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How did William the Conqueror and the Normans win at the Battle of Hastings in 1066

The Battle of Hastings (1066) is perhaps the most famous in Medieval Britain, if not Europe. This bloody day changed British history and had a profound impact on the development of the modern world. It led not only to a change of dynasty in England but also indirectly to the development of the English language, law, and political institutions, which have had an immense impact far beyond the British Isles.

The battle followed in the wake of the Normans, landing on the southern coast of England. After defeating a Viking invasion at Stamford Bridge in the north of England, King Harold II headed south to meet the invaders. The two sides met at Hastings in Sussex on the 16th of October 1066. The battle lasted all day and only ended with the death of Harold II. At Hastings, the Normans routed the Anglo-Saxons, and this allowed them to conquer and occupy England. The Battle of 1066 is so famous that many think they know what happened. This is not the case, and there are many myths about the battle that many people accept as historical facts.

In reality, the surviving accounts of the Battle of Hastings are all suspect. They were either written by Anglo-Saxon writers who hated the Normans as foreign overlords, or they were authored by Normans who had an interest in misrepresenting events. This article will disentangle fact from fiction and truth from myth about the Battle of Hastings.

Why did the Normans Invade Britain?

The background to Hastings was the death of Edward the Confessor, king of England from 1042-1066. He died without an heir, and this, as usual in the Middle Ages, led to a succession crisis. [1] There were two main contenders for the crown of England; Harold Godwinson, a member of one of the most powerful Anglo-Saxon families and Duke William of Normandy, the future William the Conqueror.

William and his Normans were the descendants of Norse Vikings who had been given land in northern France and were largely independent of the French King. The Anglo-Saxon had been the brother-in-law of Edmund the Confessor. It is widely reported from sources that the dying king made Harold his heir and left his widow and Kingdom in his care. However, there is a different Norman account, and it holds that Edward the Confessor during a period of exile made Duke William his heir if he died without an heir. Historians have long debated which claim was the strongest, and most believe that Harold was the legal heir of Edward the Successor.

The story that Duke William was the legitimate successor of Edward is unlikely and was Norman propaganda. Even if Edward had made him his heir, he had almost certainly changed his mind before his death. Indeed, Harold had even been legitimately elected by the Witan, the assembly of the Anglo-Saxons, and they viewed him as their rightful ruler. King Harold II was defending his realm at the battle, and William the Conqueror was an invader who had no real support in the wider country. The Battle of Hastings was the result of William's naked ambitions. [2]

Why were the Anglo-Saxons defeated at the Battle of Hastings?

The Anglo-Saxons were forced to march south at speed in the wake of their victory over the Norwegian King Harald Hardrada and his Anglo-Saxon allies at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. This was a bloody clash, and the forces of Harold suffered numerous casualties even though he decisively defeated the Viking army. The victors at Stamford Bridge then had to make a forced march from the north of England to the south coast, and it is widely argued that this was a contributory factor in the Anglo-Saxon defeat.

However, not all historians agree with this, and they point out that the army of Harold fought very well during the battle. Indeed, even in the Norman accounts, the Anglo-Saxons are fighting fiercely, from early morning until the evening. Based on the distance between the two battles, it would seem that the Anglo-Saxon army marched 27 miles (39 km) a day but that they had a day’s rest before the fight. [3] Indeed, Harold was able to seize the high ground and establish a strong defensive position on the battlefield. It is not correct to state that the Anglo-Saxons were tired after their forced march and earlier battle and that this led to their defeat at the hands of the Normans.

What happened at the Battle of Hastings?

The heavy infantry of the English was famous, and they carried long spears and shields. Harold’s Anglo-Saxons used their traditional battle tactic of a shield-wall. They would stand side-by-side, and their interlocking shields would form a solid wall. The shield-wall was very difficult to break down, and it was a tactic used very successfully by Alfred the Great against the Vikings. The infantry of Harold II set up a shield-wall on a hill, and broken ground, and they were in a powerful position. This is agreed to have been the right decision.

The Normans had to inflict a defeat on the English as they were in enemy territory and had only a limited supply. [4] This meant that William the Conqueror’s army was forced to go on the offensive, and it was essential that he broke the massed ranks of the heavy infantry of Harold. The Normans knew that if they broke the formation of the Anglo-Saxons that they would be victorious. From the early morning of the 18th of October, William attacked the Anglo-Saxon shield wall. They had numerical superiority in cavalry, and the Norman knights were among the finest in Europe. They still failed to break the shield-wall. Then William ordered his archers to unleash volleys of arrows at the enemy’s line. They were mostly Bretons and acknowledged to be great archers, but they could not break the English lines.

Norman and some Anglo-Saxon sources claim that the decisive moment in the battle was the Normans invaders' feigned retreat. William ordered his men to retreat, and this tempted the Anglo-Saxons to break their defensive formation and go on the offensive. [5] They left the high ground and the shield-wall was no longer intact. The Normans wheeled round and engaged the onrushing English, who were very exposed. The cavalry of William was able to inflict terrible casualties on the army of Harold II, and this maneuver turned the battle decisively in favor of the Normans. [6]

Did the death of Harold changed the tide of battle?

In many modern accounts, the Battle of Hastings was closely fought, and as long as the Anglo-Saxons shield-wall held, they were able to repel the Normans. It is widely reported that the death of Harold changed the tide of battle. Until his death, the battle was headed to a bloody stalemate. The sudden death of the king of England changed the course of the clash and probably altered English and global history.

However, while it is known for certain that Harold was killed during the battle, his death did not doom the Anglo-Saxons to defeat. [7] The last Anglo-Saxon king was killed after the tide of battle had shifted decisively in favor of the invaders from France. The feigned retreat ordered by William had worked brilliantly, and his counterattack had effectively won the day. One of the greatest myths about the battle was that Harold’s death doomed the Anglo-Saxons to defeat and to their eventual domination by the Normans.

How did Harold die at the Battle?

