self developmental psychology essay

Coronavirus Disease 2019

Reflections on self-development and self-care, how to distinguish between two similar but different concepts..

Posted June 3, 2020 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

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In the age of COVID-19, self-isolation, and inevitable uncertainty, the topics of self-development and self-care have come up for my patients more than they might have in “normal life.” (What’s even normal anymore?)

While we are all staying home, we may have fewer obligations or more time to fill. Simultaneously, we may be attempting to distract ourselves from all the bad news surrounding us, easing our inevitable anxiety , or trying to use this time to better ourselves in some way. These goals all hold some importance on a case-to-case basis, but it's important to accurately distinguish between two similar but different ideas here: self-development and self-care.

Self-care is just that — doing something to take care of yourself. It may include a relaxing activity like yoga, a bath, reading a book, or something that helps someone else clear their mind, like going for a walk outside.

Self-care is a practice that aims to help self-soothe but may look different for every person. For example, someone may consider watching a favorite TV show to be self-care, while for someone else, this might not feel like self-care, and more so represent them falling off of their self-care regimen that includes showering, making a cup of coffee, and chatting with a spouse. There is no blanket example of self-care, but there are certain goals it should ideally fulfill.

Self-care should be deliberate. It should be something you plan to do for the sole goal of taking care of yourself, and nothing else. At the same time, self-care should hopefully make you feel a little bit better during or afterward. Self-care should aim to improve your emotional well-being, and therefore elicit positive emotions rather than negative ones. If you try something as a practice of self-care and it doesn’t feel good, try something else!

Self-development

Self-development, on the other hand, is defined as doing something to improve yourself. For example, learning a new language, or getting in better physical shape are examples of self-development, as is enrolling in an online course or training that is relevant to your profession. Self-development aims to improve a skill or introduce a new area of expertise that might make you feel empowered, emotionally, physically, or intellectually. Self-development is inherently a form of productivity .

Both self-care and self-development are important activities, but serve very different purposes, especially in the current state of the world. Some people may be able to use this time to improve or develop a new skill, and that’s wonderful, but for others, it just might not be the right time to embark on a new learning or physical endeavor.

For some people, managing their new day-to-day life, balancing caring for kids, trying to keep working from home, while also trying to process the immense loss of the world may be overwhelming, and therefore leave little cognitive, emotional, or literal space for self-development. Deciding what works best for you right now is a complicated process, but worth investigating through self-reflection.

For example, for me personally, I know that I am feeling more down than usual as death rates filter onto my phone, and even a little bit angry as I envision with uncertainty what my professional life will look like when the world is no longer in crisis. For me, taking time for self-care is more effective in maintaining my mental health for the time being, over finally refreshing my Spanish skills.

My partner, however, does better psychologically when their mind is busy and is currently taking an online course that includes lectures and work outside of class. To be honest, to me that sounds entirely miserable, but for them, it is a healthy coping mechanism.

Another important aspect of this distinction to remember is that comparing yourself with how someone else is using this time probably won’t help you. Everyone is handling the current state of the world differently, and if you’re being intentional about it, and self-aware of what you need on a daily basis, there is nothing wrong with that.

The word “unprecedented” is starting to become triggering for me given the hundreds (maybe thousands?) of articles I’ve read about COVID-19 and how each of them starts with the phrase “unprecedented times.” Putting that aside (as much as I can), I am also forced to remember that it is accurate; this time period is truly unique. There is no “right” or “wrong” way to deal with what’s happening in our world right now. It is terrifying, disorienting, and objectively bad. Do what works for you, and cut yourself some slack. Take time for yourself right now, however you can, and in whatever form suits you best.

Stay Emotionally Focused,

Konstantin Lukin, Ph.D. , is a psychologist in private practice who specializes in helping men and couples achieve their therapeutic goals.

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Essay on Self Development

Students are often asked to write an essay on Self Development in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Self Development

What is self development.

Self Development is the process of improving and growing yourself as a person. It includes working on your skills, knowledge, and abilities. It also includes developing your character and personality.

Why is Self Development Important?

Self Development is important because it allows you to reach your full potential. When you work on yourself, you become a better version of yourself. You are able to achieve more in life and you are more likely to be happy and successful.

How Can You Develop Yourself?

There are many ways to develop yourself. Some common ways include:

Self Development is an ongoing process. It takes time, effort, and dedication. But it is worth it. When you work on yourself, you become a better person and you are able to achieve more in life.

250 Words Essay on Self Development

Self-development: journey of personal growth, building self-esteem.

Self-development starts with building self-esteem. This means believing in yourself and your abilities. When you have high self-esteem, you feel confident and capable, which makes it easier to take on challenges and achieve your goals.

Setting Goals

Once you have a good sense of self-esteem, you can start setting goals for yourself. Goals give you direction and purpose, and they help you stay motivated. Make sure your goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Taking Action

Once you’ve set your goals, it’s time to take action. This means putting in the hard work to achieve them. This could involve taking classes, reading books, or practicing new skills. It’s important to be patient and persistent. Don’t give up on yourself if you don’t see results immediately. Just keep working hard and you will eventually achieve your goals.

Continuous Learning

Self-development is a lifelong journey. There’s always something new to learn and new ways to improve. Be open to new experiences and challenges. The more you learn and grow, the more you will achieve.

Reflecting on Progress

500 words essay on self development, understanding self-development.

Self-development is a lifelong journey. It is not a one-size-fits-all approach, as each individual has different strengths, weaknesses, and goals. However, there are some common principles and practices that can help anyone achieve self-development.

The first step in self-development is to set goals. Goals give you something to strive for and help you stay motivated. When setting goals, it’s important to make them SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound). This will help you stay focused and increase your chances of success.

Learning and Growing

Self-development involves learning and growing. This means acquiring new skills and knowledge, and developing new perspectives and beliefs. It’s important to be open to new experiences and challenges, as these can help you grow and become a better version of yourself.

Building Relationships

Reflecting and evaluating.

Self-development is a lifelong journey that requires dedication and commitment. However, the rewards are worth it. By investing in yourself, you can achieve a better quality of life, and become the best version of yourself.

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Personal Growth and Development — Personal Development: Reflection and Growth

Personal Development: Reflection and Growth

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Published: Feb 7, 2024

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Introduction, strengths and weaknesses analysis, goal setting and action planning, feedback and self-reflection.

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The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence: Neural Evidence and Implications for a Value-Based Choice Perspective on Motivated Behavior

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Following a key developmental task of childhood—building a foundation of self-knowledge in the form of domain-specific self-concepts—adolescents begin to explore their emerging identities in ways that foster autonomy and connectedness. Neuroimaging studies of self-related processes demonstrate enhanced engagement of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in adolescence, which may facilitate and reflect the development of identity by integrating the value of potential actions and choices. Drawing from neuroeconomic and social cognitive accounts, we propose that motivated behavior during adolescence can be modeled by a general value-based decision-making process centered around value accumulation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. This approach advances models of adolescent neurodevelopment that focus on reward sensitivity and cognitive control by considering more diverse value inputs, including contributions of developing self- and identity-related processes. It also considers adolescent decision making and behavior from adolescents’ point of view rather than adults’ perspectives on what adolescents should value or how they should behave.

Adolescents are physically, cognitively, and socioemotionally more advanced than children but prone to behave in ways that are inconsistent with adult values and norms. Adolescents are frequently caricaturized as excessive risk takers, overly self-focused, and highly susceptible to social pressure. Despite agreement that such a portrayal is an oversimplification, the field is still searching for a framework to explain why these tendencies are more common in adolescents than in children or adults. One influential approach, the dual-systems model ( 1 ), conceptualizes behavior in terms of a competition or conflict between developing neural circuits implicated in reward sensitivity and cognitive control, and describes how the functioning of these networks may relate to adolescents’ risk taking. Another prominent approach considers contributions of networks that process social information to understand adolescents’ social reorientation, in which social influences expand beyond the family to emphasize peers ( 2 ). However, these models do not account for the contributions of identity- and self-related processes, such as core personal values and self-verification, to motivated adolescent behavior. This gap is disconcerting because the self represents a key intersection among social, cognitive, affective, motivational, and regulatory processes ( 3 ).

