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Research Paper vs. Research Article: What’s the Difference?

Research papers and research articles are two different forms of academic writing, with distinct characteristics. Although they share some similarities in terms of format and purpose, there are important distinctions between the two types that should be understood by students who wish to write either form effectively. This article will explain the differences between a research paper and a research article, outlining their unique features and applications. Furthermore, it will offer guidance on how best to approach each type when crafting an effective piece for scholarly consumption.

I. Introduction to Research Paper vs. Research Article

Ii. defining a research paper and a research article, iii. comparative analysis of structure, content, and writing styles between the two types of scholarly documents, iv. pros & cons of conducting either a formal or an informal study, v. concluding remarks: how to choose between the different approaches when completing academic assignments, vi. limitations in comparing these texts as distinct forms of scholarly outputs, vii. future directions for understanding similarities & differences across all kinds of academic writings.

Research Paper vs. Research Article

The academic world is full of a variety of different writing styles, each with its own unique purpose and goals. Two particularly important forms are the research paper and the research article. Each has their own distinct features that make them uniquely suited to certain tasks within academia – let’s take a closer look at what sets them apart from one another!

A research paper , as you might expect, presents in-depth analysis on an issue or topic using evidence gathered through primary sources such as field work, laboratory experiments, surveys, interviews etc., whereas a research article , typically published in scholarly journals or online publications like websites & blogs addresses specific findings derived from secondary sources like books or other papers related to said subject matter. The former requires more effort & dedication from the author due to it being time consuming & involving careful structuring along with rigorous citation format adherence; while the latter focuses mainly on providing succinct yet comprehensive overviews regarding topics which have already been extensively discussed by experts in depth previously elsewhere – taking into account present day developments/breakthroughs if necessary before finally offering opinionated conclusions pertaining to said subjects.

Exploring the Characteristics of a Research Paper and Article

Research paper:
Research article:

A research paper is an extended form of writing that presents and supports an argument on a particular topic. It provides evidence for the opinion or idea in the form of facts, data, analysis, opinions from authorities in specific fields etc. The objective is to make original claims based on careful evaluation of information available on a given subject. It requires significant effort as one needs to be able to distill complex topics into concisely articulated points that are supported by solid evidence.

On the other hand, a research article is usually written for publication either online or printed through journals or magazines. These articles have been peer-reviewed which means they follow certain academic standards established within their discipline while presenting factual conclusions related to ongoing debates and arguments raised by preceding works. They generally provide new insight into existing knowledge rather than build upon it using more primary sources such as surveys and experiments conducted independently by authors themselves.

Comparison of Structure, Content and Writing Styles between Research Papers and Articles For the purpose of scholarly communication, both research papers and articles play a vital role. Though there is no hard-and-fast rule that distinguishes them from each other in terms of structure or content, they usually differ significantly in their style. In comparison to research papers, articles typically have a much smaller length requirement. They can range anywhere from 1 page to as many as 30 pages depending on the journal guidelines – making them more accessible for readers who are seeking concise summaries with quick insights into topics. On the contrary, research papers tend to be longer documents that delve deeper into an issue by providing extensive background information; detailed analysis; arguments bolstered by sources such as peer-reviewed journals or interviews; conclusion sections tying up any loose ends etc.

Research Papers: Longer documents which provide extensive coverage about an issue.
Articles: Short pieces covering high level overviews without going too deep.

When it comes down to writing styles used for these two types of documents – Authors generally follow formal academic language while creating research paper whereas article writers tend to use more casual tones in order to appeal wider audience groups. Additionally authors will often adopt conversational elements like anecdotes when crafting articles so that readers can get better understanding about specific points being discussed within context.

Formal vs. Informal Study: A Critical Analysis The choice between conducting a formal or informal study may be difficult for researchers due to the advantages and drawbacks of each approach. Depending on their research topic, scientists must carefully weigh up the pros and cons before deciding which course of action is most suitable for them.

A formal study , as conducted in many research papers and articles, often requires more time-consuming effort from researchers than an informal one because it involves using specific methodologies such as surveys, interviews, experiments etc., gathering quantitative data that needs to be statistically analyzed by employing reliable statistical methods. On the other hand, a formal investigation allows researchers to obtain objective information from well-defined populations about predetermined variables through systematic procedures that can yield precise results with larger external validity – making it possible to make generalizations beyond those studied in this particular case.

Conversely, an informal study , also known as participant observation or field work requires less structured approaches where collecting qualitative data is usually achieved via conversations with informants instead of strict instrumentations; thus allowing greater interaction between researcher and subjects resulting in increased understanding of contextually situated phenomena within its natural setting rather than artificially created ones used in laboratories’ studies – leading to deeper insights into complex social processes . Also noteworthy is its lower financial cost when compared against highly expensive equipment needed for undertaking large scale scientific investigations.. However despite yielding valuable first person accounts which might not have been obtained elsewhere , such observations are sometimes criticized due challenges related accuracy given reliance on subjective interpretations while generating evidence without significant use of control variables .

Selecting the Optimal Approach for Academic Assignments When it comes to completing academic assignments, there are various approaches one can take. In order to ensure success and optimal results, it is important that students consider all of their options carefully before making a choice.

Research papers often require extensive research and careful consideration when selecting an approach. Using primary sources such as books or peer-reviewed articles may be more reliable in comparison to secondary sources such as websites or blogs which are usually less credible due to lack of credibility checks by professionals within the field. Additionally, data analysis can help strengthen arguments while also adding clarity to any work produced during the course of completion; however, understanding how best utilize this analytical tool effectively requires additional practice and experience on behalf of the student undertaking it. For research articles, detailed knowledge about particular topics may lead towards better outcomes but general familiarity with content areas is sufficient enough for success here too. The key lies in being able identify appropriate methods quickly through use critical thinking skills coupled with clear objectives pertaining specifically each assignment itself at hand prior its execution – this way mistakes are avoided thus delivering quality results each time..

Comparative Analyses of Scholarly Outputs

Scholarly output, such as research papers and articles, are subject to scrutiny when attempting to make comparisons.
Due to the differences between these two types of outputs, it can be difficult or impossible to achieve a true comparison.

Comparing scholarly outputs is not always possible due to their distinct forms. Research papers typically have more depth than an article on the same topic which may mean that even though both documents might discuss similar topics in some aspects they will differ greatly in others. Furthermore, the format of each type of document contributes further complexities; for example, a research paper is often much longer and requires extensive background information before any conclusions can be drawn while articles tend towards presenting results with little room left for interpretation. The style used by authors also adds difficulty; many times research papers include complex jargon necessary for understanding specific points whereas an article strives for simplicity so its target audience can comprehend all material without excessive effort. These limitations prevent proper analysis from being done since one piece could provide certain details while another provides only bits related thereto leading readers into confusion if attempting to compare them directly despite intentions otherwise. It then becomes clear that academic pieces should instead remain separate entities rather than compared against each other since doing so would lead only too frustration given current constraints therein found.

Exploring the Similarities and Differences Between Academic Writings

As our understanding of academic writings continues to evolve, so too must our appreciation for both their similarities and differences. From research papers to research articles, it is important to consider how each one contributes unique insight into a given topic or issue.

The research paper and research article may look similar on the surface, but upon closer inspection one can see significant differences in their format, purpose, and audience. The key distinctions between these two forms of written work are scope of content covered, type of analysis used to draw conclusions or develop knowledge from data or evidence presented, and intended readership. Ultimately, understanding the essential characteristics that distinguish a research paper from a research article is beneficial for anyone who produces such texts as it will help them craft an effective product that aligns with its desired purposes.

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Types of journal articles

It is helpful to familiarise yourself with the different types of articles published by journals. Although it may appear there are a large number of types of articles published due to the wide variety of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the following types; Original Research, Review Articles, Short reports or Letters, Case Studies, Methodologies.

Original Research:

This is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish full reports of data from research. It may be called an Original Article, Research Article, Research, or just Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable for many different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections.

Short reports or Letters:

These papers communicate brief reports of data from original research that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate further research in the field. As they are relatively short the format is useful for scientists with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full Original Research manuscript. These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications .

Review Articles:

Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline after invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles.

TIP: If you would like to write a Review but have not been invited by a journal, be sure to check the journal website as some journals to not consider unsolicited Reviews. If the website does not mention whether Reviews are commissioned it is wise to send a pre-submission enquiry letter to the journal editor to propose your Review manuscript before you spend time writing it.

