolving process ( Houser and Overton 2001 ). For example, persons with the highest level of CC are aware of their own assumptions shaping interpretations of reality and their responsibility for choices that either sustain or alter that reality ( Carlson et al. 2006 ). Chronister et al. (2004) state that CC is overcoming false consciousness and achieving a critical understanding of self, environment/world, and one’s place in the world including awareness of how values, beliefs and practices reinforce structures of injustice. Shin et al. (2016) provide a slight variation by defining CC “as awareness of the systemic, institutionalized forms of discrimination associated with racism, classism, and heterosexism” (p. 210). Some scholars include a causal understanding rooted in history ( Watts et al. 2011 ). This causal or consequential domain is a temporal dimension that helps “reveal cause-and-effect relationships between ongoing social forces and current social circumstances” ( Watts et al. 2011 , p. 52) and requires recognizing the “reality as an oppressive reality” ( Freire 2000 , p. 175). This realization may potentially be unlikely for students receiving a banking style of education, wherein teachers deposit information into students, empty vessels, to be memorized and regurgitated to satisfy standards of assessment ( Freire 2000 ). Awareness or an intellectual component of CC seems to be extremely important as it is incorporated in every scholar’s CC definition that was reviewed. However, CC as awareness most likely would not result in Freire’s goal of liberation from an oppressive reality. “Resistance is key because analysis without action does not produce tangible change” ( Watts et al. 2003 , p. 186).

Cognitive-action

Also, seemingly unidimensional, are definitions of CC that connect awareness and action. Martin (2003) notes that the fundamental aspect of CC is “the act of intellection which is to focus on one’s self-consciousness upon an examination of societal and individual contradictions by questioning fundamental assumptions and constantly reconstructing ever new interpretations of the world,” (p. 414) so that the act of cognition itself becomes a critical consciousness. For example, a person who has developed CC will critically inquire into ideologies, philosophies, perceptions, interpretations, and ideas that stem from the mainstream, socially constructed reality ( Mejía and Espinosa 2007 ). Houser and Overton (2001 , p. 612) state that CC is “searching beneath and beyond our existing assumptions.” Watt (2007) noted that one with CC will seek opportunities to develop awareness and skills that facilitate effectively addressing issues of social injustice, such as engaging in difficult dialogues that may cause discomfort. Watts and Abdul-Adil (1998) note that CC is the act of critical thinking when applied to the societal realm. Likewise, Freire (2000 , p. 128) noted that “critical reflection is also action,” indicating a blurred line.

Two components

Some literature seems to suggest that the Freirian notion of CC is characterized by the capacity to critically reflect and act upon one’s oppressive environment ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ; Diemer and Blustein 2006 ). These definitions of CC go beyond a cognitive state to include capacity, ability, skill, or realization of one’s power to conduct a critical analysis of structural oppression and potential actions to challenge inequities within sociopolitical environments ( Diemer and Blustein 2006 ; Diemer et al. 2006 ; Getzlaf and Osborne 2010 ). For example, Garcia et al. (2009) define CC as “the ability to recognize and challenge oppressive and dehumanizing political, economic, and social systems” (p. 20). These definitions of CC only require the understanding of oppression and inequities ( Getzlaf and Osborne 2010 ) or perception of disparities ( Watts and Abdul-Adil 1998 ), and the realization of one’s power to take individual and collective actions to create conditions of equity and social justice ( Getzlaf and Osborne 2010 ), but seem to stop short of conducting the social analysis or taking action. Thus, one issue with the awareness and capacity definitions is that having the awareness and/or capacity does not mean that a person will use that capacity or will act on that awareness, thereby limiting the potential for transformation.

The second category of two-dimensional CC definitions moves beyond capacity, providing the theoretical foundation of transformative potential. Diemer et al. (2014 , p. 2) note, “Critical consciousness (CC) represents oppressed or marginalized people’s critical analysis of their social conditions and individual or collective action taken to change perceived inequities.” Accordingly, several scholars articulate that CC has two key dimensions: (1) sociopolitical analysis, also called critical reflection, critical analysis or social analysis, and (2) critical action, also called civic engagement and social action ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ; Diemer and Blustein 2006 ; Diemer and Li 2011 ; Windsor et al. 2014a ). Although some scholars may agree on a two-dimensional operationalization of CC; this agreement does not always lead to the use of the same two dimensions. For example, Diemer and Blustein (2006) conceptualized CC as including critical reflection and sociopolitical control. They did not include action. To gain a better understanding of CC, the key dimensions must be examined.

Most scholars seem to agree that critical reflection refers to examining everyday realities to analyze the relationships between personal contexts and the wider social forces of structural oppression (e.g., social, economic and political environments) that restrict access to opportunity and resources, and thus, sustain inequity and perpetuate injustice that limit well-being and human agency ( Diemer et al. 2016 ; Diemer and Li 2011 ; Giroux 1983 ; Hatcher et al. 2010 ; Watts et al. 2011 ; Watts and Flanagan 2007 ). The reflection dimension includes: (1) thinking critically about accepted beliefs, thoughts, feelings and assumptions; (2) detecting the hidden interests underlying personal and social assumptions and beliefs (whether class-, gender-, race/ethnicity- or sect-based); and (3) identifying how history impacts the present details of everyday life and how ways of thinking and feeling serve to maintain and perpetuate existing systems of inequality ( Diemer and Blustein 2006 ; Diemer et al. 2006 ; Watts et al. 2003 ). As a slight deviation, some scholars have stated that critical reflection has two subdomains: “(a) critical analysis of perceived social inequalities, such as racial/ethnic, gendered, and socioeconomic constraints on educational and occupational opportunity; and (b) egalitarianism, the endorsement of societal equality” ( Diemer et al. 2014 , p. 2). For Transformative consciousness, the level of critical consciousness is most similar to critical reflection on a cognitive-emotional process of creating meaning through interpretations of shared or similar social experiences that is shaped by cultural norms, informing typical patterns of thought and behavior ( Carlson et al. 2006 ; Jemal 2016 ).

Action has been conceptualized as “an individual’s objective ability or potency to act given structural constraints” ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 , p. 333). Freire (1973 , p. 66) also noted that “while no one liberates himself by his own efforts alone, neither is he liberated by others,” emphasizing the need for individual and collective action to transform the reality of the socioeconomic and cultural circumstances that create and perpetuate social injustice. Many scholars define critical action as the overt engagement in individual or collective action taken to produce sociopolitical change of the unjust aspects (e.g., institutional policies and practices) of society that cause unhealthy conditions ( Diemer and Li 2011 ; Diemer et al. 2014 ; Watts et al. 2011 ; Watts and Flanagan 2007 ; Zimmerman et al. 1999 ). Individual critical action may include “acts of individual women sharing advice, support, and info with others” ( Hatcher et al. 2010 , p. 543). Critical action encompasses social justice activism and can take many forms including practices outside traditional political processes and forums or more formal actions such as voting and community organizing ( Hatcher et al. 2010 ; Watts et al. 2011 ; Windsor et al. 2014b ).

Some scholars have noted that critical action encompasses sociopolitical control, which itself has definitional variations. Sociopolitical control has been used synonymously with critical action since it represents participation in individual and/or collective social action to effect social change ( Diemer and Li 2011 ; Ginwright and James 2002 ; Zimmerman et al. 1999 ). Others have noted that sociopolitical control is expected to be closely associated with critical consciousness since it represents one’s perceived capacity to change social and political conditions rather than direct engagement in action ( Diemer and Blustein 2006 ). CC scholars have surmised that critical action has two subcomponents that include: (1) sociopolitical control, perceived self-efficacy to effect social and political change, and (2) social action that includes, for example, engagement in protests ( Diemer and Li 2011 ; Watts and Flanagan 2007 ). It should be noted that originally sociopolitical control “refers to beliefs that actions in the social and political system can lead to desired outcomes” ( Zimmerman and Zahniser 1991 , p. 736) which may be more closely related to political efficacy or participatory competence ( Kieffer 1984 ) than to action.

