applied research studies

25 Applied Research Examples

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Applied research is research intended to solve specific and practical problems faced by the researcher and their shareholders.

Grimsgaard (2023) defines it below:

“Applied research tends to drill down more toward solving specific problems that affect people in the here and now.”

It is contrasted to basic research , which is research for its own sake. Bentley, Gulbrandsen and Kyvik (2015) define basic research as “research undertaken with a primary purpose of the advancement of knowledge for its own sake.”

The key benefit of applied research is that it helps solve problems in the real world – it is the embodiment of the concept of ‘invention is the mother of invention. But if we only did applied research, we wouldn’t achieve any of the blue skies breakthroughs that are achieved through basis research.

In fact, applied research often follows up from basic research, finding ways to apply that basic research to real-life needs in society.

Applied Research Examples

• Medicine: Development of a new vaccine to combat a specific viral strain.
• Computer Science: Creating an algorithm to enhance image recognition in smartphones.
• Agriculture: Introducing a genetically modified crop variety to improve yield and pest resistance.
• Psychology: Implementing cognitive-behavioral therapy techniques to treat anxiety disorders.
• Environmental Science: Designing a method to purify water using solar energy in remote areas.
• Engineering: Developing a more efficient and lightweight battery for electric cars.
• Education: Evaluating the effectiveness of online teaching methods on student performance.
• Economics: Assessing the impact of a new taxation policy on consumer spending.
• Sociology: Creating community programs based on studies of urban youth engagement.
• Architecture: Designing earthquake-resistant buildings based on geological research.
• Nutrition: Formulating a diet plan to mitigate the effects of type 2 diabetes.
• Linguistics: Developing language learning apps based on cognitive linguistics research.
• Sports Science: Designing a training regimen to enhance the performance of long-distance runners.
• Marketing: Analyzing consumer behavior to optimize product placement in retail stores.
• Geology: Creating risk assessment tools for communities near active volcanoes.
• Transportation: Designing an urban transportation system based on traffic flow research.
• Marine Biology: Establishing sustainable fishing guidelines based on studies of fish populations.
• Chemistry: Developing a new drug formulation for faster pain relief.
• Physics: Creating more efficient solar panels based on the study of photovoltaic materials.
• Communication Studies: Implementing crisis communication strategies for corporations based on media research.
• Aerospace Engineering: Designing a new airplane wing for reduced fuel consumption.
• Biotechnology: Producing biofuels from algae after studying their growth and energy properties.
• Musicology: Enhancing acoustics in concert halls based on sound wave research.
• Pharmacology: Testing a new drug to treat a rare form of cancer.
• Urban Planning: Designing green spaces in cities based on studies of residents’ mental well-being.

Case Studies

1. the invention of the internet.

One of the most celebrated examples of applied research leading to a groundbreaking invention is the development of the World Wide Web by Sir Tim Berners-Lee.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Tim Berners-Lee, a British engineer and computer scientist, was working at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research. His task was to find a way to allow scientists to share data and research results efficiently across the world. The challenge was significant because, at that time, there were no universally accepted and easy-to-use methods for data sharing and retrieval across different computer networks and platforms.

In solving this problem, Berners-Lee developed the three fundamental technologies that remain the foundation of today’s Web (and which you may recognize!):

• HTML : HyperText Markup Language
• URI : Uniform Resource Identifier
• HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol

These technologies enabled the creation and retrieval of linked documents and multimedia across a network of computers. Berners-Lee also created the first web browser and web server to demonstrate and utilize these technologies.

The invention of the World Wide Web has had a profound and transformative impact on society, affecting almost every aspect of our daily lives, including communication, education, business, and entertainment. Berners-Lee’s applied research, initially aimed at solving a specific problem related to scientific data sharing, ended up unleashing a revolutionary tool that reshaped the world.

2. The Discovery of Penicillin

The discovery and development of penicillin, an antibiotic, by Alexander Fleming and its subsequent mass production shows how applied research can lead to revolutionary inventions.

In 1928, Alexander Fleming, a Scottish bacteriologist, observed that a mold called Penicillium notatum was able to kill bacteria in a petri dish. This discovery was quite accidental and came while Fleming was researching staphylococci, a type of bacteria. At this point, it was just basic research .

But in 1939, Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain took Fleming’s discovery from a useful laboratory finding to a life-saving drug through extensive research and development. They conducted systematic, applied research to figure out how to mass-produce and purify penicillin.