Case Studies:

These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case Studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur. This type of study is often used in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies.

Methodologies or Methods

These articles present a new experimental method, test or procedure. The method described may either be completely new, or may offer a better version of an existing method. The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently available.

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Journal Article vs Research Paper: Difference and Comparison

A journal article presents original research findings in a concise format, focusing on a specific topic within a broader field. It undergoes peer review before publication, ensuring quality and validity. On the other hand, a research paper is a comprehensive document that may include multiple experiments, analyses, and discussions, aimed at contributing to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

Key Takeaways A journal article is a shorter scholarly writing published in a specific academic journal. A research paper is a more extended, comprehensive academic writing presenting original research. Journal articles are more focused and present specific findings, while research papers are broader and present a more comprehensive study.

Journal Article vs Research Paper

A journal article is a piece of published work that presents the research findings and may include analysis, remark, or discussion. A research paper is a detailed account of the research that may be published or unpublished and includes an introduction, literature review, methods, results, and conclusion.

Comparison Table

What is journal article.

A journal article is a scholarly publication that presents the findings of original research, analysis, or review within a particular academic field. These articles serve as fundamental units of scholarly communication, disseminating new knowledge, theories, and insights to the academic community and beyond. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

Content and Structure

1 Abstract: A journal article begins with an abstract, a concise summary of the study’s objectives, methods, results, and conclusions. The abstract provides readers with a quick overview of the article’s content and findings.

2 Introduction: Following the abstract, the introduction sets the context for the study by reviewing relevant literature, identifying gaps or controversies in existing knowledge, and stating the research objectives or hypotheses.

3 Methods: The methods section outlines the procedures, materials, and techniques used to conduct the study. It should provide sufficient detail to enable replication of the experiment or analysis by other researchers.

4 Results: This section presents the findings of the study, using tables, figures, or graphs to illustrate data. Authors describe the results objectively, without interpretation or speculation.

5 Discussion: In the discussion section, authors interpret the results in light of the study’s objectives and existing literature. They may address the implications of their findings, suggest future research directions, and discuss limitations or potential sources of bias.

6 Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the study and highlights their significance. It may also reiterate the study’s contribution to the field and offer final reflections or recommendations.

Peer Review Process:

1 Submission: Authors submit their articles to scholarly journals for publication consideration, adhering to the journal’s guidelines and formatting requirements.

2 Peer Review: Upon submission, the journal’s editor assigns the manuscript to peer reviewers—experts in the field—who evaluate the article’s quality, originality, methodology, and significance. Peer review helps ensure the rigor and credibility of the research.

3 Revision: Based on the reviewers’ feedback, authors may revise their article to address any concerns or criticisms raised. This iterative process of revision and reevaluation continues until the article meets the journal’s standards for publication.

4 Acceptance and Publication: If the article meets the journal’s criteria, it is accepted for publication and undergoes final editing and formatting. Once published, the article becomes part of the journal’s archive and is accessible to readers worldwide.

What is Research Paper?

A research paper is a comprehensive document that presents the findings, analysis, and interpretations of original research conducted by the author(s) within a specific academic discipline. These papers serve as a means for scholars to contribute new knowledge, theories, and insights to their respective fields. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

1. Content and Structure

1 Introduction: The introduction of a research paper provides background information on the topic, reviews relevant literature, and outlines the research objectives or hypotheses. It establishes the context for the study and justifies its significance.

2 Methods: The methods section describes the procedures, materials, and techniques employed in the research. It should provide sufficient detail to enable other researchers to replicate the study and verify its results.

3 Results: This section presents the empirical findings of the research, using tables, figures, or graphs to illustrate data. Authors report their observations or measurements objectively, without interpretation or speculation.

4 Discussion: In the discussion section, authors interpret the results in light of the research questions or hypotheses, comparing them to previous studies and addressing their implications. They may also explore alternative explanations, limitations of the study, and avenues for future research.

5 Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the research and highlights their significance. It may reiterate the study’s contribution to the field, offer final reflections, and suggest directions for further inquiry.

Characteristics and Scope

1 Original Research: Unlike review papers or essays, research papers are based on original research conducted by the authors. They contribute new data, insights, or interpretations to the academic discourse.

2 Rigorous Methodology: Research papers adhere to rigorous scientific or scholarly methodologies, employing systematic approaches to data collection, analysis, and interpretation. They prioritize objectivity, validity, and reliability in their findings.

3 Length and Complexity: Research papers vary in length and complexity, depending on the scope of the study and the requirements of the target publication venue. They may range from concise reports of preliminary findings to comprehensive analyses of multi-year research projects.

4 Contribution to Knowledge: Research papers aim to advance knowledge within their respective fields by addressing research gaps, testing hypotheses, or generating new theories. They contribute to the cumulative growth of scholarship through the dissemination of original research findings.

Main Differences Between Journal Article and Research Paper

Journal articles focus on a specific aspect or finding within a broader topic.
Research papers provide a comprehensive analysis of a research project, including multiple experiments, analyses, and discussions.
Journal articles are concise, containing essential findings, methods, and interpretations in a limited space.
Research papers tend to be longer and more detailed, offering exhaustive exploration of the research topic, methodology, results, and implications.
Journal articles undergo peer review by experts in the field before publication, ensuring quality and validity.
Research papers may or may not undergo formal peer review, depending on the publication venue or academic requirements.
Journal articles present findings objectively, without extensive interpretation or speculation.
Research papers include in-depth interpretation of results, discussion of implications, and exploration of potential limitations or biases.
Journal articles contribute to the scholarly conversation by presenting new findings, analyses, or reviews within a specific topic area.
Research papers advance knowledge within a field by offering comprehensive analyses, testing hypotheses, or generating new theories through original research.

Difference Between Journal Article and Research Paper

https://gssrr.org/index.php/gssrr/How-to-Publish-Research-Paper
https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-editors/journal-author/types-of-journal-manuscripts/1356
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/research_papers/index.html

Last Updated : 05 March, 2024

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Articles, Books, and . . . ? Understanding the Many Types of Information Found in Libraries

Reference Sources

Academic Journals

Magazines and trade journals, conference papers, technical reports, anthologies.

Documents and Reports
Non-Text Content
Archival Materials

Because of their short length, articles often exclude background info and explanations, so they're usually the last stop in your research process, after you've narrowed down your topic and need to find very specific information.

The main thing to remember about articles is that they're almost always published in some larger work , like a journal, a newspaper, or an anthology. It's those "article containers" that define the types of articles, how you use them, and how you find them.

Articles are also the main reason we have so many databases . The Library Catalog lists everything we own, but only at the level of whole books and journals. It will tell you we have the New York Times, and for what dates, but it doesn't know what articles are in it. Search in UC Library Search using the "Articles, books, and more" scope will search all the databases we subscribe to and some we don't. If you find something we do not own, you can request it on Interlibrary Loan.

Physical Media

While newer journals and magazines are usually online, many older issues are still only available in paper. In addition, many of our online subscriptions explicitly don't include the latest material, specifically to encourage sales of print subscriptions. Older newspapers are usually transferred to microfilm.

Scholarly Sources

The terms academic or scholarly journal are usually synonymous with peer-reviewed , but check the journal's publishing policies to be sure. Trade journals, magazines, and newspapers are rarely peer-reviewed.

Primary or Secondary Sources

In the social sciences and humanities, articles are usually secondary sources; the exceptions are articles reporting original research findings from field studies. Primary source articles are more common in the physical and life sciences, where many articles are reporting primary research results from experiments, case studies, and clinical trials.

Clues that you're reading an academic article

Abstract at beginning
Footnotes or endnotes
Bilbliography or list of references

Articles in academic (peer-reviewed) journals are the primary forum for scholarly communication, where scholars introduce and debate new ideas and research. They're usually not written for laymen, and assume familiarity with other recent work in the field. Journal articles also tend to be narrowly focused, concentrating on analysis of one or two creative works or studies, though they may also contain review articles or literature reviews which summarize recent published work in a field.

In addition to regular articles, academic journals often include book reviews (of scholarly books ) and letters from readers commenting on recent articles.

