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Coronavirus Disease 2019
Reflections on self-development and self-care, how to distinguish between two similar but different concepts..
Posted June 3, 2020 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan
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In the age of COVID-19, self-isolation, and inevitable uncertainty, the topics of self-development and self-care have come up for my patients more than they might have in “normal life.” (What’s even normal anymore?)
While we are all staying home, we may have fewer obligations or more time to fill. Simultaneously, we may be attempting to distract ourselves from all the bad news surrounding us, easing our inevitable anxiety , or trying to use this time to better ourselves in some way. These goals all hold some importance on a case-to-case basis, but it's important to accurately distinguish between two similar but different ideas here: self-development and self-care.
Self-care is just that — doing something to take care of yourself. It may include a relaxing activity like yoga, a bath, reading a book, or something that helps someone else clear their mind, like going for a walk outside.
Self-care is a practice that aims to help self-soothe but may look different for every person. For example, someone may consider watching a favorite TV show to be self-care, while for someone else, this might not feel like self-care, and more so represent them falling off of their self-care regimen that includes showering, making a cup of coffee, and chatting with a spouse. There is no blanket example of self-care, but there are certain goals it should ideally fulfill.
Self-care should be deliberate. It should be something you plan to do for the sole goal of taking care of yourself, and nothing else. At the same time, self-care should hopefully make you feel a little bit better during or afterward. Self-care should aim to improve your emotional well-being, and therefore elicit positive emotions rather than negative ones. If you try something as a practice of self-care and it doesn’t feel good, try something else!
Self-development
Self-development, on the other hand, is defined as doing something to improve yourself. For example, learning a new language, or getting in better physical shape are examples of self-development, as is enrolling in an online course or training that is relevant to your profession. Self-development aims to improve a skill or introduce a new area of expertise that might make you feel empowered, emotionally, physically, or intellectually. Self-development is inherently a form of productivity .
Both self-care and self-development are important activities, but serve very different purposes, especially in the current state of the world. Some people may be able to use this time to improve or develop a new skill, and that’s wonderful, but for others, it just might not be the right time to embark on a new learning or physical endeavor.
For some people, managing their new day-to-day life, balancing caring for kids, trying to keep working from home, while also trying to process the immense loss of the world may be overwhelming, and therefore leave little cognitive, emotional, or literal space for self-development. Deciding what works best for you right now is a complicated process, but worth investigating through self-reflection.
For example, for me personally, I know that I am feeling more down than usual as death rates filter onto my phone, and even a little bit angry as I envision with uncertainty what my professional life will look like when the world is no longer in crisis. For me, taking time for self-care is more effective in maintaining my mental health for the time being, over finally refreshing my Spanish skills.
My partner, however, does better psychologically when their mind is busy and is currently taking an online course that includes lectures and work outside of class. To be honest, to me that sounds entirely miserable, but for them, it is a healthy coping mechanism.
Another important aspect of this distinction to remember is that comparing yourself with how someone else is using this time probably won’t help you. Everyone is handling the current state of the world differently, and if you’re being intentional about it, and self-aware of what you need on a daily basis, there is nothing wrong with that.
The word “unprecedented” is starting to become triggering for me given the hundreds (maybe thousands?) of articles I’ve read about COVID-19 and how each of them starts with the phrase “unprecedented times.” Putting that aside (as much as I can), I am also forced to remember that it is accurate; this time period is truly unique. There is no “right” or “wrong” way to deal with what’s happening in our world right now. It is terrifying, disorienting, and objectively bad. Do what works for you, and cut yourself some slack. Take time for yourself right now, however you can, and in whatever form suits you best.
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Essay on Self Development
Students are often asked to write an essay on Self Development in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.
Let’s take a look…
100 Words Essay on Self Development
What is self development.
Self Development is the process of improving and growing yourself as a person. It includes working on your skills, knowledge, and abilities. It also includes developing your character and personality.
Why is Self Development Important?
Self Development is important because it allows you to reach your full potential. When you work on yourself, you become a better version of yourself. You are able to achieve more in life and you are more likely to be happy and successful.
How Can You Develop Yourself?
There are many ways to develop yourself. Some common ways include:
Self Development is an ongoing process. It takes time, effort, and dedication. But it is worth it. When you work on yourself, you become a better person and you are able to achieve more in life.
250 Words Essay on Self Development
Self-development: journey of personal growth, building self-esteem.
Self-development starts with building self-esteem. This means believing in yourself and your abilities. When you have high self-esteem, you feel confident and capable, which makes it easier to take on challenges and achieve your goals.
Setting Goals
Once you have a good sense of self-esteem, you can start setting goals for yourself. Goals give you direction and purpose, and they help you stay motivated. Make sure your goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
Taking Action
Once you’ve set your goals, it’s time to take action. This means putting in the hard work to achieve them. This could involve taking classes, reading books, or practicing new skills. It’s important to be patient and persistent. Don’t give up on yourself if you don’t see results immediately. Just keep working hard and you will eventually achieve your goals.
Continuous Learning
Self-development is a lifelong journey. There’s always something new to learn and new ways to improve. Be open to new experiences and challenges. The more you learn and grow, the more you will achieve.
Reflecting on Progress
500 words essay on self development, understanding self-development.
Self-development is a lifelong journey. It is not a one-size-fits-all approach, as each individual has different strengths, weaknesses, and goals. However, there are some common principles and practices that can help anyone achieve self-development.
The first step in self-development is to set goals. Goals give you something to strive for and help you stay motivated. When setting goals, it’s important to make them SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound). This will help you stay focused and increase your chances of success.
Learning and Growing
Self-development involves learning and growing. This means acquiring new skills and knowledge, and developing new perspectives and beliefs. It’s important to be open to new experiences and challenges, as these can help you grow and become a better version of yourself.
Building Relationships
Reflecting and evaluating.
Self-development is a lifelong journey that requires dedication and commitment. However, the rewards are worth it. By investing in yourself, you can achieve a better quality of life, and become the best version of yourself.
If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:
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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Personal Growth and Development — Personal Development: Reflection and Growth
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Personal Development: Reflection and Growth
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Introduction, strengths and weaknesses analysis, goal setting and action planning, feedback and self-reflection.