By 1941, the team had successfully treated its first patient with penicillin, marking a major milestone in medicinal history.

But it was in the years of World War II that penicillin really became a life safer – literally. During World War II, the production of penicillin was scaled up massively to treat wounded soldiers, saving countless lives that might have been lost to bacterial infections.

Fleming’s initial discovery and the subsequent applied research by Florey, Chain, and their team transformed penicillin into a practical, widely available antibiotic.

The development and mass production of penicillin marked the beginning of the antibiotic era, fundamentally altering medicine by providing an effective treatment for bacterial infections.

Applied vs Basic Research

Unlike applied research, basic research seeks to expand knowledge and understanding of fundamental principles and theories without immediate application in mind (Abeysekera, 2019; Bentley, Gulbrandsen & Kyvik, 2015).

Basic research is exploratory and often driven by curiosity or the academic interests of the researcher. The results may not have immediate practical implications but can form the foundation for future applied research (Grimsgaard, 2023).

Applied research , on the other hand, is aimed at addressing specific problems or questions, with the intent of applying the findings to practical solutions or actions (Abeysekera, 2019; Baimyrzaeva, 2018).

It is more structured, systematic, and focused on practical problem-solving or enhancing existing methods. The results are typically intended for immediate application, with direct, observable implications.

Benefits and Limitations of Applied Research

Applied research is specifically designed to address immediate problems, which is one of its greatest advantages.

It helps businesses, industries and policy makers improve operations, products, services or policies, thereby providing practical and immediate solutions (Baimyrzaeva, 2018).

Moreover, its impact can be quantified, making it easier to secure funding. However, the main disadvantage is that it is narrowly focused and its findings may not be universally applicable.

However, the desire for quick, practical results can constrain the methodology, perhaps limiting creativity or ignoring broader implications (Baimyrzaeva, 2018; Marotti de Mello & Wood 2019).

The pressure for immediate usability can also drive researchers towards safe, predictable projects rather than innovative or risky ones.

Abeysekera, A. (2019). Basic research and applied research.  Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka ,  47 (3).

Baimyrzaeva, M. (2018). Beginners’ guide for applied research process: What is it, and why and how to do it.  University of Central Asia ,  4 (8).

Bentley, P. J., Gulbrandsen, M., & Kyvik, S. (2015). The relationship between basic and applied research in universities.  Higher Education ,  70 , 689-709. ( Source )

Dunn, D. S. (2012). Research Methods for Social Psychology (2nd ed.). Wiley Global Education.

Grimsgaard, W. (2023). Design and strategy: a step by step guide . New York: Taylor & Francis.

Marotti de Mello, A., & Wood Jr, T. (2019). What is applied research anyway?.  Revista de Gestão ,  26 (4), 338-339. ( Source )

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How Applied Research Is Used in Psychology

Verywell / JR Bee

Basic vs. Applied Research

How it works, potential challenges.

• Real-World Applications

Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. This type of research plays an important role in solving everyday problems that can have an impact on life, work, health, and overall well-being. For example, it can be used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies.

There are many different types of psychologists who perform applied research. Human factors or industrial/organizational psychologists often do this type of research.

A few examples of applied research in psychology include:

• Analyzing what type of prompts will inspire people to volunteer their time to charities
• Investigating if background music in a work environment can contribute to greater productivity
• Investigating which treatment approach is the most effective for reducing anxiety
• Researching which strategies work best to motivate workers
• Studying different keyboard designs to determine which is the most efficient and ergonomic

As you may notice, all of these examples explore topics that will address real-world issues. This immediate and practical application of the findings is what distinguishes applied research from basic research , which instead focuses on theoretical concerns.  

Basic research tends to focus on "big picture" topics, such as increasing the scientific knowledge base around a particular topic. Applied research tends to work toward solving specific problems that affect people in the here and now.

For example a social psychologist may perform basic research on how different factors may contribute to violence in general. But if a social psychologist were conducting applied research, they may be tackling the question of what specific programs can be implemented to reduce violence in school settings.

However, basic research and applied research are actually closely intertwined. The information learned from basic research often builds the basis on which applied research is formed.

Basic research often informs applied research, and applied research often helps basic researchers refine their theories.

Applied research usually starts by identifying a problem that exists in the real world. Then psychologists begin to conduct research in order to identify a solution.