Clues that you're reading a non -academic article

No abstract, footnotes or endnotes
Decorative photos
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Unlike scholarly journals, magazines are written for a mainstream audience and are not peer-reviewed. A handful of academic journals (like Science and Nature ) blur the line between these two categories; they publish peer-reviewed articles, but combine them with news, opinions, and full-color photos in a magazine-style presentation.

Trade journals are targeted toward a specific profession or industry. Despite the name, they are usually not peer-reviewed. However, they sometimes represent a gray area between popular magazines and scholarly journals. When in doubt, ask your professor or TA whether a specific source is acceptable.

Newspapers as Primary Sources

Though usually written by journalists who were not direct witnesses to events, newspapers and news broadcasts may include quotes or interviews from people who were. In the absence of first-person accounts, contemporary news reports may be the closest thing to a primary source available.

Of all the content types listed here, newspapers are the fastest to publish. Use newspaper articles to find information about recent events and contemporary reports of/reactions to historic events.

News by UCLA Library Last Updated Mar 5, 2024 3454 views this year

Reviews are a type of article that can appear in any of the categories above. The type of publication will usually determine the type of review. Newspapers and magazines review movies, plays, general interest books, and consumer products. Academic journals review scholarly books.

Note that a review is not the same as scholarly analysis and criticism! Book reviews, even in scholarly journals, are usually not peer-reviewed.

Conference papers aren't always published and can be tricky to find . Recent conference papers are often online, along with the PowerPoint files or other materials used in the actual presentation. However, access may be limited to conference participants and/or members of the academic organization which sponsored the conference.

In paper formats, all of the papers from a certain conference may be re-printed in the conference proceedings . Search for Proceedings of the [name of conference] to find what's available, or ask for help from a librarian. But be aware that published proceedings may only include abstracts or even just the name of the presenter and the title of the presentation. This is especially true of poster presentations , which really are large graphic posters (which don't translate well to either printed books or computer monitors).

As the name implies, most technical reports are about research in the physical sciences or engineering. However, there are also technical reports produced in the life and social sciences,

Like conference papers , some technical reports are eventually transformed into academic journal articles , but they may also be released after a journal article to provide supplementary data that didn't fit within the article. Also like conference papers, technical reports can be hard to find , especially older reports which may only be available in microfiche . Ask for help from a librarian!

Anthologies are a cross-over example. They're books that contain articles (chapters). Anthologies may be collections of articles by a single author, or collections of articles on a theme from different authors chosen by an editor. Many anthologies reprint articles already published elsewhere, but some contain original works.

Anthologies are rarely peer-reviewed, but they still may be considered scholarly works, depending on the reputation of the authors and editors. Use the same criteria listed for scholarly books .

Of course, reprints of articles originally published in peer-reviewed journals retain their "scholarly" status. (Note that most style manuals have special rules for citing reprinted works.)

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Last Updated: Mar 1, 2024 10:55 AM
URL: https://guides.library.ucla.edu/content-types

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Expert Commentary

White papers, working papers, preprints, journal articles: What’s the difference?

In this updated piece, we explain the most common types of research papers journalists will encounter, noting their strengths and weaknesses.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License .

by Denise-Marie Ordway, The Journalist's Resource February 25, 2022

This <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org/media/working-papers-research-articles/">article</a> first appeared on <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org">The Journalist's Resource</a> and is republished here under a Creative Commons license.<img src="https://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/cropped-jr-favicon-150x150.png" style="width:1em;height:1em;margin-left:10px;">

This tip sheet, originally published in May 2018, has been updated to include preprint research, a type of research featured often in news coverage of the coronavirus pandemic.

Journalists rely most often on four types of research in their work. White papers, working papers, preprints and peer-reviewed journal articles.

How are they different? And which is best?

Below, we explain each, pointing out its strengths and weaknesses. As always, we urge journalists to use care in selecting any research to ground their coverage and fact-check claims.

Peer-reviewed article

Peer-reviewed research — the kind that appears in academic journals and that we highlight here at The Journalist’s Resource — has undergone a detailed critique by scholars with expertise in the field. While peer-reviewed research is generally the most reliable, journalists should keep in mind that publication in a prestigious journal is no guarantee of quality and that no single university or research organization always does the best research on a given topic.

It is safe to assume, however, that articles published in top-tier journals have been reviewed and given a stamp of approval by a number of accomplished scholars. For journalists who are uncertain, we’ve put together a list of 13 questions to ask to gauge the quality of a research article.

Keep in mind that not everything that appears in a scholarly journal has been peer reviewed. Journals publish various types of content, including book reviews, editorials, letters to the editor and, sometimes, even poetry.

Working paper

This broad category describes research papers that have not been peer reviewed or published in a journal. Working papers can be in various stages of completion. One might be ready for publication in a prestigious journal while another requires significant editing and other changes that could actually alter its main findings. Sometimes, working paper findings are so preliminary, authors will advise against citing their work .

Even so, working papers are a great way for journalists to gain access to new research quickly. The peer-review and publication process can take months to a year or longer, which means that by the time studies get published, their findings are sometimes not as useful or the data are old.

In choosing working papers, journalists should communicate with scholars about the progress of their research and how confident they are in their findings. It’s a good idea to seek corroboration from peer-reviewed research and to ask other researchers for help assessing a study.

A preprint is similar to a working paper in that it has not been vetted through a formal peer-review process. However, preprints tend to be more complete . Also, preprints submitted to public servers such as the Social Science Research Network and the health sciences server medRxiv get a cursory screening before they’re published online for public view.

Preprints, like academic journal articles, are assigned a Digital Object Identifier , or DOI, and become a permanent part of the scientific record.

White paper

A white paper is a report, often compiled by government agencies, businesses and nonprofit organizations, that outlines an issue and often explores possible solutions to a problem. For example, in November 2021, the federal Office of Community Oriented Policing Services released a white paper looking at factors that help or hinder law enforcement recruitment of Black Americans. Earlier in the year, the Advanced Technology Academic Research Center published a white paper on the American Rescue Plan ‘s widespread implications for government agencies.

In the business world, white papers also are used for marketing purposes — to describe a new product or approach, for instance, or diagnose a problem.

While a white paper can help journalists get up to speed quickly on an issue, it’s important to note some white papers advocate a specific position or policy change. Some rely on incomplete research or research that has not been peer reviewed.

Looking for more guidance on writing about research? Check out our tip sheets on covering biomedical research preprints amid the coronavirus and what journalists should know about peer review .

The Journalist’s Resource would like to thank Matthew Baum , the Marvin Kalb professor of global communications and professor of public policy at Harvard Kennedy School, for his help preparing this tip sheet.

About The Author

Denise-Marie Ordway

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Q. What's the difference between a research article (or research study) and a review article?

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Answered By: Priscilla Coulter Last Updated: Jul 29, 2022 Views: 230489

A research paper is a primary source ...that is, it reports the methods and results of an original study performed by the authors . The kind of study may vary (it could have been an experiment, survey, interview, etc.), but in all cases, raw data have been collected and analyzed by the authors , and conclusions drawn from the results of that analysis.

Research papers follow a particular format. Look for:

A brief introduction will often include a review of the existing literature on the topic studied, and explain the rationale of the author's study. This is important because it demonstrates that the authors are aware of existing studies, and are planning to contribute to this existing body of research in a meaningful way (that is, they're not just doing what others have already done).
A methods section, where authors describe how they collected and analyzed data. Statistical analyses are included. This section is quite detailed, as it's important that other researchers be able to verify and/or replicate these methods.
A results section describes the outcomes of the data analysis. Charts and graphs illustrating the results are typically included.
In the discussion , authors will explain their interpretation of their results and theorize on their importance to existing and future research.
References or works cited are always included. These are the articles and books that the authors drew upon to plan their study and to support their discussion.

You can use the library's article databases to search for research articles:

A research article will nearly always be published in a peer-reviewed journal; click here for instructions on limiting your searches to peer-reviewed articles.
If you have a particular type of study in mind, you can include keywords to describe it in your search . For instance, if you would like to see studies that used surveys to collect data, you can add "survey" to your topic in the database's search box. See this example search in our EBSCO databases: " bullying and survey ".
Several of our databases have special limiting options that allow you to select specific methodologies. See, for instance, the " Methodology " box in ProQuest's PsycARTICLES Advanced Search (scroll down a bit to see it). It includes options like "Empirical Study" and "Qualitative Study", among many others.

