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Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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Definition:

Assignment is a task given to students by a teacher or professor, usually as a means of assessing their understanding and application of course material. Assignments can take various forms, including essays, research papers, presentations, problem sets, lab reports, and more.

Assignments are typically designed to be completed outside of class time and may require independent research, critical thinking, and analysis. They are often graded and used as a significant component of a student’s overall course grade. The instructions for an assignment usually specify the goals, requirements, and deadlines for completion, and students are expected to meet these criteria to earn a good grade.

History of Assignment

The use of assignments as a tool for teaching and learning has been a part of education for centuries. Following is a brief history of the Assignment.

• Ancient Times: Assignments such as writing exercises, recitations, and memorization tasks were used to reinforce learning.
• Medieval Period : Universities began to develop the concept of the assignment, with students completing essays, commentaries, and translations to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.
• 19th Century : With the growth of schools and universities, assignments became more widespread and were used to assess student progress and achievement.
• 20th Century: The rise of distance education and online learning led to the further development of assignments as an integral part of the educational process.
• Present Day: Assignments continue to be used in a variety of educational settings and are seen as an effective way to promote student learning and assess student achievement. The nature and format of assignments continue to evolve in response to changing educational needs and technological innovations.

Types of Assignment

Here are some of the most common types of assignments:

An essay is a piece of writing that presents an argument, analysis, or interpretation of a topic or question. It usually consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Essay structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and thesis statement
• Body paragraphs : each paragraph presents a different argument or idea, with evidence and analysis to support it
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and reiterates the thesis statement

Research paper

A research paper involves gathering and analyzing information on a particular topic, and presenting the findings in a well-structured, documented paper. It usually involves conducting original research, collecting data, and presenting it in a clear, organized manner.

Research paper structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the paper, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the paper’s main points and conclusions
• Introduction : provides background information on the topic and research question
• Literature review: summarizes previous research on the topic
• Methodology : explains how the research was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the research
• Discussion : interprets the results and draws conclusions
• Conclusion : summarizes the key findings and implications

A case study involves analyzing a real-life situation, problem or issue, and presenting a solution or recommendations based on the analysis. It often involves extensive research, data analysis, and critical thinking.

Case study structure:

• Introduction : introduces the case study and its purpose
• Background : provides context and background information on the case
• Analysis : examines the key issues and problems in the case
• Solution/recommendations: proposes solutions or recommendations based on the analysis
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points and implications

A lab report is a scientific document that summarizes the results of a laboratory experiment or research project. It typically includes an introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Lab report structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the experiment, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the purpose, methodology, and results of the experiment
• Methods : explains how the experiment was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the experiment

Presentation

A presentation involves delivering information, data or findings to an audience, often with the use of visual aids such as slides, charts, or diagrams. It requires clear communication skills, good organization, and effective use of technology.

Presentation structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and purpose of the presentation
• Body : presents the main points, findings, or data, with the help of visual aids
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and provides a closing statement

Creative Project

A creative project is an assignment that requires students to produce something original, such as a painting, sculpture, video, or creative writing piece. It allows students to demonstrate their creativity and artistic skills.

Creative project structure:

• Introduction : introduces the project and its purpose
• Body : presents the creative work, with explanations or descriptions as needed
• Conclusion : summarizes the key elements and reflects on the creative process.

Examples of Assignments

Following are Examples of Assignment templates samples:

Essay template:

I. Introduction

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention with a catchy opening sentence.
• Background: Provide some context or background information on the topic.
• Thesis statement: State the main argument or point of your essay.

II. Body paragraphs

• Topic sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Provide evidence or examples to support your point.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your argument.
• Transition: Use a transition sentence to lead into the next paragraph.

III. Conclusion

• Restate thesis: Summarize your main argument or point.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your essay.
• Concluding thoughts: End with a final thought or call to action.

Research paper template:

I. Title page

• Title: Give your paper a descriptive title.
• Author: Include your name and institutional affiliation.
• Date: Provide the date the paper was submitted.

II. Abstract

• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of your research.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct your research.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of your research.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions of your research.

III. Introduction

• Background: Provide some background information on the topic.
• Research question: State your research question or hypothesis.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your research.

IV. Literature review

• Background: Summarize previous research on the topic.
• Gaps in research: Identify gaps or areas that need further research.

V. Methodology

• Participants: Describe the participants in your study.
• Procedure: Explain the procedure you used to conduct your research.
• Measures: Describe the measures you used to collect data.

VI. Results

• Quantitative results: Summarize the quantitative data you collected.
• Qualitative results: Summarize the qualitative data you collected.

VII. Discussion

• Interpretation: Interpret the results and explain what they mean.
• Implications: Discuss the implications of your research.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of your research.

VIII. Conclusion

• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your paper.

Case study template:

• Background: Provide background information on the case.
• Research question: State the research question or problem you are examining.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the case study.

II. Analysis

• Problem: Identify the main problem or issue in the case.
• Factors: Describe the factors that contributed to the problem.
• Alternative solutions: Describe potential solutions to the problem.

III. Solution/recommendations

• Proposed solution: Describe the solution you are proposing.
• Rationale: Explain why this solution is the best one.
• Implementation: Describe how the solution can be implemented.

IV. Conclusion

• Summary: Summarize the main points of your case study.

Lab report template:

• Title: Give your report a descriptive title.
• Date: Provide the date the report was submitted.
• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of the experiment.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct the experiment.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of the experiment.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions
• Background: Provide some background information on the experiment.
• Hypothesis: State your hypothesis or research question.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the experiment.

IV. Materials and methods

• Materials: List the materials and equipment used in the experiment.
• Procedure: Describe the procedure you followed to conduct the experiment.
• Data: Present the data you collected in tables or graphs.
• Analysis: Analyze the data and describe the patterns or trends you observed.

VI. Discussion

• Implications: Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of the experiment.

VII. Conclusion

• Restate hypothesis: Summarize your hypothesis or research question.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your report.

Presentation template:

• Attention grabber: Grab the audience’s attention with a catchy opening.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your presentation.
• Overview: Provide an overview of what you will cover in your presentation.

II. Main points

• Main point 1: Present the first main point of your presentation.
• Supporting details: Provide supporting details or evidence to support your point.
• Main point 2: Present the second main point of your presentation.
• Main point 3: Present the third main point of your presentation.
• Summary: Summarize the main points of your presentation.
• Call to action: End with a final thought or call to action.

Creative writing template:

• Setting: Describe the setting of your story.
• Characters: Introduce the main characters of your story.
• Rising action: Introduce the conflict or problem in your story.
• Climax: Present the most intense moment of the story.
• Falling action: Resolve the conflict or problem in your story.
• Resolution: Describe how the conflict or problem was resolved.
• Final thoughts: End with a final thought or reflection on the story.

How to Write Assignment

Here is a general guide on how to write an assignment:

• Understand the assignment prompt: Before you begin writing, make sure you understand what the assignment requires. Read the prompt carefully and make note of any specific requirements or guidelines.
• Research and gather information: Depending on the type of assignment, you may need to do research to gather information to support your argument or points. Use credible sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.
• Organize your ideas : Once you have gathered all the necessary information, organize your ideas into a clear and logical structure. Consider creating an outline or diagram to help you visualize your ideas.
• Write a draft: Begin writing your assignment using your organized ideas and research. Don’t worry too much about grammar or sentence structure at this point; the goal is to get your thoughts down on paper.
• Revise and edit: After you have written a draft, revise and edit your work. Make sure your ideas are presented in a clear and concise manner, and that your sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly.
• Proofread: Finally, proofread your work for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. It’s a good idea to have someone else read over your assignment as well to catch any mistakes you may have missed.
• Submit your assignment : Once you are satisfied with your work, submit your assignment according to the instructions provided by your instructor or professor.

Applications of Assignment

Assignments have many applications across different fields and industries. Here are a few examples:

• Education : Assignments are a common tool used in education to help students learn and demonstrate their knowledge. They can be used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic, to develop critical thinking skills, and to improve writing and research abilities.
• Business : Assignments can be used in the business world to assess employee skills, to evaluate job performance, and to provide training opportunities. They can also be used to develop business plans, marketing strategies, and financial projections.
• Journalism : Assignments are often used in journalism to produce news articles, features, and investigative reports. Journalists may be assigned to cover a particular event or topic, or to research and write a story on a specific subject.
• Research : Assignments can be used in research to collect and analyze data, to conduct experiments, and to present findings in written or oral form. Researchers may be assigned to conduct research on a specific topic, to write a research paper, or to present their findings at a conference or seminar.
• Government : Assignments can be used in government to develop policy proposals, to conduct research, and to analyze data. Government officials may be assigned to work on a specific project or to conduct research on a particular topic.
• Non-profit organizations: Assignments can be used in non-profit organizations to develop fundraising strategies, to plan events, and to conduct research. Volunteers may be assigned to work on a specific project or to help with a particular task.

Purpose of Assignment

The purpose of an assignment varies depending on the context in which it is given. However, some common purposes of assignments include:

• Assessing learning: Assignments are often used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic or concept. This allows educators to determine if a student has mastered the material or if they need additional support.
• Developing skills: Assignments can be used to develop a wide range of skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, research, and communication. Assignments that require students to analyze and synthesize information can help to build these skills.
• Encouraging creativity: Assignments can be designed to encourage students to be creative and think outside the box. This can help to foster innovation and original thinking.
• Providing feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for teachers to provide feedback to students on their progress and performance. Feedback can help students to understand where they need to improve and to develop a growth mindset.
• Meeting learning objectives : Assignments can be designed to help students meet specific learning objectives or outcomes. For example, a writing assignment may be designed to help students improve their writing skills, while a research assignment may be designed to help students develop their research skills.

When to write Assignment

Assignments are typically given by instructors or professors as part of a course or academic program. The timing of when to write an assignment will depend on the specific requirements of the course or program, but in general, assignments should be completed within the timeframe specified by the instructor or program guidelines.

It is important to begin working on assignments as soon as possible to ensure enough time for research, writing, and revisions. Waiting until the last minute can result in rushed work and lower quality output.

It is also important to prioritize assignments based on their due dates and the amount of work required. This will help to manage time effectively and ensure that all assignments are completed on time.

In addition to assignments given by instructors or professors, there may be other situations where writing an assignment is necessary. For example, in the workplace, assignments may be given to complete a specific project or task. In these situations, it is important to establish clear deadlines and expectations to ensure that the assignment is completed on time and to a high standard.

Characteristics of Assignment

Here are some common characteristics of assignments:

• Purpose : Assignments have a specific purpose, such as assessing knowledge or developing skills. They are designed to help students learn and achieve specific learning objectives.
• Requirements: Assignments have specific requirements that must be met, such as a word count, format, or specific content. These requirements are usually provided by the instructor or professor.
• Deadline: Assignments have a specific deadline for completion, which is usually set by the instructor or professor. It is important to meet the deadline to avoid penalties or lower grades.
• Individual or group work: Assignments can be completed individually or as part of a group. Group assignments may require collaboration and communication with other group members.
• Feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for feedback from the instructor or professor. This feedback can help students to identify areas of improvement and to develop their skills.
• Academic integrity: Assignments require academic integrity, which means that students must submit original work and avoid plagiarism. This includes citing sources properly and following ethical guidelines.
• Learning outcomes : Assignments are designed to help students achieve specific learning outcomes. These outcomes are usually related to the course objectives and may include developing critical thinking skills, writing abilities, or subject-specific knowledge.

Advantages of Assignment

There are several advantages of assignment, including:

• Helps in learning: Assignments help students to reinforce their learning and understanding of a particular topic. By completing assignments, students get to apply the concepts learned in class, which helps them to better understand and retain the information.
• Develops critical thinking skills: Assignments often require students to think critically and analyze information in order to come up with a solution or answer. This helps to develop their critical thinking skills, which are important for success in many areas of life.
• Encourages creativity: Assignments that require students to create something, such as a piece of writing or a project, can encourage creativity and innovation. This can help students to develop new ideas and perspectives, which can be beneficial in many areas of life.
• Builds time-management skills: Assignments often come with deadlines, which can help students to develop time-management skills. Learning how to manage time effectively is an important skill that can help students to succeed in many areas of life.
• Provides feedback: Assignments provide an opportunity for students to receive feedback on their work. This feedback can help students to identify areas where they need to improve and can help them to grow and develop.

Limitations of Assignment

There are also some limitations of assignments that should be considered, including:

• Limited scope: Assignments are often limited in scope, and may not provide a comprehensive understanding of a particular topic. They may only cover a specific aspect of a topic, and may not provide a full picture of the subject matter.
• Lack of engagement: Some assignments may not engage students in the learning process, particularly if they are repetitive or not challenging enough. This can lead to a lack of motivation and interest in the subject matter.
• Time-consuming: Assignments can be time-consuming, particularly if they require a lot of research or writing. This can be a disadvantage for students who have other commitments, such as work or extracurricular activities.
• Unreliable assessment: The assessment of assignments can be subjective and may not always accurately reflect a student’s understanding or abilities. The grading may be influenced by factors such as the instructor’s personal biases or the student’s writing style.
• Lack of feedback : Although assignments can provide feedback, this feedback may not always be detailed or useful. Instructors may not have the time or resources to provide detailed feedback on every assignment, which can limit the value of the feedback that students receive.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• News & Updates

NEW REPORT: The People's Guide to Project 2025

The People’s Guide to Project 2025

Project 2025 is among the most profound threats to the American people.