The type of research used depends on a variety of factors. This includes unique characteristics of the situation and the kind of problem psychologists are looking to solve.

Researchers might opt to use naturalistic observation to see the problem as it occurs in a real-world setting. They may then conduct experiments to determine why the problem occurs and to explore different solutions that may solve it.

As with any type of research, challenges can arise when conducting applied research in psychology. Some potential problems that researchers may face include:

Ethical Challenges

When conducting applied research in a naturalistic setting, researchers have to avoid ethical issues, which can make research more difficult. For example, they may come across concerns about privacy and informed consent.

In some cases, such as in workplace studies conducted by industrial-organizational psychologists, participants may feel pressured or even coerced into participating as a condition of their employment. Such factors sometimes impact the result of research studies.

Problems With Validity

Since applied research often takes place in the field, it can be difficult for researchers to maintain complete control over all of the variables . Extraneous variables can also exert a subtle influence that experimenters may not even consider could have an effect on the results.

In many cases, researchers are forced to strike a balance between a study's ecological validity (which is usually quite high in applied research) and the study's internal validity .  

Since applied research focuses on taking the results of scientific research and applying it to real-world situations, those who work in this line of research tend to be more concerned with the external validity of their work.

External validity refers to the extent that scientific findings can be generalized to other populations.

Researchers don't just want to know if the results of their experiments apply to the participants in their studies, rather they want these results to also apply to larger populations outside of the lab.

External validity is often of particular importance in applied research. Researchers want to know that their findings can be applied to real people in real settings.

How It's Used in the Real-World

Here are some examples of how applied research is used to solve real-world problems:

• A hospital may conduct applied research to figure out how to best prepare patients for certain types of surgical procedures.
• A business may hire an applied psychologist to assess how to design a workplace console to maximize efficiency and productivity while minimizing worker fatigue and error.
• An organization may hire an applied researcher to determine how to select employees that are best suited for certain positions within the company.

Applied research is an important tool in the process of understanding the human mind and behavior. Thanks to much of this research, psychologists are able to investigate problems that affect people's daily lives. This kind of research specifically targets real-world issues, however it also contributes to knowledge about how people think and behave.

National Science Foundation. Definitions of research and development: An annotated compilation of official sources .

CDC. Evaluation briefs .

Helmchen H. Ethical issues in naturalistic versus controlled trials .  Dialogues Clin Neurosci . 2011;13(2):173‐182.

Truijens FL, Cornelis S, Desmet M, De Smet MM, Meganck R. Validity beyond measurement: Why psychometric validity is insufficient for valid psychotherapy research .  Front Psychol . 2019;10:532. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00532

 McBride D.  The Process Of Research In Psychology . SAGE Publications; 2018.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Home » Applied Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Applied Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Applied Research

Definition:

Applied research is a type of scientific inquiry that focuses on developing practical solutions to real-world problems. It involves the use of existing knowledge, theories, and techniques to address specific problems or challenges in a particular field or industry.

Applied research is often conducted in collaboration with industry or government partners, who provide funding and expertise to support the research. The results of applied research are typically intended to be directly applicable to the real world, and may involve the development of new products, technologies, or processes.

Types of Applied Research

Types of Applied Research are as follows:

Action Research

This type of research is designed to solve specific problems within an organization or community. The research involves collaboration between researchers and stakeholders to develop solutions to issues that affect the organization or community.

Evaluation Research

This type of research is used to assess the effectiveness of a particular program, policy, or intervention. Evaluation research is often used in government, healthcare, and social service settings to determine whether programs are meeting their intended goals.

Developmental Research

This type of research is used to develop new products, technologies, or processes. The research may involve the testing of prototypes or the development of new methods for production or delivery.

Diagnostic Research

This type of research is used to identify the causes of problems or issues. Diagnostic research is often used in healthcare, where researchers may investigate the causes of a particular disease or condition.

Policy Research

This type of research is used to inform policy decisions. Policy research may involve analyzing the impact of existing policies or evaluating the potential outcomes of proposed policies.

Predictive Research

This type of research is used to forecast future trends or events. Predictive research is often used in marketing, where researchers may use data analysis to predict consumer behavior or market trends.