A review article is a secondary source ...it is written about other articles, and does not report original research of its own. Review articles are very important, as they draw upon the articles that they review to suggest new research directions, to strengthen support for existing theories and/or identify patterns among exising research studies. For student researchers, review articles provide a great overview of the existing literature on a topic. If you find a literature review that fits your topic, take a look at its references/works cited list for leads on other relevant articles and books!

You can use the library's article databases to find literature reviews as well! Click here for tips.

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Scholarly Journals and Popular Magazines: Differences in Research, Review, and Opinion Articles

Where Do I Start?
How Do I Find Peer-Reviewed Articles?
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Research Articles, Reviews, and Opinion Pieces

Scholarly or research articles are written for experts in their fields. They are often peer-reviewed or reviewed by other experts in the field prior to publication. They often have terminology or jargon that is field specific. They are generally lengthy articles. Social science and science scholarly articles have similar structures as do arts and humanities scholarly articles. Not all items in a scholarly journal are peer reviewed. For example, an editorial opinion items can be published in a scholarly journal but the article itself is not scholarly. Scholarly journals may include book reviews or other content that have not been peer reviewed.

Empirical Study: (Original or Primary) based on observation, experimentation, or study. Clinical trials, clinical case studies, and most meta-analyses are empirical studies.

Review Article: (Secondary Sources) Article that summarizes the research in a particular subject, area, or topic. They often include a summary, an literature reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses.

Clinical case study (Primary or Original sources): These articles provide real cases from medical or clinical practice. They often include symptoms and diagnosis.

Clinical trials ( Health Research): Th ese articles are often based on large groups of people. They often include methods and control studies. They tend to be lengthy articles.

Opinion Piece: An opinion piece often includes personal thoughts, beliefs, or feelings or a judgement or conclusion based on facts. The goal may be to persuade or influence the reader that their position on this topic is the best.

Book review: Recent review of books in the field. They may be several pages but tend to be fairly short.

Social Science and Science Research Articles

The majority of social science and physical science articles include

Journal Title and Author
Abstract
Introduction with a hypothesis or thesis
Literature Review
Methods/Methodology
Results/Findings

Arts and Humanities Research Articles

In the Arts and Humanities, scholarly articles tend to be less formatted than in the social sciences and sciences. In the humanities, scholars are not conducting the same kinds of research experiments, but they are still using evidence to draw logical conclusions. Common sections of these articles include:

an Introduction
Discussion/Conclusion
works cited/References/Bibliography

Research versus Review Articles

6 Article types that journals publish: A guide for early career researchers
INFOGRAPHIC: 5 Differences between a research paper and a review paper
Michigan State University. Empirical vs Review Articles
UC Merced Library. Empirical & Review Articles
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Difference between Journal Article and Research Paper

Specific education reading is an important tool that will enhance your academic excellence. To keep excelling, you will need to read relevant articles, papers, documents, and books. Journals, Journal articles, and research papers are important mechanisms for professional and academic learning.

Journal Article Vs. Research Paper

The difference between a journal article and a research paper is that the journal article is well researched and extensive. It is also conceptual and well-suited for the academic audience. Research papers on the other hand focus on a specific viewpoint and substantiate the viewpoint with relevant theories. Research papers require many extensive studies to ensure the viewpoint is fully supported.

Comparison between the Journal Article and the Research Paper

The journal article is an overall publication while a research paper can be cited.
Journal articles are written based on knowledge and experience while research papers require an in-depth study of the specific topic.
Journal articles are short while research papers are long and always ongoing.
You cannot patent a journal article but you can patent a research paper.
While a research paper does not have a specific domain, journal articles have a broader spectrum.
There is an impact rating needed for journal articles while no specific rating is needed for the research paper.

What is a Journal Article?

When publishing a journal article, more than one author can be used to give their specific conclusions. Journal articles are of different natures and they can be experiential. Journal articles can be academic or non-academic.

Journal articles can be presented differently as research papers and on different platforms.

What is a Research Paper?

Writing a research paper can take a lot of time. This is because it involves something that has already been published but needs to be reopened again. The first step to writing a research paper is sitting with the thought and why exactly you want to research it. The research will involve the timeframe, type of data collection method to use, and most importantly, in-depth research.

To write a research paper, you will need to do a literature review. This includes the reading of various case studies, findings, newspapers, all containing the topic of research or question to be answered.

Journal articles are written to show special or enhanced knowledge in a certain field. It is useful to bring understanding to a particular field. Journals cannot be written by just anyone. Instead, they are written by experts. A research paper on the other hand revolves around a particular topic or question. The question may contain other questions within it that need to be researched on, re-found, or re-visited. The research paperwork is done using a specific format and supports every point with tactical findings. In short, a research paper is written to answer a question or get findings of something that was already initially researched and written about.

Journals can be a paper written based on something that is currently trending or new ideologies that could be personal experiences and learnings. Research papers on the other hand are more extensive. They involve a particular topic and questions that can be presented using diagrams, graphs, and case studies.

Due to the level of research needed to write a research paper, a lot of time is needed. The findings need to be factual, totally supporting the topic or question in place. Journal papers on the other hand take a short time. That is, they can be completed within a week. A journal can go to a month but does not take as much time as a research paper.

When an organization, department, or domain writes a research paper, it needs to be patented. What this means is that it cannot be published without due permission. A journal paper on the other hand does not require rights or permissions. It is open for people and can be reviewed, shared, and presented without necessarily touching the copyrights. Journals do not need to be patented.

Writing a journal requires generality and broad visibility. While a journal paper can be a research paper, it does not always apply to be one. A journal’s content can be written within a short period and needs to flow to be understood. A research paper on the other hand needs to have extensive rough work on the side. It is a paper that is written systematically and with relevant citations. A literature review is an important aspect of the research paper. You need to have proof of the data collection method that includes raw data collection, interview transcripts and so much more.

While everything going digital in today’s world and rating is required for everything, a journal article will not require ratings. What journals need are views as the ones most viewed get the best footage. A research paper, being a component of the journal, can be limited as to who gets access to the same. It also does not require ratings but its presentations and findings are what make it known to the audience.

In conclusion, we can see that both the journal papers and research papers have different audiences. That makes them different in terms of research, language used, and the kind of presentation in the end.

It is also good to understand the purpose of both papers. While a journal is mainly open to the masses and does not have restrictions as to who gets access, research papers have their specific audience. This is because it entails answering certain questions that audiences would love to know and discussing certain topics in depth.

As such, it takes a longer time to research and write a research paper than it does to write a journal. A research paper is systematic and requires various citations that help to support your facts. A journal paper on the other hand is writing thoughts and explaining that particular thought in depth.

Research papers require skills in doing research. A journal mostly requires a creative mind.

Difference between Research Paper and Research Article

Research paper and research articles are bits of composing that require inquiry, critical analysis, demonstration and insight of few special abilities from understudies and researchers. This article endeavors to see whether the two terms are synonymous or there is any contrast between the two.

Research paper

Research can be said as activity which is specified much significance in scholastics. Be that as it may, research papers are not only these task papers composed by understudies as those composed by scholars and researchers and also published in different journals are additionally alluded to as research papers.

Research Article

Research article is a bit of composing that have original research thought with the pertinent data and discoveries. A research article is a composing or paper that advises individuals of a way breaking a finding or research with data to bolster the finding.

Research Paper VS Research Article

There is a pattern to allude to academic papers and term papers composed by understudies in schools as a research paper

The articles presented by researchers and scholars with their noteworthy examination are known as research articles.

Research papers composed by the students mostly not take in journals.

Research articles composed by researchers or scholars mostly published in prestigious scientific journals.

A research paper depends on the original research. The sort of research may fluctuate, contingent upon your field or topics that include survey, experiments, questionnaire, interview and so on; yet authors require gathering and investigating raw data and make an original and real study. The research paper will be founded on the investigation and understanding of this raw data.

A research article depends on other different published articles. It is usually not depend on original study. Research articles for the most part condense the current writing on a point trying to clarify the present condition of comprehension on topic.

A research paper can be said as the primary source that means, it studies the techniques and consequences of original study performed by the writers.

A research article can be said as secondary source that means it is composed about different articles, and does not studies actual research of its own.