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The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence: Neural Evidence and Implications for a Value-Based Choice Perspective on Motivated Behavior
Associated data.
Following a key developmental task of childhood—building a foundation of self-knowledge in the form of domain-specific self-concepts—adolescents begin to explore their emerging identities in ways that foster autonomy and connectedness. Neuroimaging studies of self-related processes demonstrate enhanced engagement of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in adolescence, which may facilitate and reflect the development of identity by integrating the value of potential actions and choices. Drawing from neuroeconomic and social cognitive accounts, we propose that motivated behavior during adolescence can be modeled by a general value-based decision-making process centered around value accumulation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. This approach advances models of adolescent neurodevelopment that focus on reward sensitivity and cognitive control by considering more diverse value inputs, including contributions of developing self- and identity-related processes. It also considers adolescent decision making and behavior from adolescents’ point of view rather than adults’ perspectives on what adolescents should value or how they should behave.
Adolescents are physically, cognitively, and socioemotionally more advanced than children but prone to behave in ways that are inconsistent with adult values and norms. Adolescents are frequently caricaturized as excessive risk takers, overly self-focused, and highly susceptible to social pressure. Despite agreement that such a portrayal is an oversimplification, the field is still searching for a framework to explain why these tendencies are more common in adolescents than in children or adults. One influential approach, the dual-systems model ( 1 ), conceptualizes behavior in terms of a competition or conflict between developing neural circuits implicated in reward sensitivity and cognitive control, and describes how the functioning of these networks may relate to adolescents’ risk taking. Another prominent approach considers contributions of networks that process social information to understand adolescents’ social reorientation, in which social influences expand beyond the family to emphasize peers ( 2 ). However, these models do not account for the contributions of identity- and self-related processes, such as core personal values and self-verification, to motivated adolescent behavior. This gap is disconcerting because the self represents a key intersection among social, cognitive, affective, motivational, and regulatory processes ( 3 ).
To address this gap, we propose a neurobiologically grounded model of value-based decision making that more flexibly accommodates more diverse inputs to behavior, such as considerations related to self and identity that are relevant in adolescence and can promote or prevent risky behavior depending on context. We first review adolescents’ development of self and identity, linking the behavioral and neural levels. We then outline the general value-based decision-making approach and describe the predictions of this model in the context of adolescent development. Our goal is to produce a more flexible, comprehensive account of adolescent behavior – one that might improve adolescent outcomes, as well as enhance our understanding of positive and prosocial development in adolescence.
The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence
Adolescence is crucial for many aspects of developing self and identity, including commitments, personal goals, motivations, and psychosocial well-being ( 4 – 7 ). During adolescence, youth seek autonomy, particularly from parents, along with increased commitments to social aspects of identity and greater needs for connection with peers ( 8 ). Relatedly, self-evaluations become increasingly differentiated and complex across roles and relationships ( 9 ). Adolescents also frequently report greater self-consciousness, and are more concerned with and interested in others’ perceptions of self ( 10 ).
Given the theoretical and empirical prominence of changes in aspects of self and identity during adolescence, researchers have begun to examine how they are expressed at a neural level. Most of this work has examined self-evaluation, typically by asking youth to judge whether various (often overtly positive or negative) traits and attributes describe them. Like adults, children and early adolescents use cortical and subcortical midline structures, in particular the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and adjacent rostral/perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), more when evaluating themselves than when evaluating others ( 10 – 12 ; although this pattern can be attenuated with close others like adolescents’ best friends; 13 , 14 ). Even in clinical populations of children and adolescents, the vmPFC is usually more active during self-evaluations than most control conditions. Typically developing youth also seem to use the vmPFC more during self-evaluations than do youth with autism spectrum disorder ( 3 ) and, at times, youth experiencing depression ( 15 , 16 ).
We are just beginning to learn more about how neural responses elicited by self-evaluation develop across adolescence, rather than between childhood or adolescence and adulthood. In two studies on the self-reference effect in memory (wherein information evaluated in relation to the self is remembered more accurately than other information), activity in the rostral/perigenual ACC increased from ages 7 to 13 during encoding for self versus mother ( 17 ), and from ages 13 to 19 during encoding for self versus distant other ( 18 ).
Furthermore, in a longitudinal fMRI study, responses to self-evaluations in the rostral/perigenual ACC (and ventral striatum, VS) self-evaluations were stable from age 10 to 13 ( 19 ). Activity also increased in the vmPFC over time during evaluations of self (relative to other), especially for self-evaluations in the social (versus academic) domain, and in adolescents with more advanced pubertal development during social self-evaluations. This suggests the interrelated biological and social changes associated with puberty may affect self-referential processes and the value derived from them.
Although these studies of self-evaluative processes emphasized the vmPFC and adjacent rostral/perigenual ACC, several other regions were also important. As mentioned earlier, VS responses have been observed not only during direct self-evaluations ( 19 ), but also in indirect (reflected) social self-evaluations, specifically when an adolescent thinks about what a best friend thinks of his or her social abilities ( 14 ). The involvement of VS during self-evaluation is consistent with studies of adults, which highlight the overlap between self-reference and reward ( 20 ) through assigning value ( 21 ). Additionally, the dorsal medial PFC (dmPFC) and the temporal-parietal junction (TPJ) are sometimes more active in children’s and adolescents self-evaluations ( 10 , 11 , 18 ); in adults, these regions are typically attuned to mentalizing, social perspective taking, and evaluating others. Furthermore, functional connectivity between the TPJ and the vmPFC relates positively to generosity in adults ( 22 ), suggesting that the TPJ might affect social value by modulating the vmPFC during choices involving the self and others.
In summary, in research using functional neuroimaging, explicit self-evaluation as well as more indirect forms of social self-evaluation implicated in relational identity robustly engage the vmPFC and the rostral/perigenual ACC (as part of a broader network including the VS, TPJ, and dmPFC) in children and adolescents, often more so than in adults. Activity in the vmPFC and rostral/perigenual ACC seems to increase from late childhood through middle adolescence, when it either plateaus or continues to increase. These findings are consistent with empirical evidence and theoretical proposals that adolescence is critical for developing identity ( 4 – 7 ).