Data Collection Methods

In applied research, data collection methods can be broadly classified into two categories: Quantitative and Qualitative methods:

Quantitative Data Collection

Quantitative research methods involve collecting numerical data that can be analyzed statistically. The most commonly used quantitative data collection methods in applied research include:

• Surveys : Surveys are questionnaires designed to collect data from a large sample of people. Surveys can be conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or online.
• Experiments : Experiments involve manipulating variables to test cause-and-effect relationships. Experiments can be conducted in the lab or in the field.
• Observations : Observations involve watching and recording behaviors or events in a systematic way. Observations can be conducted in the lab or in natural settings.
• Secondary data analysis: Secondary data analysis involves analyzing data that has already been collected by someone else. This can include data from government agencies, research institutes, or other sources.

Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative research methods involve collecting non-numerical data that can be analyzed for themes and patterns. The most commonly used qualitative data collection methods in applied research include:

• Interviews : Interviews involve asking open-ended questions to individuals or groups. Interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or online.
• Focus groups : Focus groups involve a group of people discussing a topic with a moderator. Focus groups can be conducted in-person or online.
• Case studies : Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or organization.
• Document analysis : Document analysis involves analyzing written or recorded documents to extract data. This can include analyzing written records, audio recordings, or video recordings.

Data Analysis Methods

In applied research, data analysis methods can be broadly classified into two categories: Quantitative and Qualitative methods:

Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative data analysis methods involve analyzing numerical data to identify patterns and trends. The most commonly used quantitative data analysis methods in applied research include:

• Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics involve summarizing and presenting data using measures such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation.
• Inferential statistics : Inferential statistics involve testing hypotheses and making predictions about a population based on a sample of data. This includes methods such as t-tests, ANOVA, regression analysis, and correlation analysis.
• Data mining: Data mining involves analyzing large datasets to identify patterns and relationships using machine learning algorithms.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis methods involve analyzing non-numerical data to identify themes and patterns. The most commonly used qualitative data analysis methods in applied research include:

• Content analysis: Content analysis involves analyzing written or recorded data to identify themes and patterns. This includes methods such as thematic analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.
• Grounded theory: Grounded theory involves developing theories and hypotheses based on the analysis of data.
• Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Interpretative phenomenological analysis involves analyzing data to identify the subjective experiences of individuals.
• Case study analysis: Case study analysis involves analyzing a single individual, group, or organization in-depth to identify patterns and themes.

Applied Research Methodology

Applied research methodology refers to the set of procedures, tools, and techniques used to design, conduct, and analyze research studies aimed at solving practical problems in real-world settings. The general steps involved in applied research methodology include:

• Identifying the research problem: The first step in applied research is to identify the problem to be studied. This involves conducting a literature review to identify existing knowledge and gaps in the literature, and to determine the research question.
• Developing a research design : Once the research question has been identified, the next step is to develop a research design. This involves determining the appropriate research method (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods), selecting the data collection methods, and designing the sampling strategy.
• Collecting data: The third step in applied research is to collect data using the selected data collection methods. This can include surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, or a combination of methods.
• Analyzing data : Once the data has been collected, it needs to be analyzed using appropriate data analysis methods. This can include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, content analysis, or other methods, depending on the type of data collected.
• Interpreting and reporting findings : The final step in applied research is to interpret the findings and report the results. This involves drawing conclusions from the data analysis and presenting the findings in a clear and concise manner.

Applications of Applied Research

Some applications of applied research are as follows:

• Product development: Applied research can help companies develop new products or improve existing ones. For example, a company might conduct research to develop a new type of battery that lasts longer or a new type of software that is more efficient.
• Medical research : Applied research can be used to develop new treatments or drugs for diseases. For example, a pharmaceutical company might conduct research to develop a new cancer treatment.
• Environmental research : Applied research can be used to study and address environmental problems such as pollution and climate change. For example, research might be conducted to develop new technologies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Agriculture : Applied research can be used to improve crop yields, develop new varieties of plants, and study the impact of pests and diseases on crops.
• Education : Applied research can be used to study the effectiveness of teaching methods or to develop new teaching strategies.
• Transportation : Applied research can be used to develop new technologies for transportation, such as electric cars or high-speed trains.
• Communication : Applied research can be used to improve communication technologies, such as developing new methods for wireless communication or improving the quality of video calls.