Importance:

In research paper, every part of this has its own importance. A concise is important in light of the fact that it shows that the writers know about existing literature, and want to add to this presented research definitively. A methods part is usually detailed and it is important in a way that different analysts have the capacity to check and/or duplicate these strategies. A result segment depicts the results of the analysis.

Research articles can be considered very important because they describe upon different articles that they analyze to propose new research bearings, to give powerful support for presented theories or distinguish designs among presented research studies. For understudy analysts, these research articles give an excellent review of presented literature on that topic. In the event that you discover a literature review that can be fit in study, investigate its references/works referred to list for guide on other articles.

From the above article we can conclude that research paper is the primary source whereas research articles are secondary.

17 Comments Already

good article but which of them is more useful when we conduct a research

both. but research paper is more useful.

Nice explanation

There is a little difference but both are different.

Nice but i have a confusion that can a guys of Bachelors level can write Research Papers?

YEs they can if they do research project instead of development project and do something new in their project.

Thank you 😊

do you have something in your mind then please share with us. We will appreciate that.

Though it may be fairly easy to learn to speak English well enough to be understood, learning to write English correctly is very difficult, as this article so clearly illustrates. Though I greatly admire all those who are making an effort to learn another language, like English, as a non-native speaker, it is wrong for these same individuals to assume they can write English well enough to publish articles.

This article is so poorly written that I cannot understand most of it. For instance, the following phrases are utter nonsense: “A research paper can be said as the primary source that means,” — “A concise is important in light of the fact that it shows that . . .” — “A methods part is usually detailed” — “A result segment depicts the results . . .” — “they describe upon different articles that they analyze to propose new research bearings . . . or distinguish designs among presented . .. studies” — “to clarify the present condition of comprehension” — “Research papers and . . . articles require inquiry, critical analysis, demonstration and insight of few special abilities from . . .”

This article also states that “[a] research article . . . is usually not depend (sic) on original study,” then contradicts that in the next sentence with “[r]esearch articles . . . condense the current writing on a point . . .” Most studies these days are current. But, even if a study was conducted 50 years ago, it’s a cardinal rule that one should always use the original source of information rather than relying on the articles of other authors who may have misquoted something from the original study.

Articles like this one do a grave disservice to the viewing and researching public. To present this article as informative is disingenuous. To ask people who are seeking useful information to struggle with reading and trying to make sense of this poor English is so unkind and inconsiderate that I feel compelled to bring it to the author’s and publisher’s attention.

I would be honored to help anyone with their efforts to write English, but, please, be honest with yourselves about your lack of knowledge, so you will cease and desist the writing of anything online until your English skills have improved significantly. Thank you.

Thanks for such a detail input. Best wishes.

Yes you are saying right. So if you have the skills to deliver the answer in an efficient manner so kindly type it for me. Because I really want to know the difference between research paper and research article

Yes I agree with Martha. I myself found difficulty in going through the article. Although the topic is very important to be discussed because being the student of graduate, I must know the difference. But the way of delivering has dispirited me that now what other website should I visit to get accurate answer.

we need Published example of a scientific research article and another for a scientific research

how can I cite this?

“Difference between Research Paper and Research Article”, Reserachpedia.info, https://researchpedia.info/difference-between-research-paper-and-research-article/ , [27 December 2021].

I don’t understand anything. I am confused more than i came. Otehrwise, thank you for a trial. Simplify this communication.

Causes of conflicts in standardization alliances related to the Belt and Road Initiative

Xiuwen Chen 1 ,
Qing Zhou 1 &
Zhigang Wang 2

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 11 , Article number: 461 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

82 Accesses

Metrics details

Science, technology and society
Social policy

Effective conflict management is pivotal for achieving innovation performance within standardization alliances, particularly those for the Belt and Road Initiative (B&R Initiative). However, existing research has paid limited attention to the interdependent relationship between influencing factors of conflicts in these alliances. To address this gap, this paper employs the interpretative structure model (ISM) to establish mutual relationships among 16 identified influencing factors. The results show that target difference, unbalanced input of resources, and unreasonable distribution of benefits are recognized as key facilitators at the top level, while political risks, impact of financial factors, and policy changes are identified as foundational drivers at the bottom level. At the intermediate level, factors such as demand difference, technical capabilities difference, cognitive difference, value pursuit difference, information asymmetry, lack of trust, poor communication, resource dependency, and unreasonable contribution evaluation are positioned. These identified interdependence relationships offer crucial reference information for conflict management in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative.

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Eleanor Knott, Aliya Hamid Rao, … Chana Teeger

Introduction

In December 2017, the office of the leading group for the Belt and Road Initiative (B&R Initiative) issued the “action plan on Belt and Road standard connectivity (2018–2020)”, which clarified its intention to strengthen alignment with the standardization strategies of countries (regions) along the Belt and Road (B&R countries) and enhance mutual compatibility of standard systems, thereby positively impacting the internationalization of Chinese standards, promoting investment and trade facilitation, and deepening cultural exchanges. Thus, an increasing number of Chinese enterprises are forming standardization alliances with B&R countries to create standards that meet the strategic interests of all parties. For example, for household electrical appliances, Haier and Pakistan’s local enterprise Ruba Group have jointly established the Haier-Ruba Industrial Park. With its strategy of localizing research and development, manufacturing, and marketing, Haier continuously innovates new technologies and develops products that meet local consumer demands. This has led to a gradual increase in Haier’s market share and industry recognition for household appliances in Pakistan, effectively promoting the internationalization of Chinese standards. With the support of relevant departments in both China and Pakistan, Haier, as a technical resource provider, participates in the formulation of Pakistan household appliance standards that meet the local market demands, playing a crucial role in enhancing standards alignment. In terms of high-speed railway construction, China Railway corporation, along with four Indonesian state-owned enterprises and relevant departments, have collectively discussed the construction of the Jakarta-Bandung high-speed railway and adopted steel rails customized to Chinese standards for production. This signifies the first comprehensive overseas implementation of Chinese high-speed rail technology and standards across the entire system, all elements, and the entire industry chain, which has become a model for the internationalization of Chinese high-speed rail standards. However, a standardization alliance is a collaboration among multiple interest groups, where various contradictions and conflicts among individual members are inevitable (Duarte and Davies, 2003 ). To ensure the stable operation of the alliances and achieve the expected innovation performance, this paper attempts to identify the influencing factors on conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative and their interdependent relationship.

Technical standards have an important impact on business performance and technological development (Hu et al., 2017 ). According to the underlying logic of resource dependence theory, a single enterprise often struggles to possess all the core technologies and patents needed for standard development (Wen et al., 2020 ; Wu and de Vries, 2022 ). This makes monopolizing standards exceedingly challenging for standardization practices (Blind, 2007 ). Thus, an increasing number of enterprises are encouraged to join standardization alliances when formulating technology standards to make full use of complementary resources and diversify risks (Leiponen, 2008 ; SatishNambisan, 2013 ). Existing research has confirmed the advantages of standardization alliances in expanding the scope of standard installation and creating a first-mover advantage for sustainable competitiveness (Blind and Mangelsdorf, 2016 ; Wen et al., 2020 ). Notably, similar to a general strategic alliance, all participants in standardization alliances need to make a joint investment, benefit, and risk-sharing (Blind and Mangelsdorf, 2013 ; Gomes-Casseres et al., 2006 ). Moreover, standardization alliance activities are a process of discussion, negotiation, and complex coordination (Ranganathan et al., 2018 ), in which enterprises strive to influence the standardization process to obtain technological dominance (Dai et al., 2018 ). The final standard is the “compromise proposal” (Wen et al. 2020 ), which provides a breeding ground for conflicts. Further, the outcome of a standardization alliance is a standard with public good characteristics and involves private benefits (Blind and Mangelsdorf, 2016 ; Wen et al., 2020 ). These facts demonstrate that various conflicts inevitably arise in the process of cooperation (Tidström, 2009 ). Therefore, to ensure the successful and stable operation of the standardization alliance, it is crucial to identify the factors that may lead to conflicts.