We read Project 2025’s entire 900+ page “Mandate for Leadership” so that you don’t have to.

What we discovered was a systemic, ruthless plan to undermine the quality of life of millions of Americans, remove critical protections and dismantle programs for communities across the nation, and prioritize special interests and ideological extremism over people.

From attacking overtime pay, student loans, and reproductive rights, to allowing more discrimination, pollution, and price gouging, those behind Project 2025 are preparing to go to incredible lengths to create a country only for some, not for all of us.

If these plans are enacted, which Project 2025’s authors claim can happen without congressional approval, 4.3 million people could lose overtime protections, 40 million people could have their food assistance reduced, 220,000 American jobs could be lost, and much, much, more. The stakes are higher than ever for democracy and for people.

These threats aren’t hypothetical. These are their real plans.

The Heritage Foundation and the 100+ organizations that make up the Project 2025 Advisory Board have mapped out exactly how they will achieve their extreme ends. They aim to try and carry out many of the most troubling proposals through an anti-democratic president and political loyalists installed in the executive branch, without waiting for congressional action. And, while many of these plans are unlawful, winning in court is not guaranteed given that the same far-right movement that is behind Project 2025 has shaped our current court system.

To combat the threats posed by Project 2025, we have to first understand them.

What follows are some of the most dangerous proposals that make up Project 2025, specifically those that they plan to implement through federal agencies and a far-right executive branch.

The majority of Americans share the same values and priorities, but Project 2025 wants to push an extreme, out-of-touch agenda on all of us . By reading this guide and sharing it, we can begin to address these threats and go on offense towards building a bold, inclusive democracy for all people.

Download PDF

What is Project 2025?

The Project 2025 Presidential Transition Project is a well-funded (eight-figure) effort of the Heritage Foundation and more than 100 organizations to enable a future anti-democratic presidential administration to take swift, far-right action that would cut wages for working people, dismantle social safety net programs, reverse decades of progress for civil rights, redefine the way our society operates, and undermine our economy.

A central pillar of Project 2025 is the “Mandate for Leadership,” a 900+ page policy playbook authored by former Trump administration officials and other extremists that provides a radical vision for our nation and a roadmap to implement it.

Project 2025 Snapshot

Proposals from Project 2025, discussed in detail throughout this guide, that they claim could be implemented through executive branch action alone — so without new legislation — include:

• Cut overtime protections for 4.3 million workers
• Stop efforts to lower prescription drug prices
• Limit access to food assistance, which an average of more than 40 million people in 21.6 million households rely on monthly
• Eliminate the Head Start early education program, which serves over 1 million children annually
• Cut American Rescue Plan (ARP) programs that have created or saved 220,000 jobs
• Restrict access to medication abortion
• Push more of the 33 million people enrolled in Medicare towards Medicare Advantage and other worse, private options
• Expose the 368,000 children in foster care to risk of increased discrimination
• Deny students in 25 states and Washington, D.C. access to student loans because their state provides in-state tuition to undocumented immigrants
• Roll back civil rights protections across multiple fronts, including cutting diversity, equity, and inclusion-related (DEI) programs and LGBTQ+ rights in health care, education, and workplaces

Explore Project 2025's Plans:

Cut wages, create unsafe workplaces, and destabilize our economy.

Project 2025 would enable corporations to cut overtime pay, relax worker safety rules, allow workplace discrimination, and more.

Make It Harder for Americans to Make Ends Meet

A strong democracy is one where people have the resources they need to thrive, not worry about how they will make ends meet. Project 2025 proposals would only make daily life harder for people – with fewer people able to access food assistance and affordable early education, less support for veterans with disabilities, and cuts to support for farmers.

Restrict Reproductive Rights and Access to Health Care

Despite the majority of Americans supporting comprehensive health care and reproductive freedom, Project 2025 would prefer a far different reality. Their attacks would undermine Medicare, keep prescription drug prices high, and restrict access to reproductive care.

Enable Discrimination Across Society

Threatened by decades of progress in advancing civil rights and equality for all, the authors of Project 2025 want to create a country that allows for more discrimination where we live, study, work, and play — and roll back hard-fought victories by our movements for progress.

Set Polluters Loose and Undo Climate Action

We’ve waited decades for meaningful and robust federal action to combat climate change and protect people from the harms of pollution. Project 2025 couldn’t care less about these threats — and now they want to destroy our hard-fought gains.

Make Education Unaffordable and Unwelcoming

Our public schools are foundational to our democracy. When special interests undermine public schools, they undermine the ability of students from all backgrounds to learn, feel safe in their community, and develop skills and knowledge that enable students to thrive. If Project 2025 has their way, our public schools could be stripped of funding, protections for students, and high-quality curricula.

Undermine Government’s Ability to Deliver for People

Civil servants are federal employees who work and live in all 50 states — the more than 2 million people who keep our air clean, water safe, consumers protected, and mail delivered. Attacks on the nation’s civil service are attacks on the government’s ability to work for the people.

The threats from Project 2025 do not end here.

This  People’s Guide only begins to catalog the people and communities who would be harmed if a future presidential administration began to implement Project 2025’s proposals. Businesses and industry across the country could be harmed not just from the lack of data collection discussed above, but also from proposals to politicize the Federal Reserve or to restrict free trade. Our country’s national security itself, too, is threatened by proposals to concentrate military decisionmaking, further undermine our intelligence agencies, or promote isolationist policies.

We continue to analyze these policies and their harms to people, and expect to release updated versions of the  People’s Guide  with reports on the threats that would make it harder to run a business, put our security at risk, and more. Click here to sign up to receive the updated reports directly in your inbox.

We cannot let Project 2025 write the next chapter of our nation’s story.

To learn more about how we can confront the threats presented in this guide head-on and begin to build a bold, vibrant democracy for all people, visit  democracyforward.org/join-2025 .

Our three pillars to advance a bold, vibrant democracy for all people:

Defending democracy and policies that propel progress through public education, regulatory and legal support.

Disrupting unlawful, regressive, and anti-democratic activity through litigation, investigations, and public education.

Building coalitions, supporting communities, and creating a more democratic and just future through the law.

Join us in this generational fight for people and democracy.

New york times: “the resistance to a new trump administration has already started”.

As first reported in The New York Times : Democracy Forward is “ensuring that people and communities that would be affected by a range of policies that we see with respect to Project 2025 know their legal rights and remedies and are able to access legal representation, should that be necessary.”

• MyU : For Students, Faculty, and Staff

hUMNs of Chemistry #17

They/them Professor

Tell us about your journey to the University of Minnesota.

My first visit to the University of Minnesota was during my graduate school years at UW-Madison.  I came to make measurements at the Institute for Rock Magnetism and also ended up meeting the love of my life during that visit.  Fast forward, the love of my life and I live right here in Minneapolis.  

We would love to hear more about your research! What do you hope to accomplish with this work? What is the real-world impact for the average person?

I'm very excited to work on projects related to the environment, green chemistry, and sustainability. We have projects focused on the behavior of iron-bearing minerals in environmental systems, microplastics, biochar, materials for sustainable energy applications, and a brand new project with the Boiteau group focusing on the ocean!  

What courses do you teach? What can students expect to get out of your course?

I have had the great fortune of teaching general chemistry courses, which is great fun (most of the time).  General chemistry is a tough class, and I strive to make the classroom a supportive and welcoming one.  I also take every opportunity to include demonstrations during lecture, including popular Energy and U demonstrations like the screaming gummy bear, methane mamba, and the flaming tube of death.

What do you hope to contribute to the chemistry community at the University?

I hope to do innovative research in the areas of environmental chemistry and sustainability; continue and foster interdisciplinary collaborations; serve as an effective mentor and educator; engage with the broader community through research, outreach, and other activities; and promote diversity, equity, and inclusion at the U of MN and beyond.

When you visit other universities, what do you love to share about our UMN community?

Ongoing commitments to collaborative and interdisciplinary research and to diversity, equity, and inclusion.

What do you do outside of the classroom/lab/office for fun?

I'm sure that most folks know I ride bikes -- a lot. I do some other things, honestly, I do...  I mean, sometimes.

What’s your favorite piece of chemistry/science pop culture media? Why do you love it?

I'm about to teach Chem 1015 (Introductory Chemistry) for the first time, and I think I might have to play this.

What was your very first job?

Mowing lawns

Tell us about who makes up your household (including pets).

Cheryl (human), Dandelion (dog), Bella (cat), and Dubby (cat).

Eric Schulz

Information Technology Professional

Please give a brief description of your role within the UMN Chemistry department.

If it plugs into a wall outlet or sits next to a computer or runs on a laptop and it "used to work before," I'll be asked to have a look at fixing it.

I grew up in Wisconsin and came to the U of MN for a degree in engineering.  As it turns out, I wasn't a very good engineer, but I was able to pick up a number of burgeoning computer skills.  I've got my start in DOS, Novell Netware, hand typing HTML and fixing Apple II's; while steadily learning the workings of past computers to today's iPads, laptops, computers and operating systems. The E-Shop's previous employees have passed on a few skills to me on instrument repair, but I wished I'd paid better attention while they were here!

Do you have a background in or like chemistry? Tell us about it!

I don't have anything other then a year of college Chemistry under my belt.

What professional successes are most important to you?

I was very proud of the web server and services that I ran for a number of years.  I have always felt that supporting the Department of Chemistry and its people with the best of my abilities is a very important part of who I am.

I've a few years left, and I hope to continue to learn about new technological advances.

Burger King cashier!

My family bought our first house a few years ago and I do enjoy fixing it up, both inside and outside.  I enjoy swimming, camping with the Boy Scouts and playing cards with friends.

What non-chemistry interest or activity of yours might surprise department members?

I recently got my certification in scuba diving and went on a diving trip to Florida.  Its probably not too surprising, but I like to learn how to repair cars and appliances.  

My wife, my daughter, my son, my father in-law and three cats!

Casey Wouters

She/her Graduate student

I grew up in the suburbs of Dallas, Texas and pursued my undergraduate studies at the University of Oklahoma. In college, I studied chemistry and worked as an undergraduate researcher in Dr. Charles Rice's lab at OU. I came to UMN directly after finishing my BS in chemistry, with my first time visiting the Twin Cities being the day I arrived with all my stuff to move here (thanks, COVID). 

Are you involved in any student groups? What inspired you to get involved?

I'm currently serving as secretary of Queer Science, a group which does outreach to queer high schoolers in the Twin Cities metro. I love working with this group and think it's so important for young people to be able to see themselves represented in STEM. Additionally, I spend a lot of time working on the Graduate Labor Union and it's related causes. I am on the bargaining committee working with the university on writing our first contract! I became an organizer because I believe in the value of our work as grad students and have found my work with GLU to be incredibly fulfilling. 

Tell us about an important mentor in your academic life?

My undergraduate research adviser Dr. Charles Rice served a pivotal role in my experience at OU and in my grad school application and decision process. Working in his lab gave me amazing hands-on experience and confidence in my research abilities. I even got to conduct my own project for my honors thesis, which was published last year. Having a supportive PI and a lab group that formed its own little family was so important to my time at OU. 

What are your plans after graduation?

After graduation, I hope to stay in the Twin Cities and get a job in the local science industry. I also have a keen interest in science policy and hope to incorporate some element of this into my future career as well. 

I love to craft and read! Name a craft and I have probably tried it, but my favorite is knitting. I like to constantly have a bunch of works in progress at the same time and to also have a book to suit every mood.   