Examples of Applied Research

Here are some real-time examples of applied research:

• COVID-19 Vaccine Development: The development of COVID-19 vaccines is a prime example of applied research. Researchers applied their knowledge of virology and immunology to develop vaccines that could prevent or reduce the severity of COVID-19.
• Autonomous Vehicles : The development of autonomous vehicles involves applied research in areas such as artificial intelligence, computer vision, and robotics. Companies like Tesla, Waymo, and Uber are conducting extensive research to improve their autonomous vehicle technology.
• Renewable Energy : Research is being conducted on renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydro power to improve efficiency and reduce costs. This is an example of applied research that aims to solve environmental problems.
• Precision Agriculture : Applied research is being conducted in the field of precision agriculture, which involves using technology to optimize crop yields and reduce waste. This includes research on crop sensors, drones, and data analysis.
• Telemedicine : Telemedicine involves using technology to deliver healthcare remotely. Applied research is being conducted to improve the quality of telemedicine services, such as developing new technologies for remote diagnosis and treatment.
• Cybersecurity : Applied research is being conducted to improve cybersecurity measures and protect against cyber threats. This includes research on encryption, network security, and data protection.

Purpose of Applied Research

The purpose of applied research is to solve practical problems or improve existing products, technologies, or processes. Applied research is focused on specific goals and objectives and is designed to have direct practical applications in the real world. It seeks to address problems and challenges faced by individuals, organizations, or communities and aims to provide solutions that can be implemented in a practical manner.

The primary purpose of applied research is to generate new knowledge that can be used to solve real-world problems or improve the efficiency and effectiveness of existing products, technologies, or processes. Applied research is often conducted in collaboration with industry, government, or non-profit organizations to address practical problems and create innovative solutions.

Applied research is also used to inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based insights into the effectiveness of specific interventions or programs. By conducting research on the impact of policies and programs, decision-makers can make informed decisions about how to allocate resources and prioritize interventions.

Overall, the purpose of applied research is to improve people’s lives by developing practical solutions to real-world problems. It aims to bridge the gap between theory and practice, and to ensure that research findings are put into action to achieve tangible benefits.

When to use Applied Research

Here are some specific situations when applied research may be appropriate:

• When there is a need to develop a new product : Applied research can be used to develop new products that meet the needs of consumers. For example, a company may conduct research to develop a new type of smartphone with improved features.
• When there is a need to improve an existing product : Applied research can also be used to improve existing products. For example, a company may conduct research to improve the battery life of an existing product.
• When there is a need to solve a practical problem: Applied research can be used to solve practical problems faced by individuals, organizations, or communities. For example, research may be conducted to find solutions to problems related to healthcare, transportation, or environmental issues.
• When there is a need to inform policy decisions: Applied research can be used to inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based insights into the effectiveness of specific interventions or programs.
• When there is a need to improve efficiency and effectiveness: Applied research can be used to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of processes or systems. For example, research may be conducted to identify ways to streamline manufacturing processes or to improve the delivery of healthcare services.

Characteristics of Applied Research

The following are some of the characteristics of applied research:

• Focus on solving real-world problems : Applied research focuses on addressing specific problems or needs in a practical setting, with the aim of developing solutions that can be implemented in the real world.
• Goal-oriented: A pplied research is goal-oriented, with a specific aim of solving a particular problem or meeting a specific need. The research is usually designed to achieve a specific outcome, such as developing a new product, improving an existing process, or solving a particular issue.
• Practical and relevant: Applied research is practical and relevant to the needs of the industry or field in which it is conducted. It aims to provide practical solutions that can be implemented to improve processes or solve problems.
• Collaborative : Applied research often involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners, such as engineers, scientists, and business professionals. Collaboration allows for the exchange of knowledge and expertise, which can lead to more effective solutions.
• Data-driven: Applied research is data-driven, relying on empirical evidence to support its findings and recommendations. Data collection and analysis are important components of applied research, as they help to identify patterns and trends that can inform decision-making.
• Results-oriented: Applied research is results-oriented, with an emphasis on achieving measurable outcomes. Research findings are often used to inform decisions about product development, process improvement, or policy changes.
• Time-bound : Applied research is often conducted within a specific timeframe, with deadlines for achieving specific outcomes. This helps to ensure that the research stays focused on its goals and that the results are timely and relevant to the needs of the industry or field.