Definitions that include action may better serve Freire’s purpose of liberation; however, the action definitions are limited by the numerous variations causing conceptual ambiguities. Similar to the critical reflection domain, there is inconsistency in how to operationalize the action domain. For the most part, there seems to be uncertainty regarding whether critical action involves capacity to act ( Diemer and Blustein 2006 ; Diemer et al. 2006 ) or overt action ( Chronister and McWhirter 2006 ). To add complexity to this issue, the collective behavior literature has experienced conflict regarding what constitutes activism ( Corning and Myers 2002 ). Debates have focused on whether action must be extra-institutional to be labeled activist, the amount of coordination needed between the actors engaged in the action, and whether one’s membership in a movement is founded on explicit actions and/or supportive attitudes ( Corning and Myers 2002 ). Does action go beyond type of action to what the action is supporting? This is important to question because action type (e.g., voting, participating in a political party, club or organization) without consideration of the cause would allow oppressive, white supremacist, totalitarian individuals and groups to be critically conscious, which is counterintuitive.

Reflection-action relationship

Another idea to note is that there is a dynamic relationship between reflection and action that is viewed as reciprocal, cyclical or transitive, such that greater reflection leads to greater action and vice versa ( Diemer et al. 2014 ; Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ; Freire 1973 ; Watts et al. 2011 ). Critical reflection is generally considered a precursor to critical action—people do not blindly act to change oppressive social conditions without some consciousness that their social conditions are unjust ( Watts et al. 2011 ). Freire (2000 , p. 66) also noted that “reflection – true reflection – leads to action.” Freire (2000) theorized that as oppressed people begin to analyze their social conditions, they would feel able and compelled to act to change them.

It so happens that to every understanding, sooner or later an action corresponds. Once man perceives a challenge, understands it, and recognizes the possibilities of response, he acts. The nature of that action corresponds to the nature of his understanding. ( Freire, 1973 , p.83).

Some theory testing seems to support an association between reflection and action. Diemer et al. (2014) results from testing a critical consciousness scale (CCS) noted that The Critical Reflection: Perceived Inequality factor correlated significantly with the Critical Action: Sociopolitical Participation factor (Study 1 r = .29; Study 2 r = .18). Diemer et al. (2014 , p. 16) concluded “This association is supportive of the central theoretical tenet of CC, that perceptions of inequality motivate marginalized people to act to redress injustice (Freire 1993).” However, there is no way to discern from the correlation on cross-sectional data whether perceptions of inequality motivated people to act or whether the action improved perceptions of inequality. Longitudinal data is needed to better discern the direction of the reflection-action relationship.

Three components

Few researchers have theorized three distinct components for CC: cognitive (e.g., critical reflection or critical social analysis), attitudinal [i.e., political efficacy – the perceived capacity to effect sociopolitical change ( Morrell 2003 )], and behavioral (e.g., civic or political action) ( Watts et al. 2011 ). Similarly, Hatcher et al. (2010) portray CC as having three distinct elements: analytical, constructive and mobilizing. The analytical and mobilizing aspects are similar to the critical reflection and action components, respectively. The constructive process is similar to political efficacy in that it encourages the belief that “change is possible – participants reinterpret their situation and develop strategies for improving it” ( Hatcher et al. 2010 , p. 543) and can envision solutions involving individual and collective action. Related to political efficacy, “scholarship ( Watts and Flanagan 2007 ) and empirical evidence ( Berg et al. 2009 ; Diemer and Li 2011 ; Zimmerman and Zahniser 1991 ) suggest that critical motivation, or the expressed commitment to address societal inequalities and produce social change, may also be a component of CC” ( Diemer et al. 2014 , p. 19). Similarly, Mustakova-Possardt (1998) defines moral motivation “as the overall predominance of moral over expediency concerns” (1998, p. 13). Whether efficacy or motivation, these concepts seem to bridge the reflection and action components of CC.

Scholars have identified different dimensions of CC and use various combinations of one, two, or three dimensions to construct CC. For example, McWhirter and McWhirter (2016) started with a three-dimension construction of CC and, after conducting factor analyses, ended with a two-dimensional factor structure of CC composed of critical agency and critical behavior dimensions. This is different than the three-factor CC operationalization – awareness, efficacy, and action – proposed by Watts et al. (2011) . In addition to the various combinations of components used to operationalize CC, there is inconsistency within the literature for how to operationalize single dimensions. For example, Diemer et al. (2014) operationalized critical reflection as having two sub-dimensions, composed of endorsement of group equality and perceived inequality; whereas for other scholars, critical reflection is unidimensional. However, when Diemer et al. (2014) tested the operationalization of CC, he found that the two theorized sub-factors of critical reflection did not correlate with each other, suggesting the factors are distinct constructs rather than sub-factors of critical reflection. In addition to considering whether critical reflection has one or more sub-factors, Diemer’s results bring into question whether critical reflection includes endorsement of equity rather than equality. Further theory testing is needed and will elucidate how the dimensions of CC associate with each other.

To further complicate the response to what is critical consciousness; there are definitions that formulate CC as a process rather than an outcome. Some scholars propose that CC is a continuous process of development without an endpoint, “referring to “the development of intellectual understandings of the way in which social conditions have fostered peoples’ situations of disadvantage” ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 , p. 333) and learning how to “critically analyze their social conditions and act to change them” ( Watts et al. 2011 , p. 44). Thus, CC has been conceptualized as a process of growth in “knowledge, analytical skills, emotional faculties and capacity for action in political and social systems” ( Watts et al. 2003 , p 185). Moreover, Getzlaf and Osborne (2010 , p. 2) state that “CC is a concept derived from Freire’s (2000) process of conscientization, a process in which learners become conscious of the ways in which they think about themselves and their worlds, and transform these ways of thinking to a new perspective.” Thus, is CC an outcome of the process of conscientization or are CC and conscientization simply synonymous?

Conscientizaçāo and Praxis

The “term conscientizaçāo refers to learning to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality” ( Freire 2000 , p. 35). Many scholars have supplemented the definition of conscientizaçāo for the definition of critical consciousness and/or scholars use the terms critical consciousness, conscientizaçāo, conscientization, and consciousness-raising interchangeably (e.g., Diemer et al. 2016 ; Shin et al. 2016 ; Windsor et al. 2014a ). A probable and more accurate interpretation is that although, consciousness-raising, conscientization and conscientizaçāo are the same concepts, critical consciousness is not synonymous with conscientizaçāo. It appears that conscientizaçāo and CC are distinct and that CC is the “product of the interaction between motivation and evolving structures of thought, where each component continuously shapes the other” ( Mustakova-Possardt 1998 , p. 27). Similarly, Gutierrez and Ortega (1991 , p. 26) noted that “critical consciousness can arise through a process of consciousness-raising.”

True liberation requires individuals to repossess their humanity by reaching a level of critical consciousness ( Freire 2000 ). However, adapting to the cyclical, self-perpetuating, viral processes of oppression is dehumanizing and creates a society of mutated beings, infected from our minds to our epigenome, divided from our true selves, isolated from others, and disconnected from the creative, healing, and survival power of human relationship. As such, a key aspect of critical consciousness development is that people move from being objects that are acted upon by oppressive conditions to empowered subjects that act upon their sociopolitical environment for justice ( Diemer et al. 2006 ; Freire 2000 ). Freire used a process to move individuals through a series of lower, non-critical levels or stages of consciousness to higher levels of consciousness ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ; Carlson et al. 2006 ; Freire 1973 ). A few scholars have identified the stages in the CC development process. Freire (2000 , 1973 ) developed a problem-posing education, replacing the banking model, to develop CC that included: (1) identifying the social problem; (2) analyzing the underlying causes; and (3) implementing solutions. Gutierrez and Ortega (1991) identified a five-phase group process of CC development: (1) recognition of intragroup similarities supporting group identity; (2) development of shared goals; (3) naming of barriers that limit self and group expression; (4) exploration of ideas to address identified barriers; and (5) plan for action. When analyzing the data from a photovoice study, Carlson et al. (2006) identified a four-stage process for the development of critical reflection; which, some scholars use critical refection as interchangeable with CC. The four stages are: (1) passive adaptation, (2) emotional engagement, (3) cognitive awakening, and (4) intentions to act ( Carlson et al. 2006 ). Similarly, transformative potential requires a process to transition from lower levels of consciousness (i.e., denial and blame) and action (i.e., destructive and avoidant) to the highest levels of critical consciousness and critical action.