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• EULAR recommendations for the involvement of patient research partners in rheumatology research: 2023 update
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8428-6354 Maarten de Wit 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8708-9324 Krystel Aouad 2 ,
• Muriel Elhai 3 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9119-5330 Diego Benavent 4 ,
• Heidi Bertheussen 5 ,
• Steven Blackburn 6 ,
• Peter Böhm 7 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9327-6935 Catia Duarte 8 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5928-486X Marie Falahee 9 ,
• Susanne Karlfeldt 10 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5668-4497 Uta Kiltz 11 , 12 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0059-2141 Elsa F Mateus 13 , 14 ,
• Dawn P Richards 15 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0011-5102 Javier Rodríguez-Carrio 16 ,
• Joachim Sagen 17 , 18 ,
• Russka Shumnalieva 19 ,
• Simon R Stones 20 , 21 ,
• Sander W Tas 22 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7531-4125 William Tillett 23 , 24 ,
• Ana Vieira 14 , 25 ,
• Tanita-Christina Wilhelmer 26 , 27 , 28 ,
• Condruta Zabalan 29 , 30 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1049-4150 Jette Primdahl 31 , 32 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8895-6941 Paul Studenic 33 , 34 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4528-310X Laure Gossec 35 , 36
• 1 Patient Research Partner , EULAR , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
• 2 Saint George Hospital University Medical Center , Beirut , Lebanon
• 3 University Hospital Zürich, University of Zürich , Zürich , Switzerland
• 4 Rheumatology , Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge , Madrid , Spain
• 5 Patient Research Partner , EULAR , Oslo , Norway
• 6 Institute of Applied Health Research , Univeristy of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
• 7 Patient Research Partner , EULAR , Berlin , Germany
• 8 Rheumatology , Centro Hospitalar e Universitario de Coimbra , Coimbra , Portugal
• 9 Institute of Inflammation and Ageing , University of Birmingham Rheumatology Research Group , Birmingham , UK
• 10 Academic Specialist Center , Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm , Sweden
• 11 Ruhr University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
• 12 Rheumazentrum Ruhrgebiet , Herne , Germany
• 13 Patient Research Partner , EULAR , Lisbon , Portugal
• 14 Portuguese League Against Rheumatic Diseases (LPCDR) , Lisbon , Portugal
• 15 Canadian Arthritis Patient Alliance , Toronto , Ontario , Canada
• 16 Area of Immunology, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA) , University of Oviedo , Oviedo , Spain
• 17 Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Rehabilitation in Rheumatology , Oslo , Norway
• 18 Norwegian Rheumatism Association , Oslo , Norway
• 19 Department of Rheumatology , Clinic of Rheumatology, University Hospital “St Ivan Rilski”, Medical University-Sofia , Sofia , Bulgaria
• 20 Patient Research Partner , EULAR , Manchester , UK
• 21 Envision Pharma Group , Wilmslow , UK
• 22 Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Amsterdam Rheumatology and Immunology Center , Amsterdam University Medical Centres , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
• 23 Royal National Hospital for Rheumatic Disease , Bath , UK
• 24 Life Sciences , Centre for Therapeutic Innovation, University of Bath , Bath , UK
• 25 Patient Research Partner , EULAR , Lissabon , Portugal
• 26 EULAR Young PARE , Zürich , Switzerland
• 27 Österreichische Rheumaliga , Maria Alm , Austria
• 28 EULAR PRP , Vienna , Austria
• 29 Romanian League Against Rheumatism , Bucharest , Romania
• 30 EULAR PRP , Bucharest , Romania
• 31 Danish Hospital for Rheumatic Diseases , University Hospital of Southern Denmark , Sønderborg , Denmark
• 32 Department of Regional Health Research , University of Southern Denmark , Odense , Denmark
• 33 Internal Medicine 3, Division of Rheumatology , Medical University Vienna , Vienna , Austria
• 34 Department of Medicine (Solna), Karolinska Institutet , Division of Rheumatology , Stockholm , Sweden
• 35 INSERM, Institut Pierre Louis d'Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique, INSERM , Sorbonne Universite , Paris , France
• 36 APHP, Rheumatology Department , Hopital Universitaire Pitie Salpetriere , Paris , France
• Correspondence to Dr Maarten de Wit, Patient research partner, EULAR, Amsterdam, Netherlands; martinusdewit{at}hotmail.com

Background Since the publication of the 2011 European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology (EULAR) recommendations for patient research partner (PRP) involvement in rheumatology research, the role of PRPs has evolved considerably. Therefore, an update of the 2011 recommendations was deemed necessary.

Methods In accordance with the EULAR Standardised Operational Procedures, a task force comprising 13 researchers, 2 health professionals and 10 PRPs was convened. The process included an online task force meeting, a systematic literature review and an in-person second task force meeting to formulate overarching principles (OAPs) and recommendations. The level of agreement of task force members was assessed anonymously (0–10 scale).

Results The task force developed five new OAPs, updated seven existing recommendations and formulated three new recommendations. The OAPs address the definition of a PRP, the contribution of PRPs, the role of informal caregivers, the added value of PRPs and the importance of trust and communication in collaborative research efforts. The recommendations address the research type and phases of PRP involvement, the recommended number of PRPs per project, the support necessary for PRPs, training of PRPs and acknowledgement of PRP contributions. New recommendations concern the benefits of support and guidance for researchers, the need for regular evaluation of the patient–researcher collaboration and the role of a designated coordinator to facilitate collaboration. Agreements within the task force were high and ranged between 9.16 and 9.96.

Conclusion The updated EULAR recommendations for PRP involvement are more substantially based on evidence. Together with added OAPs, they should serve as a guide for researchers and PRPs and will ultimately strengthen the involvement of PRPs in rheumatology research.

• Epidemiology
• Health services research

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

https://doi.org/10.1136/ard-2024-225566

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WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

In 2011, European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology (EULAR) published the first set of recommendations for the involvement of patient representatives in scientific projects and defined the role of patient research partners (PRPs).

The role of PRPs has evolved and the inclusion of PRPs in research has considerably expanded since 2011.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

The updated recommendations for the involvement of PRPs in scientific projects have become more evidence based and cover subjects such as research type (including basic and translational research), involvement from the research project’s inception, the recommended number of PRPs and the support, training and acknowledgement of PRPs.

These recommendations also address new topics such as the support and training of researchers, the role of a PRP coordinator and the need for regular monitoring and evaluation.

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE OR POLICY

The updated EULAR recommendations for the involvement of PRPs in research will guide researchers and PRPs in enhancing effective partnerships in their research efforts.

The ultimate benefit relates to the conduct of health research that better meets the needs of patients, which is likely to result in improved long-term health outcomes.

Introduction

The benefits of involving patient research partners (PRPs) in research are increasingly recognised by international organisations such as the WHO and European Medicines Agency (EMA). 1 2 To operationalise patient involvement in research, recommendations and guidelines are useful. In rheumatology, the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology (EULAR) has historically been a leader in the field of patient involvement—both for clinical care, teaching and research. 3 EULAR is built on three pillars: rheumatologists, health professionals and patients. In 2011, EULAR published recommendations for the inclusion of PRPs in scientific projects. 4 PRPs were clearly distinguished from patients or study participants in clinical research. PRPs were defined as ‘persons with a relevant disease who operate as active research team members on an equal basis with professional researchers, adding the benefit of their experiential knowledge to any phase of the project. 4

These were, to our knowledge, the first recommendations in rheumatology on this subject. Since then, the role of PRPs has significantly changed and expanded within and beyond the field of rheumatology. They are now not only involved in guideline development and clinical research but also in patient-reported outcomes (PRO) development, patient preference studies, research grant application assessment, regulatory processes and international research consortia. 5–9 While the initial 2011 EULAR recommendations have facilitated the implementation of these collaborative partnerships, there are still areas where PRP involvement is limited or absent such as basic and translational research, randomised controlled trials (RCTs), registries and longitudinal observational studies. 10 11 From research projects that were successful or failed in creating collaborative partnerships, we have gained more knowledge about the challenges and facilitators of PRP involvement. 7 12 13 These challenges revealed gaps where the 2011 recommendations fall short and where an update would be beneficial.

In addition, the 2011 EULAR recommendations prompted the establishment of national 14 and international PRP networks 12 15–17 including over 100 experienced and trained PRPs. EULAR has been proactive in supporting PRP involvement through the development of an online course for PRPs and facilitating an active study group for collaborative research that gathers twice a year. 18 However, the existing recommendations did not address monitoring, evaluation or reporting of lessons learnt regarding the collaboration between PRPs and researchers, which now appear indispensable for increasing our knowledge about PRP involvement and enhancing the implementation of PRPs in rheumatology research.

Finally, while the 2011 recommendations were largely based on expert opinion, since then an increasing number of studies exploring PRP involvement have been published, that now inform this update of the recommendations and provide more evidence.

Therefore, the aim of the current task force was to update the 2011 EULAR recommendations.

The target audience for these recommendations are researchers, PRPs, health providers, journal editors, research funders, ethical review boards and other stakeholders in the field of adult rheumatology and beyond.

According to our aim, we updated the 2011 EULAR recommendations for PRP involvement in research, formulated a set of overarching principles (OAPs) and developed a research agenda for the future. Of note, the scope of these recommendations is specific to the role of patients as collaborative partners in research, which is different from other roles of patients such as study participant, observer, informant or advisor. However, the updated recommendations should always consider the complementary role of PRPs in the broader context of patient and public involvement (PPI).

We followed the updated EULAR Standardised Operational Procedures. 19 The process took place between October 2022 and June 2023 and included an online task force meeting, a systematic literature review (SLR) and an in-person second task force meeting to formulate OAPs and recommendations.

Steering group and task force composition

After the approval of this project by EULAR (September 2022), the steering group, comprising the convenor (MdW), an EULAR methodologist (LG), a junior methodologist (PS), a fellow and EMEUNET member (KA), a health professional (JP) and two PRPs (HB and CZ), had regular meetings between October 2022 and September 2023. They prepared the task force meetings and supported the SLR. Two EMerging EUlar NETwork (EMEUNET) members (ME and DB) joined the Steering Group after the first task force meeting. Including the steering group members, the task force comprised 13 researchers (6 were EMEUNET members) with backgrounds in basic, translational, clinical and social sciences, 2 health professionals and 10 PRPs with Rheumatic and Musculoskeletal Diseases (RMDs), of whom 2 represented young people. Members came from 15 European countries and Canada. The PRPs represented five RMDs.

The first task force meeting was held online (December 2022) and resulted in a set of research questions that focused on nine themes ( box 1 ).

Themes of the systematic literature review

Definition of patient research partners (PRPs).

Participation, roles, and activities of PRP.

Added value of PRPs.

Selection and recruitment of PRP.

PRP experience and feedback.

Facilitators and the supportive role of the investigator.

Training or education of PRP and researchers.

Recognition of PRPs.

Monitoring of PRP involvement.

To address these research questions in a data-driven manner, an SLR was performed for the period 2017–2022 in rheumatology journals. 20 The literature assessed in the SLR was complemented by information found on the British, European and American websites of three specialties (oncology, cardiology and diabetology) and those of Food and Drugs Administration and EMA. In addition, the following guidelines were consulted to answer specific questions about training, involvement of PRPs in translational research, and remuneration of PRPs: National Institute for Health and Care Research guidelines in the UK, guide on patient partnerships in rare disease research projects and the European Patients’ Academy on Therapeutic Innovation (EUPATI). 21–23 Finally, the research questions mandated an additional scoping review on the involvement of PRPs in translational and RCT studies in rheumatology in the last years. 24 All findings were presented at our second task force meeting to inform the update of the recommendations.

Based on the literature, the steering group proposed tentative OAPs. Because these had not been developed for the 2011 recommendations, they were formulated here. The existing recommendations were thoroughly revised and new recommendations were proposed.

The second task force meeting took place in Amsterdam, Netherlands (April 2023) as a 1-day meeting with 24 members participating in person and one member online (DPR). Prior to the meeting, an introduction session was held to inform the task force about the applied methodology and to summarise the findings from the SLR. This session was attended by 21 task force participants. During the task force meeting, the SLR findings were presented followed by discussions and voting on each of the new OAPs and revised recommendations. The votes were considered as consensus if 75% agreement was reached in the first round, then if needed for a second round of voting, 66% and 50% in case of a third round. 25 At the end of the meeting, the evidence for three new recommendations was presented and discussed followed by voting on the respective statements.

Because our recommendations are not focused on (pharmaceutical) management of RMDs, we did not use the Oxford framework for assessing the strengths of our recommendations. We decided to base our GoR only on the quality assessment of four categories of articles from our SLR 20 : qualitative, reviews, cross-sectional and mixed-methods studies. For the first three types of studies, the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist was used (n=13) 26 and for the mixed-methods studies we used the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) checklist (n=6). 27 The quality assessment for the 19 articles was classified by the steering group on the basis of consensus as low, medium or high, based on the percentage of items in the quality checklist which were satisfied and the importance of the items in this checklist. The respective cut-offs were the same for the four categories: 25% or lower was considered low, between 25% and 75% was considered medium and more than 75% was considered high.

For determining the GoR, we developed the following grid, based on the LoE of the 19 papers ( table 1 ). Of note, only studies that recommended a theme ( box 1 ) or confirmed its importance for consideration were included.

• View inline

Grid for determining the grade of recommendations

Finally, following the second task force meeting, the task force members were invited by email to indicate anonymously their level of agreement with the 5 OAPs and 10 recommendations on a Likert scale between 0 (no agreement) and 10 (full agreement).

The task force derived five new OAPs, six existing recommendations were updated significantly (#1, 2, 4,5, 8, 10), one recommendation was kept unchanged (#3), two were combined into one (#4) and three new recommendations were formulated (#6, 7, 9). The LoE allowed us to obtain moderate GoR (A–D). Agreement with the OAPs and recommendations was high ( table 2 ).

Overarching principles and recommendations

Overarching principles

Prps provide input to research, through active collaboration as equal partners with researchers.

This first OAP is focused on the role of PRPs and highlights not only the added value that they bring to research, but also two key features which are the terms ‘equality’ and ‘active’. This statement emphasises the distinction between the involvement of PRPs and the use of patient consultation strategies. PRPs are not study participants, but people who join research teams to provide their knowledge, skills, experiences and expertise throughout the research cycle. There is a wealth of evidence that shows that research projects benefit from this kind of input. 28–30 The term equality refers to the call to researchers to involve PRPs in a process of shared decision-making; active collaboration refers to the concept of meaningful involvement which includes genuine dialogues and efforts to avoid tokenism.

PRPs are persons with an RMD condition who provide input to research, based on their experiential knowledge and expertise

The first recommendations provided a definition for the role of PRPs. 4 Because this role has evolved, it was deemed necessary to broaden the definition to enable its use in other research contexts than a guideline task force. Our task force agreed to formulate the definition as an OAP and removed reference to the added value of a PRP and to the phase of the study which are now part of OAP #D and recommendation #2, respectively.

Experiential knowledge can be described as the articulated personal experience of living with an RMD, and knowledge obtained from using the healthcare system. 31 Synonyms for experiential knowledge are ‘patient story’ or ‘lived experience’. Experiential expertise refers to the collective articulated experience of PRPs and includes awareness of the heterogeneity of the patients’ perspective, insights into patients’ needs and preferences, and some lay knowledge of research. 31 Expertise in PRPs can be gained over time through experience in research studies as well as through education and training to improve PPI.