One of the apparently undisputed facts about the battle was that King Harold II was killed after an arrow in the eye struck him. This is based on one account and a scene from the Bayeux Tapestry. This tapestry is a 70-foot-long (200 meters) work of embroidery that depicts the Battle of Hastings. It was created in the 1070s and is one of the most significant accounts for the events of 1066. It shows a man being hit by an arrow to the eye, which is widely believed to have been a visualization of the death of the last Anglo-Saxon king. However, there are different accounts of Harold's death, but they all agree that he died in battle. [8]

In one Norman chronicle, the Anglo-Saxon monarch was slain as he ran away, but this was probably an invention to discredit the memory of a man still revered by many people in England for decades after 1066. There is another account of Harold’s death that states he was hit by several arrows, and as he lay wounded, he was hacked to pieces by some foot soldiers. How Harold died on that fateful day in October 1066 will never be fully established, and even the burial place of the last Anglo-Saxon king has not been identified. [9]

Did the Anglo-Saxons continue to fight the Normans after the Battle of Hastings?

In most historical accounts, the Battle of Hastings is so decisive that it ended all resistance against the Norman invaders and the Normans were able to impose their will on England. The reality is more complicated. While the Battle was decisive, resistance to the invaders remained. While the English nobles had submitted to William before his coronation as King in Westminster Abbey in 1066, Norman control was somewhat challenged. The Harold's repeatedly raided the coast of England from Ireland, and there were sporadic revolts against William I.

In 1069 the Danes landed in northern England to support a rebellion by the Northern Anglo-Saxon Earls. The Norman king was forced to pay the Danes to leave England. When the rebels refused to do battle, William the Conqueror launched a scorched earth policy, which caused a famine. This came to be known as the Harrying of the North, and some modern writers claim that it was tantamount to an act of genocide against the local population. The facts do not bear out the myth that the Battle of Hastings was the conquest's end. [10] Indeed, it was only in 1070 with the complete suppression of the Northern Earls.

There are many myths around the Battle of Hastings. Instead of being a contest for the English crown, it was an illegitimate bid for power by William, who had a weak claim to the English throne. Next, Harold's army did not lose the battle because of a forced march, nor did Harold's death turn the tide of war because he died after the Normans had taken advantage. William's feigned retreat was brilliant, which led to a decisive victory. Finally, William’s victory in 1066 did not resistance to the Norman invaders. English rebels fought for another four years before William consolidated control over England.

Further Reading

Palliser, D. M. (1993). Domesday Book and the ‘Harrying of the North.' Northern History, 29(1), 1-23.

Brown, R. Allen. The Normans and the Norman conquest (Leeds, Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 1985).

Chibnall, Marjorie. The debate on the Norman Conquest (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1999).

Bradbury, Jim. Battle of Hastings. (London, The History Press, 2010).

• ↑ Lawson, M. K. The Battle of Hastings: 1066 (Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2002), p 12
• ↑ Marren, Peter. 1066: The Battles of York, Stamford Bridge & Hastings. Battleground Britain. (Barnsley, UK: Leo Cooper, 2007), p. 113
• ↑ Marren, p 201
• ↑ Morillo, Stephen. "Hastings: an unusual battle." In Medieval Warfare 1000–1300, (London, Routledge, 2017) pp. 313-321
• ↑ Bachrach, Bernard S. "The feigned retreat at Hastings." Mediaeval Studies 33 (1971): 344-347
• ↑ Morillo, p 318
• ↑ Marren, p 119
• ↑ Marren, p 118
• ↑ Rex, Peter. Harold II: The Doomed Saxon King (Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2005), p 119
• ↑ Lawson, p 118
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Battle of Hastings

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 10, 2022 | Original: November 9, 2009

At the Battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066, King Harold II of England was defeated by the invading Norman forces of William the Conqueror. By the end of the bloody, all-day battle, Harold was dead and his forces were destroyed. Harold was the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, and the battle changed the course of history and established the French-speaking Normans as the new rulers of England, which in turn brought about a significant cultural, economic and military transformation, and helped to create the modern English language.

William the Conqueror

William the Conqueror was the son of Robert I, duke of Normandy in northern France, and his mistress Herleva (also called Arlette), a tanner’s daughter from Falaise. The duke, who had no other sons, designated William his heir, and with his death in 1035 William became duke of Normandy.

Did you know? William, an Old French name composed of Germanic elements (“wil,” meaning desire, and “helm,” meaning protection), was introduced to England by William the Conqueror and quickly became extremely popular. By the 13th century, it was the most common given name among English men.

William was of Viking origin. He spoke a dialect of French and grew up in Normandy, a fiefdom loyal to the French kingdom, but he and other Normans descended from Scandinavian invaders. One of William’s relatives, Rollo, pillaged northern France with Viking raiders in the late ninth and early 10th centuries, eventually accepting his own territory (Normandy, named for the Norsemen who controlled it) in exchange for peace.

King Harold II

Just over two weeks before the Battle of Hastings in October 1066, William had invaded England, claiming his right to the English throne. In 1051, William is believed to have visited England and met with his cousin Edward the Confessor , the childless English king. According to Norman historians, Edward promised to make William his heir.

On his deathbed, however, Edward granted the kingdom to Harold Godwinson , head of the leading noble family in England and more powerful than the king himself. In January 1066, King Edward died, and Harold Godwinson was proclaimed King Harold II. William immediately disputed his claim.

October 14, 1066

On September 28, 1066, William landed in England at Pevensey, on Britain’s southeast coast, with thousands of foot soldiers, horses and cavalrymen. Seizing Pevensey, he then marched to Hastings, where he paused to organize his forces and, according to some accounts, built a fortress or castle.

On October 13, Harold arrived near Hastings with his army. The next day, October 14, William led his forces out to battle before Harold’s troops had a chance to organize.

The one-day Battle of Hastings ended in a decisive victory against Harold’s men. Harold was killed—shot in the eye with an arrow, according to legend—his brothers Leofwine and Gyrth were also killed, and his English forces were scattered.

Legacy of the Battle of Hastings

After his victory at the Battle of Hastings, William marched on London and received the city’s submission. On Christmas Day of 1066, he was crowned the first Norman king of England in Westminster Abbey , and the Anglo-Saxon phase of English history came to an end.

Illiterate like most nobles of his time, William spoke no English when he ascended the throne and failed to master it. Thanks to the Norman invasion, French was spoken in England’s courts for centuries and completely transformed the English language, infusing it with new words and giving birth to modern English.

William I proved an effective king of England, and the Domesday Book , a great census of the lands and people of England, was among his notable achievements. Upon the death of William I in 1087, his son, William Rufus, became William II, the second Norman king of England.

Bayeux Tapestry

The story of the Battle of Hastings and the Norman Conquest of England is told through the Bayeux Tapestry, a 230-foot-long masterpiece of medieval artistry. Probably commissioned by Bishop Odo, William the Conqueror’s half-brother, the tapestry consists of 58 detailed panels of woolen yarn embroidered on linen.