Another potential area for confusion is between CC development (i.e., conscientization or conscientizaçāo) and the liberation process. Liberation is the goal of CC and CC is the goal of conscientization. Freire noted that the liberation process cannot be purely intellectual (i.e., verbalism) but must involve action, nor can the liberation process be limited to activism without serious reflection: “only then will it be a praxis” ( Freire 2000 , p. 65). To transform oppressive realities for liberation, individuals must simultaneously execute CC’s two main components by reflecting on themselves and the world and acting upon that reality ( Freire 2000 ). Praxis is “a fluid process, without a finite end point” ( Hatcher et al. 2010 , p. 551). In other words, CC is reflection and action, but praxis is reflecting and acting, and conscientization is “a continually evolving process” ( Garcia et al. 2009 , p. 20) that “brings with it the possibility of a new praxis, which at the same time makes possible new forms of consciousness” ( Hernandez et al. 2005 , p. 110). For example, Hatcher et al. (2010) noticed feedback loops rather than a linear process during their conscientizaçāo intervention in which collective action seemed to “draw participants back to sharing common problems with one another and translating the ‘information’ they learned into meaningful conversations with family and friends” (p. 552). This is consistent with Freirian pedagogy, in that social action should naturally loop back to analysis and dialogue such that reflection and social action merge to form praxis, the foundation for revolution.

Tools, strategies, and methods

Perhaps another issue confusing critical consciousness, conscientization, and praxis is that some scholars include the tools, strategies and methods for conscientization (i.e., consciousness-raising) within the definition of CC. Watts et al. (2011 p. 45) state, “For [Freire], reading, dialogue, reflection, and action were all part of what he called critical consciousness and were key to a new self-understanding in historical, cultural, and political contexts.” However, dialogue and reading are tools of the consciousness-raising process, and thus, not part of the CC construct ( Freire 2000 ). There are several tools used for conscientizaçāo, all of which are the same for developing Transformative Potential. Gutierrez and Ortega (1991 p. 26) note two methods for raising consciousness include:

constructive dialogue occurring in small groups, and praxis, a process of action and reflection. Both techniques are aimed at helping individuals to understand the nature of their experience, the status of their group in society, and their ability to engage in social change.

Garcia and colleagues (2009) provide a list of practices and tools that can be used to promote CC including setting aside time for initial and ongoing critical conversations; reflective questions, critical genograms, maps of social capital, and questionnaires for exploring social identities and systems of privilege and oppression. These tools that can be imbedded in urban education curricula are needed to break the silence surrounding injustice to lead to transformative action ( Freire 2000 ). To further clarify the definition of CC, it is important to distinguish between CC and the tools used to develop CC.

Dialogue and critical reflection

Dialogue or open discussions regarding inequity seems to be one of the most important methods of conscientization. If one of the conditions of consciousness-raising is the investigation of ways of thinking, then dialogue is the method through which that investigation occurs. Freire (2000 , pp. 96–97) states, “The methodology of that investigation must likewise be dialogical, affording the opportunity both to discover generative themes and to stimulate people’s awareness in regard to these themes.” The development of CC ultimately requires interactively analyzing, questioning and discussing the status quo and beliefs about sociocultural contexts, power dynamics surrounding race, gender, sexual orientation, and other aspects of social identity - that dictate who is and is not allowed access to resources and opportunities and how that access is granted or denied - so the mundane and normal cultural practices that have been deeply ingrained and made invisible to perpetuate systemic inequity and influence behavior can be seen in a new light ( Garcia et al. 2009 ; Hatcher et al. 2010 ). An awareness of systemic inequity as structural violence can be a first step toward social change ( Watts and Serrano-Garcia 2003 ) for part of structural violence is denial of one’s primordial right to speak which must be reclaimed ( Freire 2000 ; Quintana and Segura-Herrera 2003 ). Language has been used to create false divisions and fear, scarring people’s identities with destructive labels. Dialogue is of critical importance to conscientization because the symbolization that language makes possible allows dehumanized persons to reinterpret their experiences of themselves, others and their worlds ( Saari 2002 ). Dialogue creates new possibilities and opportunities for relationships and interconnections between external internal worlds ( Saari 2002 ). These new insights from revised interpretations can be integrated into one’s repertoire of self and world knowledge ( Saari 2002 ), thereby transforming consciousness. Lastly, critical thinking skills are needed to aid reflection, develop awareness, and deconstruct ( Garcia et al. 2009 ; Thomas et al. 2014 ) “social forces that influence them and their communities—especially as they relate to race, culture, class, and gender” ( Watts et al. 2002 , p. 41).

Reflective questioning

One tool to promote critical reflection through dialogue is the posing of reflective questions. Reflective questions direct attention to power dynamics involved in various systems that maintain systemic inequity ( Garcia et al. 2009 ). Examples of such questions may include: “Where does knowledge of dysfunctional families come from and how do class, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability inform the dynamics of this system” ( Garcia et al. 2009 , p. 32). Reflective questions allow exploration of how “knowledge is created and maintained by larger sociopolitical forces” ( Garcia et al. 2009 , p. 32). Watts et al.’s (2002) curriculum (Young Warriors) for African American male adolescents employs a series of five reflective questions designed to develop critical thinking skills about sociopolitical issues. Questions provoke discussions about the status quo, promote the ability to analyze or identify the meaning of experiences and events, and then elicit how participants would improve the situation or act to promote social justice ( Watts et al. 2002 ).

Psychosocial support

The development of critical consciousness is theorized to occur when people are socially supported to explore and challenge social inequity ( Diemer et al. 2006 ; Diemer and Li 2011 ; Freire 1973 ; Ginwright and James 2002 ; Giroux 1983 ; Green 2009 ). Supportive contexts may encourage the development of perceived capacity that one can make a difference and seems to foster engagement in sociopolitical action ( Diemer et al. 2009 ). For example, observing a family member actively resist racism may encourage one to develop CC ( O’Connor 1997 ). For youth’s development of CC, the school setting and peer level of support seems to be an important contributing factor ( Diemer et al. 2006 ; Houser and Overton 2001 ; Lynn et al. 1999 ). Moreover, researchers have noted that the skills needed to develop CC, such as critical thinking skills, can be taught and modeled ( Diemer et al. 2006 ; Watts et al. 2002 ). Thus, being around others, especially those in roles of authority, with higher levels of critical consciousness may be a source of support for CC development.

Co-learning

Freire (2000) , through problem-posing education, revolutionized the teacher-student relationship by emphasizing co-learner, non-hierarchical, respectful relationships between students and teachers engaged in a process of co-constructing knowledge through multi-methods and dialogical means ( Smith-Maddox and Solórzano 2002 ). The teachers are viewed as facilitators who model challenging ideas, values and assumptions perpetuated by the dominant social order ( Smith-Maddox and Solórzano 2002 ). The facilitator’s role is to empower students through an egalitarian relationship with learners and offer advice and support in a non-directive way ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ). Approaches that view the learner as a “passive ‘empty vessel’ to be filled with knowledge emanating from an active expert teacher, are contrary to the development of the critical debate and dialogue, a key mechanism underlying the development of critical consciousness” ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 , p. 337). Likewise, rigidly authoritarian rules, didactic teaching methods that reduce opportunity for autonomy and critical thinking are contrary and prohibitive of the CC development process ( Campbell and MacPhail 2002 ).

Group process

Some scholars discussed the need for small group discussions and interactions as an important tool to facilitate CC development ( Hatcher et al. 2010 ; Watts and Abdul-Adil 1998 ). CC practice is characterized by group discussion that incorporates open-minded listening (that is, “listening with the willingness to have one’s mind potentially changed by what one hears” ( Cohen 2011 , p. 414)), “dialogue, humility, respect, and critique” ( Watts et al. 2011 , p. 54) to allow group participants to move toward consensus of causal factors underlying the recurring oppressive characteristics of everyday life ( Montero and Sonn 2009 ). At that point, the group can “begin to consider solutions aimed at the sociopolitical roots of the problem” ( Watts et al. 2011 , p. 54). The constructive and empowering group process allows a combination of tools to be utilized for consciousness-raising such as encouraging dialogue that promotes reflective questioning about the connections between personal and societal issues; the use of role plays and other participatory activities; grounding discussions within the daily, shared realities of those involved in the consciousness-raising process; co-constructing new and empowered understandings and identities; and, identifying potential solutions to local problems ( Hatcher et al. 2010 ). Small groups also encourage a constructive group process in which participants are allowed the time and given encouragement to create a physically and psychologically safe space ( Ginwright and James 2002 ) that permits participants to explore connections between personal and social problems, identify shared experiences, and receive social support, all of which greatly impact an individual’s behavior and perception of reality ( Gutierrez and Ortega 1991 ). The classroom and early learning settings seem to be an organic environment to incorporate the group processes needed for conscientization as CC has major impact on personal and collective identity.