Of note, it is not the primary task of PRPs to fully represent the target population. Representativeness is a responsibility of the entire research team and can be obtained through the use of a variety of consultation methods, such as mixed research methods including qualitative studies, Delphi methods or surveys to expand the input from a larger group of people with the condition under investigation. 32–34 PRPs may bring specific knowledge and expertise in developing effective strategies for PPI in a study. In addition, researchers may also consider inviting representatives of patient organisations.

Informal caregivers can provide input to research, complementary to the patients’ lived experience

Informal caregivers (also termed carers) are people who are not health professionals but persons who provide ongoing assistance with activities of daily living or social support to a person with a chronic condition or disability, often without professional education and usually without payment. 35 This person is often a family member but can also be a (close) acquaintance. The task force concluded that a caregiver is not a person with lived experience of the condition and therefore cannot fulfil the role of PRP, with the exception of paediatric rheumatology in which it is justified that a parent of a child with an RMD takes on the role of a PRP and brings their child’s perspective to the table.

Nevertheless, the task force acknowledged that carers have an independent perspective that can add value to research projects: ‘Caregivers have a different lived experience and potentially different concerns than that of a patient so both perspectives should be included when possible’. 36 Because this perspective is complementary to that of PRPs, the task force agreed to formulate this separate OAP on the potential role of informal caregivers.

PRPs add value and relevance to all types of research: their involvement benefits patients, researchers and PRPs

There is a fast-growing number of publications that confirm the added value of PRP involvement in research. 37 PRPs bring experiential knowledge and expertise to research which enhances the relevance and applicability of research findings and improves its impact. 38 PRPs benefit from collaboration because they become more knowledgeable about their conditions, may acquire increased self-confidence and practical skills, experience fulfilment and satisfaction, and gain more insights into research. 12 39 40 Moreover, researchers benefit from PRP involvement too. They obtain a better understanding of research priorities and needs of the community, gain new ideas and become more motivated and focused when being regularly in close contact with someone with the condition under research. 41 They see the implications of their work in real-life, PRPs help them obtain a more holistic view of people with RMDs, and learn to explain research concepts and findings in plain language that is understandable by patients and the general public. 36 41 Finally, at a societal level, PRP involvement increases trust, credibility and accountability of research in the community, improves relationships between researchers and other stakeholders and may ultimately also lead to improved outcomes. 42 43 This is a brief summary of the identified benefits. More illustrative examples can be found in the companion SLR. 20

Open, transparent communication, trust, respect and willingness to learn from each other are key factors for equal and successful collaboration between PRPs and researchers

Communication is crucial to establish successful and equal relationships. 20 Each research project is unique and needs clear communication about the expectations of all team members. 44 45 Based on the SLR and the expert opinion of the task force members, factors such as trust, respect, transparency and colearning were included in the final OAP.

During the task force meeting, the discussion focused on the meaning of ‘respect’ and ‘colearning’. It was argued that ‘listening to each other’ and the willingness to open oneself to the perspective and experiences of others, is a critical component of open communication and reducing power imbalances. ‘Willingness to learn from each other’ was, therefore, accepted as an improved explanation of the concept originally referenced as ‘colearning’. Respect is a principle that not only relates to communication, but is essential for building equal partnerships and collaboration, and thus is integral to this statement.

Finally, the difference between ‘open’ and ‘transparent’ communication was explained by emphasising the personal dimension in the first, and the more ‘formal’ component in the latter. Being clear about mutual expectations and limitations and providing honest feedback to each other when things are not going as envisioned, relates to open communication. Examples of transparent communication are being clear about rights and responsibilities, deadlines for tasks, procedures for communication, available support for PRPs and reimbursement policies.

Recommendations

In the following section, each recommendation will be explained in detail, supported by the identified evidence and examples when appropriate.

PRPs should be involved in all types of research, including basic, translational and clinical research

Task force members, reflecting current thinking, considered that there is a need to adjust the 2011 recommendation that read: ‘Participation of PRPs is strongly recommended for clinical research projects and for the development of recommendations and guidelines and should be considered for all other research projects’. 4 Based on the reported multiple benefits of PRP involvement, 10 41 the task force concluded that PRPs should be included in all types of research. They saw no need to distinguish between clinical research, guideline development and other types of research. They felt value in emphasising that PRP involvement is also possible in types of research in which PRPs are often absent, such as basic and translational research 24 41 as well as clinical trials, observational studies and registries. 10

The task force is aware that the new phrasing is aspirational. Indeed, guidance for researchers on how to involve patients is scarce, especially in basic research, 46 and examples of good practice are limited. 24 41 47

Feasibility of successful recruitment is a concern, given the reported difficulties in identifying PRPs and the risk of overburdening of existing PRPs. The task force felt the current wording would allow researchers and PRPs to tailor the intensity of PRP involvement to the type of research and/or the available resources.

Researchers should involve PRPs from the inception of a research project and throughout all its stages

The SLR showed strong evidence for the benefits of early PRP involvement 39 48 49 as well as prolonged engagement throughout the duration of the research. 37 44 50 Overall, 30% of the studies reported PRP involvement during all stages of the project including conception of the research questions, study design, data collection, interpretation and dissemination. 20 For PRPs, involvement throughout the lifetime of a research project represents a commitment which needs to be clearly stated upfront, and although PRPs are expected to stay involved during the entire research process, the timing and intensity of that involvement may vary, dependent on the scope and objectives of the research, the type of research and personal factors of the researcher(s) or the PRP(s). 51

A minimum of two PRPs should be involved in each project

There is a strong evidence that having more than one PRP is beneficial and that an ideal number of PRPs depends on the research context. 20 The SLR showed that the number of PRPs included in projects varies depending on the size and type of research. Having more than two PRPs can prevent imbalances in power between the PRPs and the researchers; it encourages PRPs to express their opinions, even if this means disagreeing with a researcher. 52 Thus, the task force decided not to change the 2011 recommendation and to advise researchers, in line with the previous recommendation, to tailor the number to the needs of the study. There should be two PRPs as a minimum and more when needed because of the wish for more diversity in knowledge and expertise, or because of the expected workload and to avoid overburdening.

Recruitment of PRPs should be based on a clear and agreed on description of mutual roles and responsibilities and should aim for diversity and inclusivity

The task force combined the 2011 recommendations #4 and #5. In the new formulation, the role description should be the product of cocreation by the researcher, PRP-coordinator and/or the PRPs and reflect mutual expectations. It should contain a description of the activities and responsibilities of the PRPs as well as those of the research team. In addition, the recruitment process should foster diversity and inclusivity. 34 39 53 This is particularly important where PRP involvement is needed to develop effective recruitment strategies and formulate fair inclusion and exclusion criteria to reach these goals. Useful methods for improving diversity in PPI research exist. 53 54

The task force reviewed the 2011 recommendation about the selection of PRPs based on required competencies. The SLR findings demonstrated a wide range of reported competencies that were strongly dependent on the role of the PRPs, the (disease) stage and experience of the PRP, and the kind of research activity. 31 The competencies varied from language skills, research knowledge and mobility to education, motivation, communication skills and PRP experience. The task force decided to remove any reference to competencies from the recommendation and to highlight the relevance of the research context for determining the recommended competences. The SLR demonstrated that there is no evidence for one preferred recruitment strategy over any other. 20 Researchers reported different ways of recruitment such as partnering with charities or patient and advocacy organisations, social media, community outreach and through health professionals or personal contact. 20

The research team must provide a supportive environment and facilitate the contribution of PRPs to research

The task force reached a consensus that the facilitation and support of PRPs should be a shared responsibility among all members of the research team. Collaborative research is all about ‘enabling PRPs to make meaningful contributions’ and requires, therefore, attention to the special needs for support depending on the type of RMD and the associated symptoms. Accessibility, making sure physical and online spaces are providing the right support, is an important condition for successful collaboration. Other potential conditions are, for instance, the need for a personal assistant, lay summaries, organised transfers or sufficient breaks during meetings. In many cases, fellows and junior researchers work closely together with PRPs and should address these conditions while senior researchers facilitate PRP involvement from a distance. 55 Therefore, early career researchers should address PRP’s personal needs, recognise fatigue, establish realistic deadlines, write summaries in plain language, consider the needs of PRPs for whom English is not their first language 7 53 56 and invite PRPs to give their perspective; senior or established researchers are generally responsible to facilitate PRP involvement by establishing optimal circumstances, resources and environments for sustainable involvement of PRPs and removing external, often institutional barriers, for instance, ensuring fair compensation for PRPs. 55

It was discussed whether support (#5) and training (#8) should be combined in one recommendation. However, the task force decided to keep them separated to emphasise the importance of both kinds of facilitators.

A designated coordinator should support the collaboration of researchers and PRPs

Over the last decade, we witnessed the emergence of the PRP coordinator role. 8 57 58 A PRP coordinator was reported or advised in 29% of the articles included in the SLR, and in all cases seen as an important facilitator in reducing the chances of tokenism. The PRP coordinator played a major role in the areas of logistics, information, communication and mediation. The SLR provides a comprehensive overview of the activities of the PRP coordinator ( box 2 ). 20

Potential tasks and responsibilities of a patient research partner (PRP) coordinator

Recruit and select PRPs.

Match PRPs with requests from researchers.

Support the alignment of expectations.

Organise education and support of PRPs and researchers.

Facilitate communication.

Moderate (small) group discussions.

Organise logistics around PRP involvement such as booking travel and accommodation, and arranging reimbursement.

Mentor and support younger and less-experienced PRPs.

Assist researchers at any stage of the research regarding PRP involvement.

Assist PRPs in their dialogue with employers—providing help in certifying PRPs voluntary involvement in Rheumatic and Musculoskeletal Disease community work.

Monitoring of the evaluations of PRPs contribution and impact on the project.

This role can be taken up by a research team member or by one of the PRPs but can also be positioned within a patient organisation or academic institution. In most cases, the PRP coordinator is responsible for adequate communication between PRPs and researchers, matching PRPs with new research projects and ensuring continuity and sustainable partnerships. 7 8 59 An example of a new task for PRP coordinators is to provide a ‘certificate of attendance’ after meetings. For some PRPs, such a certificate is important to enhance the dialogue with employers. PRPs may need to take time off from work and a certificate demonstrates that a person is involved in voluntary and important work for the community of people with RMDs so that future involvement is looked on favourably.

In one study included in the SLR, the PRP coordinator was expected to take the lead in setting up meetings and ensuring that ways of communication such as video calling were accessible to PRPs. 39 The PRP coordinator can also facilitate initial discussions to align mutual expectations. 39

Task force members emphasised that this new role may enhance the implementation of OAP #E on communication, trust and respect. A special warning is justified here: the presence of a PRP coordinator should never replace the responsibility of the research team to ensure adequate support for PRPs or the direct dialogue between researchers and PRPs (see recommendation #5).

Researchers should have access to training and support, to achieve effective communication and collaboration with PRPs as equal partners

The SLR revealed that both PRPs and researchers benefit from (peer-)mentoring, education and training, which was reported or advised in 34% of the articles. The SLR resulted in a list of potential topics for training content, such as communication with PRPs, and how to recruit, select and support PRPs in research studies ( box 3 ). 6 60 61

Topics for the training of researchers

Frameworks for collaboration.

Communicating with patient research partners (PRPs).

Different roles of patients in the context of Rheumatic and Musculoskeletal Disease research.

Recruitment and selection of PRPs.

Methods of enhancing equity, diversity and inclusion.

Involving PRPs in all parts of the research cycle.

Support of PRPs during a study and preventing overburdening of PRPs.

Compensation and acknowledgement of PRPs.

There was a debate about the wording with some members of the task force in favour of ’should receive support and training’ and others of ‘should have access to support and training’. In the end, the wish to homogenise this statement with the formulation on the same topic for PRPs (#8), the task force chose the less stringent version.

The training and support, although currently not broadly available, could come from different sources, for instance, EULAR, patient organisations or academic/research institutions. Implementation of this recommendation is highly dependent on the endorsement by the existing leadership of these organisations. 62

PRPs should have access to training relevant to their roles

Our SLR provided strong evidence that education and training of PRPs increase the quality of the collaboration with researchers. 20 In almost half of the publications, training was either advised (21%) or provided (25%). There is a growing supply of educational opportunities. 63 64 In 2022, the first EULAR online course for PRPs started, and more programmes are available or in development on national level. These training opportunities are provided by different stakeholders. PRPs have a right to access training if they wish, and it is no longer the principal investigator exclusively responsible for organising this. For this reason, the task force decided to adjust the 2011 recommendation by making access to training mandatory. Content of potential courses can be general, such as the EULAR course for PRPs ( box 4 ), 65 as well as tailored to the role and needs of the individual PRP in a specific research context, such as the EUPATI course for patient representatives involved in drug development and regulatory processes 64 or the Outcome Measures in Rheumatology (OMERACT) e-learning modules for PRPs involved in core-outcome set development. 66

Topics of the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology online course for patient research partners (PRPs)

Principles of collaborative research.

Basic epidemiology.

Outcome measures in rheumatology.

Critical appraisal of literature.

Development of recommendations.

Researcher–PRP communication.

Medicine development and market authorisation.

Health economics in rheumatology research.

Reviewing research grant applications.

Dissemination of scientific information to patients.