Despite the behavioral and neural evidence of the elevated importance of self- and identity-related processes during adolescence, what role these processes may play in neurodevelopmental models of adolescent behavior is unclear. Dual-systems models in particular focus on a mismatch between mature reward-related circuitry and immature cognitive control circuitry ( 1 ). However, self/identity does not fit clearly in either category because it can contribute alternately or concurrently to reward-seeking and regulatory behavior. For example, a teenager with an emerging academic identity is likely to prioritize studying over other activities, though it is unclear whether the effect of such an identity operates through rewarding or regulatory processes (or both, or if this distinction is not meaningful theoretically for self/identity). In the next section, we present a model that prioritizes self- and identity-related processes in determining behavior and explains a prominent functional role of the vmPFC during this period.
Value-Based Decision Making as a Mechanism of Motivated Behaviors in Adolescence
Choosing to attend a party where there may be alcohol as well as an attractive classmate against parental wishes and despite math tutoring in the morning sounds like a failure of self-control—to parents, at least. But from an adolescent’s point of view, this decision might be driven by the high subjective value of partying and associated opportunities relative to some alternative, like studying algebra. This should not be surprising; researchers noted decades ago that adolescents routinely chose to behave in ways that are of optimal utility for their social microenvironments ( 23 ), and utility-maximizing functions can account for decisions like this one made by people at any age ( 24 , 25 ). However, researchers have recently characterized the computational and neural processes involved in value-based decision making, defined as either-or choices between two or more options with varied attributes ( 26 ). In a value-based decision-making approach, diverse gains and costs are integrated in a dynamic and noisy way to yield choices (see Figure 1 ; relevant inputs are specific to a given choice and not necessarily confined to one—e.g., parental incentives for good grades are both tangible and social rewards). As we describe next, this flexibility is a key feature of the model. The gains and costs (represented throughout the brain) act as inputs to the process, and are integrated in the vmPFC after being weighted and transformed into a common neural value currency ( 27 ).
![Click on image to zoom An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is nihms-950947-f0001.jpg](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6667174/bin/nihms-950947-f0001.jpg)
Note. Solid arrows from value inputs represent positive value, dashed arrows represent negative value, and line thickness indicates relative weight. Sample tangible inputs (primary or secondary gains and costs) are tagged in orange, sample social inputs are tagged in blue, and sample self/identity related inputs are tagged in purple. Value inputs can be cross-tagged. Adapted from ( 27 ).
From this perspective, one cause of what adults consider to be problematic adolescent behavior may be a normative developmental process that increases the subjective value of self- and identity-relevant inputs relative to childhood. The increased activity observed in the vmPFC during self-evaluation and relational identity processes in adolescence overlaps spatially with the representation of value in the brain (see Figure 2 ), and thus could reflect greater subjective value afforded to the self and its varied traits, roles, and aspirations. This suggests that identity and other associated self-related processes may increase as a source of value to shape decision-making and motivated behavior across adolescence.
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Note. Regions in red are likely to appear in studies using the term value , calculated by Neurosynth’s automated meta-analysis tool. Peaks from studies of self-evaluation using typically developing adolescents are overlayed. Blue represents peaks from the self > other contrast in child or adolescent samples, and green represents peaks that show increases during self-evaluation with age. Slices are displayed at x = −6, y = 44, and z = −10. To be included here, studies had to report activations in medial prefrontal cortex from the contrast of self > other from a developmental sample or changes in that contrast with age. A full list of studies and coordinates can be found at: http://osf.io/64qh5 .
Value-based choice describes decision making as the output of a unified value-accumulation process centered in the vmPFC. The valuation process integrates signals from regions that represent relevant attributes of choice (e.g., self-related value in the mPFC, social values in the TPJ, abstract goals such as health in the lateral PFC). We note two aspects of this process of value integration: First, we do not presume it to be deliberative; in other words, inputs are integrated computationally without relying on explicit reasoning. The model allows for rational decision making independent of formal reasoning, unlike fuzzy-trace theory’s distinction between decisions based on explicit reasoning and those based on intuition or gist ( 28 ). Second, a value-based decision-making approach accounts explicitly for the diversity of inputs, and recognizes that these inputs may not fall neatly into consistent clusters. For example, hot processes such as reward and cold processes such as regulation do not necessarily map on to risky and safe behaviors, respectively, and do not necessarily oppose one another. As such, observed activations in two or more regions during choice might reflect simultaneous contributions to value integration rather than competition or inhibition (see 29 for a similar point and a more integrative account).
Dissolving the one-to-one mapping between process (e.g., hot versus cold or reward versus regulation) and outcome (e.g., risky and safe) averts the issue that can arise when these inputs are funneled through two systems that battle for control over behavior (e.g., 1 , 30 ). The most important distinction in a value-based decision-making model is in fact not between types of processes, but between factors that contribute to the value of one behavior or another. For example, what matters in this model is which behavior is promoted by social influence, regardless of whether it is hot or cold. By refocusing on the many diverse reasons for potential behaviors, the model also suggests new experimental paradigms that manipulate the motivating reasons behind a behavior, as well as new pathways for intervention from the variety of value inputs to choice, rather than just two processes (reward and control) whose functioning is mainly determined by neurodevelopment.
The Identity-Value Model ( 31 ) expands on this general value-based decision-making approach by emphasizing the special role of identity in self-regulation and motivated behavior broadly. The central hypothesis of the Identity-Value Model is that goal-directed behaviors are valued more when they are relevant to the identity. Consider the previously mentioned example: If the adolescent had a strong academic identity commitment, the identity might boost the chance of skipping the party by increasing the value of studying. If, instead, the adolescent wished to fit in with a peer group that valued late-night socializing, that aspect of identity would increase the value of going to the party.
The model considers identity as multifaceted, so different aspects of identity (e.g., academic, social/relational, familial, ethnic/cultural, interest-based) can influence the value of self-regulatory behaviors to the extent that such aspects are salient and perceived as relevant to the decision (see also 32 ). Key features of identity thought to facilitate its effectiveness in adulthood include stability, positivity, and accessibility. Given that identity development is considered a core task of adolescence ( 33 ), and evidence suggests significant exploration of and commitments to key identities during this period ( 4 , 5 , 7 ), we expect identity-relevant inputs to increase in value across adolescence, affecting self-regulation and other motivated behaviors. Additionally, identities and behaviors might be reinforced mutually: aspects of identity that favor consistently chosen actions might be more valued, and aspects of identity that favor actions that are consistently not chosen might be less valued (e.g., through dissonance or reward-devaluation processes; 34 ).