The Bayeux Tapestry was made in England sometime in the 11th century, making it a fairly contemporary record of the Battle of Hastings and other events of the Norman Conquest. Today it hangs in the Bayeux Tapestry Museum in Bayeux, France.

The Battle of Hastings: fact and fiction. British Library . The Bayeux Tapestry. Bayeux Museum . The Battle of Hastings. Historic UK . 

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Anglo-Saxon Britain: The Battle of Hastings Essay

Introduction, preliminary stage, belligerents’ forces, battle chronology.

Bibliography

The Battle of Hastings had substantial meaning for the further history of the English lands. It is interesting to analyze whether the outcome of the battle could be an alternative to the real one.

Could Harold prevent the landing of the Norman army on the shore of the English Channel? Such possibility is rather doubtful. Before the Battle of Hastings, the English army fought at Stamford Bridge. The battle was also rather exhausting and involved whole Harold’s military power. To leave some troops near the English Channel would be not reasonable: firstly, the exact date of William’s landing could not be predicted; besides, the minor force could not resist the whole power of William’s troops.

Analogically, it is difficult to find any possibility for Harold to thwart William’s preparations for the battle. As soon as Harold was informed about Normans’, he led his troops toward the English Channel. When the Anglo-Saxons neared, William’s forces were aware of that rather quickly. Besides, the event of Hastings was rather swift: on October 11, Harold’s troops were in London; in two days, William’s scouts found Anglo-Saxon army; and, finally, October 14, a dynamic one-day battle took place. Thus, it is difficult to talk about any preliminary maneuver, possible for Harold. Only the battle itself can be argued in terms of a possible alternative outcome.

It is difficult to talk about any numerical superiority: different sources provide different estimations of the belligerents’ strength: from 7 to 12 thousand. However, it is considered that either the armies were equal, or the Normans had a slight superiority. It is more important to focus on the qualitative characteristic of the sides.

The structure of William’s army was rather diverse: it included both cavalry and infantry. It was perfectly armed and included high-class warriors. Cavalry was equipped with swords, spears, shields, and bows with arrows. Horses were also armored thoroughly. William was supported by Bretons, Flemings, and the French. The Normans built three wooden fortifications (Creasy 193).

English army was exhausted by the previous battles and a swift passage from the North. Harold did not manage to gather enough reinforcement to join his ranks. His troops included only infantry, armed rather heterogeneously. The core of Harold’s troops was the fyrdmen and the housecarls. English troops are also considered to have built a fortification (Creasy 192).

It is reasonable to mention one more weapon which seems to be significant in this battle: the sides’ morale. William had performed himself as a perfect leader; his words of encouragement and the effort put into uniting the warriors passed into history. At the same time, being tired of the previous battles, the English army was rather relaxed and “spent time in feasting and rejoicing, singing songs, and quaffing bumpers of ale and wine” (Chambers 444).

The struggle was rather tense and did promise any predictable outcome. The first two attacks of the Normans were not successful: the English troops were dislocated at the height, and the Normans’ arrows could not make much harm to them. Finally, the Norman army used the tactics of not synchronous false retreat, making Harold’s soldiers leave their shelter and break ranks without proper coordination. Their fortification was also occupied by the Normans (Malam 22). Therefore, the Anglo-Saxon army was lured to the campaign, where it could not hide. Defenseless and disunited, it was soon defeated by William’s soldiers.

Thus, it is possible to define three main errors of Harold’s warfare: first of all, he did not manage to strengthen his army significantly during its passage to the battle place; besides, he did not manage to support the troops’ morale and provide the warriors’ unity, which led to badly coordinated actions at the battlefield; finally, the counter-attack, poorly thought-out and spontaneous, left the troops without any defense facing well-armed William’s army. It would be more reasonable to keep close to the fortification, as the troops did not have superiority; perhaps, involving more archers together with keeping the defensive attitude would be more reasonable for Harold’s army, as this would allow keeping the distant, protected position.

It is rather difficult to assume that, after the battle, the English lands were able to resist William’s conquest. Theoretically, it was possible right after the struggle, when his troops had serious losses and were having rest. However, after the English army was defeated, and Harold was killed, the English had no strength to struggle. One by one, the representatives of the English top conformed to William.

They also could hardly resist, taking into account that William received the reinforcement coming across the English Channel. One of the slight, but probable opportunities to get rid of William’s invasion was during the time of the northern revolts. It took William much effort to come to the North every time and suppress the revolts. If the revolts took place throughout the English land, this could unsettle William’s force.

Chambers, Robert. The Book of Days, a Miscellany of Popular Antiquities in Connection with the Calendar, Including Anecdote, Biography, & History, Curiosities of Literature and Oddities of Human Life and Character . London; Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers Ltd., 1906. Print.

Creasy, Edward S. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World; from Marathon to Waterloo . New York, Harper, 1863. Print.

Malam, John. The Battle of Hastings . Slough: Cherrytree, 2007. Print.

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The Battle of Hastings: Analysed From Several Historical Contexts

The following article consists of my recent academic essay in the course ‘The History of the British Isles’ as part of my MA degree in British culture and civilisation at Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava (USV).

Introduction

The Battle of Hastings which took place in the year 1066 was undoubtedly a very important event in the history of the British Isles, and, more specifically, in the history of England, as well as in the history of Europe during the Middle Ages from several historical perspectives. The aim of this essay for the course of the History of the British Isles at Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava (USV) is therefore to briefly analyse the importance and implications of the Battle of Hastings in both English and European medieval history at large given its enduring and remarkable historical legacy which is still relevant to this day.

1. The main historical context

In order to better understand the implications of the Battle of Hastings which unfolded on 14 October 1066 and its tremendously important aftermath in both English and European medieval history, one needs to understand the main historical context revolving around the battle per se as well as the year 1066 in general in historical terms, that is with respect to kingship and that year’s military developments on English soil.

First and foremost, the main aspect pertaining to the historical context is represented by kingship. In this regard, Edward the Confessor of the House of Wessex, one of the most important English monarchs of all times, passed away on 5 January 1066, leaving a certain significant royal turmoil in England after his reign as he did not previously clearly appoint any successor to the English throne (being also heirless), thereby leaving it up for grabs to several key historical leaders/figures of this year who would have the right to claim it, both internally/domestically and externally (i.e. from abroad).