To address this gap, we propose a neurobiologically grounded model of value-based decision making that more flexibly accommodates more diverse inputs to behavior, such as considerations related to self and identity that are relevant in adolescence and can promote or prevent risky behavior depending on context. We first review adolescents’ development of self and identity, linking the behavioral and neural levels. We then outline the general value-based decision-making approach and describe the predictions of this model in the context of adolescent development. Our goal is to produce a more flexible, comprehensive account of adolescent behavior – one that might improve adolescent outcomes, as well as enhance our understanding of positive and prosocial development in adolescence.

The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence

Adolescence is crucial for many aspects of developing self and identity, including commitments, personal goals, motivations, and psychosocial well-being ( 4 – 7 ). During adolescence, youth seek autonomy, particularly from parents, along with increased commitments to social aspects of identity and greater needs for connection with peers ( 8 ). Relatedly, self-evaluations become increasingly differentiated and complex across roles and relationships ( 9 ). Adolescents also frequently report greater self-consciousness, and are more concerned with and interested in others’ perceptions of self ( 10 ).

Given the theoretical and empirical prominence of changes in aspects of self and identity during adolescence, researchers have begun to examine how they are expressed at a neural level. Most of this work has examined self-evaluation, typically by asking youth to judge whether various (often overtly positive or negative) traits and attributes describe them. Like adults, children and early adolescents use cortical and subcortical midline structures, in particular the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and adjacent rostral/perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), more when evaluating themselves than when evaluating others ( 10 – 12 ; although this pattern can be attenuated with close others like adolescents’ best friends; 13 , 14 ). Even in clinical populations of children and adolescents, the vmPFC is usually more active during self-evaluations than most control conditions. Typically developing youth also seem to use the vmPFC more during self-evaluations than do youth with autism spectrum disorder ( 3 ) and, at times, youth experiencing depression ( 15 , 16 ).

We are just beginning to learn more about how neural responses elicited by self-evaluation develop across adolescence, rather than between childhood or adolescence and adulthood. In two studies on the self-reference effect in memory (wherein information evaluated in relation to the self is remembered more accurately than other information), activity in the rostral/perigenual ACC increased from ages 7 to 13 during encoding for self versus mother ( 17 ), and from ages 13 to 19 during encoding for self versus distant other ( 18 ).

Furthermore, in a longitudinal fMRI study, responses to self-evaluations in the rostral/perigenual ACC (and ventral striatum, VS) self-evaluations were stable from age 10 to 13 ( 19 ). Activity also increased in the vmPFC over time during evaluations of self (relative to other), especially for self-evaluations in the social (versus academic) domain, and in adolescents with more advanced pubertal development during social self-evaluations. This suggests the interrelated biological and social changes associated with puberty may affect self-referential processes and the value derived from them.

Although these studies of self-evaluative processes emphasized the vmPFC and adjacent rostral/perigenual ACC, several other regions were also important. As mentioned earlier, VS responses have been observed not only during direct self-evaluations ( 19 ), but also in indirect (reflected) social self-evaluations, specifically when an adolescent thinks about what a best friend thinks of his or her social abilities ( 14 ). The involvement of VS during self-evaluation is consistent with studies of adults, which highlight the overlap between self-reference and reward ( 20 ) through assigning value ( 21 ). Additionally, the dorsal medial PFC (dmPFC) and the temporal-parietal junction (TPJ) are sometimes more active in children’s and adolescents self-evaluations ( 10 , 11 , 18 ); in adults, these regions are typically attuned to mentalizing, social perspective taking, and evaluating others. Furthermore, functional connectivity between the TPJ and the vmPFC relates positively to generosity in adults ( 22 ), suggesting that the TPJ might affect social value by modulating the vmPFC during choices involving the self and others.

In summary, in research using functional neuroimaging, explicit self-evaluation as well as more indirect forms of social self-evaluation implicated in relational identity robustly engage the vmPFC and the rostral/perigenual ACC (as part of a broader network including the VS, TPJ, and dmPFC) in children and adolescents, often more so than in adults. Activity in the vmPFC and rostral/perigenual ACC seems to increase from late childhood through middle adolescence, when it either plateaus or continues to increase. These findings are consistent with empirical evidence and theoretical proposals that adolescence is critical for developing identity ( 4 – 7 ).

Despite the behavioral and neural evidence of the elevated importance of self- and identity-related processes during adolescence, what role these processes may play in neurodevelopmental models of adolescent behavior is unclear. Dual-systems models in particular focus on a mismatch between mature reward-related circuitry and immature cognitive control circuitry ( 1 ). However, self/identity does not fit clearly in either category because it can contribute alternately or concurrently to reward-seeking and regulatory behavior. For example, a teenager with an emerging academic identity is likely to prioritize studying over other activities, though it is unclear whether the effect of such an identity operates through rewarding or regulatory processes (or both, or if this distinction is not meaningful theoretically for self/identity). In the next section, we present a model that prioritizes self- and identity-related processes in determining behavior and explains a prominent functional role of the vmPFC during this period.

Value-Based Decision Making as a Mechanism of Motivated Behaviors in Adolescence

Choosing to attend a party where there may be alcohol as well as an attractive classmate against parental wishes and despite math tutoring in the morning sounds like a failure of self-control—to parents, at least. But from an adolescent’s point of view, this decision might be driven by the high subjective value of partying and associated opportunities relative to some alternative, like studying algebra. This should not be surprising; researchers noted decades ago that adolescents routinely chose to behave in ways that are of optimal utility for their social microenvironments ( 23 ), and utility-maximizing functions can account for decisions like this one made by people at any age ( 24 , 25 ). However, researchers have recently characterized the computational and neural processes involved in value-based decision making, defined as either-or choices between two or more options with varied attributes ( 26 ). In a value-based decision-making approach, diverse gains and costs are integrated in a dynamic and noisy way to yield choices (see Figure 1 ; relevant inputs are specific to a given choice and not necessarily confined to one—e.g., parental incentives for good grades are both tangible and social rewards). As we describe next, this flexibility is a key feature of the model. The gains and costs (represented throughout the brain) act as inputs to the process, and are integrated in the vmPFC after being weighted and transformed into a common neural value currency ( 27 ).

Note. Solid arrows from value inputs represent positive value, dashed arrows represent negative value, and line thickness indicates relative weight. Sample tangible inputs (primary or secondary gains and costs) are tagged in orange, sample social inputs are tagged in blue, and sample self/identity related inputs are tagged in purple. Value inputs can be cross-tagged. Adapted from ( 27 ).

From this perspective, one cause of what adults consider to be problematic adolescent behavior may be a normative developmental process that increases the subjective value of self- and identity-relevant inputs relative to childhood. The increased activity observed in the vmPFC during self-evaluation and relational identity processes in adolescence overlaps spatially with the representation of value in the brain (see Figure 2 ), and thus could reflect greater subjective value afforded to the self and its varied traits, roles, and aspirations. This suggests that identity and other associated self-related processes may increase as a source of value to shape decision-making and motivated behavior across adolescence.

Note. Regions in red are likely to appear in studies using the term value , calculated by Neurosynth’s automated meta-analysis tool. Peaks from studies of self-evaluation using typically developing adolescents are overlayed. Blue represents peaks from the self > other contrast in child or adolescent samples, and green represents peaks that show increases during self-evaluation with age. Slices are displayed at x = −6, y = 44, and z = −10. To be included here, studies had to report activations in medial prefrontal cortex from the contrast of self > other from a developmental sample or changes in that contrast with age. A full list of studies and coordinates can be found at: http://osf.io/64qh5 .

Value-based choice describes decision making as the output of a unified value-accumulation process centered in the vmPFC. The valuation process integrates signals from regions that represent relevant attributes of choice (e.g., self-related value in the mPFC, social values in the TPJ, abstract goals such as health in the lateral PFC). We note two aspects of this process of value integration: First, we do not presume it to be deliberative; in other words, inputs are integrated computationally without relying on explicit reasoning. The model allows for rational decision making independent of formal reasoning, unlike fuzzy-trace theory’s distinction between decisions based on explicit reasoning and those based on intuition or gist ( 28 ). Second, a value-based decision-making approach accounts explicitly for the diversity of inputs, and recognizes that these inputs may not fall neatly into consistent clusters. For example, hot processes such as reward and cold processes such as regulation do not necessarily map on to risky and safe behaviors, respectively, and do not necessarily oppose one another. As such, observed activations in two or more regions during choice might reflect simultaneous contributions to value integration rather than competition or inhibition (see 29 for a similar point and a more integrative account).