Patient involvement in laboratory research.

Core outcome set development and the Outcome Measures in Rheumatology (OMERACT) initiative.

Researchers and PRPs should regularly evaluate their collaboration and adjust their way of working when needed

At the first meeting, the task force requested to explore the need for adequate monitoring and evaluation of PRP involvement in the literature. The results showed that 21% of papers reported or advised a kind of evaluation of PPI. One of the frequently reported challenges for researchers is the measurement of impact of PPI. 50 In addition, PRPs regularly report lack of feedback on their contributions. 8 During the second meeting, the task force discussed the difference between monitoring and evaluation. Monitoring was seen as a way to assess the level of compliance with the EULAR recommendations: how were PRPs recruited, at what stage, how many, and the kind of support and training they received. Evaluation focused on the experiences of the people involved: were they satisfied with the collaboration, were expectations met and what was the impact of the PRP involvement on the project? The task force emphasised that the collaboration should be the object of the evaluation, and that there could be a particular role for the PRP coordinator to monitor whether these evaluations happen. In the SLR, examples were given of moderators who created a safe environment that enabled genuine dialogue between patients and researchers to enhance mutual understanding. It was concluded that continuous reflection is required by all to guarantee that obstacles are removed, and doubts expressed. 67

The contribution of PRPs should be appropriately recognised, including coauthorship when eligible: financial compensation should be considered

The SLR showed that the number of PRPs that are acknowledged by coauthorship is growing. 68 If the Vancouver regulations are fulfilled, ‘coauthorship is a recognition of the contributions made by patients and is the ultimate proof of equal and meaningful partnerships’. 13 69 PRPs who meet the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria are eligible for authorship. If they do not fulfil these criteria or choose not to accept authorship, they should be acknowledged. The task force did not see any reason to change this part of the recommendation. However, in many countries, there is a strong call to compensate PRPs for their time and efforts. Over the past years, several patient and research organisations have developed payment structures to acknowledge the substantial contributions that PRPs provide to research. Some projects are extremely time-consuming. For attending a 2-day annual research meeting, reviewing a series of grant applications or being involved in the development of a decision aid or PRO, PRPs may have to take several days off from work or make other sacrifices. The task force felt that, in addition to reimbursement of out-of-pocket expenses, financial compensation for PRPs should be considered. PRPs may decide whether they want to refrain from payment, but researchers should consider financial compensation when developing their research budget. 70 Research institutes should ease the procedures for fair payment of PRPs, 71 and funders should allow researchers to budget for PPI, including payment of PRPs. The NIHR and the Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft have published generic guidelines for remuneration of public contributors. 72–74

We present here the updated recommendations for the involvement of PRPs in scientific projects. Five new OAPs define the roles of PRPs and informal caregivers, describe the added value that PRPs contribute to research and emphasise the importance of trust, respect, and open and transparent communication as critical factors for successful partnerships. Six significantly changed recommendations cover the research type and phases of PRP involvement, and the support necessary for PRPs, training of PRPs and acknowledgement of PRPs contribution. The statement concerning the recommended number of PRPs per project remained unchanged. The task force formulated three new recommendations about the role of a PRP coordinator, the education of researchers and the need for regular evaluations.

Within the EULAR community of People with Arthritis/Rheumatism in Europe, several national members have appointed PRP coordinators, dedicated to recruit, train, support and coordinate the involvement of PRPs in research projects. This new role seems effective for the establishment of sustainable and productive relationships between PRPs and researchers. Publications from national PRP networks 14 as well as from international consortia 8 show that PRPs appreciate having a dedicated person who supports their involvement and acts as a point of contact. For these reasons, the task force formulated a new recommendation (#6) about the appointment of a designated PRP coordinator. The task force highlighted one caveat: research team members should never be released from their responsibility to contribute to a facilitating environment for meaningful collaboration between PRPs and researchers as stated in recommendation #5.

A second new recommendation (#9) calls on researchers and PRPs to regularly evaluate their collaboration. There is a growing number of publications that report surveys or other kinds of formative evaluations that can inform about the current level of PRP involvement in rheumatology research. The 2011 recommendations were cited or mentioned in 50% of the SLR articles. Although the 2011 EULAR recommendations have facilitated the implementation of collaborative partnerships in a variety of research areas, there are still areas where PRP involvement is limited or absent. 24 Evaluation studies are often initiated by principal investigators of international studies and facilitated by the designated PPI or PRP coordinator. However, there is also a need to collect and publish the experiences of PRPs in smaller or single-centre studies. Hitherto, information on the level of implementation of PRP strategies is still lacking, and there is limited understanding of the challenges faced, the nature of the collaboration between PRPs and researchers, its overall impact and instruments for its assessment. A subsequently proposed recommendation on monitoring and reporting did not reach consensus (60%). It was felt that the current updated set of recommendations will help researchers and PRPs to advance PPI. Their implementation will already require additional effort from both researchers and PRPs, and the introduction of mandatory monitoring and reporting of PRP involvement, was considered to be potentially ‘overwhelming’ and not always feasible. Although a reporting checklist for PPI activities (GRIPP2) exists, 75 completion is time-consuming and not always appropriate for all types of research.

By emphasising the need for more regular evaluation, the task force hopes that this will be an incentive for better reporting of good and unsound practices of PRP involvement in all types of research. By doing so, we might incorporate further evidence for PPI practices in a future update of the recommendations for the involvement of PRPs in rheumatology research.

Implementation of recommendations requires full endorsement, coordinated actions and joint efforts of all stakeholders involved, from research institutions to organisations and funders. 62 Additionally, a better understanding of barriers and facilitators influencing PRP involvement at macrolevel and microlevel is needed for the implementation of the new recommendations. The establishment of national-specific or disease-specific networks of trained PRPs could help increase the number of available PRPs for research projects. Creating more support and education programmes for researchers, as formulated in the new recommendation #7, could stimulate researchers to start collaborating with PRPs. Finally, implementation would certainly benefit from appointing more PRP coordinators (#6) who could assist in creating workable partnerships in which there is no place for tokenistic approaches.

This update of the current recommendations has several strengths in comparison with the original recommendations. First, the new statements are more strongly based on existing evidence. While the original statements were largely expert driven and partly based on a limited scoping review of the literature (with almost no publications on PRP involvement), the current SLR provided findings of 53 articles focused on the involvement of patients as partners in rheumatology research. This enabled us to attribute GoR to all statements, which makes these recommendations the first set of evidence-based recommendations on PRP involvement. Second, a wider and more diverse group of experts (n=25) were involved in the update compared with the 16 persons in 2011.

A limitation of this project might be the wide range of articles that were included in the SLR, varying from original research studies to meeting reports and opinion articles. For this reason, it was a challenge to assess in a uniform way the literature giving us the level of evidence behind each recommendation since the literature was issued from several different types of studies and the quality assessment grids were adapted to each type of study. Here, we chose to apply a semiquantitative assessment to the quality of the articles. This method may be applicable to other consensus groups dealing with diverse literature.

It is fair to say that, despite the fast-growing body of knowledge on PPI, the quantity of literature pertaining to the participation of PRPs continue to lag behind. The reasons for this may be diverse. Researchers are traditionally not expected, let alone rewarded for detailed reporting of PRP involvement and funders may be reluctant to accept reasonable budgets for PRP strategies in the studies they sponsor. Furthermore, journals may not allow for comprehensive reporting of PRP involvement due to limited word counts, although they start to encourage authors to provide information about their PPI strategy during submission, which enhances the awareness of its importance. Another limitation is the difficulty to develop recommendations appropriate both for adult and for paediatric rheumatology, given the specific challenges of young PRPs. In fact, these recommendations do not address the specific needs and approaches to the engagement of children and young people with RMDs in research. We recognise the need for separate recommendations based on evidence from the field of paediatric rheumatology.

The resulting lack in reporting also reveals many items that belong to the current research agenda around PRP involvement ( box 5 ).

Research agenda

Assessment of the level of implementation of patient research partner (PRP) involvement.

Monitoring of patient and public involvement in research and the added value of the GRIPP-2 framework.

Assessing the impact of diverse PRP perspectives on research outcomes.

Exploring power dynamics and the impact of sociodemographic, cultural, regional and financial factors in PRP involvement.

Understanding differences in PRP involvement between sexes/genders.

Reporting of PRP involvement.

Understanding the perspectives and experiences of PRP and researchers engaged in research.

Evaluating the added value of a designated coordinator.

Optimising the interactions between PRP and researchers through the PRP coordinator.

Establishing fair compensation for PRP contributing to research projects.

Delineate the role of informal caregivers as PRP.

Assess the added value of European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology as an umbrella PRP network of national networks.

Raising awareness on the need of a global approach (directed to all stakeholders) to facilitate PRP involvement.

Education/training

Evaluating educational needs and preferences for courses for PRP and researchers.

Evaluating usefulness of refresher courses for PRP over time.

Assess the added value of different training opportunities/formats for PRP and researchers (eg, Booklets, online training, live training).

Assessing the feasibility and usefulness of an online course for researchers.

Evaluating the role of PRPs in researcher/student training/education.

Basic/translational projects

Assess means of PRP participation in basic and translational projects.

Evaluate specific needs for PRP engaging in basic and translational projects.

Understanding how to stimulate PRP involvement in basic and translational research.

Developing informative materials to guide basic/translational researchers how to effectively communicate and engage with PRP.

Producing materials guiding researchers how to assess the added value of PRP involvement in basic/translational studies.

Clinical studies projects

Evaluate needs for PRP engaging in specific clinical projects (registries, randomised controlled trial, etc).

Assessing barriers and facilitators to PRP involvement in industry led/sponsored research projects.

Implementation

Identifying barriers and facilitators at different levels that may impact PRP involvement.

Assessing implementation models to develop and optimise implementation practices in PRP research

Establishing solid evaluation practices and framework for PRP involvement.

In conclusion, the EULAR recommendations for the involvement of PRPs in scientific projects were successfully updated by adding five OAPs, revising seven recommendations and adding three new recommendations using an evidence-based approach. This is a significant step forward in advancing PRP involvement in research. Importantly, these recommendations provide a framework for the whole rheumatology research community to improve research practices and culture, and foster collaborative research. Moreover, these recommendations may be applicable in other specialties beyond rheumatology. However, challenges remain, such as reporting limitations and lack of evidence regarding the added value of PRPs in specific research projects and the role of a PRP coordinator. Further efforts are needed to address these challenges, gain consensus on the research agenda and fully implement the updated recommendations.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

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Handling editor Désirée van der Heijde

Correction notice This article has been corrected since it published Online First. Affiliation number 19 has been corrected.

Collaborators This work is the result of the EULAR Task Force for updating the recommendations for the involvement of patient research partners in rheumatology research. All members are included as co-authors of this manuscript.

Contributors All authors have contributed to this work and approved the final version. MdW is the guarantor.

Funding Funded by EULAR grant RES 005.

Competing interests MdW: over the last 3 years, Stichting Tools has received fees for lectures or consultancy provided by Maarten de Wit from UCB, not related to this project. LG reports grants from AbbVie, Biogen, Lilly, Novartis, UCB, personal fees from AbbVie, Amgen, BMS, Celltrion, Janssen, Lilly, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, UCB, non-financial support from AbbVie, Amgen, Galapagos, Janssen, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, UCB, outside the submitted work. KA: funded by EULAR grant RES005 this project; research grants: UCB; consulting fees: Novartis. ME: congress travel support from Janssen and AstraZeneca outside of the submitted work. DB: Speakers bureau: AbbVie, BMS, Galapagos, Janssen, Lilly, MSD. Research grants: Novartis. Consultancy: Sandoz, UCB. Part-time work in Savana Research. EFM has received consultancy fees from Boehringer Ingelheim Portugal outside of the submitted work, LPCDR has received fees for lectures or consultancy provided by Elsa Mateus from Lilly Portugal, GSK and Novartis, outside of the submitted work. SWT has received research funding, consultancy and/ or speaker fees from: Abbvie, Arthrogen, AstraZeneca, BMS, Celgene, Galapagos, Galvani bioelectronics, GSK, Lilly, MSD, Pfizer, Roche, and Sanofi-Genzyme, all outside the submitted work. WT has received research funding, consultancy and/ or speaker fees from: AbbVie, Amgen, BMS, Celgene, Eli-Lilly, GSK, Janssen, MSD, Novartis, Ono-Pharma, Pfizer and UCB all outside of the submitted work. HB, SB, PB, JP, CD, MF, SK, UK, DPR, JR-C, JS, RS, SRS, AV, T-CW, CZ and JP report no competing interests for this project.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

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• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• Random Assignment in Experiments | Introduction & Examples

Random Assignment in Experiments | Introduction & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 13 February 2023.

In experimental research, random assignment is a way of placing participants from your sample into different treatment groups using randomisation.

With simple random assignment, every member of the sample has a known or equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group. Studies that use simple random assignment are also called completely randomised designs .

Random assignment is a key part of experimental design . It helps you ensure that all groups are comparable at the start of a study: any differences between them are due to random factors.

Table of contents

Why does random assignment matter, random sampling vs random assignment, how do you use random assignment, when is random assignment not used, frequently asked questions about random assignment.

Random assignment is an important part of control in experimental research, because it helps strengthen the internal validity of an experiment.

In experiments, researchers manipulate an independent variable to assess its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other variables. To do so, they often use different levels of an independent variable for different groups of participants.

This is called a between-groups or independent measures design.