Individuals develop a group identity as they “move from consciousness of themselves as oppressed individuals to the consciousness of an oppressed class” ( Freire 2000 , p. 174). The group identity and a sense of community provide support and acceptance from others who are also struggling ( Hatcher et al. 2010 ). According to Gutierrez and Ortega (1991 , p. 26), “[e]mpowerment theory assumes that if individuals understand the connectedness of human experience they will be more likely to work with others to alter social conditions.” Thus, intra-group interaction and communication that incorporates a sense of belonging have been identified as empowerment techniques, potentially increasing communal efficacy for mobilizing activities and collective social action that promotes the common good over efforts towards individual achievement ( Gutierrez and Ortega 1991 ; Hatcher et al. 2010 ; Thomas et al. 2014 ). Empowering the silenced to find their collective voice and liberate themselves is the overarching goal of consciousness-raising ( Gutierrez and Ortega 1991 ); or, as Hardy-Fanta (1986 , p. 123) describes, having “competent people working toward achieving their own ends through collective action.” To accomplish similar goals, Watts et al. (2002) and Windsor et al. (2014a , b ) have considered a process of civic learning in which participants develop community action projects that use participant-generated insights to change social systems. These studies may provide a blueprint for similar civic action projects within urban education curricula.

Action and identity development

Action has been identified as a tool for consciousness raising ( Windsor et al., 2014a , b ). Freire (2000 , p. 73) noted that CC “results from the intervention in the world as transformers of that world”. Civic engagement and sociopolitical action seem to shape how one perceives self, others and social injustices. As people challenge oppressive conditions within local sociopolitical contexts, a new understanding of themselves, other group members, and of those contexts arises ( Garcia et al. 2009 ; Sonn and Fisher 1998 ). A person’s identity becomes one of an active and engaged citizen, defined as “someone who has a sense of civic duty, feeling of social connection to their community, confidence in their abilities to effect change, as well as someone who engages in civic behavior” ( Zaff et al. 2010 , p. 737). Moreover, the collective action promotes solidarity with peers and solidarity allows disempowered groups to gain collective power.

Part of developing CC includes the psychological process of empowerment that stems from altering one’s perception of self in society ( Gutierrez and Ortega 1991 ), incorporating the reclamation of devalued and lost identities ( Watts and Serrano-Garcia 2003 ). “This includes the development of a sense of group identity, the reduction of feelings of self-blame for problems, an increased sense of responsibility for future events, and enhanced feelings of self-efficacy” ( Gutierrez and Ortega 1991 , p. 25). The reclamation of identity opposes a primary tool of oppression and social control, divide and conquer, facilitated by the internalization of inferior beliefs about one’s self and one’s group members ( Speight 2007 ). Civic engagement helps to protect individual, families and communities from negative messages reproduced in society ( Speight 2007 ; Thomas et al. 2014 ; Zaff et al. 2010 ). Thus, research seems to suggest a cyclical relationship between identity (both personal and collective) in that identity influences civic engagement and civic engagement develops one’s identity ( Thomas et al. 2014 ; Zaff et al. 2010 ).

The demarcations between the tools of conscientization are superficial; all the tools overlap. For example, reflective questions encourage dialogue that may occur within a group setting that challenges restrictive and oppressive social identities. “Identity, that basic sense of who we are that guides both our sense of ourselves and our behavior,” and how we make sense of the world, “can be understood to be constituted through dialogue” ( Saari 2002 , p. 144). As one speaks and listens, the power of words shapes identity and perceptions of environmental contexts. Through this dialogical process, “the subject comes into being” ( Maranhao 1990 , p. 18). Conscientization incorporates a dialogical perspective of the self as a storyteller in search of shared narratives. Self-identities manifest through critical dialogue and action with similarly situated others in relationship which generates a common understanding of the nature of their experience ( Goolishian and Anderson 2002 ). The altering of narratives and identities is a product of social exchange, such that “we are never more than the coauthors of the identities we construct narratively with others” ( Goolishian and Anderson 2002 , pp. 221–222). When people listen in a way that demonstrates that the speaker has something worth hearing, then the speaker’s word and existence are validated simultaneously. “Within the word we find two dimensions, reflection and action, in such a radical interaction that if one is sacrificed – even in part – the other immediately suffers. There is no true word that is not at the same time a praxis” ( Freire 2000 , p. 87).

The unifying force is discovered when recognizing and acknowledging the greatness and power of the voices of others can be accomplished without diminishing one’s own greatness and power ( Anderson 2005 ). Conscientization, as an empowerment framework, depends on the idea that when individuals understand the interdependence of human experience - that taking care of me means taking care of you - they will be more likely to work together to challenge substandard social conditions for all ( Gutierrez and Ortega 1991 ). However, when considering the interdependence of human experience, other conceptual ambiguities and inconsistencies challenge the CC theoretical framework. Ideas that require clarification or consideration include the exclusion of the oppressor, the absence of privilege, and intersectionality.

Exclusion of oppressor/privileged

Is CC only for oppressed populations? Since the initial formulations of CC, scholars have used CC in various contexts to understand how oppressed or marginalized populations: (1) reflect on and become critically aware of social, political, and economic oppression and the resulting social injustices; (2) identify and navigate the structural constraints and social inequities that limit human agency and well-being; and, (3) acquire the skills and resources needed to transform oppressive elements to create a just society ( Ginwright and James 2002 ; Prilleltensky 2003 Watts and Abdul-Adil 1998 ; Watts et al. 1999 , 2011 ). As such, some scholars limit their definition of CC to focus on oppressed or marginalized populations ( Diemer et al. 2014 ; Ginwright and James 2002 ; Watts et al. 2011 ). For example, Diemer et al. (2014) define CC as how “oppressed or marginalized people think about and respond to inequitable sociopolitical conditions” (p. 15). Similarly, Baker and Brookins (2014) notes that CC is “concerned with the ways in which marginalized group members develop an understanding of oppressive societal structures and forces, and subsequently the motivation for individual and collective action to confront and change those structures and forces” (p. 1016). These limited definitions exclude oppressors and may inadvertently support the proposition that oppression is a problem for the oppressed to solve. When, in essence, CC is important for members of privileged groups who have greater access to resources and power and can operate as allies ( Thomas et al. 2014 ). To achieve liberation, the primary focus of CC ( Watts et al. 1999 ), it is imperative that those who may be privileged by the system of social injustice, unfair distribution of resources and opportunities, and inequity, be able to recognize unjust social processes and acquire the knowledge and skills needed for social change. Thomas et al. (2014) noted that CC would help individuals understand their role in a system of oppression, as members of either the privileged or stigmatized groups. Liberation requires true solidarity in which the oppressor not only fights at the side of the oppressed, but also takes a radical posture of empathy by “entering into the situation of those with whom one is solidary” ( Freire 2000 , p. 49). Thus, CC, with the goal of liberation, has the radical requirement that the oppressor, those who deny others the right to speak their word, and the oppressed, those whose right to speak has been denied, must collaborate to transform the structures that beget oppression ( Freire 2000 ).

Absence of privilege

Another critical limitation of CC conceptualization is the failure to incorporate the concept of privilege. Some definitions only define CC as addressing oppression. For example, Garcia et al. (2009) define CC “as the ability to recognize and challenge oppressive and dehumanizing political, economic, and social systems.” As an antidote to oppression, CC must address inequity which includes privilege. Moreover, the development of CC includes evaluating how one’s privilege impedes the ability to empower and support those with less power and privilege, preventing empathy and inter-group collaboration needed to dismantle social hierarchies ( Carolan et al. 2010 ). Some scholars have recognized the role of privilege in the maintenance of oppression by including privilege within CC’s conceptualization. Watt (2007) notes that CC is an awareness of “one’s own privileged status in relation to racism, sexism, ableism, c1assism, etc., on a personal and political level” (p. 116). Watt (2007) acknowledges that critical consciousness will not develop without engaging in difficult conversations that directly address what it means to be privileged. Likewise, Garcia et al. (2009) note that it is important to “allocate time to reflect on and address issues related to interlocking systems of oppression and privilege.” Campbell and MacPhail’s (2002) CC intervention demonstrated the Freirian approach in helping young people examine their social privilege (e.g., as males, heterosexuals, affluent) as well as their marginalization. Watts et al. (2011) also note that privileged youth could work towards a more just society if they learned about oppression, privilege, and the consequences of social injustice. Since privilege and oppression are mutually reinforcing, operating in a cyclical process, providing sustenance to the other, CC requires an examination of privilege as well as oppression.