Additional Developmental Considerations for Value-Based Decision Making
One important consideration is the extent of developmental change in the decision-making processes implicated in this model. Even young children apparently understand expected value, and by late childhood use it to decide in a manner similar to adults, which includes sensitivity to probability and magnitude of outcome ( 35 , 36 ). These abilities apparently mature by middle adolescence, particularly for decision-making contexts that are relatively less affective ( 37 ). However, adolescents may also be more sensitive behaviorally and neurally than adults to increasing expected value ( 38 ), and may be more tolerant of ambiguity ( 39 ). The range of simple value inputs in much of the relevant research cited previously was limited; researchers should therefore expand the set of stimulus types used in experiments to include more complex, identity-relevant targets and ecologically valid decision-making contexts. Additionally, despite this support for the general value-based choice model in adolescence, researchers have not manipulated the self-relevance of response options to directly test the contribution of identity-based values to adolescent decision-making processes.
Other components of the value-based decision-making model (detailed in 27 ) may also be affected by development, such as delay discounting in which participants choose between smaller-sooner and larger-later rewards. For example, delay discounting decreases rapidly from early to middle adolescence, a finding that represents an additional important constraint that shapes the value-based decision-making process in adolescence differently than in adulthood ( 40 , 41 ).
Finally, in addition to the possibility that identity-based and other self-related values become increasingly important to adolescent decision making, particular social motivations like social status and peer or romantic relationships are expected to surge in relevance as well ( 2 , 42 , 43 ). One set of social-cognitive weights on the decision-making process undoubtedly includes perceptions of what others—especially peers (e.g., friends, romantic partners, members of social ingroups, members of high-status social groups)—value; in this context, others also include respected individuals (e.g., family members, teachers). The interaction between this concept and identity development processes is also an interesting consideration. Specifically, these social perceptions provide information about the self ( 10 , 14 ) and help shape adolescents’ personal values and identity, which subsequently or concurrently are perceived as increasingly significant in decision making.
Although adolescent behavior is influenced by normative developmental changes in sensitivity to rewards and social context, the self also evolves to become an important source of value and intrinsic motivation. With increasing development and exploration of identity commitments and autonomy, the self can be harnessed for self-regulation and other motivated behavior. This creates a space for intervening to improve outcomes in maladaptive cases of adolescent decision making that does not exist within current models, in which d such behaviors are portrayed to result from expected maturational trajectories of frontostriatal circuitry. In particular, identity-based and other self-related values may be much more modifiable targets, either in terms of the content of identity in various contexts or the relative salience of different aspects of identity that might promote different behaviors (e.g., athletic versus academic). For example, the juvenile justice system is considering ways to foster positive and prosocial identities as a way to keep adolescents from engaging in antisocial behavior ( 44 ).
On a broader level, a neurodevelopmentally informed, value-based decision-making approach may provide not only a more comprehensive theory but also an opportunity to reframe our thinking about adolescents’ choices and actions. If a value-based decision-making account is correct, choices that adults perceive as bad can be considered instead as rational from the adolescent point of view, at least inasmuch as they represent choices with the highest subjective value. The adolescent decision-making system is not broken; adolescents (individually and as a group) may simply consider different value attributes and weight those attributes differently than do adults. By taking the normative adult perspective, we may be artificially constraining the sources of value we consider relevant to adolescent decision making, thereby restricting what we can learn about how and why adolescents’ priorities differ from those of adults, and limiting our ability to develop ways to encourage positive outcomes. Given that developing positive personal and social identities ( 4 – 7 , 9 ), as well as balancing autonomy and connectedness, are core tasks of adolescence ( 8 , 33 ), these self-related and social sources of value are worth prioritizing in investigations and translational efforts.
Supplementary Material
Acknowledgments.
The authors would like to acknowledge support from NIH grants DA035763, DA043015, and MH107418 to JHP and AG048840, CA175241, and CA211224 to ETB.
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My Adolescent Experience and Development: A Reflection
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Table of contents
Adolescent experience in my life, physical development, emotional development.
“Perhaps you looked in the mirror on a daily, or sometimes even hourly, basis as a young teenager to see whether you could detect anything different about your changing body. Preoccupation with one’s body image is strong through adolescence, it is especially acute during puberty, a time when adolescents are more dissatisfied with their bodies than in late adolescence.” (Santrock)
Social changes
- Arnett, J. J. (2015). Adolescence and emerging adulthood : A cultural approach. Pearson Education.
- Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. WW Norton & Company.
- Gullotta, T. P., & Adams, G. R. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of adolescent behavioral problems: Evidence-based approaches to prevention and treatment. Springer.
- Steinberg, L. (2014). Age of opportunity: Lessons from the new science of adolescence. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
- Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual review of psychology, 52(1), 83-110.
- Suler, J. R. (2018). Adolescent development. In Psychology of Adolescence (pp. 11-38). Springer.
- Rutter, M., & Smith, DJ (1995). Psychosocial disorders in young people: Time trends and their causes. John Wiley & Sons.
- American Psychological Association. (2019). APA handbook of the psychology of adolescence.
- Offer, D., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (1992). Debunking the myths of adolescence: Findings from recent research. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(6), 1003-1014.
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- Confirmation Bias
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Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior
Volume 10, 2023, review article, open access, developing self-awareness: learning processes for self- and interpersonal growth.
- Manuel London 1 , Valerie I. Sessa 2 , and Loren A. Shelley 2
- View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 College of Business, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York, USA; email: [email protected] 2 Department of Psychology, Montclair State University, Montclair, New Jersey, USA
- Vol. 10:261-288 (Volume publication date January 2023) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920-044531
- First published as a Review in Advance on November 18, 2022
- Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See credit lines of images or other third-party material in this article for license information
Self-awareness—how we see ourselves and the effects we have on our environment—influences our behavior and the type of person we want to become. This article examines recent research and areas of practice that address the meaning of self-awareness and how it develops over time. We build on extant comprehensive reviews of the literature to define self-awareness and its accuracy, measurement, and effects, including the dark side of being overly introspective. We offer a framework to integrate theory-based processes. We present the results of a literature search of educational interventions aimed at increasing mindfulness through reflection, feedback, and coaching. We conclude with calls for research and implications for practice in areas of measurement, tracking changes, interventions, and self in relation to others in areas of societal impact, self-presentation on digital media, and promoting self-awareness in relation to organization and team membership.