Although Edward the Confessor, while still well alive and healthy, might have promised the English throne to William the Conqueror (known in French as ‘Guillaume le Conquérant’), then still Duke of Normandy, he had subsequently changed his mind on his deathbed, promising it instead to Harold Godwinson (or Harold II as he is also known). Nonetheless, this promise has been debated by historians regarding its seriousness and it wasn’t entirely conclusive as to whom it was rightfully or clearly made. Regardless, what’s for certain is the fact that that there was no peaceful transfer of power after Edward the Confessor’s death, on the contrary, the succession was carried out by bloody military means and, ultimately, a large scale conquest later on.

In England, Harold Godwinson and his brother, Tostig, who was Earl of Northumbria (Northumbria being one of the seven early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms also referred to as the ‘heptarchy’), were at odds one with another to the point where Tostig would be forced to flee to the Kingdom of Norway , eventually banding up with the King of Norway at that time, more specifically Harald Hardråde (also known as Harold Sigurdsson, i.e. son of Sigurd, more specifically Sigurd Syr, former king of Ringerike in Buskerud), his last name literally meaning ‘hard ruler’ given his reputation both domestically and abroad as a former very skilled mercenary in the Varangian Guard, the elite personal guard of the Byzantine Emperor which was mostly formed of Swedish Vikings .

The conjunctural alliance which was forged between Tostig and Hardråde was based on mutual interests and a common enemy in the person of none other than Harold Godwinson, the treacherous brother of Tostig and the then still Anglo-Saxon king of England (albeit disputed by the two and also William, Duke of Normandy as well). This alliance therefore paved the way (or the maritime voyage, shall I better put it) to the Battle of Stamford Bridge in northern England on 25 September 1066.

2. The Battle of Stamford Bridge – a ‘prequel’ to the main battle of 1066 that would follow shortly afterwards for English hegemony

The Battle of Stamford Bridge was fought in northern England between the Anglo-Saxons led by Harold Godwinson on the one hand and the Norwegian Vikings led by Hardråde and Tostig on the other hand. While initially fighting well and winning in the first part of the battle, the Norwegian Vikings under Hardråde and Tostig were subsequently defeated after the former had been slain by an arrow shot at him (lucky arrow, lucky shot, I might add as well). Tostig was also slain and out of an impressive fleet of 300 ships (according to Simon Schama in his BBC TV series historical documentary entitled ‘A History of Britain’, episode 2, ‘Conquest!’) which previously set sail from southwestern Norway to northern England, only 30 of them (or 10%) returned back to Scandinavia. Regardless of how skilled Hardråde was as a powerful longtime mercenary or how motivated Tostig was to avenge himself after he was humiliated and exiled by his brother, both of them and their army were defeated by Harold Godwinson’s Anglo-Saxons in a decisive manner. However, in the long run, this would prove to be a certain pyrrhic victory as Harold’s troops also took a considerable death toll, were exhausted, weakened, but nevertheless had to quickly regroup and march southward towards Hastings in order to face the next major invading threat represented by Duke William of Normandy and his Norman knights.

3. How the Battle of Hastings was won and what it meant beyond English soil: conclusions

The Battle of Hastings that followed (at a difference of approximately two weeks and a half from the previous one fought by Godwinson at Stamford Bridge) was (and still is) one of the most important dates in both English and European medieval history. Harold Godwinson’s exhausted troops faced William the Conqueror’s powerful Norman knights and, although dominating them through a skilful strategy of placing his troops on the hills in a defensive manner, winning the first part of the battle, the Normans bounced back as Godwinson’s troops left their positions atop the hills, chasing the Norman knights who then fought back and decimated the Anglo-Saxons along with King Harold Godwinson himself.

Therefore, Duke William of Normandy emerged victorious and in the wake of the battle a new age was brought about in England, namely that of the Normans through their Norman conquest, paving as such the way towards the High Middle Ages, leaving the Early Middle Ages behind, introducing knights, more strongholds/castles, new laws (many which were discriminatory against the native Anglo-Saxons), and the Old French language as the court and nobility language in England.

Duke William of Normandy became William the Conqueror and was crowned on Christmas Day in 1066, making this day one of the most important dates in both English and European medieval history.

Historical map depicting the context of the Battle of Hastings and the Battle of Stamford Bridge earlier on (note the mounted Norman knight to the left with his kite shield and spear). Image source: Commons Wikimedia

The mounted Norman knights would eventually prove very efficient and victorious over the Anglo-Saxon housecarls (essentially also Scandinavian troops introduced in England by Danish King Cnut the Great as occupation force earlier on in the first part of the 11th century). The surviving Norman troops would continue their triumphal march after the end of the battle towards London where their leader, Duke William of Normandy would be crowned King of England on Christmas Day in 1066.

The death of King Harold Godwinson of England, the last Anglo-Saxon king of the country, as depicted on the famous Bayeux Tapestry. Image source: Commons Wikimedia

In conclusion, the main implications of the Battle of Hastings were the following ones:

• The death of Harold Godwinson meant the end of the Anglo-Saxon rulership over medieval England
• The Battle of Hastings also mostly marked the end of the Viking Age (and, at large, the end of the Early Middle Ages as well), though the Viking period lingered on for several additional decades in the near future both in Scandinavia as well as overseas in the Norse colonies established by the Norwegian Vikings in the North Atlantic Ocean (i.e. in the Faroe Islands , Iceland , Greenland , and North America in Vinland or present-day Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada)
• The Battle of Hastings marked the beginning of Norman rule in medieval England, and, by extension, later on also in Ireland
• The Norman conquest included (but was not limited to) a harsh, ruthless rulership wherein the Anglo-Saxons would be subdued by the Norman conquerors , their properties overly taxed or confiscated, a strong military rule with many strongholds/castles built throughout the kingdom, the famous forest laws (hence the legend of Robin Hood as well), the introduction of the French language as the language of the nobility/aristocracy
• Internal family feuds (at a smaller level) between Harold Godwinson (Harold the Saxon) and his brother Tostein, on the one hand, and at a broader level, between the Anglo-Saxons (of mixed northern German and Danish descent) and the Norwegians on the one hand as well as the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans (an ethnic mixture of Norse and French) on the other hand, all of them being, more or less, related Germanic peoples. Also, if the Norwegians did not directly conquer England through their King Harald Hardråde, as the Danes previously did, establishing the Danelaw in the process, they indirectly did so through the Normans (who were partly Norwegian by descent) and were sort of avenged by William the Conqueror, if you will
• A date which changed English history as we know it forever and came with the Norman conquest, for both good and bad for the English people and England