Advantages of Applied Research

Some of the advantages of applied research are as follows:

• Practical solutions: Applied research is focused on developing practical solutions to real-world problems, making it highly relevant to the needs of the industry or field in which it is conducted. The solutions developed through applied research are often highly effective and can be implemented quickly to address specific issues.
• Improved processes: Applied research can help organizations to improve their processes, leading to increased efficiency and productivity. The research can identify areas for improvement, such as bottlenecks or inefficiencies, and provide recommendations for optimizing processes.
• Innovation: Applied research can lead to the development of new products, services, and technologies that can transform industries and create new opportunities for growth and innovation. The research can help organizations to identify unmet needs and develop new solutions to meet them.
• Collaboration : Applied research often involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners, leading to the exchange of knowledge and expertise. Collaboration can result in more effective solutions and can help to build partnerships between academia and industry.
• Increased competitiveness : Applied research can help organizations to stay competitive by enabling them to adapt to changing market conditions and customer needs. The research can provide insights into emerging trends and technologies, helping organizations to stay ahead of the curve.
• Economic growth: Applied research can contribute to economic growth by creating new industries and jobs. The research can lead to the development of new technologies and products that can drive economic growth and create new opportunities for entrepreneurship and innovation.

Limitations of Applied Research

Some of the limitations of applied research are as follows:

• Limited generalizability: Applied research often focuses on specific contexts and may not be generalizable to other settings. This means that the findings of applied research may not be applicable to other industries, regions, or populations.
• Time and resource constraints: Applied research is often conducted within a specific timeframe and with limited resources. This can limit the scope and depth of the research and may prevent researchers from exploring all possible avenues.
• Potential for bias: Applied research may be influenced by the interests and perspectives of the organization or industry funding the research. This can lead to a bias in the research and potentially compromise the objectivity and validity of the findings.
• Ethical considerations: Applied research may raise ethical concerns, particularly if it involves human subjects or sensitive issues. Researchers must adhere to ethical standards and ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limited theoretical development: Applied research tends to focus on practical solutions and may not contribute significantly to theoretical development in a particular field. This can limit the broader impact of the research and may hinder the development of new theories and frameworks.
• Limited focus on long-term impact: Applied research often focuses on short-term outcomes, such as developing a new product or improving a process. This may limit the focus on long-term impacts, such as the sustainability of the solution or its broader implications for the industry or society.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Applied Research: Definition, Types & Examples

Every research project begins with a clear definition of the investigation’s purpose, which helps to identify the research procedure or approach used. In this sense, a researcher can conduct either basic or applied research.

This research focuses on answering specific questions to solve a specific problem. It tries to identify a solution to a cultural or organizational problem and is often a follow-up research plan for basic or pure research.

In this blog, we will explain the types of applied research and give some examples. But before that, we will go through what it is.

What is applied research?

Applied research is a non-systematic way of finding solutions to specific research problems or issues. These problems or issues can be on an individual, group, or societal level. It is called “non-systematic” because it goes straight to finding solutions.

It is often called a “scientific process” because it uses the available scientific tools and puts them to use to find answers.

Like in regular research, the researcher identifies the problem, makes a hypothesis, and then experiments to test it. It goes deeper into the findings of true or basic research.

LEARN ABOUT:   Research Process Steps

Types of applied research

This research has three types: 

• Evaluation research, 
• Research and Development, and 
• Action research. 

The short versions of each type are explained below:

• Evaluation research

Evaluation research is one type of applied research. It looks at the information on a research subject. This kind of research leads to objective research or helps people make better decisions sooner. Most of the time, evaluation research is used in business settings. 

The organization uses this research to figure out how the overhead costs can be cut down or cut down a lot.

• Research and development

Research and Development is the second type of applied research. Its main goal is to create or design new products, goods, or services that meet the needs of certain markets in society. It finds out what the needs of the market are. It focuses on finding new ways to improve products that already meet an organization’s needs.

• Action research

Action research is the third type of applied research. Action research is a way to learn about things that happen in everyday life and nature. Its goal is to find real-world solutions to business problems by pointing the business in the right direction.

LEARN ABOUT: Action Research

Examples of applied research

Applied study is used in many areas of study and research, from the sciences to the social sciences. We also talk about how it’s used in those fields and give some examples:

• Applied study in business

Applied study in business sectors is fully dependent on their products and services. It helps organizations understand market needs and trends, and then shape their products to fit customers.