In the related literature, they primarily focused on investigating the factors influencing conflicts in organizational, research and development (R&D) alliances or industrial technology innovation strategic alliances (Cristina and Benavides-Velasco, 2011 ; Hauser et al., 2017 ). However, few attentions have been paid into alliances in general and the standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative in particular. For instance, James et al. ( 1995 ) reported that there are five influencing factors of organizational conflicts: individual characteristics, communication, structure, power, and interests. (Zheng and Du, 2005 ) analyzed the causes of conflicts and management tactics in cooperative innovation alliances. Blatt ( 2009a ) considered that the degree of trust and familiarity among individuals, coupled with uncertainty in the external environment, may cause different types of conflicts in entrepreneurial teams. (Lee et al., 2010 ) emphasized that whether the contributions and distribution of payoffs among R&D alliance partners are reasonable is a significant factor contributing to alliance conflicts. Korsgaard et al. ( 2008 ) considered that the factors affecting conflicts originated from four dimensions: individual differences, individual status, task structure, and social context. (Zhou et al., 2017 ) studied conflict factors in industrial technology innovation strategic alliances based on the life cycle, which includes the establishment period, operation period, and disintegration period.

Significantly, the standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative, as a special strategic alliance, have distinct differences from R&D alliances and standardization alliances. Specifically, (1) From the perspective of alliance members, R&D alliances consist of enterprises with unique knowledge and complementary effects among their knowledge (Veugelers, 1998 ). Participants in standardization alliances may include not only enterprises, also, for instance, consumer organizations and governments (de Vries, 2008 ). Members of standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative include enterprises, universities, research institutions, government agencies, intermediary organizations and other stakeholders from China and the B&R countries (Liu et al., 2023 ). In contrast to other standardization alliances, which are mainly led by enterprises from Western countries with relatively balanced technological levels, the standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative are initiated by Chinese enterprises. The participating enterprises in B&R countries vary in their technological levels, emphasizing the value orientation of mutual benefit and win-win cooperation within the alliance (Zhou et al., 2021b ). (2) In terms of alliance functions, R&D alliances integrate the knowledge contributed by alliance members to develop new technologies/products. Standardization alliances focus on reaching consensus regarding a set of specifications that all products, processes, and procedures must adhere to (Wen et al., 2020 ). The standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative take standard cooperation projects as a carrier to initiate a standard and diffuse it in the market. Notably, depending on the various standardization cooperation projects, the corresponding alliance modes may also be different. The modes of the standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative include standards joint discussion and application, standards co-construction and development, and standard iteration and upgrade, which have different applicable conditions and cooperation methods (Zhou et al., 2021a ). The mode of standard joint discussion and application involves alliance participants advocating for the application and promotion of Chinese standards in B&R countries through communication and negotiation on standards cooperation content. The Jakarta-Bandung High-Speed Railway serves as a typical example of standard joint discussion and application. The mode of standard co-construction and development within the alliance entails the realization of standard creation “from 0 to 1” through collaborative research and development. Standards generated through this mode may represent innovations that are entirely independent of original standards or a fusion of innovations based on the original standards. The Belt and Road Straddle Monorail System International Standard Alliance is a typical representative of this mode. The mode of standard iteration and upgrade leverages advanced technology and standard systems from B&R countries, integrating them with the local institutional environment to iteratively upgrade both standards and cooperation methods. The localized version of Alipay, jointly created by Ant Financial and local partners in nine B&R countries such as India, Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia, is a typical representative. (3) From the perspective of operational environment, compared to R&D alliances and standardization alliances, standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative operates in a more complex economic and social environment, deeply influenced by institutional and cultural differences among countries. Besides, some B&R countries are experiencing political turmoil, weak economic foundations, or social instability, which increases the uncertainty of standard application and promotion, as well as the potential for alliance conflicts.

Given the unique nature of standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative, the likelihood and intensity of alliance conflicts may be higher. Thus, it is essential to systematically analyze and evaluate the factor that affect conflicts, thereby providing valuable insights for the effective prevention and management of alliance conflicts. Furthermore, the interrelationship between factors affecting conflicts has seldom been taken into consideration. In reality, influencing factors are not independent but interrelated (Su et al., 2015 ; Williams, 2019 ). For example, divergent perspectives on the alliance’s objectives have the potential to trigger disagreements, leading to a breakdown in trust and hindering effective communication. Consequently, the conflict’s intensity, fueled by the synergistic effects of distrust and poor communication, is likely to escalate. This complexity also adds to the challenge of effectively managing the governance of conflict (Cronin and Bezrukova, 2019 ). Noteworthily, the operation of the standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative is profoundly influenced by institutional and cultural differences between countries, cultural differences play a pivotal role in triggering conflicts. However, it remains unclear how cultural differences interact with other factors, posing a challenge to effectively managing conflicts in the standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative. Accordingly, the aim of this study is to examine the factors affecting conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative and their interdependent relationship.

Overall, this paper makes at least two contributions, supplementing existing research in terms of both topic and methodology. Firstly, in contrast to prior studies that primarily focus on identifying factors influencing conflicts in organizational or industrial technology innovation strategic alliances, we identify the factors that influence conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative, which feature more diverse alliance members, innovative alliance modes, and a more complex operating environment compared to general standardization alliances. Secondly, limited attention has been given to exploring the interdependence relationships among factors affecting conflicts in standardization alliances. This gap poses challenges for managers in standardization alliances when discerning the mutual influences among various factors within collaborative governance, thereby impeding progress in innovation performance, effective conflict prevention, and conflict reduction. To address this, we introduce the interpretative structure model (ISM) to establish a hierarchy of relationships, illustrating the interdependence between these diverse factors. The outcomes elucidate the positioning of influencing factors at both upper and lower levels, providing crucial insights for the effective prevention and management of alliance conflicts. Notably, many times, participants in standardization alliances can collaborate and work together, seeking consensus and successfully driving standardization efforts (Isaak, 2006 ). The paper assumes the possibility of conflicts within standardization alliances because we believe that conflicts are significant issues in regard to collaborations involving different organizations and stakeholders (Omisore and Abiodun, 2014 ).

The rest of the paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 shows the research questions. The ISM method is introduced in Section 3. Section 4 illustrates the empirical results of this study. The conclusion is shown in Section 5.

Research questions

This study aims to identify the factors affecting standardization alliance conflicts for the B&R Initiative. Moreover, the interdependence relationship between the factors is also investigated. Further, two research questions are answered in the present study:

What are the factors that affect conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative?

What is the interdependent relationship between the factors? How can this interdependent relationship be identified?

Research method

ISM is an analysis method of systems engineering theory (Warfield, 1973 ). It can decompose a complex system into several subsystems and determine the interdependence relationship. The mechanism of ISM is to transform ambiguous thoughts and opinions into a clear model, which helps people analyze complex relationships more intuitively (Xu and Zou, 2020 ). Conflict management in standardization alliances can be seen as a complex large-scale system that includes multiple influencing factors. By applying ISM, the interdependent relationships among influencing factors become discernible. This facilitates the identification of factors positioned at the top, intermediate, and bottom levels.

The research flow of the ISM is shown in Fig. 1 . The several steps to achieve the ISM process are given below:

Flow chart for preparing the ISM.

Step 1 Identification of the influencing factors

The factors affecting conflict in standardization alliances are identified by a literature review and expert evaluation. Assuming that there are \(n\) elements in the system factor set \(S\) , then the record is:

Step 2 Construct the adjacency matrix \({\boldsymbol{A}}\)

The adjacency matrix \(A\) is employed to depict the direct pairwise relationship between system factors. The element \({a}_{{ij}}\) of adjacency matrix \(A\) represents the impact of factor \(i\) on \(j\) . The value of \({a}_{{ij}}\) is determined by expert evaluation. In the process of constructing the adjacency matrix, the invited experts will give a judgment on the direct relationship between factors with a question: does factor \(i\) have an impact on factor \(j\) ? After five rounds of discussion, there reaches an agreement about the interrelations between factors. Specifically, the value of \({a}_{{ij}}\) is determined by the following three situations:

If factor \(i\) has an impact on factor \(j\) , \({a}_{{ij}}\) = 1; if not, \({a}_{{ij}}\) = 0 and vice versa.

If strong mutual influences exist between factor \(i\) and factor \(j\) , then \({a}_{{ij}}\) = \({a}_{{ji}}\) = 1; if the degree of mutual influence is different between them, then the larger equals 1, and the smaller equals 0.

When \(i\) = \(j\) , then \({a}_{{ij}}\) = \({a}_{{ji}}\) = 0.