Dissolving the one-to-one mapping between process (e.g., hot versus cold or reward versus regulation) and outcome (e.g., risky and safe) averts the issue that can arise when these inputs are funneled through two systems that battle for control over behavior (e.g., 1 , 30 ). The most important distinction in a value-based decision-making model is in fact not between types of processes, but between factors that contribute to the value of one behavior or another. For example, what matters in this model is which behavior is promoted by social influence, regardless of whether it is hot or cold. By refocusing on the many diverse reasons for potential behaviors, the model also suggests new experimental paradigms that manipulate the motivating reasons behind a behavior, as well as new pathways for intervention from the variety of value inputs to choice, rather than just two processes (reward and control) whose functioning is mainly determined by neurodevelopment.

The Identity-Value Model ( 31 ) expands on this general value-based decision-making approach by emphasizing the special role of identity in self-regulation and motivated behavior broadly. The central hypothesis of the Identity-Value Model is that goal-directed behaviors are valued more when they are relevant to the identity. Consider the previously mentioned example: If the adolescent had a strong academic identity commitment, the identity might boost the chance of skipping the party by increasing the value of studying. If, instead, the adolescent wished to fit in with a peer group that valued late-night socializing, that aspect of identity would increase the value of going to the party.

The model considers identity as multifaceted, so different aspects of identity (e.g., academic, social/relational, familial, ethnic/cultural, interest-based) can influence the value of self-regulatory behaviors to the extent that such aspects are salient and perceived as relevant to the decision (see also 32 ). Key features of identity thought to facilitate its effectiveness in adulthood include stability, positivity, and accessibility. Given that identity development is considered a core task of adolescence ( 33 ), and evidence suggests significant exploration of and commitments to key identities during this period ( 4 , 5 , 7 ), we expect identity-relevant inputs to increase in value across adolescence, affecting self-regulation and other motivated behaviors. Additionally, identities and behaviors might be reinforced mutually: aspects of identity that favor consistently chosen actions might be more valued, and aspects of identity that favor actions that are consistently not chosen might be less valued (e.g., through dissonance or reward-devaluation processes; 34 ).

Additional Developmental Considerations for Value-Based Decision Making

One important consideration is the extent of developmental change in the decision-making processes implicated in this model. Even young children apparently understand expected value, and by late childhood use it to decide in a manner similar to adults, which includes sensitivity to probability and magnitude of outcome ( 35 , 36 ). These abilities apparently mature by middle adolescence, particularly for decision-making contexts that are relatively less affective ( 37 ). However, adolescents may also be more sensitive behaviorally and neurally than adults to increasing expected value ( 38 ), and may be more tolerant of ambiguity ( 39 ). The range of simple value inputs in much of the relevant research cited previously was limited; researchers should therefore expand the set of stimulus types used in experiments to include more complex, identity-relevant targets and ecologically valid decision-making contexts. Additionally, despite this support for the general value-based choice model in adolescence, researchers have not manipulated the self-relevance of response options to directly test the contribution of identity-based values to adolescent decision-making processes.

Other components of the value-based decision-making model (detailed in 27 ) may also be affected by development, such as delay discounting in which participants choose between smaller-sooner and larger-later rewards. For example, delay discounting decreases rapidly from early to middle adolescence, a finding that represents an additional important constraint that shapes the value-based decision-making process in adolescence differently than in adulthood ( 40 , 41 ).

Finally, in addition to the possibility that identity-based and other self-related values become increasingly important to adolescent decision making, particular social motivations like social status and peer or romantic relationships are expected to surge in relevance as well ( 2 , 42 , 43 ). One set of social-cognitive weights on the decision-making process undoubtedly includes perceptions of what others—especially peers (e.g., friends, romantic partners, members of social ingroups, members of high-status social groups)—value; in this context, others also include respected individuals (e.g., family members, teachers). The interaction between this concept and identity development processes is also an interesting consideration. Specifically, these social perceptions provide information about the self ( 10 , 14 ) and help shape adolescents’ personal values and identity, which subsequently or concurrently are perceived as increasingly significant in decision making.

Although adolescent behavior is influenced by normative developmental changes in sensitivity to rewards and social context, the self also evolves to become an important source of value and intrinsic motivation. With increasing development and exploration of identity commitments and autonomy, the self can be harnessed for self-regulation and other motivated behavior. This creates a space for intervening to improve outcomes in maladaptive cases of adolescent decision making that does not exist within current models, in which d such behaviors are portrayed to result from expected maturational trajectories of frontostriatal circuitry. In particular, identity-based and other self-related values may be much more modifiable targets, either in terms of the content of identity in various contexts or the relative salience of different aspects of identity that might promote different behaviors (e.g., athletic versus academic). For example, the juvenile justice system is considering ways to foster positive and prosocial identities as a way to keep adolescents from engaging in antisocial behavior ( 44 ).

On a broader level, a neurodevelopmentally informed, value-based decision-making approach may provide not only a more comprehensive theory but also an opportunity to reframe our thinking about adolescents’ choices and actions. If a value-based decision-making account is correct, choices that adults perceive as bad can be considered instead as rational from the adolescent point of view, at least inasmuch as they represent choices with the highest subjective value. The adolescent decision-making system is not broken; adolescents (individually and as a group) may simply consider different value attributes and weight those attributes differently than do adults. By taking the normative adult perspective, we may be artificially constraining the sources of value we consider relevant to adolescent decision making, thereby restricting what we can learn about how and why adolescents’ priorities differ from those of adults, and limiting our ability to develop ways to encourage positive outcomes. Given that developing positive personal and social identities ( 4 – 7 , 9 ), as well as balancing autonomy and connectedness, are core tasks of adolescence ( 8 , 33 ), these self-related and social sources of value are worth prioritizing in investigations and translational efforts.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

The authors would like to acknowledge support from NIH grants DA035763, DA043015, and MH107418 to JHP and AG048840, CA175241, and CA211224 to ETB.

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Home Essay Samples Psychology Adolescence

My Adolescent Experience and Development: A Reflection

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Adolescent experience in my life, physical development, emotional development.

“Perhaps you looked in the mirror on a daily, or sometimes even hourly, basis as a young teenager to see whether you could detect anything different about your changing body. Preoccupation with one’s body image is strong through adolescence, it is especially acute during puberty, a time when adolescents are more dissatisfied with their bodies than in late adolescence.” (Santrock)

Social changes

• Arnett, J. J. (2015). Adolescence and emerging adulthood : A cultural approach. Pearson Education.
• Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. WW Norton & Company.
• Gullotta, T. P., & Adams, G. R. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of adolescent behavioral problems: Evidence-based approaches to prevention and treatment. Springer.
• Steinberg, L. (2014). Age of opportunity: Lessons from the new science of adolescence. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
• Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual review of psychology, 52(1), 83-110.
• Suler, J. R. (2018). Adolescent development. In Psychology of Adolescence (pp. 11-38). Springer.
• Rutter, M., & Smith, DJ (1995). Psychosocial disorders in young people: Time trends and their causes. John Wiley & Sons.
• American Psychological Association. (2019). APA handbook of the psychology of adolescence.
• Offer, D., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (1992). Debunking the myths of adolescence: Findings from recent research. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(6), 1003-1014.

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• Confirmation Bias
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Gender identity has played a crucial role in the field of psychology, leading to many established theories and causal relationships by well-known scholars. For a long time, there has been a debate regarding the essence of gender identity and what might influence it. While one group of people believes that...

Human Development from Lifespan Perspective

The development of a human being is often explained through a life-time perspective which defines certain stages in a person’s life cycle. Psychology considers these stages through the lens of development of people’ cognitive abilities and social and intrapersonal skills. By ascribing certain psychological characteristics to definite developmental steps and...

The Early Childhood Stage of Development

Introduction Development in life takes stages that are defined by theories of development. The developmental stages of childhood through adolescence contain dynamics based on ages and life experiences that can be explained theoretically. Several development scientists and theorists provide evidence to explain changes in life development. They argue that diverse...

The Middle Childhood Development

During middle childhood, a child’s physical, emotional, and cognitive development peaks. This is the time when kids start to develop and become their personalities. They grow and learn at a fantastic rate during this time. During this time, kids learn to express their emotions, be social and have a positive...

Middle Childhood Development and Growth

Moral Development in Middle Childhood Parenting and nurturing children to become morally fit members of society may be complex. Moral development can be defined as the comprehensive evolution of morality from infancy through adulthood. It is essential that as children develop, they learn to discern between right and wrong acts....