Bibliography and external links

• The Viking Hondbók by Kjersti Egerdahl, pages 133–134
• Encyclopædia Britannica online
• Istoria: Enciclopedie pentru întreaga familie, Teora publishing house (in Romanian), page 123/alternatively known in the English-speaking world as the Kingfisher History Encyclopædia
• Simon Schama’s BBC TV Series historical documentaries ‘A History of Britain’, namely episode 2 entitled ‘Conquest!’: https://watchdocumentaries.com/a-history-of-britain/
• The context of the Battle of Hastings and the earlier Battle of Stamford Bridge as depicted in popular culture through the real-time historical strategy video game Age of Empires II: The Conquerors expansion pack: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3p9NPjixV1A
• Slaget ved Hastings on www.wikipedia.no (in Norwegian Bokmål)
• Harald Hardråde on www.wikipedia.no (in Norwegian Bokmål)

You can also download my academic essay in the course ‘The History of the British Isles’ here .

P.S. Not that I would like to be braggadocious (far from it, in point of fact), but I scored a 10/10 with this at my recent history exam. You might ask yourself however (and rightfully so), what’s the moral of the story? Well, the moral of the story is that playing Age of Empires II from your teenage up until your young adulthood eventually pays off very well when you want to successfully pursue your higher education.

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• Icelandic saga database - a great online database of Icelandic sagas in multiple languages
• Heimskringla.no - the largest website on Norse mythology and Norse history
• The Viking Network - a Norwegian website on Vikings and Norse history
• Hurstwic.org - an informative and educational website on the Viking Age as well as the history and culture of the Norsemen
• Vikingeskibsmuseet.dk - The website of the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, Denmark
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• Povești săsești (i.e. Transylvanian Saxon stories) - a website on Transylvanian Saxon culture and history
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Essay on Battle Of Hastings

Students are often asked to write an essay on Battle Of Hastings in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Battle Of Hastings

The battle of hastings.

The Battle of Hastings took place in 1066. It was a fight between the English and the Normans. The English were led by King Harold II, while the Normans were led by William, the Duke of Normandy. This battle is very important in history.

Why the Battle Happened

The battle happened because of a fight for the English throne. When Edward the Confessor, the king of England, died, he didn’t have a child to become king. Harold II took the throne, but William of Normandy also wanted to be king. So, they fought.

The battle took place near Hastings, in England. The English soldiers fought on foot while the Normans had horses. The Normans pretended to run away, then turned and attacked when the English followed. This trick won them the battle.

After the Battle

After the battle, William became the king of England. He is known as William the Conqueror. The battle changed England a lot. It brought new laws, languages, and ways of life. This is why the Battle of Hastings is so important in history.

250 Words Essay on Battle Of Hastings

The start of the battle.

The Battle of Hastings took place on October 14, 1066. It was a fight between the English army, led by King Harold II, and the Norman-French army, led by Duke William II of Normandy.

The Reason for the Battle

King Edward of England had died without a child. Harold, Edward’s brother-in-law, took the throne. But, William of Normandy also claimed the throne. This led to the battle.

The Day of the Battle

The English army stood on a hill, forming a shield wall. The Normans attacked uphill, but the English defense was strong. The battle lasted all day, with both sides fighting bravely.

The Turning Point

A rumor spread that William had been killed. To prove it wrong, William lifted his helmet to show his face. This boosted the morale of his army. They broke through the English shield wall and killed King Harold.

The Aftermath

After winning the battle, William became the king of England. This event changed the history of England. It marked the beginning of Norman rule in England.

In conclusion, the Battle of Hastings was a major event in history. It changed who ruled England and had a big impact on the country’s future. Even today, we can see its effects in the English language and culture.

500 Words Essay on Battle Of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings was a very important fight in English history. It happened on October 14, 1066. This battle was fought between the English army, led by King Harold II, and the Norman-French army, led by Duke William of Normandy. The battle was a big event because it changed who was in charge of England.

The Battle of Hastings was fought because of a fight over who should be king. The old King of England, Edward the Confessor, died without children. This left a question about who should be the next king. Harold II, who was English, was chosen. But William of Normandy, who was from France, said that Edward had promised him the throne. So, he decided to fight Harold for the crown.

The battle happened near Hastings, a town in England. The English army was on a hill, and the Norman-French army was at the bottom. The English had a good position, but William’s army was better prepared. They had more types of soldiers, like archers and knights on horses. The battle was fierce and lasted all day.

The Outcome of the Battle

In the end, the Norman-French won. King Harold II was killed. This was a big part of why the English lost. After the battle, William became the new king of England. He is known as William the Conqueror because he won this battle.

The Impact of the Battle

The Battle of Hastings changed England a lot. William brought new ideas and ways of doing things from France. He built many castles and churches. He also made a big survey of who owned what land in England. This is known as the Domesday Book. The battle also led to more fights between England and France in the future.

The Battle of Hastings was a key event in English history. It changed who was in charge and brought new ideas to the country. It is remembered today as a big turning point. Even though it was a long time ago, we still learn about it because of how much it changed England.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Bayanihan
• Essay on Be A Hero When It Comes To Your Safety
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Exemplar essay analysis: Why did William win the Battle of Hastings?

A really useful introduction to essay writing for key stage 3 students in the context of the Norman Conquest. An example essay (on ‘Why did William win the Battle of Hastings?’) is provided, and students are tasked with marking it. Using the hamburger analogy, they look for successful topic sentences, 'meaty' fillings and good concluding explanations. They also have the opportunity to identify weaker points and improve them.

Extract from the essay

The Battle of Hastings took place in 1066 because King Edward had died leaving the English throne without an heir. Harold Godwinson seized the throne but he had two rivals, Harald Hardrada and William of Normandy. William eventually won the battle and the throne of England, and this piece of writing explains why.

One reason that William won was because he was better prepared for the battle than Harold. He had over two weeks to get ready after landing in Pevensey Bay. His men were well fed and rested. Harold, on the other hand, had just fought Harald Hardrada at Stamford Bridge and had to march back down south to fight William. Some of his army had been killed, others were injured, and they were all tired from the long march.