Finally, the adjacency matrix \(A\) is determined.

Step 3 Calculate the reachability matrix \({\boldsymbol{M}}\)

Different from the adjacency matrix \(A\) , which depicts only direct relationships, the reachability matrix \(M\) reflects direct and indirect relationships between the factors in the system. The calculation equation is:

Based on the operational rule of Boolean algebra, the adjacency matrix \(A\) first adds the identity matrix I , then ( A + I ) is multiplied by itself. When \({(A+I)}^{m}\) does not generate a new “1”, the reachability matrix M is thus obtained.

Step 4 Hierarchical division for reachability matrix \({\boldsymbol{M}}\)

A hierarchical division offers a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between influencing and influenced factors within a system, delving into the interconnectedness among these elements. According to the position of each factor in the system, a reachable set \(P\) and an antecedent set \(Q\) are produced. Specifically, \(P({S}_{i})\) is the set of corresponding factors that can influence \({S}_{i}\) through direct or indirect effects, which is a value of “1” in the \(i\) -th row. \(Q({S}_{i})\) is the set of corresponding factors that are influenced by \({S}_{i}\) , which is a value of “1” in the \(i\) -th column. The high-level element can be determined by \(L=P({S}_{i})\cap Q({S}_{i})\) . The three set relations can be expressed by the following mathematical formula:

Specifically, based on Eq. ( 6 ), the highest-level set is \(L1=\{{S}_{j}\epsilon S|P\left({S}_{i}\right)=P\left({S}_{i}\right)\cap Q\left({S}_{i}\right),{i}=\mathrm{1,2,3},\cdots ,n\}\) . For example, if there are two factors in \(L1\) , these two factors are identified in the highest-level set. Then, we can remove the two factors from the reachable set and antecedent set, and use Eq. ( 6 ) to identify the highest-level set of the remaining factors in the system. By repeating the above process, the lowest-level elements can be determined.

Step 5 Form an interpretative structural model

After the hierarchical division, each factor is positioned in its level. Relying on the result, a directed graph that describes the interdependence structure relationship between factors can be drawn. Finally, an explanation of the directed graph combined with the system theory and expertize is given.

Identification of influencing factors

Based on the ISM principle and its implementation process, factors influencing conflict in standardization alliances are identified through a combination of literature review and expert evaluation. An initial list of influencing factors is obtained relying on a literature review. A list of key influencing factors is further achieved with expert evaluation.

Initial list of influencing factors

Taking the “alliance conflict factors”, “alliance conflict influencing factors”, and “alliance conflict causes” as the theme keywords, literature retrieval and tracing are executed in the Web of Science and CNKI databases. After carefully reading and analyzing the content of the retrieved articles, we compiled a preliminary list of factors. During this process, we encountered three different situations: (1) some factors appeared only once in the literature, identified as unique factors to highlight their distinctiveness in the scholarly discourse; (2) certain factors were recurrently mentioned in various articles, categorized as recurring factors to underscore their prevalence and significance across the literature. The labeling of factors as “unique” or “recurring” serves as a reference for experts when assessing and selecting key influential factors; (3) certain factors conveyed the same meaning but were expressed using different words in the literature. In such cases, we consolidated similar words and expressed the factors using a uniform term. As a result, an initial list of factors is received. The representative supporting literature is displayed in Table 1 .

List of key influencing factors

To ensure the rationality of the selected factors, semi-structured interviews were carried out to identify which of these factors are the key factors. Specifically, nine experts were invited for consultation. The invited experts from diverse institutions, ensuring a comprehensive exploration of all aspects of the standardization alliance for the B&R Initiative. In a detail, two experts from the standardization association: they have many years of experience in standard formulation and management. Two practitioners from the Chinese railway construction industry: they have years of experience in engineering construction management and have participated in multiple B&R standardization cooperation projects. Five scholars from Hangzhou Dianzi University: these five scholars have profound insights into the relationship between standards and innovation and have published many academic papers in the field of standardization alliances. Based on a comprehensive consideration of the characteristics of standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative and the literature review, the key influencing factors are identified from both the internal and external environments of the alliance. After five rounds of consultation, we ultimately identified and summarized 16 key factors contributing to conflicts in standardization alliances. The classification and descriptions of these 16 key factors are presented in Table 2 .

From the perspective of the internal of alliance, there are 13 representative influencing factors related to target difference, demand difference, technical capabilities difference, cultural difference, cognitive difference, value pursuit difference, information asymmetry, lack of trust, poor communication, unbalanced input of resources, unreasonable benefits distribution, resource dependency, and unreasonable contribution evaluation As independent individuals, alliance members harbor their own beliefs, interests, and demands, laying the groundwork for potential conflicts. Jakobs ( 2023 ) suggests that promptly reflecting the needs, perspectives, and interests of each participating entity is essential, as these factors play a critical role in the successful development of standards. Moreover, scholars have affirmed that information asymmetry, unreasonable benefits distribution mechanisms, and unbalanced input of resources are critical factors inducing conflicts. These issues should be a focal point for alliance managers.

From the view of the external environment of the alliance, there are 3 influencing factors: political risks, impact of financial factors, and policy changes. As illustrated above, the standardization allice for the B&R Initiative is a typical multinational alliance influenced by the government’s guiding policy and industrial policy. As highlighted in (Jakobs, 2014 ; Jakobs, 2017 ), external influences such as changes in policies and technological progress have a substantial impact on the formulation of standards. Changes in exchange rates and financial conditions also affect the stability of cooperation (Park et al., 2014 ).

Adjacency matrix and reachability matrix

Table 3 shows the interconnected relationships among 16 key influencing factors, which determined by expert evaluation. Specifically, alliance conflict is numbered S*. 16 identified influencing factors are numbered from S 1 to S 16. The factors directly influenced by the 16 influencing factors are also listed. For example, demand difference (S 2 ) imposes a direct influence on alliance conflicts (S*) and target difference (S 1 ).

Table 4 shows the adjacency matrix \({A}\) of 16 × 16, which indicates the direct binary relationship between 16 key influencing factors. Moreover, the adjacency matrix is a numerical representation of Table 3 . By running the program in MATLB2018a, we obtain the reachability matrix \(M\) (Table 5 ), which represents the direct or indirect interaction relationships between influencing factors.

Hierarchical division results

Following the ISM method flow, the reachable set, antecedent set, and their intersection for reachability matrix \(M\) are obtained (Table 6 ). Finally, the hierarchical decomposition of 16 influencing factors has four levels (Table 7 ).

Analysis of the ISM

To intuitively have a clear interconnected relationship between 16 influencing factors, a directed graph is drawn (Fig. 2 ). As shown in Fig. 2 , the diagram of influencing factors involves a four-level hierarchical model.

Hierarchical topology diagram of influencing factors of standardization alliance conflicts for the B&R Initiative.

First, target differences (S 1 ), unbalanced input of resources (S 10 ), and unreasonable distribution of benefits (S 11 ) are recognized as key facilitators at the top level (L1), exerting a direct impact on inducing alliance conflict. The motivation for joining a standardization alliance includes realizing the synergistic and complementary effects of resource integration (Delcamp and Leiponen, 2014 ). Due to varying interests held by alliance members, thus what they want to achieve is differ, directly leading to conflicts within the standardization alliance. The unbalanced input of resources, not only in funds or technologies, will lead to the dissatisfaction of the strong individual who has invested more resources. Moreover, the strong party may manipulate the operation and management of the alliance according to its wishes. The distribution of benefits is the most critical and contradictory issue of standardization alliances (Soekijad and Andriessen, 2003 ). Dealtry et al. ( 2005 ) argue that the unreasonable distribution of benefits directly affects the cooperation positivity of each participant, which ultimately leads to the failure of the alliance.