Businesses benefit from This research because it allows them to detect gaps in their findings and obtain primary information on target market preferences.

• It can improve hiring.
• It improves work and policy.
• It identifies workplace skill gaps.
• Applied study in education

The applied study is used in the education field to test different ways of teaching and to find better ways of teaching and learning. Before implementing new education policies, they are tested to see how well they work, how they affect teaching, and how the classroom works.

Applied education research uses quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data from first-hand sources. This information is then looked at and interpreted differently to generate valuable results or conclusions.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

Most applied research in this field is done to develop and test different ways of doing things by trying them out in different situations. It is based on accurate observations and descriptions of the real world.

• Applied study to understand the reach of online learning initiatives.
• Applied study to promote teacher-student classroom engagement.
• Applied study on the new math program.
• Applied study in science

As already said, applied study is often called a scientific process because it uses the available scientific tools to find answers. It can be used in physics, microbiology, thermodynamics, and other fields.

• The applied study is put into practice to cure a disease.
• The applied study is put into practice to improve agricultural practices.
• The applied study is applied to testing new laboratory equipment.
• Applied study in psychology

Researchers use this research in psychology to figure out how people act at work, how HR works, and how the organization is growing and changing so they can come up with solutions.

It is used a lot in areas where researchers try to figure out how people think and then come up with solutions that fit their behavior best.

• Applied study to figure out new ways to deal with depression.
• Applied study to improve students’ grades by emphasizing practical Education.
• Applied study to create a plan to keep employees coming to work regularly.
• Applied study in health

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• v.13(4); 2020 Dec

Overcoming Barriers to Applied Research: A Guide for Practitioners

Amber l. valentino.

Trumpet Behavioral Health, 6475 Sierra Lane, Dublin, CA 94568 USA

Jessica F. Juanico

The research-to-practice gap is evident in many disciplines. This gap can be seen through practitioners failing to integrate the latest research findings into their work, and through the implementation of procedures that do not have empirical support. As the number of behavior-analytic practitioners grows, this gap is likely to become more salient. One solution to closing the gap is for practitioners to conduct applied research. This survey study aimed to identify specific barriers that practitioners face when conducting research, to identify how valuable conducting research is to practitioners, and to make recommendations to support research productivity in practice. We report results from survey questions about applied research and provide practical recommendations for practitioners to overcome barriers and to begin conducting research during their clinical work.

Many professions have long acknowledged a gap between research and practice, including education (McIntyre, 2006 ), human resources (HR; Rynes, Colbert, & Brown, 2002 ), and psychology (Wandersman et al., 2008 ). This research-to-practice gap can be bidirectional, consisting of practitioners failing to implement the latest research findings into their practice, or practitioners implementing treatments that lack empirical backing. The former is most commonly acknowledged. For example, HR research suggests that the field should rely on intelligence and personality tests as predictors of employee performance; however, Rynes et al. ( 2002 ) found that HR practitioners do not rely on these tests, suggesting a gap between research and practice. The field of behavior analysis is no exception. This gap can be problematic, resulting in outdated practices and irrelevant research, and can consist of many components. These components may include practitioners failing to read the latest research articles or researchers failing to examine applied issues that will allow them to conduct research relevant to clinical practice. Kelley et al. ( 2015 ) attributed this gap to a large increase in the demand for services, resulting in an increase in the number of practitioners certified as Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs), whereas the number of researchers in academic settings who are producing studies has remained very low. In the past 2 years, the number of BCBAs has grown exponentially. As of July 1, 2019, there were 34,471 BCBAs and 3,631 Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analysts (BCaBAs; Behavior Analyst Certification Board [BACB], bacb.com , retrieved July 1, 2019).

Most studies on the research-to-practice gap have focused on how to encourage practitioners to more readily consume the research literature and implement findings. For example, Goodfellow ( 2004 ) proposed a structured journal club designed to reduce barriers to utilizing research in clinical settings to improve nursing students’ reliance on evidence-based practice. As an example, in the field of behavior analysis, Carr and Briggs ( 2010 ) proposed several resources in order for practitioners to make regular contact with the scholarly literature (e.g., organizing the bookmark panel on their web browser to minimize the effort associated with accessing important websites, creating a supportive social community). Efforts to support practitioners in consuming the literature should continue. However, another way to address the research-to-practice gap is to encourage practitioners to conduct research in the context of their clinical practice.