Another major reason that William won the battle was because his army was better than Harold’s. Lots of Harold’s men were just farmers, but all the Norman soldiers had good weapons. This meant that William was in a strong position at the start of the battle.

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The Battle of Hastings ... at Sedlescombe

2016, The Battle of Hastings ... at Sedlescombe

Explains our theory that the Battle of Hastings was fought at Hurst Lane near Sedlescombe. Also explains why we think that the Normans entered England in the Brede estuary, landed on the north bank of the Brede, and camped at Winchelsea. Third Edition: Made less 'folksy' and removed section about alternative battlefields. Second Edition: Improved graphics, changed font, improved readability. Rev 2 updated with survey results from BAG.

Related Papers

Medieval Archaeology

Jeremy Haslam

A model for the development of Hastings immediately prior to the Norman Conquest in 1066 is put forward, which explores the new thesis that a burh or citadel was created on the castle site at Hastings by King AEthelred in c.990 as one element in a possibly systematic defence of southern England against the new Viking invaders. This was associated with the establishment of a mint, and led directly to the development of the town of Hastings from this time, together with a probable port and associated shipbuilding industry. This defended site, provided with defences, a tower-nave church and a monumental gateway, survived to be used by Duke William for two weeks in the autumn of 1066 as his military command centre, in preparation for the battle which made possible his subsequent conquest of England.

Kathleen Tyson

This paper will translate an excerpt from a little-known Latin text produced within living memory of 1066 for the details of the Battle of Hastings’ combat and geography. Quedam Exceptiones de Historia Normannorum et Anglorum (QE) survives as a unique abbreviation of the C redaction of the Gesta Normannorum Ducum (GND). The QE abbreviates the C redaction and adds interpolations, most concerning the FitzOsbern family, which has led to the suggestion that the anonymous scribe was either related to the family or associated with Bishop Osbern FitzOsbern of Exeter. He certainly had an interest in geography, adding the names of rivers, places and topographic features. The text was likely composed at Battle Abbey, being the earliest account of the Norman Conquest to be written there.

Jonathan Starkey

Our analysis of place names from Battle of Hastings contemporary accounts, extracted from our book 'The Battle of Hastings at Sedlescombe'. Draft Rev 2: Fixed some stupid errors. Draft Rev 3: Fixed some broken cross references Draft Rev 4: Added a Table of Contents Draft Rev 5: Fixed an anomalous, and plainly ridiculous, header Draft Rev 6: Added bibliography and tidied up the layout Draft Rev 7: Improved clarity, in part by converting some narrative lists into bullet point lists Draft Rev 8: Improved clarity, in part by standardising the spelling of some place names Draft Rev 9: Improved clarity by moving more stuff into bullet point lists Draft Rev 10: Tidied up some messy explanations Draft Rev 11: More tidying of messy explanations Draft Rev 12: Tidied up Hastingas section Draft Rev 13: Reordered the sections and replaced some Winchelse by Old Winchelsea Draft Rev 15: Fixed some ambiguities Draft Rev 16: Now refer to pefenes ea as Old Pevensey, and switched all references to consonantal u to v, to reduce confusion about pronounciation

Stephen Morillo

Ed. and introduction. Boydell and Brewer, 1996. The file is the Introduction, which discusses Hastings within the concept of "decisive battles" and then outlines primary and secondary sources included in the book and narrates the main stages of the battle with a set of author-created maps.

1066 in Perspective, ed. David Bates

John Gillingham

Transactions in GIS

Christopher Macdonald Hewitt

Michael K . Lawson

This is an updated pdf edition of the second edition of my book on the battle of Hastings published in 2003 and now out of print. It is regarded, at least by some, as the definitive academic treatment of the battle.

Medieval Archaeology 65.1

Paginated version of paper already uploaded in draft form. Concerns the strategic and landscape context of the battle of Hastings in 1066.

Djalma Bina

Historical Geography

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The Battle of Hastings 1066

You don’t have to be a history major to take an interest in cool historical events. The battle of Hastings warrants plenty of attention from any history enthusiast out there, including our write my essay service. However, if you actually are a history major, there is no way you won’t run into this battle somewhere along the way of your studies.

It is a complex and layered topic that you can pour hours of research into. A lot of professors out there are of the same opinion. And that’s why they love to give their students plenty of assignments on this subject. So, you will have to get to know this event better in any case - why not start now? Once you get into it, you might just find it more fun than you initially expected. 

Battle of Hastings 1066, Start

The backdrop for this epic showdown is the passing of Edward the Confessor - the king of England. Many writing services put their effort into researching the complex topic of Edward’s inheritance. He had no children and, thus, no direct successors to his throne. 

Fortunately, there wasn’t a lack of people eager to inherit his position. The nobility of England as well as some surrounding countries have searched for an excuse to claim the crown. Three were able to find such an excuse and muster enough swords to enforce it.

Harold Godwinson being closer than others to the crown proclaimed himself king on the very day Edward the Confessor died. But once the word spread out, more contenders for the throne emerged: William the Bastard - the duke of Normandy - and Harald Hardrada - the king of Norway.

The battle of Hastings 1066 took place during this crisis of succession and effectively put an end to it. And the aftermath of this battle has shaped England as we know it today.

Battle of Hastings Facts

Any history essay writer will tell you that the 1066 battle of Hastings itself was long overdue. Once William heard that Godwinson had stolen the title he intended to rightfully usurp, he sent an envoy to politely ask for the crown back. After getting a negative answer he gathered his men and set off for London intending to settle this business with good old violence.

Unfortunately, he was unable to get to England from the mainland due to unfavorable winds. So, the two armies sat on the opposite sides of the channel awkwardly, waiting for something to happen. This went on for quite a while until Godwinson and his men got bored and went home to care for their fields. 

Naturally, after they left the wind changed, allowing William to cross the channel and start ransacking the coastal villages. It's near one of such villages that William’s army met with the returning Godwinson. Let’s talk a bit about the leaders of these two armies.

Harold Godwinson

Harold Godwinson was the de facto ruler of England at the time the battle of Hastings 1066 took place. Although he had a lot of influence in the country and the support of the nobility, he wasn’t a descendant of the previous king. 

Yet, he was much closer to the king than all of his blood relatives and was already serving as his close advisor. That made him the perfect candidate to take the crown. 