You use three groups of participants that are each given a different level of the independent variable:

• A control group that’s given a placebo (no dosage)
• An experimental group that’s given a low dosage
• A second experimental group that’s given a high dosage

Random assignment to helps you make sure that the treatment groups don’t differ in systematic or biased ways at the start of the experiment.

If you don’t use random assignment, you may not be able to rule out alternative explanations for your results.

• Participants recruited from pubs are placed in the control group
• Participants recruited from local community centres are placed in the low-dosage experimental group
• Participants recruited from gyms are placed in the high-dosage group

With this type of assignment, it’s hard to tell whether the participant characteristics are the same across all groups at the start of the study. Gym users may tend to engage in more healthy behaviours than people who frequent pubs or community centres, and this would introduce a healthy user bias in your study.

Although random assignment helps even out baseline differences between groups, it doesn’t always make them completely equivalent. There may still be extraneous variables that differ between groups, and there will always be some group differences that arise from chance.

Most of the time, the random variation between groups is low, and, therefore, it’s acceptable for further analysis. This is especially true when you have a large sample. In general, you should always use random assignment in experiments when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic.

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Random sampling and random assignment are both important concepts in research, but it’s important to understand the difference between them.

Random sampling (also called probability sampling or random selection) is a way of selecting members of a population to be included in your study. In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample participants into control and experimental groups.

While random sampling is used in many types of studies, random assignment is only used in between-subjects experimental designs.

Some studies use both random sampling and random assignment, while others use only one or the other.

Random sampling enhances the external validity or generalisability of your results, because it helps to ensure that your sample is unbiased and representative of the whole population. This allows you to make stronger statistical inferences .

You use a simple random sample to collect data. Because you have access to the whole population (all employees), you can assign all 8,000 employees a number and use a random number generator to select 300 employees. These 300 employees are your full sample.

Random assignment enhances the internal validity of the study, because it ensures that there are no systematic differences between the participants in each group. This helps you conclude that the outcomes can be attributed to the independent variable .

• A control group that receives no intervention
• An experimental group that has a remote team-building intervention every week for a month

You use random assignment to place participants into the control or experimental group. To do so, you take your list of participants and assign each participant a number. Again, you use a random number generator to place each participant in one of the two groups.

To use simple random assignment, you start by giving every member of the sample a unique number. Then, you can use computer programs or manual methods to randomly assign each participant to a group.

• Random number generator: Use a computer program to generate random numbers from the list for each group.
• Lottery method: Place all numbers individually into a hat or a bucket, and draw numbers at random for each group.
• Flip a coin: When you only have two groups, for each number on the list, flip a coin to decide if they’ll be in the control or the experimental group.
• Use a dice: When you have three groups, for each number on the list, roll a die to decide which of the groups they will be in. For example, assume that rolling 1 or 2 lands them in a control group; 3 or 4 in an experimental group; and 5 or 6 in a second control or experimental group.

This type of random assignment is the most powerful method of placing participants in conditions, because each individual has an equal chance of being placed in any one of your treatment groups.

Random assignment in block designs

In more complicated experimental designs, random assignment is only used after participants are grouped into blocks based on some characteristic (e.g., test score or demographic variable). These groupings mean that you need a larger sample to achieve high statistical power .

For example, a randomised block design involves placing participants into blocks based on a shared characteristic (e.g., college students vs graduates), and then using random assignment within each block to assign participants to every treatment condition. This helps you assess whether the characteristic affects the outcomes of your treatment.

In an experimental matched design , you use blocking and then match up individual participants from each block based on specific characteristics. Within each matched pair or group, you randomly assign each participant to one of the conditions in the experiment and compare their outcomes.

Sometimes, it’s not relevant or ethical to use simple random assignment, so groups are assigned in a different way.

When comparing different groups

Sometimes, differences between participants are the main focus of a study, for example, when comparing children and adults or people with and without health conditions. Participants are not randomly assigned to different groups, but instead assigned based on their characteristics.

In this type of study, the characteristic of interest (e.g., gender) is an independent variable, and the groups differ based on the different levels (e.g., men, women). All participants are tested the same way, and then their group-level outcomes are compared.

When it’s not ethically permissible

When studying unhealthy or dangerous behaviours, it’s not possible to use random assignment. For example, if you’re studying heavy drinkers and social drinkers, it’s unethical to randomly assign participants to one of the two groups and ask them to drink large amounts of alcohol for your experiment.

When you can’t assign participants to groups, you can also conduct a quasi-experimental study . In a quasi-experiment, you study the outcomes of pre-existing groups who receive treatments that you may not have any control over (e.g., heavy drinkers and social drinkers).

These groups aren’t randomly assigned, but may be considered comparable when some other variables (e.g., age or socioeconomic status) are controlled for.

In experimental research, random assignment is a way of placing participants from your sample into different groups using randomisation. With this method, every member of the sample has a known or equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group.

Random selection, or random sampling , is a way of selecting members of a population for your study’s sample.

In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample into control and experimental groups.

Random sampling enhances the external validity or generalisability of your results, while random assignment improves the internal validity of your study.

Random assignment is used in experiments with a between-groups or independent measures design. In this research design, there’s usually a control group and one or more experimental groups. Random assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable.

In general, you should always use random assignment in this type of experimental design when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic.

To implement random assignment , assign a unique number to every member of your study’s sample .

Then, you can use a random number generator or a lottery method to randomly assign each number to a control or experimental group. You can also do so manually, by flipping a coin or rolling a die to randomly assign participants to groups.

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Supreme Court Strikes Down Chevron: What It Means for the IRS

A landmark decision from SCOTUS fundamentally alters the administrative law landscape and impacts federal agencies, including the IRS.

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In a 114-page decision issued June 28, the United States Supreme Court overruled the Chevron doctrine, fundamentally altering the landscape of administrative law.

The 6-3 ruling came in Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo and a related case, Relentless Inc. v. Department of Commerce . As Kiplinger reported, Loper Bright involved a National Marine Fisheries Service regulation requiring commercial fisheries to pay about $700 daily for an industry monitoring program. However, the effects of today's ruling extend far beyond the fishing industry.

Chief Justice John Roberts wrote for the majority, stating, “Chevron defies the command” of the Administrative Procedure Act. “Perhaps most fundamentally, Chevron’s presumption [that courts should defer to federal agencies' interpretations of ambiguous laws] is misguided because agencies have no special competence in resolving statutory ambiguities. Courts do."

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Justices Thomas and Gorsuch filed concurring opinions. Justice Elena Kagan dissented joined by Justices Sotomayor and Jackson ( though Jackson recused from Loper Bright ). 

In dissent, Justice Kagan wrote, “In one fell swoop, the majority today gives itself exclusive power over every open issue — no matter how expertise-driven or policy-laden — involving the meaning of regulatory law.”

The implications of this decision are far-reaching, to many federal agencies, including the IRS. Here’s more of what you should know.

Chevron deference overturned

The Chevron doctrine, derived from a 1984 Supreme Court case, Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council , has been a key principle in administrative law for nearly four decades. 

• Chevron established that courts should defer to federal agencies' interpretations of ambiguous laws as long as those interpretations were reasonable. 
• This allowed agencies to use their expertise to fill gaps and create necessary rules when Congress passed laws.

However, the Supreme Court's decision in the fisheries cases overturns this long-standing doctrine. ( Though Justice Roberts did note that the Court’s opinion today doesn’t call into question prior cases that relied on the Chevron framework. ) 

In previous oral arguments before the court, U.S. Solicitor General Elizabeth B. Prelogar warned that overruling Chevron would severely disrupt the legal system, a concern shared by many legal experts. 

Justice Kagan, who described the majority’s decision as part of an effort to roll back federal agency authority, echoed that in her dissenting opinion, saying overruling Chevron “is likely to produce large-scale disruption.”

Chevron deference and the IRS?

The Court’s decision marks a significant shift in the balance of power between the judiciary and federal agencies. As a result, it will profoundly impact federal agencies including the IRS and the U.S. Department of the Treasury, which often interpret complex tax laws.

The loss of Chevron deference could lead to a surge in challenges to IRS authority. When Congress drafts intricate tax legislation, particularly under tight deadlines or political pressure, the IRS has traditionally provided clarity and enforced compliance through its interpretations of legislation. (Authority for that was partly grounded in the Chevron doctrine.) Now, that approach might no longer be reliable.

• Without the Chevron deference, courts might not defer as easily to the IRS’s expertise, potentially leading to more legal challenges. 
• It could also lead to a longer, more intricate process for issuing new tax rules and guidance. 
• That could create a sense of uncertainty for taxpayers and complicate IRS tax compliance and enforcement .

Some opponents of the Chevron doctrine have argued that this decision will rein in federal bureaucracy and reduce overregulation. In some circles, the ruling will be seen as a move towards greater accountability and control over the federal regulatory process by requiring a stricter judicial review of agency interpretations.

The Supreme Court’s decision raises broader questions. When statutes are vague, should federal agencies have the authority to fill in the gaps with rules not explicitly mentioned in the law? And if they do, what standard should courts use to evaluate these rules?

In dissent, Justice Kagan wrote the following.  “Congress knows that it does not — in fact cannot — write perfectly complete regulatory statutes. It knows that those statutes will inevitably contain ambiguities that some other actor will have to resolve and gaps that some other actor will have to fill. And it would usually prefer that actors to be the responsible agency, not a court.”

However, Justice Neil Gorsuch in his concurring opinion disagreed stating,  “Today, the Court places a tombstone on Chevron no one can miss. In doing so, the Court returns judges to interpretive rules that have guided federal courts since the Nation’s founding.”

Chevron Supreme Court decision: Bottom line

As the implications of this ruling become clearer, it will be important to watch how it affects federal agencies and their regulatory practices. Loper Bright could prompt a reevaluation of how agencies, like the IRS, exercise authority and interpret legislative directives from Congress. Additionally, Congress may have to provide more explicit legislative directives, and courts might play a more active role in interpreting statutes.

Those and other potential changes could impact how tax laws and related regulations affect you and your tax liabilities. Stay tuned.

• Unrealized Gains Tax Survives U.S. Supreme Court
• How Three Supreme Court Decisions Impact Your Money
• What the Supreme Court Home Equity Theft Ruling Means for You

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Online Guide to Writing and Research

The research process, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

The Research Assignment

Why perform research.

When you engage in research, you build valuable critical skills that serve you in other areas of your daily life. You learn to ask probing and thoughtful questions, gather and interpret data, read critically, form intelligent opinions, and manage and understand conflicting information. In addition, when you write about your discoveries, your voice is then added to a scholarly community that you are now a part of.    

Professors assign academic research papers to give you experience in

finding and understanding data and information

formulating informed opinions through the study of what you found researching

adding your voice to the academic conversation of other writers and scholars in your field

learning how others in your field use primary and secondary resources  

Key Takeaways

The purpose of a research paper is to show a student how to enter the stream of discourse within an academic community.

Research papers also give you experience in manipulating raw data and information, formulating informed opinions, and learning how others in your field use primary and secondary resources. 

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Measuring well-being and progress

GDP is a well-established tool for measuring economic output, but it does not tell us whether life as a whole is getting better, and for whom. The OECD Well-being Framework helps to monitor societal progress “beyond GDP” and is informing people-centric and integrated policy making across the many dimensions that matter for people, the planet and future generations. The Framework provides a compass to understand how human well-being is evolving in the context of the ecological and digital transitions, and what key actions are needed to support it.

• Well-being frameworks for people-focused policies
• OECD World Forums on Well-being

Select a language

Key messages, improving people’s well-being requires balancing economic, social and environmental objectives and focusing on relationships and social connectedness.

Assessing the well-being of individuals, communities and societies requires looking at multiple aspects that matter for people’s lives. This holistic perspective is even more relevant in a context of fast societal changes. The OECD Well-being Framework considers current well-being outcomes – and inequalities in these – to capture the material conditions that shape people’s economic options, their quality of life, and their relationships. The Framework also includes the systemic resources that are needed to sustain well-being in the future and within planetary and social boundaries. The Framework can support governments and other actors to design policies that promote synergies between economic, social and environmental goals and that put a primary focus on promoting mental health at individual and community level.

The OECD collects statistics on the key components of well-being to monitor people’s quality of life and relational well-being in the context of the digital, demographic and green transitions and to help countries understand whether life is getting better and whether the benefits of progress are being shared equally.

Countries have started to collect internationally harmonised statistics on well-being and should expand this practice further

Frequent, timely and high-quality data on well-being is essential to inform policy decisions. The OECD is advancing the statistical agenda by supporting data producers with methodological guidance on new frontiers of well-being measurement, including subjective well-being, trust, mental health and social connectedness. Although more work remains to be done, this has helped to close data gaps, especially in dimensions of life where internationally harmonised well-being data is most scarce.

The OECD is continuing to update its advice to reflect the latest evidence. For instance, the 2013 Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well-being are currently being expanded to include guidance on child subjective well-being as well as more globally inclusive measures. 

A well-being lens can bring a more integrated perspective to policy challenges, such as mental health

Mental health affects every aspect of life and is influenced by people’s economic, social and environmental living conditions. However, despite mental health’s strong interactions with factors such as income, education, employment and the environment, integrated approaches across government departments remain limited or small-scale. Reasons include inter-departmental task forces often being time-limited and without decision-making power and resource constraints remain a challenge.