Children’s Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Development

The study of how children develop is of particular value to study. This is because gaining awareness about aspects such as cognitive, emotional, and social development can contribute to improving parenting outcomes. Moreover, society can gain an understanding of how it affects children, as well as cultural and socioeconomic factors....

Child and Adolescent Development Stages

The Stages of Child and Adolescent Development Matrix K-2ndGrade 3rd-5thGrade 6-8thGrade ConceptsTheories Cognitive Possess object memory and the growth of early problem-solving abilities. Signs of logical thinking. They appear to enhance the sense of self (Driscoll, 2013). The emergence of abstract reasoning and understanding of social concerns. Erikson’s concept of...

Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development

Introduction The psychosocial development theory by Erickson is an expansion of a model by Sigmund Freud’s study on ego, super-ego, and identity. The theory describes the impact of social experiences across the whole lifespan of a human being (Samsanovich, 2021). Erickson focuses on the social interactions and the relationships that...

The Infant and Toddler Development

Daycare of infants and toddlers by outsiders has become an indispensable practice in the modern world. It is a common situation when parents do not have the opportunity to be near their children constantly, so caregivers should be ready to make children’s time without parents calm and effective. Nevertheless, one...

The Development of Siyasanda Discussion

Introduction The environment in which a kid develops forms a powerful experience that affects the child’s future life. Human development is a process of forming and creating personality under the impact of external and internal, controlled and uncontrolled factors (Abbott, 2021). The leading role is played by purposeful upbringing and...

The Brain Development in Children

The brain is a sophisticated organ that governs all bodily regulation functions, including cognition, touch, empathy, motor skills, sight, temperature, respiration, and hunger. The cortex is on the outer surface of brain cells. It is where reasoning and muscle activity start. The brain stem is one of the most important...

Attachment Theory and Developmental Psychology in Early Childhood

Attachment theory is one of the staples in the psychology’s understanding of the relationship development between people. Some scholars go so far as to assign it a role in the brain formation and propose it as an alternative to psychoanalysis. Its role in the developmental psychology in general and the...

Childhood Fame and Adulthood: Developmental Science

From a sociological perspective, age is an individual’s ascribed characteristic, a feature that contributes to defining who a person is, independently from his will. Age has this characteristic because of society’s definitions, which are linked to its many meanings, expectations for conduct, and responsibilities (Pitti, 2017). Determining a person’s age...

Children’s Development Affected by Environment

Introduction An individual’s environment consists of all the factors, both living and nonliving, that have an impact on that individual’s quality of life. The environment encourages healthy growth and brain development by providing a child with affection, emotional support, and chances for learning and discovery. The term “child development” describes...

Influences on Early Development

The Role of Caregivers and Cultural Influences in Parenting Throughout their development, children require consistent and active support of their parents or caregivers. However, though the necessity to have the support and help of a caregiver is vital for a child at every developmental stage, the type of the assistance...

Factors Affecting Child Development

Introduction In light of the growing severity of conflicts among young people, the importance of understanding the patterns of development of children and adolescents, which are influenced by the specifics of culture, economics, politics, and even historical processes, is increasing. As you know, socialization is aimed at the formation of...

Personal, Professional, and Academic Development

Introduction The image of the profession as a cognitive and emotional education significantly changes the system of general guidelines in the public and individual consciousness of people. Professional development becomes inseparable from personal development – both are based on the principle of self-development, which determines the ability of a person...

Adulthood and Its Developmental Characteristics

Adult Development Charting adult development through (historically changing) daily stress processes is an article that explores adult development based on people’s daily life experiences and the latest historical changes related to them. The authors utilize the results of the descriptive analyses conducted by the National Studies of Daily Experiences from...

Interviewing a Person in Late Adulthood

For this exercise, I interviewed my neighbor, Robert, who is 72 years old and the questions used are attached in the Appendix. Akeret & Klein’s (1991) questions were utilized for their relevance to the interview and ability to produce elaborate responses. His parents, grandparents, and known ancestors are originally from...

Products Promoting Infant Development

Interesting products that could improve the development of various abilities in infants could be toy keys and a keyring, a tummy time mat, and a floor mirror. Toy keys and a keyring named Kleynimals, manufactured by the company of the same name, are advertised to enhance infants’ motor skills and...

Language and Cognitive Developments in Infants

Introduction Cognitive skills play a critical role in a person’s life from an early age. Cognitive or brain development refers to such processes as thinking, reasoning, and memorizing (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2021). Notably, for babies in the first year of life, comprehending language is more than...

Developmental Stages from Piaget’s Perspective

Introduction Jean Piaget’s stage theory outlines a toddler’s cognitive development. According to the theory, cognitive development is characterized by alterations in cognitive processes and capacities (Lourenço, 2016). Piaget’s fascination with children’s psychological maturation was sparked by his studies of his daughter and nephew. These findings supported his theory that toddlers’...

Factors That Influence Personality Development

There are numerous issues that influence personality development at different stages. Therefore, it has become challenging to determine the most significant period of people’s rapid evolution. Various types of research focused on animal development provided insight into the biological framework of development. At the same time, the remarkable role of...

Developmental Stages: The Early Childhood Developmental Stage

The developmental stages of the human is complicated question. Many factors, such as genetic and social, affect the person’s developmental stages. When studying human or non-human development, its individual and age characteristics in anatomy, researchers are guided by a scientifically developed concept called age periodization. Personal development, or ontogenesis, occurs...

My Virtual Child Examination of Child Development

Introduction Children progress from parental dependency to rising independence throughout their growth and development. My Virtual Child is a comprehensive examination of child development from birth through adolescence. This assignment exposed me to several scenarios related to the various theories of development and issues discussed in class. I will be...

The Cognitive Development of a Children

Language acquisition is one of the most visible and important achievements in early childhood. Within a few months and with no explicit instruction, babies progress from the stage of uncertain pronunciation of individual words to the fluent expression of whole sentences. Generally, children tend to develop receptive language abilities before...

Impact of Children’s Toys on Development

Introduction For the construction of the play area, it is proposed to use a single room separated into sections. The area will be equipped with various types of furniture and toys that facilitate child development, growth and recovery. Furniture will consist of cabinets, at least two tables, chairs, and soft...

Self-Reflection on Helping Traits

The science of human development aims to understand and explain human changes over time. The goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and optimize the stage of development. Therefore, human beings have a set of developmental stages that must be attained at some point in their lives. Over the...

Child’s Social and Emotional Development

Introduction Tom played with other kids in games that involved throwing a ball. The child showed different kinds of behavior during the process and engaged in various activities. Initially, Tom was afraid to approach playing kids, but his parents helped him. He was involved in competitive team games, one of...

Human Development from Infancy to Death

Infancy Infants develop certain behaviors before they are born. This concept is described as reflex. Reflex is an inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation (Chapter 3, page 81). Reflexes are the most organized pattern of behavior displayed by newborn babies. As a baby, I would fall asleep...

Direct Assessment of Cognitive Development in Children

Introduction The following assessment has been made using a Mathematics Skills Checklist and a Literacy Rating Scale. The discoveries made are required for the information regarding the child’s achievements and failures. It provides an idea of what tasks can be complicated for junior school students to complete. In this essay,...

Child Development During COVID-19 Pandemic

Introduction Coronavirus is an airborne virus that presumably originated from Wuhan, China, and is responsible for the most recent COVID-19 pandemic. Throughout the pandemic, parents and kids alike were forced to cut down on their social interactions and spend most of their time at home, which had a significant effect...

Problem-Solving Skill in Child Development

The skill that was chosen for research in this paper is to use a variety of strategies to solve problems, including problems arising in social situations. It is worth emphasizing that it is one of the critical ones since individuals need to constantly make decisions about how to behave with...

Biological, Psychological, and Social Changes in Teenage Boys

During adolescence, there’s an incredible variation in the rate of changes that occur as a boy enters his teenage years. In six years, some teenage boys may show some signs of maturity. However, as a parent, it is important to be on the lookout since, in some boys, the symptoms...

Middle Adulthood Challenges and Opportunities

Challenges Faced in Middle Adulthood Parents play a significant role in the emotional wellness of their middle adulthood children. They tend to advise their children on the various life challenges that they experience. Therefore, the connection between parents and their middle-life children is often strong. The fear of losing their...

Growth and Development Assessment Case Study

Overview The observation and interview covered a 30-year-old female named Nicki. Nicki is the last born in a family of 8 but lives 200 miles away from her parents’ home. She has never been married but has a 2-year-old son with whom she lives. The single mother is currently not...