Despite the way the politics worked, there were plenty of other people who felt like they were denied their right to the throne because of Godwinson. Those complex political games may become a reason why you might want to get the help of an essay writing service to get to the bottom of it. 

William the Conqueror

William the Conqueror was the duke of neighboring Normandy. He was a very influential person and had good relations with King Edward to the point where he was (allegedly) promised that he would inherit the throne of England after King Edward dies. Moreover, Harold Godwinson pledged his allegiance to William before this ordeal happened.

Whether all these things had any substantial weight for them when it came to the claim on the throne is debatable. The topic is certainly obscure enough to buy essay online to figure it out. But it didn’t really matter as William decided to gather his troops and sail to England anyways after getting the blessing of the church.

William of Normandy Battle

When William the Conqueror landed in south England, Harold Godwinson was celebrating his victory over Harald Hardrada. He considered staying in London to wait for William’s advance. But it was ultimately decided to march and meet William’s forces in an anglo saxons battle after news of William burning down the coastal villages reached Godwinson.

So, Godwinson gathered his troops and marched south. The two armies met just north of Hastings with Godwinson taking an advantageous position on top of the hill. The battle began early the next day and ended in Godwinson’s defeat with him being killed in the process.

How Long the Battle of Hastings Last

Historical records show that the 1066 battle of Hastings occurred on the 14th of October 1066. It started at about 9 in the morning and lasted the whole day until dusk. 

It does seem unusually long even for a medieval battle. But we have to consider the sheer scale of this encounter. A huge number of troops clashed in what resembled more of a siege scenario with Godwinson holding the hill and William trying to take it by sending wave after wave of soldiers up there.

Who Fought in the Battle of Hastings

The army compositions were pretty standard for the time of the 1066 battle of Hastings. Archers, infantry, as well as cavalry, were present in both armies. William’s men were mostly normans while Harold Godwinson obviously brought his Anglo-Saxon conscripts and nobility. Both armies mostly consisted of peasants with mercenaries sprinkled in. Commanding positions were reserved for nobles.

Who Did William the Conqueror Defeat at the Battle of Hastings?

The victory didn’t come easy to William the Conqueror in the battle of Hastings 1066. Harold Godwinson held an advantageous position on the top of the hill. The ascend was exhausting to the point where even cavalry attacks didn’t have much effect.

But after countless unsuccessful attempts to take the hill, William’s front line turned around and retreated for reasons unknown to this day. The defenders thought that they had won and pursued the retreating footmen downhill, abandoning their ranks. This has allowed William’s reserves to counter charge and make short work of the now disorganized enemy forces.

Why the Battle of Hastings Was Important

The battle of Hastings 1066 was very important to England as were the events surrounding it. Not because of the power struggle - kings were replaced fairly regularly back in those tumultuous times. The thing that gave it so much historical significance was the doors from the mainland to the isles the 1066 battle of Hastings has opened.

With the victory over the Anglo-Saxon king, William has effectively started a huge cultural merger. And we can see the consequences of that process to this day. It has affected the architecture as well as the language and marked the beginning of a new era in the history of England.

William's Battle Force, Battle of Hastings

The scale of the battle of Hastings was pretty impressive. William’s battle force consisted of about seven to twelve thousand soldiers of infantry and cavalry. They were facing an (literally) uphill battle against about five to thirteen thousand people on Godwinson’s side. 

The exact number is hard to estimate as historical records can sometimes be unreliable. But even by the most modest calculations, it was a pretty big battle. You might decide to order essay if you want a more precise estimation.

Battle of Fulford, the Battle of Hastings 1066

But what happened to the third king that tried to claim the throne of England? Harald Hardrada was dealt with way before the battle of Hastings started. The battle of Fulford was one of his few victories that he managed to achieve at the beginning of his northern invasion. And although it would be super exciting to see a real full-blown Viking invasion, he got defeated and killed by Harold Godwinson’s forces shortly after the battle of Fulford.

What Happened After the Battle of Hastings

As it goes, a sudden change of management didn’t sit well with most of the country’s nobility. So, William had to spend the next few years on an exhaustive campaign, quelling revolts all around his newly conquered lands. The campaign was successful in solidifying William’s rule. After it was finished, the changes he intended to introduce got more traction. 

Anglo-Saxon nobility was replaced by William’s Norman friends who introduced the wonders of Norman architecture by creating some of the most impressive sites that have been attracting tourists to this day. 

Battle of Hastings Summary

The 1066 battle of Hastings was a pretty interesting historical event. Of course, there were plenty of other even more epic battles like the battle of Thermopylae or the fields of Verdun. But few can rival this particular encounter when it comes to the sheer cultural impact.

It is hard to overestimate the importance of the chain of events the 1066 battle of Hastings triggered. And if you enjoy looking into these sorts of things, you might want to write essays for money in the future. Today, it’s easier than ever as we have the opportunity to witness this domino effect that the events of the past have. That is the beauty of studying history.

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The Battle Of Hastings (Essay Sample) 2023

The battle of hastings.

In 1066 October 14th the battle of hastings was fought  between an English army under the leadership of Anglo Saxon king Harold and the Norman French army of the duke of Normandy,William.starting the  Norman conquest of England, it took about eleven kilometer northwest of hasting, close to the present day town-battle .the Noman took home victory. The back ground of or what transpired to the battle was the death of the king Edward the confessor who was childless in the year 1066.it is because of this death that several people came to claim the throne. Harald claimed the throne and shortly he was given the crown after the death of Edward. This did not last for long as herald was overturned by his brother; William. This essay seeks to describe how the event in the battle began and how the battle of hasting is still recalled

Duke, of Normandy, Harold Godwinson, and earl of Wessex plus there army fought at a place called hasting. This battle did not take long because after 9 hour the battle was over. All this was to claim the throne of England. Unknown Numbers of men were killed in the battle but at the end William killed Harold and won the war. This enabled him take the throne of England. The battle of hasting was won by William because of various reasons, one, William had belter skills at that war this is seen when Harold put his powerful army on a hill but William was full of enough power and determination to kill and finish the war. William managed to strengthen his army by persuading the strong French noble to fight for him during battle as he promised them that he will give the land if hewins the war.This gave William a breakthrough to his battle.While Harold was busy in the battle with his enemy Harald Hardrada, William was successfully preparing his army for war and forced Harold into it hence managing to clinch the victory. At the battle William assures his army that he is ok by removing the helmet. This gave strength to the army. Harold made a mistake by following the army of William at the time they started evacuating. William used this opportunity to finish most of the soldiers and since he had directed that arrows should be focused above the shield, they got an advantage to kill some of the soldiers. Harold did not allow his soldier to at least take some rest after the war but instead he went to war directly. The battle of hasting turned to a horrible event since men lost their lives in the process. The Victory goes to the William side because William Had a well-established strategy of winning. The winds changed the direction allowing William to fully prepare the army. Harold is disadvantaged in this process because he was not lucky enough. All this happened due to strategy of winning and using Harold’s mistakes and weakness to win. Although Harold took professional soldiers to the war but William had a power army armored with horses and strong rods which acted as an advantage to William.Due to all this preparation and advantages of the wind and tricks, William managed to put an arrow through Harold’s eye and gave him the victory. William claimed the throne and established his rule in the England.