Second, factors such as demand difference, technical capabilities difference, cognitive difference, value pursuit difference, information asymmetry, lack of trust, poor communication, resource dependency, and unreasonable contribution evaluation are positioned at the intermediate level (L2 and L3). This positioning indicates these factors require special attention due to not only their high driving power but also their strong dependence power. In L2, the influencing factors are demand difference (S 2 ), resource dependency (S 12 ), and unreasonable contribution evaluation (S 13 ). In L3, the influencing factors are policy changes (S 16 ), value pursuit differences (S 6 ), technical capability differences (S 3 ), cognitive differences (S 5 ), information asymmetry (S 7 ), poor communication (S 9 ), and lack of trust (S 8 ). Although there is a common goal for individuals when they decide to join a standardization alliance, the difference in the demands of individual members exists universally (Tidström, 2009 ). With the operation of the standardization alliance, the demands of individuals may change. Like a chain reaction, the expectations, and understandings of standardization alliance goals will change accordingly. When an individual’s goal becomes challenging to attain, conflicts are inevitable. Furthermore, demand differences (S 2 ) at L2 are also affected by policy changes (S 16 ) at L3, such as changes in government laws, financial policy, and industry policy, which impose a direct effect on the development of individual firms (Blind and Mangelsdorf, 2016 ). Similarly, it is easily understood that different value pursuits (S 6 ) at L3 are the direct reason for demand differences (S 2 ) at L2. Resource dependency (S 12 ) at L2 results in the unbalanced input of resources (S 10 ) at L1. Technical capability differences (S 3 ) at L3 will contribute to resource dependency (S 12 ) at L2, particularly in terms of technical resources. Significantly, technical capabilities difference is one of the most representative features of the standardization alliance for the B&R Initiative.

The unreasonable contribution evaluation (S 13 ) L2 is the direct cause of the unreasonable distribution of benefits (S 11 ) at L1. If the parties do not reach a consensus on the method of benefit distribution, alliance individuals may become self-centered and have difficulty listening or accepting the opinions of others, thus intensifying the contradiction between the two parties, and widening their cognitive difference. We also find that cognitive differences (S 5 ), information asymmetry (S 7 ), and lack of trust (S 8 ) at L3 are reasons for unreasonable contribution evaluation (S 13 ) at L2. Cognitive differences between individuals in the standardization alliance for the B&R Initiative exist universally, which leads to differences and disputes between the two parties in terms of value judgments, goals, beliefs, etc. This view is consistent with (Kaiser and Bostrom, 1982 ), who pointed out that occupational and cognitive differences between the members of software project teams might increase the potential for conflicts.

Significantly, there exists a mutual influence between information asymmetry (S 7 ), poor communication (S 9 ), and lack of trust (S 8 ), which highlights the importance of information communication and trust in conflict management. A high level of trust can reduce opportunistic behavior, increase commitment and contribution, enhance emotional identity, and strengthen cooperation among members (Zahoor et al. 2021 ). Good communication is the foundation of mutual trust. Misunderstanding or even distrust of information caused by poor communication is an important source of conflicts. Moreover, poor communication leads to low efficiency of information transmission and information asymmetry among members (Shin et al. 2012 ). If handled improperly, this may come into a vicious cycle.

Third, political risks (S 14 ), impact of financial factors (S 15 ), and cultural differences (S 4 ) are identified as foundational drivers at the bottom level (L4). They have significant influencing power to affect the factor of the top level and intermediate level, needing the maximum attention and focus. Changes in relevant policy (S 16 ) in L3 will occur as a direct result of political risks (S 14 ) at L4, as well as the impact of financial factors (S 15 ). For international alliances, particularly standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative, political risks should be considered. In reality, geopolitical relations and political instability created severe challenges to China’s enterprise’s cooperation with the B&R countries (Zhao et al. 2021 ). The impact of financial factors such as unexpected fluctuations in exchange rates, may induce related policy changes (Zhen, 2017 ). Cultural differences objectively exist in international trade. Specifically, language habits and belief differences are important expressions of cultural differences. Individuals in standardization alliance for the B&R Initiative must readjust to cultural differences and change their accustomed lifestyles and thinking principles (Mukhtar et al. 2022 ). Cultural difference (S 4 ) at L4 has a direct influence on an individual’s value pursuit difference (S 6 ), cognitive difference (S 5 ), and information asymmetry (S 7 ) at L3.

Discussion and conclusions

This paper offers a fresh perspective on the influencing factors of conflicts within standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative. The contributions to existing research unfold in two critical dimensions: (1) Previous studies have primarily focused on exploring the factors influencing conflicts in organizational, industrial technology innovation strategic alliances or R&D alliances. Research specifically addressing the factors influencing conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative is noticeably lacking. Different from R&D alliances or other standardization alliances, standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative possess distinct characteristics of the times, aiming to promote standard alignment among B&R countries, while their operation is heavily influenced by institutional and cultural differences among participating nations. Additionally, some B&R countries face issues such as political turmoil, weak economic foundations, or social instability, increasing the possibility of alliance conflicts, which are rare in R&D alliances or standardization alliances. Therefore, it is necessary to comprehensively identify the factors influencing conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative to help enhance the effectiveness of alliance conflict management. In this study, we compile an initial list of influencing factors through a comprehensive literature review. The key influencing factors are further refined through expert evaluation. (2) Current research on factors influencing conflict ignores the interdependence between different influencing factors, thereby posing challenges for managers when discerning the mutual influences among various factors within collaborative governance. To address this gap, we innovatively introduce the ISM to reveal the interdependent relationships among factors that influence conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative, which also provides insights for analyzing conflicts in R&D alliances or standardization alliances.

The main results were summarized into four aspects. First, 16 factors affecting conflicts in standardization alliance for B&R Initiative have been identified. Second, target differences, unbalanced resource allocation, and unfair distribution of benefits are recognized as key facilitators at the top level. These 3 factors play the least influential role as compared to the other 13 influencing factors. Third, factors such as demand difference, technical capabilities difference, cognitive difference, value pursuit difference, information asymmetry, lack of trust, poor communication, resource dependency, and unreasonable contribution evaluation are positioned at the intermediate level. This positioning indicates these factors not only have high driving power but also have strong dependence power. Finally, political risks, impact of financial factors, and policy changes are identified as foundational drivers at the bottom level.

The study’s findings have major implications for enterprises, governments, and managers of standardization alliances. Specifically, (1) Enterprises intending to join a standardization alliance should identify potential conflict-influencing factors and develop a response plan, facilitating effective conflict resolution. (2) The results reveal the different positions of factors affecting standardization alliance conflicts for the B&R Initiative. Thus, in the process of conflict management, the managers of the alliance should consider the stage of occurrence of the influencing factors and their priorities. For example, the issue of unreasonable distribution of benefits, positioned at the top level, must be addressed as a priority in conflict management (3) As an international strategic alliance, a standardization alliance for the B&R Initiative is affected by institutional and cultural differences between countries, and the relevant government departments need promptly coordinate when dealing with conflicts.

Overall, this study provides a new perspective for analyzing the factors affecting conflicts in standardization alliances for the B&R Initiative. Notably, some limitations also exist. First, the paper has concentrated solely on the adverse effects of each factor, overlooking their potential positive contributions. For example, differences in goals among alliance members may impact technological synergy and potentially slow the alliance’s technological research and development progress, leading to negative effects on alliance innovation performance (Duarte and Davies, 2003 ). Throughout this process, alliance members can also gain insights and learn from each other’s perspectives on issues, fostering creativity and debate (Mele, 2011 ) and consequently positively influencing innovation performance. Therefore, future research could consider the positive effects of these factors. Second, our interviewees are all from China, which represents a limitation in this paper. Due to varying economic foundations, technical conditions, cultural backgrounds, and roles between China and the B&R countries, differences in understanding the factors influencing conflicts may arise. For example, B&R countries may perceive lack of effective communication among participants as the fundamental cause of conflicts, which is different from the findings of this article. The Qasim Coal Fired Power Plant is a case where the relevant certification process faced setbacks due to ineffective communication. Thus, conducting in-depth interviews or surveys with the stakeholders from B&R countries needs endeavor in our future work. Third, this article predominantly relies on the literature pertaining to alliance and organizational cooperation conflicts, with less emphasis on factors specific to standardization alliances. We will enhance this aspect in our future research.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available in the Mendeley repository ( https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/yf7s47rcth/1 ).

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 72104066, 71932005), and Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (No. LQ22G010010).

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The authors confirm their contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: XC, QZ; model building: XC; analysis and interpretation of results: XC, QZ, and ZW; original draft preparation: XC, QZ. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Chen, X., Zhou, Q. & Wang, Z. Causes of conflicts in standardization alliances related to the Belt and Road Initiative. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 461 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02972-z

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