Intersectionality

Related to the critique that CC, as it has been conceptualized by many, fails to include privilege and address oppressors is the idea that our identities are usually composed of overlapping and intersecting identities of privilege and oppression. In other words, an educated, rich, black, lesbian woman has intersecting identities of oppression (i.e., black, lesbian, woman) and intersecting and interlocking identities of privilege (i.e., able-bodied, rich, educated). With intersecting identities and variable experiences of oppression and privilege, it becomes nearly impossible to divide most people into categories of oppressed, oppressor, or privileged ( Black and Stone 2005 ; Crenshaw 1989 ; Ferber 2012 ; McIntosh 2014 ). Although some group identities are more widely recognized as being oppressed or privileged, the experience of oppression and privilege is an individualized experience that varies by social context incorporating protective and risk factors ( Thomas et al. 2014 ). Moreover, the idea of internalized oppression further complicates the oppressor/ oppressee dichotomy in that target members of systemic inequity may unwittingly collude in their own oppression and the oppression of in-group members ( Speight 2007 ) by thinking, feelings, and acting in ways that “demonstrate the devaluation of their group and of themselves as members of that group” ( Hardiman and Jackson 1997 , p. 21). Thus, it is important to not “sort individuals into stigmatized and non-stigmatized groups based on in-group identity” ( Thomas et al. 2014 , p. 488). Furthermore, intersectionality theory is used to denote the intersecting experiences of oppression with which members of multiple oppressed groups must contend (Crenshaw 1991; Viruell-Fuentes et al. 2012 ). Because systems of oppression are mutually reinforced and work in concert to produce inequality (Ferber 2009), analyses that focus on a single oppression will produce an inadequate representation of the social experience impacted by several oppressions simultaneously ( Viruell-Fuentes et al. 2012 ).

Transformative Potential

Based on the review and critique of the literature, there is ample evidence that suggests the construct of CC requires clarification for research, education, and practice purposes. When synthesizing this review, it seems that critical consciousness, composed of reflection and action, is a fundamental and necessary skill to understand oppression and privilege ( Watts and Abdul-Adil 1998 ). Praxis, the cyclical or simultaneous process of reflecting and acting, is needed to challenge oppression and privilege. Conscientization is the process that uses such tools as critical dialogue, reflective questions, and social action projects, to develop critical consciousness. These concepts seem to operate in tandem and to exist within a complex web of cause-and-effect. Despite the research on CC that has contributed to our understanding of CC and the wide usage of CC, the CC construct and theoretical framework remains vague, ambiguous and fragmented ( Baker and Brookins 2014 ). Critical consciousness has roots in multiple disciplines which make the concept complex and difficult to interpret. Definitions differ on whether CC is an outcome or a developmental process and confuse CC, conscientizaçāo, praxis and the tools, strategies or techniques of the consciousness-raising process. Scholars incorporate various combinations of dimensions to define CC making it less likely that CC scholars are assessing the same construct as each other when referencing CC. The lack of a standardized definition makes it difficult to compare results across studies or to link CC to outcomes. Also, definitions tend to exclude oppressors and the examination of privilege and suffer from not incorporating the idea of intersectionality. These issues cause concern over the future and utility of critical consciousness theory, research, and practice ( Goodman et al. 1998 ). If fundamental questions remain unanswered, CC scholars will continue to produce divergent theory and assessments of CC (e.g., Baker and Brookins 2014 ; Diemer et al. 2014 ; Jemal 2016 ; McWhirter and McWhirter 2016 ; Shin et al. 2016 ; Thomas et al. 2014 ). As such, the importance of critical consciousness as a key phenomenon of interest may be minimized unless theoretical and empirical issues are addressed with greater precision.

To address the conceptual limitations and inconsistencies outlined in this paper, one recommendation is for scholars to introduce conceptual models of constructs that are separate and distinct from critical consciousness and are identified as such to avoid the overuse of critical consciousness for varying and divergent ideas. As such, this critique provided the foundation and direction for the development of a new theoretical framework, transformative potential (TP), informed by the CC literature but also developed to address the theoretical limitations and inconsistencies of critical consciousness theory. For example, TP would not only apply to oppressed populations but also to the oppressor, the ally, and all those in between. Transformative potential includes social analysis of both forms of inequity: oppression and privilege. TP incorporates intersectionality, recognizing most individuals are some composition of hero and tyrant. Most importantly, TP acknowledges the interdependence of human existence, that the liberty and humanity of the oppressed is coupled with the liberty and humanity of the oppressor. Along these lines, the TP framework incorporates a developmental, eco-social approach ( Bronfenbrenner 1994 ) to encompass the interrelationships of systems, meaning how micro practices are reflective of macro socio-political processes and vice versa. This approach also allows for the examination of internalized oppression and privilege, which has not been addressed in the CC literature. Transformative potential, as an interdisciplinary theoretical framework grounded in CC theory can provide a lens to understand how individuals are affected by internalized and structural oppression; to explore a family’s intergenerational beliefs that support oppressive thinking and behaviors; or to promote community organizing and social activism efforts with faculty and students.

The systemic denial by those in power of patterns of discrimination by educational systems against students of color and their families or for affluent white individuals (e.g., legacy preferences ( Larew 1991 ), perpetuate power imbalances and differential access to resources. The ultimate goals of incorporating transformative potential, a CC-based theoretical framework, into urban education is threefold: (1) to objectify and address issues of systemic inequity, (2) to produce an informed and civically engaged student body with the capacity to transform individuals, families, communities, institutions, and sociopolitical systems, and (3) to raise the critical consciousness of educators who are responsible for producing the leaders of the future. Freire (2000 , p. 47) states that “To surmount the situation of oppression, people must first critically recognize its causes, so that through transforming action they can create a new situation, one which makes possible the pursuit of a fuller humanity.” There is immense potential for transformation, from individuals to institutions to generations, if students educated in urban areas critically reflected on the oppressive conditions shaping his or her life and actively worked as an individual and in collaboration with like-minded others to create more equitable realities. Urban school settings could play a more active role in helping students and faculty: integrate history and causal reasoning; develop ability to recognize social patterns; recognize a sense of self differentiated from mainstream images; reflect on power dynamics by continuously examining how biases, assumptions and cultural worldviews influence perceptions of differences between individuals; increase capacity to effect social change; and develop partnerships to foster social justice ( Garcia et al. 2009 ; Sakamoto and Pitner 2005 ; Zimmerman 1995 ). Freire used the CC pedagogy for the liberation of Brazilian peasants and, likewise, CC-based theoretical models, like transformative potential, are needed to transform systems and institutions that maintain and perpetuate oppression and to achieve a system of education that is just, equitable and liberating for all.

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Published: 03 September 2024

Study of dog population dynamics and rabies awareness in Thailand using a school-based participatory research approach

Weerakorn Thichumpa 1 ,
Anuwat Wiratsudakul 2 ,
Sarin Suwanpakdee 2 ,
Chayanin Sararat 3 ,
Charin Modchang 3 , 4 ,
Setha Pan-ngum 5 ,
Nakornthip Prompoon 5 ,
Onpawee Sagarasaeranee 6 ,
Sith Premashthira 6 ,
Weerapong Thanapongtharm 6 ,
Arun Chumkaeo 7 &
Wirichada Pan-ngum 1 , 8

Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 20477 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Epidemiology
Health care
Risk factors

Rabies is a neglected disease primarily related to dog-mediated transmission to humans. Accurate dog demographic and dynamic data are essential for effectively planning and evaluating population management strategies when designing interventions to prevent rabies. However, in Thailand, longitudinal survey data regarding dog population size are scarce. A school-based participatory research (SBPR) approach was conducted to survey owned dogs for one year in four high-risk provinces (Chiang Rai, Surin, Chonburi, and Songkhla) of Thailand, aiming to understand dog population dynamics and raise awareness about rabies. ‘Pupify’ mobile application was developed to collect data on dog population and observe the long-term population dynamics in this study. At the end of the data collection period, telephone interviews were conducted to gain insight into contextual perceptions and awareness regarding both animal and human rabies, as well as the social responsibility of dog owners in disease prevention and control. Among 303 high school students who registered in our study, 218 students reported at least one update of their dog information throughout the one-year period. Of 322 owned dogs from our survey, the updates of dog status over one year showed approximately 7.5 newborns per 100-dog-year, while deaths and missing dogs were 6.2 and 2.7 per 100-dog-year, respectively. The male to female ratio was approximately 1.8:1. Twenty-three students (10%) voluntarily participated and were interviewed in the qualitative study. The levels of rabies awareness and precautions among high-school students were relatively low. The high dropout rate of the survey was due to discontinuity in communication between the researcher and the students over the year. In conclusion, this study focused on using the SBPR approach via mobile application to collect data informing dog population dynamics and raising awareness regarding rabies in Thailand Other engaging platforms (e.g. Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and other popular applications) is necessary to enhance communication and engagement, thereby sustaining and maintaining data collection. Further health education on rabies vaccination and animal-care practices via social media platforms would be highly beneficial. For sustainable disease control, engaging communities to raise awareness of rabies and increase dog owners’ understanding of their responsibilities should be encouraged.