[Erratum, Closure]
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How to Write a Psychology Essay
Saul McLeod, PhD
Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
Associate Editor for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
On This Page:
Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.
Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.
After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).
After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.
It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.
Components of a Good Essay
Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.
- Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
- Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
- Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
- Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
- Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.
In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.
There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.
Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).
It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.
![How to Write a Psychology Essay 1 essay structure example](https://www.simplypsychology.org/wp-content/uploads/essay-structure2.jpg)
Knowledge and Understanding
Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.
You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.
Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).
Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.
Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.
Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.
For example:
Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.
Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.
As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.
Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.
Critical Evaluation
In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.
There are many ways you can critically evaluate:
Methodological evaluation of research
Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?
Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.
Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.
Compare or contrast different theories
Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.
Debates or perspectives
Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?
What are the ethical issues of the research?
Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?
Gender bias
If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.
Cultural bias
Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.
Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?
Animal Research
This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.
Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?
The PEC System
It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.
Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.
When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.
- Make your P oint.
- E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
- Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?
For Example
- Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
- Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
- Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.
Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.
Using Research Studies in your Essays
Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.
- If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
- If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.
Writing an Introduction
It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.
If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.
Ideally, the introduction should;
Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).
Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.
Writing a Conclusion
So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.
If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.
Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.
Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).
Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).
If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.
Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.
The Importance of Flow
Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.
When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).
This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.
To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.
Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.
Referencing
The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).
In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.
If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.
References need to be set out APA style :
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.
Journal Articles
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers
A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.
![How to Write a Psychology Essay 2 scholar](https://www.simplypsychology.org/wp-content/uploads/scholar.jpg)
Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.
![How to Write a Psychology Essay 3 apa reference](https://www.simplypsychology.org/wp-content/uploads/apa-reference.jpg)
Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.
![How to Write a Psychology Essay 4 Print Friendly, PDF & Email](https://www.simplypsychology.org/wp-content/uploads/three-icons-with-text-light-blue.jpg)
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How to Write an Introduction for a Psychology Paper
- Writing Tips
If you are writing a psychology paper, it is essential to kick things off with a strong introduction. The introduction to a psychology research paper helps your readers understand why the topic is important and what they need to know before they delve deeper.
Your goal in this section is to introduce the topic to the reader, provide an overview of previous research on the topic, and identify your own hypothesis .
At a Glance
Writing a great introduction can be a great foundation for the rest of your psychology paper. To create a strong intro:
- Research your topic
- Outline your paper
- Introduce your topic
- Summarize the previous research
- Present your hypothesis or main argument
Before You Write an Introduction
There are some important steps you need to take before you even begin writing your introduction. To know what to write, you need to collect important background information and create a detailed plan.
Research Your Topic
Search a journal database, PsychInfo or ERIC, to find articles on your subject. Once you have located an article, look at the reference section to locate other studies cited in the article. As you take notes from these articles, be sure to write down where you found the information.
A simple note detailing the author's name, journal, and date of publication can help you keep track of sources and avoid plagiarism.
Create a Detailed Outline
This is often one of the most boring and onerous steps, so students tend to skip outlining and go straight to writing. Creating an outline might seem tedious, but it can be an enormous time-saver down the road and will make the writing process much easier.
Start by looking over the notes you made during the research process and consider how you want to present all of your ideas and research.
Introduce the Topic
Once you are ready to write your introduction, your first task is to provide a brief description of the research question. What is the experiment or study attempting to demonstrate? What phenomena are you studying? Provide a brief history of your topic and explain how it relates to your current research.
As you are introducing your topic, consider what makes it important. Why should it matter to your reader? The goal of your introduction is not only to let your reader know what your paper is about, but also to justify why it is important for them to learn more.
If your paper tackles a controversial subject and is focused on resolving the issue, it is important to summarize both sides of the controversy in a fair and impartial way. Consider how your paper fits in with the relevant research on the topic.
The introduction of a research paper is designed to grab interest. It should present a compelling look at the research that already exists and explain to readers what questions your own paper will address.
Summarize Previous Research
The second task of your introduction is to provide a well-rounded summary of previous research that is relevant to your topic. So, before you begin to write this summary, it is important to research your topic thoroughly.
Finding appropriate sources amid thousands of journal articles can be a daunting task, but there are several steps you can take to simplify your research. If you have completed the initial steps of researching and keeping detailed notes, writing your introduction will be much easier.
It is essential to give the reader a good overview of the historical context of the issue you are writing about, but do not feel like you must provide an exhaustive review of the subject. Focus on hitting the main points, and try to include the most relevant studies.
You might describe previous research findings and then explain how the current study differs or expands upon earlier research.
Provide Your Hypothesis
Once you have summarized the previous research, explain areas where the research is lacking or potentially flawed. What is missing from previous studies on your topic? What research questions have yet to be answered? Your hypothesis should lead to these questions.
At the end of your introduction, offer your hypothesis and describe what you expected to find in your experiment or study.
The introduction should be relatively brief. You want to give your readers an overview of a topic, explain why you are addressing it, and provide your arguments.
Tips for Writing Your Psychology Paper Intro
- Use 3x5 inch note cards to write down notes and sources.
- Look in professional psychology journals for examples of introductions.
- Remember to cite your sources.
- Maintain a working bibliography with all of the sources you might use in your final paper. This will make it much easier to prepare your reference section later on.
- Use a copy of the APA style manual to ensure that your introduction and references are in proper APA format .
What This Means For You
Before you delve into the main body of your paper, you need to give your readers some background and present your main argument in the introduction of you paper. You can do this by first explaining what your topic is about, summarizing past research, and then providing your thesis.