The OECD uses a well-being lens to underscore the reciprocal relationships between mental health and socio-economic outcomes and shows how policies to promote mental health can contribute to achieving other social, economic and environmental policy goals.

OECD governments are increasingly using well-being evidence to inform their policy practices

The real pressure test for well-being initiatives is whether they will be able to graduate from “yet another report” to tangibly influencing government decision-making, and ultimately, people’s quality of life. Multidimensional well-being frameworks and concepts are increasingly being employed by OECD countries in budgeting, policy appraisal and evaluation, strategic coordination, and performance management. Mainstreaming well-being in policy is not a simple add-on to existing practice: it requires and supports new ways of thinking and acting that are more people-focused, more long-term and more joined-up across economic, social, and environmental policy objectives.

In 2023, the OECD launched the Knowledge Exchange Platform on Well-being Metrics and Policy Practice to provide a space for sharing experiences and solutions and to support governments interested in developing policy-focused well-being initiatives. 

How’s life in your country?

The OECD has developed innovative data visualisations that help to illustrate each country’s relative well-being strengths and weaknesses across themes like income, work and job quality, housing conditions, health, safety, social connectedness and civic engagement. The longer a bar in the “well-being wheel”, the better the outcomes in a specific area of well-being, compared to other OECD countries.

Mental health shapes many aspects of life

The OECD used the dimensions of its Well-being Framework to illustrate how economic, social and environmental outcomes intersect with mental health. People experiencing worse mental health tend to fare far worse in most other aspects of their well-being. For example, compared to the general population, those at risk of mental distress are nearly twice as likely to be at the bottom of the income distribution, to be unemployed, or to be unhappy with how they spend their time; their risk for feeling lonely is more than four times greater.

Related content

• Tool OECD Better Life Index There is more to life than the cold numbers of GDP and economic statistics – This Index allows you to compare well-being across countries, based on 11 topics the OECD has identified as essential, in the areas of material living conditions and quality of life. oecdbetterlifeindex.org
• OECD Data Explorer data-explorer.oecd.org

Related publications

Related policy issues

• Well-being and beyond GDP To understand whether policies are improving lives we need to look "beyond GDP" and consider a broader range of economic, social and environmental outcomes for people. This also allows to understand what matters to people and what drives their behaviours, providing another channel of action to policies. The OECD is leading efforts to develop indicators that measure the well-being of individuals, families, society, future generations and the planet at a time of deep changes and transformations. Learn more

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Intelligent Investment

Global Data Center Trends 2024

Limited power availability drives rental rate growth worldwide.

June 24, 2024 20 Minute Read

Executive Summary

Data center insights & research.

Explore what’s next for digital infrastructure, including enterprise IT, networking and data center operations strategies—and what it means for corporate owners and users of data centers worldwide.

• A continued worldwide power shortage is significantly inhibiting the global data center market’s growth. Sourcing power is a top priority for operators across all regions (North America, Europe, Latin America and Asia-Pacific). Secondary markets with ample power should attract more data center investment.
• Vacancy rates continue to decline across most global markets due to strong demand. Singapore, the world's most power-constrained market, has only 7.2 MW of available capacity and a near record-low 1% vacancy rate.
• Large corporations face increasing difficulty securing data center capacity. Low supply, construction delays and power challenges are impacting all markets. For example, Querétaro, Mexico has only 0.6 MW available for lease.
• The worldwide power shortage continues to fuel price increases for data center capacity. In U.S. dollar terms, Singapore still has the highest rental rates at US$315 to US$480 per month for a 250- to 500-kW requirement, while Chicago still has the lowest at $155 to $165.
• Artificial intelligence (AI) advancements are projected to significantly drive future data center demand. High-performance computing will require rapid innovation in data center design and technology to manage rising power density needs.

All analysis in this report is based only on the four largest data center markets by inventory in each global region, as follows:

• North America: Northern Virgina, Dallas-Ft. Worth, Chicago and Silicon Valley.
• Europe: Frankfurt, London, Amsterdam and Paris.
• Latin America: Querétaro (Mexico), Sáo Paulo (Brazil), Santiago (Chile) and Bogotá (Colombia).
• Asia-Pacific: Singapore, Tokyo, Hong Kong and Sydney.

Inventory (MW)

North America Despite power supply issues, North American data center inventory grew by 24.4% year-over-year in Q1 2024, adding 807.5 MW across Northern Virginia, Chicago, Dallas and Silicon Valley. Northern Virginia led with 391.1 MW of new supply, due to demand from public cloud providers and AI companies. Local governments are addressing power constraints by simplifying permitting and integrating renewable energy into the grid.

Europe The European data center market grew by nearly 20% year-over-year in Q1 2024. There was significant development in all four major FLAP markets (Frankfurt, London, Amsterdam and Paris), with Paris leading at over 40% year-over-year growth. However, supply shortages persist across the continent, especially in core markets like Frankfurt. Preleasing new facilities is now common, indicating a need for ongoing investment in data center development. Power sourcing remains a key challenge.

Latin America The region's data center inventory grew by 15% year-over year in Q1 to 650.2 MW, with São Paulo accounting for 67% of the top four countries’ total inventory. Bogotá’s inventory grew the most at 25%.

Asia-Pacific The region’s data center inventory increased by 22% year-over year in Q1 to 2,996 MW. Tokyo, Sydney, Hong Kong and Singapore each contain well over a half-GW of live power capacity, despite tighter planning constraints in Singapore. The capacity pipeline is strong, with numerous developments under construction across the region.

Figure 1: Data Center Inventory by Market

North America North American data center vacancy rates hit new lows across major markets. Chicago led again with the biggest year-over-year decrease to 2.4% from 6.7%. Northern Virginia's vacancy rate decline closely followed, dropping to 0.9% from 1.8% the year prior despite an 18% increase in inventory over the same period.

Europe The FLAP markets' combined vacancy rate fell by 2 percentage points year-over-year in Q1 to 10.6%. Amsterdam had the largest decrease of nearly 8 percentage points to 11.5%. Despite expected new supply, the low vacancy rate should persist due to strong demand.

Latin America The region’s vacancy rate held steady year-over-year at 11.1%. Querétaro had the biggest decline (1.9 percentage points) to a record-low 1.2%. There is persistently strong regional demand, mainly from hyperscalers.

Asia-Pacific The vacancy rate slightly increased in Asia-Pacific due to many new project completions, with primary market vacancy rising to 16% from 13.5%. Hong Kong’s vacancy rate hit around 30% due to 195 MW of new 2023 supply amid softer leasing conditions. However, Singapore remained an extremely tight market with a vacancy rate of 1.0%.

Figure 2: Data Center Vacancy Rate by Market

Net absorption.

North America Public cloud providers and AI companies are driving strong demand for North American data centers. All four featured North American markets–Northern Virginia, Chicago, Dallas-Ft. Worth and Silicon Valley–had major year-over-year net absorption increases. Northern Virginia had the largest year-over-year increase at 407.4 MW. Chicago absorbed 218.7 MW, Dallas gained 140.2 MW and Silicon Valley secured 62.6 MW.

Europe Despite macroeconomic headwinds, Europe’s data center demand remains high. FLAP markets had a significant surge in net absorption, reaching a combined 487.6 MW from Q1 2023 to Q1 2024, nearly double the previous year’s absorption.

Latin America Latin America's data center demand continues to rise, with net absorption reaching 73.3 MW in Q1 2024. São Paulo, the region's leading market, absorbed 40.4 MW this year. Hyperscalers are expanding their regional presence, seeking reliable data center infrastructure for their growing needs.

Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific leasing demand remains strong due to corporate and government digitization, and cloud services adoption. AI-related industries, particularly in Tokyo and Sydney, also show massive potential with multi-MW requirements. Singapore’s take-up increased despite supply constraints. Net absorption in Hong Kong improved due to demand from mainland Chinese companies and multinational hyperscalers.

Figure 3: Data Center Net Absorption by Market, Q1 2023 to Q1 2024

Pricing & rental rates.

North America North American data center pricing is significantly accelerating due to supply shortages and high demand. Average asking rates for a typical 250- to 500-kW requirement across all four featured North American markets surged by 20% year-over-year, the highest global increase.

Europe European data center pricing continues increasing due to high demand and rising construction costs. Rental rates in key markets like Frankfurt and London have steadily climbed over the past 18 months. Frankfurt saw a steeper 15% increase, reflecting its status as one of the most expensive markets in Europe.

Latin America Latin America’s data center pricing shows a mixed picture this year. Overall rental rates are rising slightly from last year, with market-specific variations. For example, Bogotá saw an unexpected 8% year-over-year colocation rate decrease, possibly due to increased competition or a temporary market correction. Conversely, Santiago’s rental rates increased by 15%, reflecting strong demand and limited supply.

Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific pricing has steadily increased due to strong demand and rising construction and operational costs, despite a relatively large amount of new inventory. Singapore, one of the most expensive global markets, is asking over US$300 per kW. Tokyo’s pricing has generally increased, with rates around US$200 per kW. Sydney’s pricing remains steady at US$195 despite significant new supply.

Figure 4: Monthly Pricing Range for 250-500kW (Min-Max) $USD Without Electricity Cost

Availability.

North America North American data center availability keeps tightening due to robust demand. Significant supply additions from Q1 2023 to Q1 2024 were quickly absorbed, further reducing leasing availability. Northern Virginia saw the largest decrease (-16.2 MW), followed by Chicago (-10.6 MW) and Dallas (-1.5 MW). Silicon Valley was the only major market with increased availability (+19 MW).

Europe Despite significantly increased data center supply across FLAP markets, leasing availability stayed relatively flat from Q1 2023 to Q1 2024 due to robust demand quickly absorbing new supply. Amsterdam had Europe’s largest decline, dropping to 65.4 MW from 98.6MW.

Latin America Latin America's data center availability modestly increased in 2024, largely due to more space in São Paulo, the region's largest market. São Paulo’s availability increased to 62.1 MW from 52.3 MW in Q1 2024. However, this growth remains slight, indicating that demand still exceeds new supply in many Latin American markets.

Asia-Pacific Leasing availability in Asia-Pacific slightly rose due to a wave of recently completed facilities, yet demand remains high. Many companies are opting for pre-commitments, absorbing a sizable portion of the new supply. Singapore remains supply-constrained, benefiting alternative markets. Overall, Asia-Pacific maintains a balanced supply-and-demand dynamic, facilitating strong conditions for market entry and expansion.

Figure 5: Data Center Availability by Market

North america featured markets, northern virginia.

Northern Virginia, the world’s largest data center market, increased its inventory by 391.1MW year-over-year despite Dominion Power’s power supply issues. Public cloud providers and AI companies leased most of the market’s space, resulting in a record-low 0.9% vacancy rate. Consequently, rental rates surged by 41.6% year-over-year as tenants secured leases pre-construction to meet capacity needs. The high electricity demand also boosted power costs by 20.8% year-over-year.

Opportunities:

Dominion Energy's current transmission line projects should boost power capacity by 2026, potentially easing existing limitations. This may encourage further data center development in the region.

Persistently low vacancy and preleasing activity indicate sustained demand. Developers may explore opportunities in surrounding areas such as Central Virginia (including Fredericksburg and Richmond), Maryland and neighboring Virginia counties.

Challenges:

Power supply issues remain despite progress on transmission line construction. Power availability and permitting processes dictate data center construction timelines.

Land scarcity in core counties such as Loudoun and Prince William may increase development costs. Additionally, extended timelines could reduce profit margins for some developers.

Dallas-Ft. Worth

Dallas-Ft. Worth has cemented its status as the nation’s second-largest colocation market, with 31.9% year-over-year inventory growth to 573 MW. Currently, it has a record 372.2 MW of data center space under construction, with 91.8% pre-leased. Limited supply is driving rental rates up across all requirement sizes. Hyperscale and AI companies’ continued interest is further fueling market growth.

The independent decision-making and faster development timelines of Texas' energy grid, ERCOT, give it a unique advantage over many other markets facing power and supply chain delays. Oncor Electric's available power further strengthens Dallas-Ft. Worth's appeal for data center development.

Increasing land prices in South Dallas over the past three years indicate strong developer and hyperscale interest in this area, signaling potential for further regional expansion.

Unprecedented preleasing and record-high construction levels raise questions about the market's ability to sustain current growth and meet future demand.

Available colocation space in Chicago is scarce, with a record-low 1.9% vacancy rate, due to high demand from hyperscalers, enterprise users and especially financial services companies. This limited supply and high demand led to a 33% increase in rental rates over the past year. The challenge of power procurement is driving data center development westward towards areas like Elk Grove, Northlake, Wood Dale, Hoffman Estates and Itasca. Meanwhile, established providers are strategically acquiring developed land near existing campuses for future expansion.

Limited land availability in core areas is driving exploration of new submarkets and redevelopment opportunities, offering a chance for innovative solutions.

Affordable development land is scarce and power procurement poses a significant challenge.

Silicon Valley

Public cloud providers continue to dominate the tech industry’s epicenter, setting a gross leasing absorption record in 2023. Most leases were full building takeovers by cloud service providers, whose cloud businesses are growing partly due to AI adoption. The 6.5% market vacancy is solely in second-generation space, mainly smaller 1-2MW suites, which struggle to meet market standards for performance and efficiency. Power constraints will limit new data center supply for the foreseeable future. Asking rental rates in the 250- to 500-kW range have reached $155 to $250 per kW, the highest in our report.