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Population demographics are important baseline data necessary for the study of infectious diseases. Human population data are available in most settings. For animal populations, however, demographic information is very limited in several countries and often only available for specific cohorts or studies. In Thailand, nationwide dog surveys are conducted by local government organizations once or twice a year and reported to a web-based reporting system, “ThaiRabies.net”, which has been updated to “Rabies One Data” since 2021 1 . These surveys require considerable human resources, while the quality of data can vary from province to province depending on the management and training of local staff teams to process and manage data 2 . Here, we proposed an innovative way to conduct dog surveys using a school-based participatory research (SBPR) as a part of community-based participatory research (CBPR), an approach to research that involves collective, reflective, and systematic inquiry in which researchers and community stakeholders engage as equal partners in all steps of the research process, with the goal of educating, improving practice, or bringing about social change 3 , 4 . We implemented the SBPR approach to perform a dog population survey among high school students in Thailand, using a mobile-phone application. This alternative approach relies on a self-reporting system for dog owners. This can be done through a mobile application developed for data collection. This approach was hoped to provide solution of a long-term data collection with lower cost to the government sectors, as well as promote community participations, raising awareness and responsibility among owners to register, monitor, and care for their dogs.

Dog ownership issues are critical for the design of rabies vaccination campaigns, especially in developing countries, including Thailand 5 . In many high-income settings, owners are responsible for properly confining their dogs and facilitating their vaccination against rabies. In Thailand, dog-keeping practices and duties of responsible ownership vary depending on the cultural setting 6 . There is an increasing evidence that most free-roaming dogs are owned and accessible for rabies prophylaxis 7 , 8 , 9 ; moreover, unvaccinated owned dogs have been affected by rabies 2 . Nevertheless, many owners cannot afford to pay for vaccination and other veterinary care for their own dogs 10 , 11 . Thus, many people rely on free, mass vaccination campaigns against rabies, provided by the government or non-governmental organizations (NGOs). In addition, limited access to dog vaccination can potentially reduce effective vaccination coverage, particularly if the proportion of unowned dogs is large. Dog movement patterns can also play a role in rabies epidemiology 12 . Dog confinement has been studied and implemented in some countries as a control measure for rabies 13 , 14 , 15 .

In Thailand, rabies is a notifiable condition, however it is not compulsory to report suspected rabies exposure in humans 16 . Both dog and human vaccination guidelines from the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH), recommend a comprehensive strategy to eradicate dog-mediated rabies 17 , 18 , 19 . The strategy highlights the importance of mass dog vaccination campaigns (aiming for at least 70% coverage) and the implementation of effective dog population control measures (e.g. sterilization), which have been optimized for rabies prevention and control 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 . Human rabies in Thailand has been prevented and controlled by policy promulgated since 1992. Rabies cases have decreased because of schemes including mass dog vaccination and sterilization. Although human rabies in Thailand has gradually declined, animal rabies has been generally increasing over the past ten years 2 . In 2020, there were 209 cases of rabid dogs reported in Thailand and three human deaths due to rabies. Rabies is most prevalent in the provinces of Chonburi, Songkhla, and Surin, while Chiang Rai has found high positive detection of rabid animal cases in 2018 21 , 22 . The control of rabies in animals is challenging, as the disease can be transmitted throughout the year and therefore surveillance and control of animal carriers are urgently required 20 . As for the Thai government’s policy and guideline (based on WHO & WOAH) for high-risk areas, ring vaccination is currently implemented for controlling and preventing rabies outbreaks, while sterilization is a long-term solution to control number of dog population, reducing contacts among dogs and between human and dogs. Both vaccination and sterilization are hopeful for improve management of dog bites 22 .

Although the database of dogs has been significantly improved following the introduction of dog survey reporting to ThaiRabies.net by local government organizations, the system still relies solely on the public health sectors. Moreover, data consistency remains an issue due to technical problems within the system and incomplete data entry. Here, we introduced a novel method for owned-dog data collection, using the SBPR approach. Information about dog population dynamics is essential for analyzing population and disease prediction and can act as baseline data for dog population management plans. The exploration and identification of dog population ecosystems and dynamics are required as a framework to effectively plan and evaluate population management and interventions to prevent rabies 8 . In addition, the introduction of an approach to our dog survey among school-age children could be beneficial in terms of generating awareness of animal-care practices, disease, and the development of a research mindset.

Countries in Southeast Asia are among the top users of mobile phones globally. In 2020, total population of Thailand were approximately 65.42 million 23 . The number of smartphone users in Thailand reached 53.57 million, with around 60 million predicted by 2026, due both to increases in the Thai population and internet penetration 24 . Self-reported data collection via mobile phones can be of use when conducting large-scale surveys, with the affordability and availability of mobile phones and wireless networks making them a viable alternative to traditional methods 25 . However, it is important to consider various aspects involved in the development and implementation of mobile phone data collection. For example, ensuring usability and user acceptance of the data collection system will help motivate survey participants to stay with the project and continue to provide high-quality data. Server authentication through the use of properly configured certificates will help deal with threats of data submission to a malicious server, which can increase users’ confidence in data security 26 .

Our study proposed an initial effort to conduct a long-term survey based on dog owners’ awareness and participation. The dog population dynamics data were analyzed and visualized. In addition, the qualitative study was performed on 10% of the survey participants who volunteered to do the interview on knowledge of rabies, social responsibility, community engagement and research orientation. The data collection tools and methods were assessed and further improvements when using this approach were proposed.

Dog population survey

School and participant demographics.

In the survey via ‘Pupify’ mobile application, 303 high-school students registered through the mobile application for our study. There were 29.8%, 28.9%, 27.1% and 14.2% from a school in Chonburi, Surin, Chiang Rai, and Songkhla provinces, respectively; most were female participants (72.9%) (Table 1 ). Of 303 registrations, 218 participants actually submitted at least one update of their dogs into the system over the one-year study. However, the number of participants continued submitting the monthly dog updates dropped to 46, 63 and 43 after 6 months, 9 months and by the end of one year, respectively. The number of students giving the completely one-year updates was 43 or 20% of total participants from the start (Fig. 1 ).

A number of participants’ responses in a 3-month period during the study year.

Dog demographics and dog population dynamics

Overall, 322 owned dogs were reported during the study period. More than half were male dogs (65.0%). Owned dogs were divided into three age groups based on owners′ identification: birth to 1 year (28.3%), aged between > 1 and 8 years (57.1%), and aged > 8 years (14.6%). These age classes were used to represent three groups of dogs, puppy, adult, and elderly. Most owned dogs were reported in Surin province (35.4%), followed by Chiang Rai (28.5%), Chonburi (22.7%), Songkhla (12.1%), and others where owners dwelling in adjacent areas (1.2%). In addition, 24 new-born puppies were reported, while there were 20 deaths (e.g. caused by dog illness, bite, fight, accident, and culling) and 9 missing dogs reported. These numbers correspond to the estimated birth, death, and missing rates of 7.5, 6.2, and 2.7 per 100 dog-years, respectively. Based on the self-reporting system, 40.1% of the dogs had been vaccinated against rabies and 12.4% had been sterilized (Table 2 ).

Qualitative study

Dog owner characteristics.