Armağan A. How to write an introduction section of a scientific article ? Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):8-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.046
Fried T, Foltz C, Lendner M, Vaccaro AR. How to write an effective introduction . Clin Spine Surg . 2019;32(3):111-112. doi:10.1097/BSD.0000000000000714
Jawaid SA, Jawaid M. How to write introduction and discussion . Saudi J Anaesth . 2019;13(Suppl 1):S18-S19. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_584_18
American Psychological Association. Information Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts That Report New Data Collections Regardless of Research Design . Published 2020.
By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."
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8 Signs You Have Higher Self-Esteem Than The Average Person, According To Psychology
Shifting your perspective of yourself is a habit of those with high self-esteem..
- Alex Mathers
Last updated on Sep 05, 2024
![Signs You Have Higher Self-Esteem Than The Average Person, According To Psychology Woman has higher self-esteem than the average person.](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/higher-self-esteem-average.png)
There’s much I’ve learned over the last twenty years, going from a deeply insecure teen to a confident man who loves life for the most part. A lot has changed for me. These are some tips I’d pass on if you’re struggling. Please don’t feel ashamed to read these, regardless of your age or where you feel you should be in your life. We all experience what feels like low self-esteem at points in our lives.
Here are 8 signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology:
1. you're adept at re-wiring unhelpful beliefs.
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology woman re-wiring her beliefs](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/signs-higher-self-esteem.png)
What thought pattern do you continually entertain that makes you feel bad about yourself? Often, a repeated line of thinking governs your perceived inadequacy. Maybe it’s something like, ‘I’m just not an intelligent person.’
There could be others, too. We buy into these stories, which can hold tremendous sway in our lives, often without realizing how much they do. You must identify these pernicious thoughts and call them out by name.
Why are they not true? What evidence do you have to support the opposite belief? I.e. I am an intelligent person. You will find the evidence, and when you do, those beliefs will be instantly erased.
RELATED: 7 Signs You're Cooler Than The Average Person, According To Psychology
2. You keep an achievements list
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology man writing an achievement list](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/higher-self-esteem-signs.png)
As we’ll discuss shortly, your self-esteem needn’t rely on your circumstances. Your life doesn’t have to be a particular way to enjoy self-confidence. But as a primer and to lift yourself out of self-critical thoughts that are likely swirling if you consider yourself to have low self-esteem, this is a valuable exercise.
Many of us get so hung up on what we haven’t got that we forget to note what we have achieved. Bringing these things back into your awareness, no matter how ‘small,’ will help shift your perspective. Your wins are there. You must find them and give yourself the gift of realizing how far you’ve come.
3. You keep a healthy diet
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology woman eating healthy](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/high-self-esteem-signs.png)
If you continually feel depressed and also regularly eat processed garbage, you have an opportunity. Many of your woes will be solved here. Assess what you consume. You need to get real with yourself. What we eat counts in a big way.
People who consume ultra-processed foods have a higher risk of developing depression; a Harvard University study found . My two cents is to veer towards the diet humans have been running on for millennia — less of this modern plant-based, seed-oil-infused, carb-heavy take-out stuff. More primal. More meat (ethically and locally sourced).
But don’t take my word for it. One needs only to peruse some of the many positive online comments people share since shifting to a more carnivore-based diet. But if you feel good and rarely get sick on a plant-based diet, great — this is for those who don’t and are looking for solutions.
RELATED: 10 Tiny Happiness Secrets Most People Conveniently Ignore
4. You truly commit to yourself
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology man helping someone](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/signs-have-higher-self-esteem.png)
Most of us are miserable because our commitment is to ourselves and no one else. Yes, we must prioritize our joy, but that’s different from being self-obsessed. Turn your attention away from your happiness and over to contributing to other people's happiness. Something will switch in you.
How to do this? Creating things that others enjoy. It’s hard to feel low when you’re busy creating cool stuff and not worrying about yourself.
5. You understand the true nature of self-esteem
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology man with high self-esteem](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/signs-higher-self-esteem-than-others.png)
Here’s the real kicker: self-esteem is an illusion. It’s a made-up concept we’ve cleverly constructed in our minds. We can thank decades of societal programming for this.
There’s no part of ourselves we can lose. Self-esteem creates the sense that we have ‘worth’ to lose. We can’t, because it doesn’t exist in the first place. When we realize this and that we’re essentially indestructible, we are free. It’s all in the mind.
With that, you can have as high or as low self-esteem as you want, but I recommend trying to have high self-esteem. Research from UC Davis shows that having high self-esteem has long-term psychological benefits for people.
RELATED: What 95% Of People Don’t Understand About Happiness
6. You live fully in the present
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology woman living in the present](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/high-self-esteem.png)
If we’ve been depressed or anxious, we’ve likely been neglecting the bright, colorful beauty of the present moment . Here’s a cheeky reminder for you: it’s still here. You just need the courage to let go occasionally and return. In the now, there are no worries — only life free of heavy meaning. Isn’t that refreshing?
7. You listen to — and follow through — with your deeper inclinations
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology man follows through with inclinations](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/higher-self-esteem-than-others.png)
Living life for others at the expense of following your passions is no bueno. Listen to the quiet voice you keep ignoring. You might feel it like a little buzz in your chest, too. Once you’ve identified what drives you, stop stopping. You must be biased to create insane amounts of momentum. This will come more naturally when you find something that both interests and challenges you.
8. You continually re-assess your success parameters
![signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology successful woman](https://www.yourtango.com/sites/default/files/image_blog/2024-09/high-self-esteems-signs-psychology.png)
A huge source of suffering for many comes from how we define success for ourselves . We make it up our success parameters. And then we get sad when we fall short of the expectations we built for ourselves. How are you defining what success should be for you? Are you following someone else’s playbook?
Forget them. They’re on their path, and you’re on yours. An example I like to use is writing online to grow your audience. Many people I work with write for a while but then get disappointed and quit. Why? Because their definition of success in this context is for an article to be popular.
Writing successful articles is hard, especially when you’re just starting. The parameter for success must be simply writing and publishing. That’s a win you have full control over and is something of which to be proud. Make sure you define success for you in an attainable way and ensure you continually take steps in the right direction.
- Create a better system that clarifies what actions you take.
- Be biased to plenty of action (automatically means rumination diminishes).
- Get on with it.