The constrained power grid has opened opportunities for new technology and alternative power sources like fuel cells or on-site generation systems, to alleviate the market’s supply crunch.

Several developers who purchased property to build a data center have been informed that they won’t receive utility power for over a decade. They must decide whether to wait, sell, reposition or pursue a less-common alternative power source.

EMERGING MARKET

Northern indiana.

Two major hyperscaler announcements this year highlighted Northern Indiana as a new data center frontier. Located near major Midwest cities, it’s become one of North America’s fastest-growing markets for new greenfield data center projects. Cities within a 300-mile radius, including Chicago, Toledo, Cincinnati, Detroit, Cleveland and Columbus, are fueling interest in new data center development. Power and land availability, along with tax incentives, are set to drive further growth in 2025.

Boise, Idaho

In 2022, a leading hyperscaler announced a major development in Kuna, near Boise, Idaho, sparking significant interest for data center development land. We anticipate ongoing development in this region due to Idaho Power’s prevalent hydropower, a new solar facility in Pleasant Valley, abundant land and minimal natural disaster risk.

Europe Featured Markets

Germany’s financial capital maintains the lowest vacancy rate (6%) of any primary market. Data center space is typically preleased before a facility opens, making it nearly impossible for many organizations to find space in this market. Remaining capacity is quickly leased, with Frankfurt’s absorption rate being the lowest of any FLAP market. CBRE expects the vacancy rate to drop below 5% this year.

Despite this low availability, organizations are not deterred. There is strong demand for data center space in Frankfurt, with hyperscalers and many enterprises seeking to grow their substantial presence in the metro market. Operators have responded by adding significant capacity to their pipeline and initiating construction for 2024 and 2025 projects.

However, any space in Frankfurt not already pre-leased will likely be swiftly leased. This situation is further complicated by the difficulties providers face in delivering supply due to issues with securing power, finding suitable land and obtaining the necessary construction permits.

Providing service to Frankfurt from nearby areas like Mainz, located west of Frankfurt, may present an opportunity for providers due to its proximity to hyperscaler availability zones.

Providers face more regulations, limiting available building areas and increasing their already high construction costs.

The British capital still attracts significant demand despite its supply shortage. Hyperscalers primarily drive demand in London’s western corridor but are seeking data center space further afield. Expected demand growth from start-ups, enterprises and GPU-as-a-service providers will likely be challenged by capacity scarcity, limited power availability and few local AI-ready data centers. Hyperscalers and enterprises may struggle to find available power in the largest submarkets. However, areas well outside of London’s main regions, with less data center concentration, may offer more options. Consequently, London’s development radius will likely expand, even after key electricity substation upgrades.

Providers who find a site with available power and proximity to hyperscaler availability zones are far likelier to lease space in a data center that can be built on it.

Securing power sources for data centers is increasingly challenging for providers, potentially driving hyperscalers to invest elsewhere due to the considerable difficulty of development.

Amsterdam, a top global connectivity hub and Europe’s third-largest market, remains a strategic region for international data transfer and peering. However, stringent data center regulations and limited power availability make building data centers more challenging. This has slowed development relative to other primary European markets. There is no new supply this year and 2023’s growth was lower than any other FLAPD market, except the much larger London. Year-over-year new supply declines and take-up are common in Amsterdam, like any other data center market after a strong year.

In the short-term, limited power availability will deter development and limit new supply delivery. Numerous markets face this same issue. Still, the expected 2025 completion of a key local electricity substation upgrade should boost future data center development, as Europe faces a need for available wholesale capacity.

Amsterdam is underrepresented in hyperscaler deployments. It’s imperative for operators to make Amsterdam appealing to hyperscalers, as they account for the vast majority of data center demand.

Attracting data center investment may be difficult for Amsterdam due to regulatory constraints such as a national moratorium on data centers with a maximum IT load of over 70MW.

Paris recently surpassed Amsterdam and Dublin in terms of growth. It is expected to become Europe’s third-largest market for total supply this year, after Frankfurt and London. Demand, pricing and construction costs are rising due to record levels of data center capacity being delivered to meet the growing requirements of hyperscalers.

Over the past two years, take-up has surged due to the top hyperscalers’ local cloud regions, with much expansion and new construction delivering space in South Paris last year. Major cloud providers now offer, or soon will, a “Sovereign Cloud” product aimed at French public sector organizations and other security-needy sectors like healthcare and financial services.

More hyperscaler business is obtainable if operators can overcome regulatory and labor law challenges to deliver ample new capacity this year. The potential success makes the risk worthwhile, considering the scale of hyperscaler deployments, particularly in South Paris.

Securing land and power for new developments is increasingly difficult, particularly in the North. The zoning restrictions initiated due to the 2024 Olympics have further complicated matters for providers and others aiming to build in the region.

Data center development in Madrid is expected to accelerate this year despite its relatively high vacancy rate. In contrast, it experienced a development slowdown last year, following a peak in 2022 when market supply nearly doubled. This vacant space surplus distinguishes Madrid from other secondary markets like Milan and Vienna.

Norway’s capital and largest city hosts a mix of retail and wholesale colocation data centers. It had 70MW of supply as of Q4 2023. It is one of Europe’s faster-growing markets due to available, affordable power and land, prompting significant construction of wholesale data center campuses in the broader region.

Latin America Featured Markets

Querétaro, mexico.

Querétaro, an internet backbone connecting Mexico City and the U.S., is a favored location for hyperscale development in Mexico. Its ample land, professional industrial park operators and easy road access make it ideal for new developments. Additionally, it hosts several banks and telecom companies.

The region already hosts cloud availability zones for Amazon Web Services and Microsoft, with the latter having recently opened. Odata, KIO and Ascenty have consistently expanded their presence here over recent years. However, power challenges have slowed new data center launches and expansions. Hopes for resolving these challenges by 2025 are fading, making 2026 a more likely timeline for energy solutions implementation.

Electrical infrastructure limitations hinder market growth but strong demand persists. Securing extra electrical capacity can give operators a significant advantage. Solid government support for the tech sector enhances this market’s appeal for data center investment. Furthermore, land costs remain attractive compared with other markets.

Power supply is the main challenge in the region, impacting Querétaro and other Mexican markets. There are many industrial parks but few have secure energy capacity. Those that do often charge high prices.

São Paulo, Brazil

São Paulo is Latin America’s primary data center market, boasting its largest data center campus under development. This market’s advantages include the country’s best connectivity, strong energy supply and power infrastructure, and proximity to many corporate headquarters and a high-skilled IT labor force. Furthermore, it has the country’s largest concentration of rapidly expanding data center retailers and wholesalers. Its clean energy sources, primarily hydroelectricity, are diversifying with increasing investments in solar and wind power, ensuring stable energy supply.

The market’s potential for AI workload deployment has been studied, taking its clean energy matrix and energy availability into account. Certain areas in Barueri and Osasco have attracted development interest for smaller demands, as land and energy availability diminish.

Space and energy constraints are forcing new development farther from the market’s core.

Santiago, Chile

The Santiago market is connected to several submarine cables through Valparaíso, including the US$400-million Humboldt submarine cable project, a public-private partnership with Google, set to launch in 2026 and link the country to Sydney. This diverse data center market—encompassing retail, hyperscale and public cloud providers—creates a strong ecosystem in a key Latin American country, despite its small size and population. With market vacancy at a record-low 1.1%, hyperscalers and public cloud providers are demanding more energy. Regulation has been widely discussed, with debates over data center permits and usage in different zones.

The connection to Australia should bring more demand. New companies will likely enter the market with the lowest vacancy rate in Latin America, despite recent project completions.

This is a challenging region for data center development, with just a few areas permitting construction. Water restrictions also contribute to the difficulties developers have faced.

Bogotá, Colombia

Bogotá's data center market approached the size of Querétaro's last year due to increasing demand for cloud services, data storage and digital transformation initiatives. Hyperscalers have expanded their regional presence and newcomers have launched data centers through powered shell acquisitions in the main Free Trade Zones. These zones offer tax benefits and strategic locations near main highways and industrial corridors. The market utilizes green energy, despite some transmission constraints.

Several established free trade zones in the city’s main industrial corridors offer financial benefits. Due to some project delays in the region, there are opportunities this year to acquire remaining land subject to tax benefits.

Some free trade zones are far from the city’s core, with only a few fiber paths. Additionally, establishing the energy infrastructure needed for hyperscale projects may delay data center delivery dates.

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Brazil’s second-largest market has consistently grown, delivering key hyperscale developments. As some industrial regions become saturated, new areas are emerging, prioritizing energy supply expansion.

Peru has garnered attention for its significant data center activity. The market is transitioning from telecom sites to a third-party focus, facilitated by the entry of international companies like Equinix and Odata.

Asia-Pacific Featured Markets

As a major regional data center hub, Singapore has consistently high demand. However, scarce new supply has led to a 1.0% vacancy rate. An upcoming 80-MW supply awarded from the Data Center-Call for Application (DC-CFA) and 58 MW from the recently announced Singtel Tuas DC will provide temporary relief, supporting market expansion. As new capacity development extends to neighboring markets like Johor and Batam, Singapore will remain the regional interconnection hub. Data center operators will shift focus from size to technology and sustainability, driven by the AI demand boom requiring higher rack density specifications and advanced cooling technology.

Singapore is a top Asia-Pacific market, enjoying political stability, robust digital infrastructure and connectivity, and a tech-friendly business environment. Its serious focus on technological innovation and decarbonization also make it a regional leader, as well as a springboard to many fast-growing Asia-Pacific countries.

Power constraints and government restrictions have limited new supply. Competition from nearby countries with cheaper land, development costs, taxes and utility provide alternative opportunities to operators, investors and customers. Singapore must form part of multi-market strategy to sustain its regional leadership.

This key Asia-Pacific data center market is experiencing strong interest from occupiers and investors. The demand is largely driven by public cloud providers that seek space in strategically located central Tokyo edge facilities, and AI-related companies, which target suburban locations. Greater Tokyo’s current vacancy rate is around 10% to 15%. Despite the expected completion of numerous data centers over the next few years, prices remain stable or are rising due to strong demand. The government promotes data center development in regional areas like Osaka, Fukuoka and Hokkaido as part of its “digital garden city nation" vision.

Tokyo, Japan’s telecommunications hub, is an established data center market with strong international connectivity. It’s currently experiencing high data center demand due to the growth and adoption of cloud services. The surge in AI-related deployments also offers opportunities for colocation/edge providers.

Limited land and power constraints increase costs and potentially delay new developments. Emerging competitors from decentralized locations such as Hokkaido and Kyushu offer alternative options for non-latency-critical AI deployments.

Hong Kong is a major connectivity and commercial hub, acting as a gateway to China. Recent data center supply has outpaced demand, causing an uptick in vacancy levels. Mainland Chinese companies and international hyperscalers drive most absorption. Hong Kong IT service providers have also boosted regional take-up. The current wave of supply is expected to persist until mid-2025, then taper off, allowing greater long-term supply-and-demand balance. Given the softer vacancy rates, the outlook for colocation pricing in the retail & enterprise sectors remains relatively subdued.

Large multinational and domestic hyperscalers have leveraged the high vacancy rate to secure large transactions over the past year. Despite challenges, Hong Kong’s political and environmental stability, along with its role as a regional commercial hub, continues to attract data center occupiers with new supply and competitive prices.

Geopolitical issues still affect multinational retail & enterprise companies’ data center plans in Hong Kong, impacting absorption. The slowing Chinese economy has also reduced activity from mainland Chinese occupiers, though they remain the main market participants. With limited new land and power supply, developers and operators might retrofit existing industrial buildings for supply after 2026.

As one of Asia-Pacific’s largest data center markets, Sydney continues to attract public cloud providers, operators and investors. The persistent demand for colocation capacity is driven by governmental and corporate shifts from traditional on-premises/enterprise models to colocation and cloud service solutions. Despite a slight softening in vacancy levels, the market has seen an influx of new colocation developments, which has increased supply and kept pricing stable. Future growth is expected to be driven by significant activity in the cloud, content, gaming and AI-related industries, necessitating greater use of liquid cooling technologies for intensive computing workloads. The continued expansion by U.S.-based public cloud providers will support Sydney’s and Australia’s data center ecosystem.

Sydney offers a robust data center market, attracting public cloud providers, content, gaming and AI-related industries. With growth constraints in other Asia-Pacific markets, Sydney offers a viable alternative for meeting regional data center demand.

Sydney’s large development pipeline may pressure vacancy levels in the short-to-medium term. Power accessibility remains a challenge, impacting development timelines.

Mumbai, India

Mumbai, India’s largest data center market, boasts over 600 MW of live capacity, comprising about 54% of the overall market. Inventory is expected to surge due to strong demand from banking, financial services and insurance companies, hyperscalers, and media segments supported by international/domestic network connectivity and the government. Generative AI deployments are also fueling demand. Both established domestic and global operators are expanding in the market. International investors planning major developments in Greater Mumbai (Navi Mumbai) include Blackstone, Digital Edge, Digital Connexion and Princeton Digital Group.

Seoul, South Korea

Greater Seoul’s total capacity of 605 MW makes it Korea’s largest data center market. Previously dominated by domestic telecoms and Korean companies, the market now welcomes many new facilities from international developers, expecting a two-thirds increase in supply by 2026. The government’s restrictions on power availability are causing developers to explore land outside of Greater Seoul. Most facilities are pre-leased to hyperscalers because customer demand is high, limiting remaining capacity for enterprise users.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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