A total of 23 high-school students, all aged 17 years, voluntarily participated in our interview (see Supplementary Table 3 ). There were students from all three levels of participation, including registration only (17.4%, n = 4), partially updated data (39.1%, n = 9), and fully updated data (43.5%, n = 10). Although all schools from four provinces were represented, more than half of the participants were from Chonburi province (52.2%).

Extensive knowledge and dog rabies awareness

Most participants (91.3%, n = 21) strongly agreed that rabies was fatal, resulting in death in both humans and dogs. One participant noted, “I learned from the news on TV that human infections result in a hundred percent mortality” . However, 52.1% of the participants (n = 12) reported that they were either unaware of or did not follow rabies situations locally. This indicated that while most participants are aware of rabies, they do not necessarily stay informed about local rabies situations. One participant said, “ I have very little experience of rabies disease. I have not seen the real case before and have not followed the disease situation. At school, there is minimal information for us to research more about rabies. Sometimes, external health staff came to educate us about health at school but didn’t focus on rabies” . While a majority (65.2%, n = 15) of participants considered that only cats and dogs were reservoirs for rabies, a larger proportion (78.2%, n = 18) were unsure whether there were other animal reservoirs. This result indicated that most participants were unaware that other mammals can also get infected with rabies. From the interviews, some participants made statements such as “I think it mainly comes from dogs and cats, unlikely to be other species” and “Most cases are infected from stray dogs, perhaps also from rabbits and monkeys” . In addition, 65.0% (n = 15) of participants mainly received information about rabies from social media and other online sources, while the remaining participants obtained information from other sources, including schools (such as our project visit), television and news, community announcements, medical providers, parents, and relatives.

Rabies precautions and caring for owned dogs

Most participants (87.0%, n = 20) stated that avoiding contact with stray dogs can help to prevent rabies infection. Also, 52.1% (n = 12) suggested that owned dogs should be vaccinated annually against rabies. Dog confinement was reported by most owners (87.0%, n = 20) as a way to control and limit their dogs’ contact with humans or animals. One participant said, “I keep my dog only in my house to avoid contacting with people and other dogs” and “My dog is always leashed all the time and I don’t allow other dogs nearby my dog when it is outside” . According to this, half of them (52.1%, n = 12) trusted their dogs, with 80–100% confidence due to annually vaccination and not allowing dogs outside. One participant said, “Some of my dogs are not yet vaccinated, we put the dogs to guard our properties in the factory area and sometimes outside dogs do come to visit” .

In terms of caring for owned dogs, participants reported how they managed their dog’s health (including regular health check-ups and visits to veterinarians when health issues were identified). The majority used the services of animal clinics (87.0%, n = 20), followed by animal hospitals (21.7%, n = 5), treatment by owners (21.7%, n = 5), and government veterinary services (13.0%, n = 3). However, one said, “I saw my aunt giving paracetamol to the dog when it was sick. I didn't agree with that and would have looked for more information or taken the dog to the vet instead” . This indicated that animal health education on the care of owned dogs should be enhanced, with information provided by specialists at animal service stations.

In the case of what happens to newborn puppies, participants identified two common situations: giving them away to others (65.2%, n = 15) and keeping the puppies themselves (39.1%, n = 9). In the mating season, most participants said they confined their dogs and did not allow them to breed with other dogs. One participant said, “I usually keep the dog in the house and sometimes use a lease to prevent dogs fighting”. Conversely, in the case of both neutered and non-neutered dogs, some participants still allowed their dogs to breed. Finally, the owners said they commonly observed their dog’s health status at feeding time (47.8%, n = 11); when they were sleeping (30.4%, n = 7) or playing (17.4%, n = 4); or when they observed any abnormality (17.4%, n = 4).

Obstacles, limitations, and motivations for joining in with school-based participatory research

Obstacles and limitations relating to the SBPR study mentioned by participants included forgetting to update their dog’s data (65.2%, n = 15), having school assignments and portfolios (30.4%, n = 7), having a part-time job (17.4%, n = 4), having personal works (17.4%, n = 4), having a poor internet connection (13.0%, n = 3), changing their smartphone (8.7%, n = 2), being unable to install the mobile application (4.3%, n = 1), and not interested in participating (4.3%, n = 1).

Conversely, participants reported some interesting advantages and motivations for why they participated in this study. Motivations included in the attainment of project certificates (60.9%, n = 14), followed by project rewards/gifts (34.8%, n = 8), research experience (13.0%, n = 3), dog care and follow-up (13.0%, n = 3), and rabies information (4.3%, n = 1). Other influences for joining the project mentioned included own self (65.2%, n = 15), project notification (13.0%, n = 3), project rewards (8.7%, n = 2), and support for school activities (4.3%, n = 1). After participated in this study, the main advantages given were mostly focused on caring for owned dogs, with regard to dog attention and care (69.6%, n = 16), observation of dog behavior (34.8%, n = 8), dog vaccine notification (17.4%, n = 4), and education (17.4%, n = 4). One mentioned that “In my opinion, the best thing I learned is to pay more attention to my dog. I observe my dogs more regularly and take care of them much better than earlier” .

Other suggestions from participants

Some participants suggested that they needed more information about rabies disease, its prevention and control, dog management, and dog vaccination. This could be added to the Pupify application, which was easily accessible for necessary information. Also, alternative sources of information should be considered, e.g., infographics and dog fan-pages on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, or other popular social media platforms. One participant suggested, “I think having different channels for communication would help stimulate more interest in the work, for example, forming a ‘dog lovers’ group on social media” .

Here, we explored a new method to collect dog data via mobile application, a self-reporting system for dog owners, by focus initially on high school students who owned smartphones, which is in contrast with the conventional dog population census that is performed once or twice per year in Thailand by the government departments responsible for animal health. The key challenge to our design was the number of losses to follow-up. Our qualitative study revealed the main barriers to update dog dynamics data were due to some personal issues and technical reasons. A participant from the partial update group noted, “I gave regular updates until I changed my smart phone, I stopped updating the information completely” . One from the no-update group said, “I had difficulties installing the app and I think I am not disciplined enough to join this project anyway”. In addition, there was some feedback on the suitability of a mobile instant messaging app for data tracing. One participant suggested, “I prefer other channels of communication such as Instagram and Facebook because they are more convenient to me” .

Nevertheless, we estimated birth, death, and missing rates of 7.5, 6.2, and 2.7 per 100 dog-years, respectively. The male to female ratio was approximately 1.8:1. The variations in these rates and ratios among the studied provinces are noticeable (see Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 ). This could be due to different nature of owned dogs in different parts of Thailand. However, due to the relatively small sample size in our study, it would not be appropriate to perform any sub-analysis from this data. It is important to note that the majority of the data provided pertained to confined dogs (70.2%), which may not accurately reflect the uncertainty conditions of free-roaming dogs. Future dog censuses should include a focus on confined, free-roaming, and stray dogs to provide a more comprehensive representation of the overall dog population size. Observations in South Africa revealed that birth and death rates were 31.3–45.1 and 40.6–56.8 per 100 dog-years, respectively, while the male to female ratio was approximately 1.4–1.7:1 27 . A study in India estimated an annual per capita birth and death rate of 1.0 and 0.7, respectively, while the male to female ratio was approximately 1.4:1 28 . A sight–resight survey in Australia reported birth and death rates were approximately 2.4 and 1.7 dogs/dog-owning house/year, respectively, while the male to female ratio was approximately 1:1 7 . Compared with other studies (using different approaches to collect the data; including observational, sight-resight, and/or mark-recapture survey), births and deaths in our study were relatively low. However, the male to female ratio was in line with previous studies. Similarly to a previous study 6 , we found the proportions of dog-keeping approaches (i.e. confined or free-roaming) varied among the sites, with dogs usually confined in well-developed areas whereas free-roaming dogs were reported more frequently in remote areas.

Our study had some limitations. First, the survey was restricted to owned dogs. It would be helpful to collect similar data for stray dogs; however, to conduct a similar study of stray dogs in the Thai setting, individuals who take care of stray dogs, so called “local feeders”, must be identified 29 . Second, the participants only comprised high-school children of a specific age group, perhaps a broader target public population should be considered for future surveys. Furthermore, we simply used three reproductive age classes to represent puppy, adult, and elderly i.e. the exact dog ages as detailed classifications, i.e. puppy, juvenile, young adult, mature adult, senior, and geriatric, are not available in this study. Third, the 'Pupify' application was developed for Android phones only and required updates to remain compatible with the latest operating system versions. Fourth, there was a low number of one-year data completion among the participated students who owned a mobile phone. Because the participation was voluntary, unrelated to school nor teacher’s request. The study sites were distant from the central project location, notifications and encouragement communications were conducted solely via Line messaging application and telephone calls. This led to discontinuities in communication between the researchers and the students throughout the year. The barriers in our SBPR engagement were limitations of the mobile application platform, technical issues, personal reasons, and the lack of engagement of project through the teachers and/or schools. Further studies should consider site visits to enhance communication, encourage participation, and investigate any arising issues.