Identity and Identity Formation

Abstract Erikson’s theory is also greatly connected to personal development since it entails various aspects that enhance appropriate personal development. One of the main components of personal development includes physical development, where an individual takes note of the physical changes. Intellectual development is also a major aspect of personal development...

The Process of Toddler Development

At each age, children go through new periods of psycho-emotional and physical development. Knowing the characteristics of a particular age, parents can more accurately understand their children’s needs, help them learn the necessary skills, and provide the right conditions for this. At the age of 2-3 years, the list of...

Human Development: Becoming an Adult

Becoming a full-fledged member of society is a long process that evokes a plethora of challenges. As a child grows, the hardships that occur on their way become more complicated: from the ability to express emotions to adjusting to physiology and society, to lessons of morality and challenges of adulthood....

Culture Influence on Personal Identity

Culture is a magnificent interplay of non-tangible phenomena and perceptible artifacts of daily life. People experience the impact of various cultures constantly with or without recognizing it. According to Ozer and Schwartz, individuals react differently to the process of cultural globalization: some might endorse it and feel self-fulfillment, and others...

“Human Capability Development Program”: Program’s Issues and Their Solutions

Human Capability Development Program is in demand in modern times, which are characterized by multitasking and enormous flows of information. Every individual needs to have specific skills and a desire for self-improvement in order to remain a competent and flexible professional. This program is designed just for the permanent development...

Erikson’s Stages of Personal Development

The importance of childhood development is undeniable: it acts as a foundation for adult life. Erik Erikson believed that personality develops in a fixed order via eight phases of psychosocial development (Cherry, 2021). An individual goes through a psychological crisis at each level, which can have a beneficial or harmful...

The Fresh Princess Book by D. Miller

Academician Piaget deduced several age levels of development of children. Each of them corresponds to certain abilities and development possibilities. At the same time, the book Fresh Princess by Denene Miller is a representation of literature for one of the age categories. The book was created in an easy-to-understand and...

Adolescent Transition Period: Difficulties and Changes

Adolescence is one of the most significant ages in people’s life. It is called the transitional age because during this period the transition from childhood to adulthood and from immaturity to maturity takes place. This period is characterized by the desire for self-expression, self-affirmation, demonstration of independence, decreased motivation and...

Young Adulthood and Millennial Leadership

With the increasing life expectancy of the modern world, many started believing that the 20s can be considered a throwaway decade of a person’s life. Some young adults think that the decisions they make in their 20s do not matter and will not affect their future. However, according to TED...

Infant’s Lifespan Development: The Case Analysis

I learned a great deal about newborn development milestones during the infancy interview. I recently interviewed a woman who gave birth to a healthy baby boy called Brandon. Brinley stated that after delivering, she had an easy time because her kid was being cared for by health care professionals. They...

The Early Growth and Development Study

The primary study goals are to investigate how familial, peer and environmental factors affect children’s adaptation and how they interact with genetic factors. Following the birth of a child, participants were recruited through adoption agencies situated throughout the United States. The following specific frameworks are being collected: child personality, behavioral...

A Unique Process of a Child’s Very Early Years

I support the writer’s statement that any child’s very early years are a unique process. Even just one home environment is an incredibly massive world for them, which they semi-consciously seek to know, explore and sometimes even conquer. Watching them is entertaining and confusing because their enthusiasm, interest, and excitement...

Preventing Child Maltreatment by Caregivers

The application of corporal discipline has diverse negative influences, including teaching the child to resolve conflicts with physical aggression and causing severe emotional suffering stemming from the fear of new punishment and disappointing the parent. Therefore, condoning corporate punishment, even if it is supposed to improve the child’s social potential...

The Way Experience Affects the Development of the Baby’s Brain

Many studies prove that children’s development embraces several steps, such as the biological brain forming where neurons are connected and external experiences kids are absorbed during their growth. Attitudes aiming at cognitive capacity expansion correspond to the division of micro-neurons in the brain that reacts to processes happening outside. All...

“Healing at the Eight Stages of Life” by Linn et al.

Introduction The book Healing at the Eight Stages of Life is another work that can help ministers advance their counseling practices because it combines theoretical knowledge about the stages of human development with theological values and perspectives. The authors, Matthew Linn, Sheila Fabricant, and Dannis Linn, focus on two themes...

“Christianity and Developmental Psychopathology” by Flanagan & Hall

Introduction In Christianity and Developmental Psychopathology, the editors Kelly Flanagan and Sarah Hall combine developmental psychology with a Christian perspective. This book is another example of interdisciplinary work that aims to connect pastoral counseling with psychology and therapy. Psychopathology, in particular, is an interesting field of studies because it relates...

The Midlife Crisis: Does It Exist?

Generalizations surrounding psychological well-being across the lifespan give rise to diverse popular but scientifically questionable concepts. For instance, the well-known term “midlife crisis” has been coined to name a self-confidence crisis experienced when reaching middle age. Despite the popularity of this unofficial psychological diagnosis, the perception of midlife as the...

Honesty, Sense of Humor, and Optimism in Personal Development

It would be reasonable to claim that core values are essential to any person in all spheres of life. I suggest that each individual comes to his or her fundamental principles of living through the continuous and enriching experience and understanding. From a personal perspective, my core values involve honesty,...

Children Born During Pandemic Have Lower IQs

Summary The selected online article is titled “Children born during pandemic have lower IQs, US study finds,” where the author reveals findings of a study on children’s cognitive development and intelligence quotient (IQ). In short, the research focused on “672 children from the state of Rhode Island,” where “188 were...

Adolescent Personality and Its Development

The personality of an adolescent undergoes rapid sexual and intellectual development. Emotionality, socialization, and self-awareness develop dynamically – the teenager leaves childhood and prepares for adulthood. This process can proceed rather dramatically, accompanied by an increase in anxiety or, on the contrary, aggression. Teenage romances are just as emotional and...

School Readiness and Its Factors

It is significant to emphasize that age and reading and writing abilities are not the only determining factors in assessing a child’s suitability to attend school. Social and emotional elements also have a prominent function and are also considered in the evaluation. These include the capacity to obey instructions, the...

Social Psychology: The Power of Nature or Nurture

Chapter 5 dwells upon several essential areas of particular interest to me. The chapter sheds light on a possible answer to the power of nature or nurture (Myers & Twenge, 2019). I believe a combination of biological and cultural aspects affects people’s behaviors and choices, but genetics is a more...

Divisive Politics and Child Development

Political division and bias influence how children develop their beliefs about leadership, social life, and democracy. As a teacher, I respond to many questions from my preschoolers on these important aspects. While I try to shape their beliefs and attitudes, the primary responsibility lies with the parent. By acting as...

Comparison of Developmental Stages

Behaviorism Training, according to behaviorism, is defined as changes to the structure or regularity of noticeable results. Education has occurred whenever a correct response is illustrated and followed the demonstration of a particular external stimulus. The significance of the repercussions of such achievements is emphasized in behaviorism, which claims that...

Psychosocial and Moral Developmental Stage: Case Study

The case study under consideration concerns a 20-year-old man living at home with his parents. The man does not attend a college course but has a job that allows him to pay for his car. In addition, the man shows uncertainty as to what he wants to do, noting that...

Maria Montessori’s View on Children’s Education

Maria Montessori’s view of the child includes the concept of a well-adjusted and complex mind capable of acquiring new knowledge. In that way, the child in my play story would be perceived as a critical learner in a sufficiently stimulating environment (Group 2, 2021). Therefore, the child acquires new knowledge...

Babies’ Early Language Development

Although each baby develops at their own rate, there are certain generalizations that parents may use to assess their child’s development. While parents should not be concerned if their child’s language development is not proceeding as expected, they should ensure that the youngster progresses (Ramírez et al., 2020). While each...

Students’ Behaviors, Intellectual and Psychological Characteristics

The educational process in classrooms varies greatly, yet there are universal patterns that might be observed. Children’s psychological and physiological growth is impacted dramatically by their environment, upbringing, and schooling. As a result, teachers tend to follow well-known techniques in order to create the most friendly and welcoming atmosphere. Educators...

Aspects of Lifespan Development

Three major takeaways I learned in module 9 about lifespan development include normotensive development, continuous and discontinuous development, and development of personality and behavior. I learned that not all normal events in developmental milestones are universal. Biological events such as puberty are universal, while social events such as schooling tend...