RELATED: 9 Signs You're More Accomplished Than The Average Person, According To Psychology
Alex Mathers is a writer and coach who helps people build a money-making personal brand with their knowledge and skills while staying mentally resilient.
This article was originally published at Medium . Reprinted with permission from the author.
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The Lifespan Development Perspective Essay
- To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
- As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
- As a template for you assignment
Introduction
The lifespan perspective of development, conclusions, reference list.
Lifespan development is a progressive process of development in a human being involving an increase in age, which begins at conception and ends with death (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). In addition, lifespan development can be divided into four levels depicting advanced functionality and character changes as an individual moves from one level to another.
These levels include childhood and adolescence; early adulthood; middle adulthood; and late adulthood (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). This paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development and two major theories of lifespan development. In addition, the impact of the interaction between genes and the environment on the process of human development is also discussed.
The lifespan perspective examines the changes that take place at each level of human development relative to the environmental (Society and culture) factors that influence these changes (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 84). Moreover, the lifespan perspective can be defined in many ways.
For instance, the lifespan perspective can be a progressive and lifelong process of development that is not limited to any single level in human development. On the other hand, there are three major aspects of the lifespan perspective of development, which include the cognitive, social, physical dimensions of change (Sugarman, 2000, p. 59).
Furthermore, other studies claim that the perspective is plastic in nature because some domains of lifespan development increase while others decrease. This plasticity of the lifespan perspective occurs in response to various environmental factors that influence human development.
In addition, the perspective is embedded in the lifelong events that occur in the life of an individual. Thus, this perspective is studied by scientists, anthropologists, and psychologists, which brings out its multidisciplinary nature (Sugarman, 2000, p. 63). On the other hand, the perspective has different contextual implications. Therefore, human development is determined by biological, cultural, social, and physical environmental factors.
The three aspects of the lifespan perspective are also implicated in different developmental changes. The physical aspect of development involves changes in weight, height, shape, and the changes in individual experiences with the external environment (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86).
On the other hand, the social aspect of development involves changes in different phases of human development, which are directly influenced by the social environment such as social skills and relationships. Lastly, the cognitive domain of human development entails change in an individual’s thinking capacity, memory, and decision-making (Sugarman, 2000, p. 64).
The changes characterizing the lifespan perspective of development can also be divided into eight stages of human development. The first stage also known as the Trust vs. Mistrust stage occurs during the period between birth and one year.
Here, development of trust depends on the relationship between the toddler and the care-giver (Sugarman, 2000, p. 66). The second stage also known as Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt period occurs during the early childhood stage. During this stage, the child is capable of making choices relative to the individualized willingness.
The Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage in development, which occurs during the middle childhood stage. During this stage, children develop a sense of purpose through engaging in goal-oriented activities (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 88). The fourth stage also called the Industry vs. Inferiority period occurs at the late childhood period. Here, children develop competence through learning social norms, basic education, and culture.
Additionally, the adolescence stage signifies the Identity vs. Role Confusion period. Here, individual values and choices develop because individuals are able to account for their actions. The Intimacy vs. Isolation period occurs during early adulthood and it is characterized by development of intimate relationships, marriage, and families (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 90).
The Generativity vs. Stagnation period occurs during the middle adulthood stage. Here, individuals are committed with providing for their families and developing their careers. Lastly, the Integrity vs. Despair stage occurs during the late adulthood stage. The elderly individuals are self-contented and they are full of life experiences and advice.
Theories of Lifespan Development
There are many theories that attempt to explain the process of human development from different perspectives such as Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development. Erikson’s theory posits that an individual encounters several conflicts during the development process, which depend on the type of relationship existing between this individual and the society.
Therefore, as an individual moves through the eight stages of development discussed above, he/she must solve the conflicts involved in one stage before moving to another. This ensures that one develops a sound personality; otherwise one may encounter difficulties in addressing conflicts in subsequent stages if the previous ones were not sufficiently resolved (Sugarman, 2000).
On the other hand, Freud’s theory states that the process of personality development occurs at the early childhood stage. Subsequently, the behavioral changes observed in developing individuals are influenced by the childhood events. Here, personality development occurs through several stages during the early childhood stage.
During this stage, the pleasure-oriented capabilities of an individual become focused on specific areas in one’s body. These capabilities also known as sexual libido or psychosexual energy play a major role in the subsequent behavioral changes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008).
Thus, if all the issues involved in the psychosexual stages of development are adequately resolved, then an individual develops a sound personality. However, if the psychosexual issues remain unresolved, the person involved is trapped in a particular stage until all the issues are resolved.
The Interaction of Genes and the Environment in Lifespan Development
A child inherits the genetic information of both parents through the information carriers known as genes. The genes are made up of DNA, which is found on chromosomes. On the other hand, the environment in the context of lifespan development refers to the total social and cultural factors surrounding a developing human being (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86). Therefore, lifespan development in children depends on two major factors; the genetic make-up of a child and the environmental factors.
However, the two factors can play a mutual role in influencing the development of different individuals in the society. Here, the epigenetic framework of development posits that the genetic make-up can be turned on and off relative to the internal and external environmental feedback (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 89).
This gives the process of lifespan development the flexibility and plasticity described in the discussions above. For instance, the learning process in children follows a specific pattern of adaptability, which depends on the internal and external factors.
Therefore, during the early childhood stage, individuals use the environmental experiences in reasoning and acting. However, as the environmental factors and experiences change along the period of lifespan development, so does the emotional, reasoning, and social attributes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 91).
The paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development, the theories of lifespan development and the interaction of heredity and environment to produce individual differences in development.
From the discussions above, the lifespan perspective of development examines the changes that occur in different individuals, which occur due to the interaction of the genetic make-up and the total circumstances surrounding an individual. On the other hand, this perspective is also reinforced by Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which are summarized in the discussions above.
Sigelman, C. K. & Rider, E. A. (2008). Lifespan human development. New York: Cengage Learning Publishers, Inc.