In accordance with “One Health” concepts, human health is closely connected to the health of animals and our shared environment, and research in this area should be a collaborative, multisectoral, and trans-disciplinary approach to achieve optimal health outcomes. We made considerable effort to use the SBPR approach in conducting this study. In addition, the initial motivation for study participation was primarily driven by the desire to achieve long-term goals and enhance their profiles for university enrollment. After participating, they also recognized considerable benefits in caring for their dogs and demonstrated a commitment to sustainable effort for better dog care. Although there was a low response rate among participants, we could remark that the main advantage concerning caring for owned dogs was initially successful based on participants’ perception. Most interviewees agreed that this study would encourage them to pay more regular attention to their dogs regarding their health, vaccinations, and rabies prevention. Our study demonstrated the importance of encouraging, among school-age children, early learning about the importance of disease prevention and awareness, together with community engagement and social responsibility for their future. Finally, it is important to note that the success of several research depends on effective data collections. However, this study has provided valuable lessons, demonstrating that engaging the general public, beyond researchers and experts, presents considerable challenges. Practical issues such as invitations, communications, cooperations, maintaining engagements, and overall participations should be carefully considered. We hope that the insights gained from our study with SBPR may be beneficial for further studies and similar contexts.

Conclusions

Using the SBPR approach for collecting dog population dynamics data among the high school students can be challenging. Additionally, this study was conducted with an initial effort to explore the potential of using SBPR for data collection. The primary objective aimed to propose extending the approach beyond student awareness to include general dog owners in further research. Implementing a suitable SBPR approach involves designing educational activities, training participants, conducting surveys, and engaging the community. This could lead to effective and sustained data collection while fostering community involvement and awareness in the future. Perception on the usefulness of the application and different social-media channels for communication should be considered for future development of data collecting tools and mobile application in order to provide higher incentive to participate and update dog information in a long-term. A low level of disease awareness among high school students was identified in the interviews, possibly due to insufficient information, both at school and in the media. It is critical to promote disease awareness through health education. Further studies using in-depth interviews should focus on enhancing rabies awareness, increasing owner responsibility, and supporting rabies prevention projects, as these factors are crucial for policymaking and effective public participation. Nevertheless, by conducting data collection using a new alternative approach among the students, it has clearly increased some awareness on the importance of animal welfare and provided some new experience of being part of a research for some students to reduce rabies among humans and animals.

Study sites and participants

This study was conducted between June 2018 and October 2019, in areas where rabies is endemic and where there is a high incidence of animal and human cases 30 . It formed part of a larger study conducted in Thailand between 2015 and 2018, which aimed to investigate the cultural and socioeconomic factors that contribute to rabies outbreaks in Thailand 31 . Four provinces were included: Chiang Rai province in the north, Surin province in the northeast, Chonburi province in the east, and Songkhla province in the south (Fig. 2 ). Based on the past five year report of rabies in Thailand 22 , 30 , we purposively surveyed high school students dwelling in high endemic areas among the four provinces. Inclusion criteria were: (1) students aged between 16 and 17 years who owned at least one dog and possessed a smartphone that used the Android operating system, and (2) volunteer students whose parents consented to their participation in the study. In this study, dog ownership was defined as those who owned or cared for at least one dog at the residence only. Students were eligible to voluntarily participate by registering dog data on the ‘Pupify’ application.

Maps showing; laboratory positive detection of rabies cases in animals in 2018 (Source: Thairabies.net: http://www.thairabies.net 1 ; and The four provinces included in the study: Chiang Rai, Surin, Chonburi, and Songkhla.

Data collection using the “Pupify”

‘Pupify’ mobile application was developed to collect long-term data on dog population numbers and dynamics from dog owners, feeders, and the general public. The ‘Pupify’ was developed by a group of university students from the Department of Computer Engineering, Chulalongkorn University 32 . The software architecture was three-tiered i.e. client, application server, and database server. The client section was initially constructed for Android OS using Java language. The application server was developed by using JavaScript which responded to user requests and monitored the types of data that should be recorded in the database server. All processes were tested accurately in both software testing and acceptance testing by developers and research team to ensure that the application can function in real settings.

In this study, the application was initially designed to target high-school students who have a smartphone and presumably have good knowledge of rabies. The application was developed in collaboration with the Department of Livestock Development (DLD), Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Thailand, who are responsible for rabies control in Thailand. The application comprised three main sections: (i) demographic information about a dog’s owner, (ii) demographic information about dogs, and (iii) routine information updates and report management. The first and second sections were recorded in literal format once for each dog and owner upon registration. Monthly updates were required to follow-up on status of registered dogs, e.g. still alive, moved out, dead, vaccination status, and sterilization status. The participants were reminded to provide at least the monthly updates through the application and other channels of communication including Line messaging application and telephone calls with the researchers.

Qualitative study for the evaluation of participatory research

The second part of the study was conducted once the dog survey had been completed. This qualitative study aimed to explore in detail the knowledge, perceptions, and awareness of dog owners with regard to rabies in dogs and humans. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect the information. First, the participants from the survey were asked to voluntarily participate in the qualitative study by registering online to express their interest. To ensure a diversity of data, the research team purposively selected participants to include students whose duration of participation in the dog survey varied and those who attended different schools. Second, they were invited to participate in a one-to-one online interview with Thichumpa W. Each interview lasted for 15–30 min and was recorded. Informed consent was obtained from all participants’ parents. The interviews were conducted between March to May 2021.

The study protocol was approved by the ethical committees of Mahidol University Central Institutional Review Board (MU-CIRB 2019/157.0606; August 2019). Written informed consent was obtained from all high school students who participated in the research. All the methods were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

Data analyzes

Descriptive statistics were generated using SPSS version 23.0 33 . For the qualitative study, transcript data were evaluated by determining the frequency of answers given by interviewees and then coding keywords into pre-set themes 34 , including the theme of rabies knowledge, rabies awareness, caring for owned dog, perception about project, and other suggestions. The content analysis and thematic narrative approach were performed using QDA Miner Lite 35 .

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, (WP), upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We cordially thank all the high school students who participated in our surveys. We also thank Siwakorn Luengcharoenpong and the teams from the Department of Computer Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand for software development and consultation.

This study was funded by the National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Thailand (Grant ID. P-18-51758) and the Disease Control Department, Ministry of Public Health, Thailand. In addition, this research was funded in part by the Wellcome Trust [220211]. For the purpose of Open Access, the authors have applied a CC BY public copyright license to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.

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Weerakorn Thichumpa & Wirichada Pan-ngum

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Anuwat Wiratsudakul & Sarin Suwanpakdee

Biophysics Group, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

Chayanin Sararat & Charin Modchang

Centre of Excellence in Mathematics, MHESI, Bangkok, Thailand

Charin Modchang

Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

Setha Pan-ngum & Nakornthip Prompoon

Department of Livestock Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand

Onpawee Sagarasaeranee, Sith Premashthira & Weerapong Thanapongtharm

Songkhla Provincial Livestock Office, Muang, Songkhla, Thailand

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Contributions

Conceptualization and Methodology: WK.T., W.P., C.M., A.W. and WP.T. Mobile application: S.P. and N.P. Survey and data collection: WK.T., S.S., C.S., O.S., S.PR., WP.T. and A.C. Formal analysis: WK.T. and W.P. Project administration and data management: WK.T. Writing–original draft: WK.T. and W.P. Writing–review & editing: All authors. The authors declare consent for publication.

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Thichumpa, W., Wiratsudakul, A., Suwanpakdee, S. et al. Study of dog population dynamics and rabies awareness in Thailand using a school-based participatory research approach. Sci Rep 14 , 20477 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71207-7

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Critique & Critical Awareness

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Conceptualization of Critical Consciousness

Cognitive-action

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Reflection-action relationship

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Conscientizaçāo and Praxis

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Study of dog population dynamics and rabies awareness in Thailand using a school-based participatory research approach

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