Early Childhood Development: The Nurturing Care

Adult caregivers are expected to play diverse roles in bringing up the developing child, which involves fulfilling children’s needs of growing complexity and going through a series of major adjustments. Consisting of the “affectionate care, attention, and protection,” the nurturing role requires parents to change approaches and the areas of...

Overcoming Eating Disorders During Identity Development

Identity development is a major part of adolescent life. Many individuals have issues related to their identity at this stage in life as they have to determine their religion, education, and overall demeanor about living at this point. While some individuals sail through the adolescent stage with relative ease, many...

Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Research Methods

Developmental research is a vital approach to understanding changes that occur in living organisms such as human beings as they progress through various stages of life. The most commonly used methods of developmental research are cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Researchers use the cross-sectional method when the main objective is to...

Adolescent Identity: Needs, Desires, Requirements

Adolescence remains one of the most psychologically and physically challenging and turbulent times in the life of people. It is often described as the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood, occurring between 13 and 19 years of age. However, the psychological and physical changes occurring during adolescence usually begin much...

Normal vs. Pathological Aging Differences

Aging is a natural process that correlates with certain physical, social, behavioral, and psychological changes. However, it can be challenging to differentiate between the normal processes linked to aging and pathological ones. Thus, certain behaviors that are not usually common in pathological aging may be interpreted as regular, leading to...

“Development, Psychology, and Adolescence” by David Moshman

Adolescents represent a diverse and interesting group of people for observation and investigation. Moshman (2011) highlights that the one thing that unites persons within this group is their engagement in psychological development. The author explains what is meant by this term gradually, starting with identifying its components. Primarily, Moshman (2011)...

Teenagers and Forms of Coming to Age

The writer’s argument that the teenagers in the Girl and A & P experience varying forms of coming to age are valid. In the first instance, the girl’s mother requires her to follow a specific guideline that she deems appropriate for women. The writer does not agree with this statement,...

Early Education and Developmental Disabilities

The first video illustrates the functionalities and importance of programs that aim to discern signs of developmental issues and disabilities among young children. This is vital to parents, guardians, and educators, as their ability to observe signs of developmental issues can improve a child’s growth in the future. Disabilities can...

Children’s Toys and Their Influence on Development

Learning through play is a very important component of a child’s growth. Educational toys tend to help develop problem-solving skills, understand the causes and impacts, and resolve conflicts. Learning through play also helps children determine the importance of sharing. It also promotes creativity and imagination. Children are taught to share...

Cognitive and Psychosocial Development of a Child

The study of early childhood as a stage of human development is of particular value. This is due to the fact that some of the most significant changes occur at this age. Their understanding helps to determine how to work appropriately with children at this stage of life. The period...

Cognitive and Emotional Maturity of Teenagers

Adolescence is a time of increasing freedom and discovery, but it is also a time when teenagers undergo cognitive and emotional maturity. During adolescence, the brain changes, causing a variety of stereotyped behaviors associated with adolescence. Advances in research suggest that dangerous behaviors and poor adolescent decision-making may be due...

Cognitive Development During the First Three Years of Life

Introduction In the process of perception, with the help of external orientation actions, the child correlates and compares the external properties of objects, highlighting permanent ones. These belongings become sensory samples by the end of 3 years of life. The cognitive process is the transition from using ready-made connections suggested...

Child Development Issue and Its Management

The case study is on a four-year-old Chinese child; essentially, the child acted more like a 2-year-old. After spending a few months with his grandparents in the family’s homeland, the child had just returned to his parents. Thus, the parents needed collaboration from the teacher to aid them in developing...

“The Minnesota Twin Family Study” and “Genetic Study of Genius”

“The Minnesota Twin Family Study” was performed by Thomas J. Bouchard, Matthew McGue, David T. Lykken, Auke Tellegen, and Nancy L. Segal, while the Lewis Terman performed the “Genetic Study of Genius.” In the first study, Bouchard et al. hoped to determine whether monozygotic twins reared apart had the same...

Why the Nurture Approach Should Be Prioritized Over the Nature Theory

Introduction Everyone has heard the saying, “We are what we eat” or “We are products of our environment.” Those sayings suggest that if we think about what we eat and control our environment, or at least our perception, we can steer our destiny. Our parents love us unconditionally and instill...

Development of Emotions and Temperament During Infancy

Emotions and temperament are first observed during infancy and have various manifestations beginning with facial expressions and sounds to the willingness to engage in an activity or avoid it. Thus, the development of emotions and temperament is a gradual process and depends on the level of development of children themselves....

Development Through the Lifespan

What Can Affect a Child’s Development? Human development lasts throughout a person’s life. Socialization is continuous and long-lasting, so there are many factors that influence a person. Influences are felt already in early childhood, in the narrow family circle, and then among other children in kindergartens and schools. Children’s psyches...

Stages of Intellectual and Social Development

This work will review the many stages of the intellectual and social development of people. Humans do not reach full mental maturity until their adolescent years or young adult years, in the case of men. While this can be partly obvious, many people keep expecting children to act and think...

Speech Delay in a 32 Months-Old Child

Introduction Speech delay is the inability to produce sounds or say words in toddlers and babies. Children develop at their own pace, so speech delay may not mean there is an underlying problem (“What developmental milestones,” 2021). Usually, the 32 months-old child with a speech delay has a verbal communication...

Childhood: The Social and Cultural Concept

Childhood is neither timeless nor universal: it is not determined only by age or biological and psychological factors. Rather childhood is understood by reference to particular cultural and social contexts and periods in history. Childhood in Mexico is not the same as childhood in Madras or Madrid: childhood at the...

Child Maltreatment Factor of Personality Formation

The phenomenon of child maltreatment in the home setting is thoroughly examined by researchers who intend to present a link between the unhealthy environment in families and the future well-being of individuals. They claim that the adverse outcomes of improper attitudes towards the offspring are generally connected to their low...

Child’s Development Analysis and Potential Interventions

Emma’s Case Study Emma is a 5-year-old Korean-American girl who started her studies in kindergarten recently. In kindergarten, it was noticed that Emma is quite introverted, and she has trouble socializing with her peers. Despite being conscientious and respecting her teacher, Emma avoided executing the teacher’s requests to communicate more...

Aging Theories in Case of Older Person’s Loss

Introduction It is complicated for an older person to deal with the loss of a loved one. According to experts, it is impossible to establish a time frame for treating such mental trauma. Most older people are unable to do anything after the death of a loved one. For some...

Lack of Physical Development in Preschool Children

Literature Review Physical development is an important aspect of growth in children and has been determined to enhance their social and language development as they connect and interact with each other during active play. Preschool is viewed as one of the most physical stages in an individual’s life (Erdem, 2018)....

Generativity vs. Stagnation Stage at a Midlife Age

The generativity vs. stagnation stage occurs at a midlife age. People can experience generativity in this phase through creativity, productivity, and creativity (Lally & Valentine-French, 2019). Procreativity includes the generation of offspring and the assumption of parenthood responsibilities, while productivity is the process through which persons take part in creating...

Preschool Development Observation

I spent 30 minutes observing Antony – a 4-year-old boy – to observe, estimate, and explain his domains of development and their intersection with one another. Firstly, he and his friend were rolling their cars on the carpet, having a kind of speed competition or race. Later they joined the...

Why Parents Matter More Than Peers in Children’s Development

Today, in the COVID pandemic, when more and more children study online, people argue that communication with peers is necessary for children’s development. While this is undoubtedly true, there is a more substantial influence within the family, that of parents, who play an essential role in forming personality. This paper...

Developmental Perceptions of Death Anxiety

Introduction People of varying ages and cultures have different attitudes toward death. This essay presents summary findings of interview analysis from participants selected randomly from each decade. The interview is intended to assess people’s thoughts about their death and how they have handled the death of a close relative as...

Personal Development Due to Erikson’s Scale

Unlike Sigmund Freud, who singled out five stages of psychosocial development, Erik Erikson established the eight stages classification. They include infancy, under one year, toddlerhood, from one to three years, early childhood, from three to six years, middle childhood, from seven to ten years, and adolescence, from eleven to nineteen...

Values and Interesting Facts About Development Psychology

Today, modern life often presents many challenges to most people. Complex social conditions, changing social environments, and globalization encourage people to find their place in their lives. People need to adapt to different living conditions in different situations, and knowledge of human personality and how it works is becoming an...

Human Life Span Development as a Study

Among the many disciplines in psychology, the study of human development is one of the complete sciences of human life span and its changes under the influence of psychological, social, and health-related factors. As stated by Kail and Cavanaugh (2019), lifespan development as an interdisciplinary study incorporates the psychological, sociological,...

• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior

Volume 10, 2023, review article, open access, developing self-awareness: learning processes for self- and interpersonal growth.

• Manuel London 1 , Valerie I. Sessa 2 , and Loren A. Shelley 2
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 College of Business, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York, USA; email: [email protected] 2 Department of Psychology, Montclair State University, Montclair, New Jersey, USA
• Vol. 10:261-288 (Volume publication date January 2023) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920-044531
• First published as a Review in Advance on November 18, 2022
• Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. See credit lines of images or other third-party material in this article for license information

Self-awareness—how we see ourselves and the effects we have on our environment—influences our behavior and the type of person we want to become. This article examines recent research and areas of practice that address the meaning of self-awareness and how it develops over time. We build on extant comprehensive reviews of the literature to define self-awareness and its accuracy, measurement, and effects, including the dark side of being overly introspective. We offer a framework to integrate theory-based processes. We present the results of a literature search of educational interventions aimed at increasing mindfulness through reflection, feedback, and coaching. We conclude with calls for research and implications for practice in areas of measurement, tracking changes, interventions, and self in relation to others in areas of societal impact, self-presentation on digital media, and promoting self-awareness in relation to organization and team membership.

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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How to Write an Introduction for a Psychology Paper

• Writing Tips

If you are writing a psychology paper, it is essential to kick things off with a strong introduction. The introduction to a psychology research paper helps your readers understand why the topic is important and what they need to know before they delve deeper.

Your goal in this section is to introduce the topic to the reader, provide an overview of previous research on the topic, and identify your own hypothesis .

At a Glance

Writing a great introduction can be a great foundation for the rest of your psychology paper. To create a strong intro:

• Research your topic
• Outline your paper
• Introduce your topic
• Summarize the previous research
• Present your hypothesis or main argument

Before You Write an Introduction

There are some important steps you need to take before you even begin writing your introduction. To know what to write, you need to collect important background information and create a detailed plan.

Research Your Topic

Search a journal database, PsychInfo or ERIC, to find articles on your subject. Once you have located an article, look at the reference section to locate other studies cited in the article. As you take notes from these articles, be sure to write down where you found the information.

A simple note detailing the author's name, journal, and date of publication can help you keep track of sources and avoid plagiarism.

Create a Detailed Outline

This is often one of the most boring and onerous steps, so students tend to skip outlining and go straight to writing. Creating an outline might seem tedious, but it can be an enormous time-saver down the road and will make the writing process much easier.

Start by looking over the notes you made during the research process and consider how you want to present all of your ideas and research.

Introduce the Topic

Once you are ready to write your introduction, your first task is to provide a brief description of the research question. What is the experiment or study attempting to demonstrate? What phenomena are you studying? Provide a brief history of your topic and explain how it relates to your current research.

As you are introducing your topic, consider what makes it important. Why should it matter to your reader? The goal of your introduction is not only to let your reader know what your paper is about, but also to justify why it is important for them to learn more.

If your paper tackles a controversial subject and is focused on resolving the issue, it is important to summarize both sides of the controversy in a fair and impartial way. Consider how your paper fits in with the relevant research on the topic.

The introduction of a research paper is designed to grab interest. It should present a compelling look at the research that already exists and explain to readers what questions your own paper will address.

Summarize Previous Research

The second task of your introduction is to provide a well-rounded summary of previous research that is relevant to your topic. So, before you begin to write this summary, it is important to research your topic thoroughly.

Finding appropriate sources amid thousands of journal articles can be a daunting task, but there are several steps you can take to simplify your research. If you have completed the initial steps of researching and keeping detailed notes, writing your introduction will be much easier.

It is essential to give the reader a good overview of the historical context of the issue you are writing about, but do not feel like you must provide an exhaustive review of the subject. Focus on hitting the main points, and try to include the most relevant studies.

You might describe previous research findings and then explain how the current study differs or expands upon earlier research.

Provide Your Hypothesis

Once you have summarized the previous research, explain areas where the research is lacking or potentially flawed. What is missing from previous studies on your topic? What research questions have yet to be answered? Your hypothesis should lead to these questions.

At the end of your introduction, offer your hypothesis and describe what you expected to find in your experiment or study.

The introduction should be relatively brief. You want to give your readers an overview of a topic, explain why you are addressing it, and provide your arguments.

Tips for Writing Your Psychology Paper Intro

• Use 3x5 inch note cards to write down notes and sources.
• Look in professional psychology journals for examples of introductions.
• Remember to cite your sources.
• Maintain a working bibliography with all of the sources you might use in your final paper. This will make it much easier to prepare your reference section later on.
• Use a copy of the APA style manual to ensure that your introduction and references are in proper APA format .

What This Means For You

Before you delve into the main body of your paper, you need to give your readers some background and present your main argument in the introduction of you paper. You can do this by first explaining what your topic is about, summarizing past research, and then providing your thesis.

Armağan A. How to write an introduction section of a scientific article ?  Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):8-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.046

Fried T, Foltz C, Lendner M, Vaccaro AR. How to write an effective introduction .  Clin Spine Surg . 2019;32(3):111-112. doi:10.1097/BSD.0000000000000714

Jawaid SA, Jawaid M. How to write introduction and discussion .  Saudi J Anaesth . 2019;13(Suppl 1):S18-S19. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_584_18

American Psychological Association. Information Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts That Report New Data Collections Regardless of Research Design . Published 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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8 Signs You Have Higher Self-Esteem Than The Average Person, According To Psychology

Shifting your perspective of yourself is a habit of those with high self-esteem..

• Alex Mathers

Last updated on Sep 05, 2024

There’s much I’ve learned over the last twenty years, going from a deeply insecure teen to a confident man who loves life for the most part. A lot has changed for me. These are some tips I’d pass on if you’re struggling. Please don’t feel ashamed to read these, regardless of your age or where you feel you should be in your life. We all experience what feels like low self-esteem at points in our lives.

Here are 8 signs you have higher self-esteem than the average person, according to psychology:

1. you're adept at re-wiring unhelpful beliefs.

What thought pattern do you continually entertain that makes you feel bad about yourself? Often, a repeated line of thinking governs your perceived inadequacy. Maybe it’s something like, ‘I’m just not an intelligent person.’

There could be others, too. We buy into these stories, which can hold tremendous sway in our lives, often without realizing how much they do. You must identify these pernicious thoughts and call them out by name.

Why are they not true? What evidence do you have to support the opposite belief? I.e. I am an intelligent person. You will find the evidence, and when you do, those beliefs will be instantly erased.

RELATED: 7 Signs You're Cooler Than The Average Person, According To Psychology

2. You keep an achievements list

As we’ll discuss shortly, your self-esteem needn’t rely on your circumstances. Your life doesn’t have to be a particular way to enjoy self-confidence. But as a primer and to lift yourself out of self-critical thoughts that are likely swirling if you consider yourself to have low self-esteem, this is a valuable exercise. 

Many of us get so hung up on what we haven’t got that we forget to note what we have achieved. Bringing these things back into your awareness, no matter how ‘small,’ will help shift your perspective. Your wins are there. You must find them and give yourself the gift of realizing how far you’ve come.

3. You keep a healthy diet

If you continually feel depressed and also regularly eat processed garbage, you have an opportunity. Many of your woes will be solved here. Assess what you consume. You need to get real with yourself. What we eat counts in a big way.

People who consume ultra-processed foods have a higher risk of developing depression; a Harvard University study found . My two cents is to veer towards the diet humans have been running on for millennia — less of this modern plant-based, seed-oil-infused, carb-heavy take-out stuff. More primal. More meat (ethically and locally sourced).

But don’t take my word for it. One needs only to peruse some of the many positive online comments people share since shifting to a more carnivore-based diet. But if you feel good and rarely get sick on a plant-based diet, great — this is for those who don’t and are looking for solutions.

RELATED: 10 Tiny Happiness Secrets Most People Conveniently Ignore

4. You truly commit to yourself

Most of us are miserable because our commitment is to ourselves and no one else. Yes, we must prioritize our joy, but that’s different from being self-obsessed. Turn your attention away from your happiness and over to contributing to other people's happiness. Something will switch in you.

How to do this?  Creating things that others enjoy. It’s hard to feel low when you’re busy creating cool stuff and not worrying about yourself.