In conclusion the battle of hasting is a battle that has seen fights arise due to the death of the king.as a result many claimed the throne which later emerged to a war. Harold took the throne but was later overturned by his brother William. William strategies his tactics in the battle and finally he claimed the thrown after a big preparation of the battle. The battle of Hastings was mainly on the throne and to have power over England.

Young men in violent parts of Philadelphia, Chicago die from guns at a higher rate than US troops in the heat of battle

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Boston College

Disclosure statement

Alex Knorre does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Mass shootings tend to dominate the debate over gun violence – but they accounted for just 3% of all firearm homicides in the United States in 2021.

The vast majority of gun homicides are murders that happen in an extremely concentrated number of neighborhoods – places where the rate of gun deaths rivals war zones.

As a scholar of gun violence and victimization in the United States, I study and publish research on the geographic and demographic concentration of shootings, and I’m always searching for new perspectives to help people understand this crisis.

Concentrated disadvantage

Shootings happen over and over in the same locations. About half take place in just 1% to 5% of the land area in U.S. cities – in other words, in a tiny percentage of the nation’s homes, stores, parks and street corners.

These same neighborhoods tend to suffer from what criminologists call concentrated disadvantage – an unsavory mix of high crime rates, illegal drug markets, poverty, limited educational and economic opportunities, and residential instability. Cumulatively, these factors decrease the residents’ ability to maintain public order and safety in the ways that safer neighborhoods do informally by confronting violent behavior or supervising teenagers.

Kids who grow up in these neighborhoods suffer the long-lasting repercussions of exposure to violence , such as high levels of stress and trauma that dampen educational attainment and result in decreased cognitive ability.

The demographics of these neighborhoods means that both victims and perpetrators of shootings are disproportionately young Black men . Young Black men represented 93.9% of firearm-related homicide victims in Chicago and 79.3% of gun homicides in Philadelphia – where young Hispanic men make up another 12.9%. Homicides disproportionately affect the young largely because men ages 15 to 25 are more likely to engage in delinquent and criminal behavior, a phenomenon known as the age-crime curve .

How bad is it? For some young men, it can be safer to be in the U.S. military at war than living at home in the most violent neighborhoods of Philadelphia and Chicago.

How we did this work

This finding comes from a study my co-authors, Brandon Del Pozo and Aaron Chalfin , and I did to compare shooting rates in Philadelphia, Chicago, New York and Los Angeles with casualty rates of U.S. military personnel during the recent campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Our paper is published in JAMA Network Open, an open-source medical journal, and is freely available to read .

We first collected all publicly available city-level data on shooting deaths, including the time, exact place and information about the victim. Our study focused on Philadelphia, New York, Los Angeles and Chicago because they were the largest American cities with public data available. However, gun homicides happen everywhere , with notable rates of gun homicides in St. Louis, Missouri; Baltimore; New Orleans; Detroit and Cleveland.

In military zones

For the military casualties, we relied on the estimates from studies of the mortality of U.S. soldiers at war in Afghanistan and Iraq .

The Afghan War was deadlier, with 395 deaths of U.S. combatants per 100,000 people per year, compared with 330 in Iraq. We used the higher rate from the Afghan War as our reference, setting its value as 1 and expressing the homicide rate in other places in relationship to this benchmark.

How places compare

The most violent ZIP code in Philadelphia is 19132 in North Philadelphia, which includes parts of Strawberry Mansion and the blocks further north and east. The violence of these city streets was captured by sociologist Elijah Anderson in his ethnographic study “ Code of the Street ,” published in 2000.

A young man living in this ZIP code had 1.91 times more annual risk of getting killed with a firearm than a U.S. soldier deployed to Afghanistan for a comparable amount of time.

During 2020 and 2021, this ZIP code was home to about 2,500 young men. Thirty-seven were killed in gun homicides.

A similar calculation for the most violent neighborhood of Chicago, an area around Garfield Park with the ZIP code 60624, yields statistics that are even grimmer. Young men living there were 3.23 times more likely to die from a bullet than U.S. service members deployed to Afghanistan. Sixty-six young men were shot dead during 2020 and 2021.

Moreover, survivors of this violence bear the burden of it for the whole time they live in these neighborhoods. In contrast, the average deployment is less than 12 months.

Complicating the narrative

Research papers like ours can raise many “yeah but” questions. Answering them can better help us understand the limitations of our study.

For example, many service members do not engage in active combat. This fact made our research team wonder if the inclusion of data from personnel in safer support roles was skewing our data, so we specifically looked at the casualties of one U.S. brigade combat team that was heavily engaged during the Iraq War.

The brigade had a casualty rate 1.71 times higher than our benchmark. That means that members of the brigade were still safer than male youth in the most violent area of Philadelphia (with a casualty rate of 1.91 times higher) and Chicago (3.23 times higher).

It is also worth noting that we studied two particularly violent years in U.S. cities. 2020 saw a record increase in homicide rates . That number stayed high in 2021, before decreasing slightly in 2022 .

Lastly, on a more positive note, gun mortality in New York and Los Angeles was significantly lower than in Philadelphia and Chicago, and much lower than the risks faced in war.

Faster care could help

Our research also showed that soldiers who are injured on the battlefield are less likely to die from their wounds than people shot in the American cities we studied.

Surviving a wound is more likely if medical help is immediate. This suggests two ideas to decrease shooting deaths: train more police officers to provide urgent basic medical treatment to the victims of gun violence and add capacity to trauma centers near violent neighborhoods .

• Gun violence
• Philadelphia
• Black men's health

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