Sugarman, L. (2000). Lifespan development: Frameworks, accounts and strategies (2 nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
- The role of genetics in development
- Effect of Humanistic Theory on Individual Personalities
- Freud's Psychosexual Stage Conception
- Lifespan Development and Its Theories
- Behaviour across the Lifespan
- Erik Erikson's Life and Contributions to Psychoanalysis
- Developmental Theories in Psychology
- Levels of Play Development
- Social Theories and Concepts in Forrest Gump
- Lifespan development and the human servises
- Chicago (A-D)
- Chicago (N-B)
IvyPanda. (2019, February 7). The Lifespan Development Perspective. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/
"The Lifespan Development Perspective." IvyPanda , 7 Feb. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.
IvyPanda . (2019) 'The Lifespan Development Perspective'. 7 February.
IvyPanda . 2019. "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.
1. IvyPanda . "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.
Bibliography
IvyPanda . "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.
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Emotional intelligence, defined as the ability to recognize and manage one's emotions, as well as understand the emotions of others, plays a crucial role in self-analysis. By evaluating my emotional intelligence, I have been able to gain a deeper understanding of my own motivations and behaviors, as well as navigate interpersonal relationships ...
Another example about self is 'I want to be a doctor because I perform well in sciences'. About the social surrounding a person can learn that 'people say that I am very gullible' or 'people think I do not like jokes'. Concept of self is focused, learned with time, and organized in a dynamic perspective that infers an innate ...
Published: Mar 14, 2024. Embarking on the journey of self-development is a deeply personal and transformative experience that can shape the course of one's life. As I reflect on my own journey of self-discovery and growth, I am reminded of the challenges and triumphs that have shaped me into the person I am today.
Divorce and the associated threats: Jung. I have to admit that at some point in my development, I had to face a serious crisis. In contrast to my expectations, my family life left much to be desired in terms of relationships with my husband. The problems that I encountered could be traced back to my Electra complex, as Jung (Borovečki ...
As a result, we can make better progress toward our personal development. 9. Keep developing yourself in new ways. The science is clear: The more ways we develop ourselves, the broader our ...
Psychologist Bruce A. Bracken had a slightly different theory and believed that self-concept was multidimensional, consisting of six independent traits: Academic: Success or failure in school. Affect: Awareness of emotional states. Competence: Ability to meet basic needs. Family: How well you work in your family unit.
Self-development is inherently a form of productivity. Both self-care and self-development are important activities, but serve very different purposes, especially in the current state of the world.
500 Words Essay on Self Development. Self-development is the process of improving oneself. It involves cultivating one's skills, abilities, and knowledge to achieve a better quality of life. Understanding Self-Development. Self-development is a lifelong journey. It is not a one-size-fits-all approach, as each individual has different ...
Personal development is the process of improving oneself in various aspects of life through self-reflection, learning, and growth. It is an ongoing journey that requires continuous effort and dedication to achieve one's full potential. The purpose of this reflective essay is to identify and analyze key experiences, strengths and weaknesses ...
An important work from a leading scholar, this book explores self-development from early childhood to adulthood. Susan Harter traces the normative stages that define the emergence of many self-processes, including self-esteem. Restructured and significantly revised, the second edition reflects over a decade of conceptual, empirical, and methodological advances. It provides a broader ...
The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence. Adolescence is crucial for many aspects of developing self and identity, including commitments, personal goals, motivations, and psychosocial well-being (4-7).During adolescence, youth seek autonomy, particularly from parents, along with increased commitments to social aspects of identity and greater needs for connection with peers ().
Keywords: Self-reflection, Adolescence, Personal experience, Identity formation, Social relationships, Emotional development, Mental health, Family dynamics. The adolescent years are the most crucial years in one's life and I also have my adolescent experience that is unique and valuable for me and i'll share it in this essay.
Behaviorism in Development of Psychology. The primary goal of this paper is to draw attention to the topic of behaviorism and explain its importance to the development of psychology in the long-term. Developmental Psychology: Executive Functions. It is linked to the ability of a person to control behavior.
Self-concept in psychology refers to an individual's self-perceived knowledge, beliefs, and feelings about themselves, encompassing elements like self-worth, self-image, and self-esteem. It's formed through experiences, interactions, and reflections, and plays a pivotal role in influencing behavior, emotions, and interpersonal relationships. A healthy self-concept promotes well-being, while a ...
The principles of developmental psychology outlined by Paul Baltes suggest that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional, (3) multidirectional, (4) involves gains and losses, (5) plastic (malleable and adaptive), and (6) multidisciplinary. What are the 4 basic issues of developmental psychology?
Developmental psychology essay examples by straight 🅰️ students. Psychology Writing is the 🔝 collection of free psychology essays on the Internet. ... Self-regulation is a unique opportunity for a child to acquire skills to manage their emotions and actions. It provides a foundation for development in the early years of life and impacts ...
Self-awareness—how we see ourselves and the effects we have on our environment—influences our behavior and the type of person we want to become. This article examines recent research and areas of practice that address the meaning of self-awareness and how it develops over time. We build on extant comprehensive reviews of the literature to define self-awareness and its accuracy, measurement ...
Psychosynthesis Essay - Ego Development and the Self. Write a paper showing your understanding of the basics of developmental psychology from a psycho-spiritual point of view. When considering developmental psychology many questions come to mind when trying to explain human development. Maturity can form many guises - in the form of ...
Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which "lie behind" the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. "Signpost" the essay's key argument, (and, if possible, how. this argument is structured).
In this contribution, we review research that uses a cross-fertilisation approach to integrate developmental and social-psychological perspectives on how identities are formed and changed over time and how identity processes are genuinely social, being embedded in social contexts and fed by social contents. First, we outline the three-factor ...
103 Personality Development & Personal Development Topics. 11 min. When choosing development essay topics, you need to know some theory. Personal development is a set of various acts to expand one's possibilities, mindset, emotional intelligence, etc. It is essential to know some terms from psychology, such as personal identity, interpersonal ...
At a Glance. Writing a great introduction can be a great foundation for the rest of your psychology paper. To create a strong intro: Research your topic. Outline your paper. Introduce your topic. Summarize the previous research. Present your hypothesis or main argument.
2. You keep an achievements list. Karolina Kaboompics / Pexels. As we'll discuss shortly, your self-esteem needn't rely on your circumstances.
Lifespan development is a progressive process of development in a human being involving an increase in age, which begins at conception and ends with death (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). In addition, lifespan development can be divided into four levels depicting advanced functionality and character changes as an individual moves from one level to another.