5. You understand the true nature of self-esteem

Here’s the real kicker: self-esteem is an illusion. It’s a made-up concept we’ve cleverly constructed in our minds. We can thank decades of societal programming for this.

There’s no part of ourselves we can lose. Self-esteem creates the sense that we have ‘worth’ to lose. We can’t, because it doesn’t exist in the first place. When we realize this and that we’re essentially indestructible, we are free. It’s all in the mind.

With that, you can have as high or as low self-esteem as you want, but I recommend trying to have high self-esteem. Research from UC Davis shows that having high self-esteem has long-term psychological benefits for people.

RELATED: What 95% Of People Don’t Understand About Happiness

6. You live fully in the present

If we’ve been depressed or anxious, we’ve likely been neglecting the bright, colorful beauty of the present moment . Here’s a cheeky reminder for you: it’s still here. You just need the courage to let go occasionally and return. In the now, there are no worries — only life free of heavy meaning. Isn’t that refreshing?

7. You listen to — and follow through — with your deeper inclinations

Living life for others at the expense of following your passions is no bueno. Listen to the quiet voice you keep ignoring. You might feel it like a little buzz in your chest, too. Once you’ve identified what drives you, stop stopping. You must be biased to create insane amounts of momentum. This will come more naturally when you find something that both interests and challenges you.

8. You continually re-assess your success parameters

A huge source of suffering for many comes from how we define success for ourselves . We make it up our success parameters. And then we get sad when we fall short of the expectations we built for ourselves. How are you defining what success should be for you? Are you following someone else’s playbook?

Forget them. They’re on their path, and you’re on yours. An example I like to use is writing online to grow your audience. Many people I work with write for a while but then get disappointed and quit. Why? Because their definition of success in this context is for an article to be popular.

Writing successful articles is hard, especially when you’re just starting. The parameter for success must be simply writing and publishing. That’s a win you have full control over and is something of which to be proud. Make sure you define success for you in an attainable way and ensure you continually take steps in the right direction.

• Create a better system that clarifies what actions you take.
• Be biased to plenty of action (automatically means rumination diminishes).
• Get on with it.

RELATED: 9 Signs You're More Accomplished Than The Average Person, According To Psychology

Alex Mathers is a writer and coach who helps people build a money-making personal brand with their knowledge and skills while staying mentally resilient.

This article was originally published at Medium . Reprinted with permission from the author.

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The Lifespan Development Perspective Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

The lifespan perspective of development, conclusions, reference list.

Lifespan development is a progressive process of development in a human being involving an increase in age, which begins at conception and ends with death (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). In addition, lifespan development can be divided into four levels depicting advanced functionality and character changes as an individual moves from one level to another.

These levels include childhood and adolescence; early adulthood; middle adulthood; and late adulthood (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). This paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development and two major theories of lifespan development. In addition, the impact of the interaction between genes and the environment on the process of human development is also discussed.

The lifespan perspective examines the changes that take place at each level of human development relative to the environmental (Society and culture) factors that influence these changes (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 84). Moreover, the lifespan perspective can be defined in many ways.

For instance, the lifespan perspective can be a progressive and lifelong process of development that is not limited to any single level in human development. On the other hand, there are three major aspects of the lifespan perspective of development, which include the cognitive, social, physical dimensions of change (Sugarman, 2000, p. 59).

Furthermore, other studies claim that the perspective is plastic in nature because some domains of lifespan development increase while others decrease. This plasticity of the lifespan perspective occurs in response to various environmental factors that influence human development.

In addition, the perspective is embedded in the lifelong events that occur in the life of an individual. Thus, this perspective is studied by scientists, anthropologists, and psychologists, which brings out its multidisciplinary nature (Sugarman, 2000, p. 63). On the other hand, the perspective has different contextual implications. Therefore, human development is determined by biological, cultural, social, and physical environmental factors.

The three aspects of the lifespan perspective are also implicated in different developmental changes. The physical aspect of development involves changes in weight, height, shape, and the changes in individual experiences with the external environment (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86).

On the other hand, the social aspect of development involves changes in different phases of human development, which are directly influenced by the social environment such as social skills and relationships. Lastly, the cognitive domain of human development entails change in an individual’s thinking capacity, memory, and decision-making (Sugarman, 2000, p. 64).

The changes characterizing the lifespan perspective of development can also be divided into eight stages of human development. The first stage also known as the Trust vs. Mistrust stage occurs during the period between birth and one year.

Here, development of trust depends on the relationship between the toddler and the care-giver (Sugarman, 2000, p. 66). The second stage also known as Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt period occurs during the early childhood stage. During this stage, the child is capable of making choices relative to the individualized willingness.

The Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage in development, which occurs during the middle childhood stage. During this stage, children develop a sense of purpose through engaging in goal-oriented activities (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 88). The fourth stage also called the Industry vs. Inferiority period occurs at the late childhood period. Here, children develop competence through learning social norms, basic education, and culture.

Additionally, the adolescence stage signifies the Identity vs. Role Confusion period. Here, individual values and choices develop because individuals are able to account for their actions. The Intimacy vs. Isolation period occurs during early adulthood and it is characterized by development of intimate relationships, marriage, and families (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 90).

The Generativity vs. Stagnation period occurs during the middle adulthood stage. Here, individuals are committed with providing for their families and developing their careers. Lastly, the Integrity vs. Despair stage occurs during the late adulthood stage. The elderly individuals are self-contented and they are full of life experiences and advice.

Theories of Lifespan Development

There are many theories that attempt to explain the process of human development from different perspectives such as Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development. Erikson’s theory posits that an individual encounters several conflicts during the development process, which depend on the type of relationship existing between this individual and the society.

Therefore, as an individual moves through the eight stages of development discussed above, he/she must solve the conflicts involved in one stage before moving to another. This ensures that one develops a sound personality; otherwise one may encounter difficulties in addressing conflicts in subsequent stages if the previous ones were not sufficiently resolved (Sugarman, 2000).

On the other hand, Freud’s theory states that the process of personality development occurs at the early childhood stage. Subsequently, the behavioral changes observed in developing individuals are influenced by the childhood events. Here, personality development occurs through several stages during the early childhood stage.

During this stage, the pleasure-oriented capabilities of an individual become focused on specific areas in one’s body. These capabilities also known as sexual libido or psychosexual energy play a major role in the subsequent behavioral changes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008).

Thus, if all the issues involved in the psychosexual stages of development are adequately resolved, then an individual develops a sound personality. However, if the psychosexual issues remain unresolved, the person involved is trapped in a particular stage until all the issues are resolved.

The Interaction of Genes and the Environment in Lifespan Development

A child inherits the genetic information of both parents through the information carriers known as genes. The genes are made up of DNA, which is found on chromosomes. On the other hand, the environment in the context of lifespan development refers to the total social and cultural factors surrounding a developing human being (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86). Therefore, lifespan development in children depends on two major factors; the genetic make-up of a child and the environmental factors.

However, the two factors can play a mutual role in influencing the development of different individuals in the society. Here, the epigenetic framework of development posits that the genetic make-up can be turned on and off relative to the internal and external environmental feedback (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 89).

This gives the process of lifespan development the flexibility and plasticity described in the discussions above. For instance, the learning process in children follows a specific pattern of adaptability, which depends on the internal and external factors.

Therefore, during the early childhood stage, individuals use the environmental experiences in reasoning and acting. However, as the environmental factors and experiences change along the period of lifespan development, so does the emotional, reasoning, and social attributes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 91).

The paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development, the theories of lifespan development and the interaction of heredity and environment to produce individual differences in development.

From the discussions above, the lifespan perspective of development examines the changes that occur in different individuals, which occur due to the interaction of the genetic make-up and the total circumstances surrounding an individual. On the other hand, this perspective is also reinforced by Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which are summarized in the discussions above.

Sigelman, C. K. & Rider, E. A. (2008). Lifespan human development. New York: Cengage Learning Publishers, Inc.

Sugarman, L. (2000). Lifespan development: Frameworks, accounts and strategies (2 nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

• The role of genetics in development
• Effect of Humanistic Theory on Individual Personalities
• Freud's Psychosexual Stage Conception
• Lifespan Development and Its Theories
• Behaviour across the Lifespan
• Erik Erikson's Life and Contributions to Psychoanalysis
• Developmental Theories in Psychology
• Levels of Play Development
• Social Theories and Concepts in Forrest Gump
• Lifespan development and the human servises
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, February 7). The Lifespan Development Perspective. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/

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1. IvyPanda . "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.