Kelley et al. ( 2015 ) proposed that for research to keep up with the issues faced in clinical practice, practitioners should readily conduct research during their daily clinical activities. To facilitate this productivity, Kelley et al. identified prolific practitioner-researchers in the field and interviewed them to create a list of recommendations. These recommendations included (a) arranging as much face-to-face contact with your peer researchers, collaborators, and research supervisees as possible; (b) using an economical, reliable, and safe method of data collection and, if possible, having staff members assist in data collection; (c) writing the results of your research collaboratively; (d) dedicating time to plan, conduct, or write the results of research on a regular basis (ideally each week); and (e) staying close to your project from the initial planning stage through article submission. The recommendations to practitioners by these authors are significant and represent the first of their kind in the field of behavior analysis; however, Kelley et al. noted that practitioners may still encounter barriers to conducting research, including limited resources, competing contingencies, the lack of a formal institutional review board, and rigorous methodology requirements that may not be feasible in clinical practice. Kelley et al. recommended that a next step in supporting practitioners to conduct research might be to survey practitioners “in a variety of applied organizations to inquire about the variables preventing research among employees and what could be done to increase research productivity among practitioners” (p. 206).

Therefore, the purposes of this study were to (a) identify specific barriers through a survey of practitioners in a wide variety of applied settings, (b) identify the value that practitioners place on conducting research, and (c) extend Kelley et al. ( 2015 ) by making additional recommendations for overcoming identified barriers and supporting research productivity among practitioners.

Participants

This study included BCaBAs, BCBAs, and doctoral-level BCBAs (BCBA-Ds) presently employed in a clinical setting. Participants were recruited through voluntary sampling (Remler & Van Ryzin, 2011 , p. 153). We recruited participants through the BACB’s e-mail service, which is an e-mail contact list of all registered certificants. The e-mail was sent directly through the BACB.

The number of individuals who received the invitation to participate is unknown, as data tracking was not available. Therefore, a corresponding response rate was not calculated. Only those responses that were fully completed were included in the data analysis. A total of 834 (99.88%) participants agreed to participate in the study. One (0.12%) individual chose not to participate. Of those who participated, 824 (99.52%) were board certified, 4 (0.48%) were not board certified and ended the survey, and 10 skipped this question. Of those certified, 46 (5.58%) were BCaBAs, 658 (79.85%) were BCBAs, and 120 (14.56%) were BCBA-Ds. The majority of practitioners reported being certified for 5 years or less (i.e., 31.50% between 0 and 2 years, and 35.16% between 3 and 5 years).

Nearly all practitioners (90.7%) reported that they serve individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A little over 85% of practitioners reported working with children 0–9 years old, and 71.9% reported working with adolescents 10–19 years old. Other practitioners reported working with individuals with intellectual and other developmental disabilities (62.3%), adults (19+ years old; 34.4%), and other (8.5%). Finally, most practitioners indicated that they worked for an organization with less than 100 employees (i.e., 43.93% between 0 and 50, and 14.39% with 51–100 employees); however, many respondents also reported working for an organization with more than 100 employees (i.e., 16.34% between 101 and 250, 10.34% between 251 and 500, and 14.99% greater than 500).

Instrumentation

A survey was developed by the two authors, both with experience conducting research in applied settings. This survey was designed within SurveyMonkey™ and consisted of 18 questions. The first five questions were demographic or focused on practitioners’ work settings. We asked practitioners if they worked for a clinical organization. Those who responded yes moved on to complete the remainder of the survey. The survey stopped for those who responded no. The remaining 13 questions focused on experience with, motivation for, and barriers to conducting research. See Appendix 1 for the full survey.

Invitations with the web address link for the survey were distributed via e-mail listserv through the BACB™. We opened the survey on October 8, 2018, and closed it on December 19, 2018. The last response we received was on December 7, 2018. Thus, the survey was open for 73 days.

Characteristics of Organizations

Participants reported how their clinical organizations were organized, the research opportunities available to them, and how those opportunities influenced their job choice and commitment. These data are summarized in narrative form in what follows and are included in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Summary of Responses to Questions About Clinical Organizations

Opportunities provided by employers

Participants reported the specific types of opportunities for research provided by their employers. Many practitioners (79.28%) indicated their clinical organization provided them the opportunity to present at a conference. Other opportunities included research mentoring and supervision (71.05%), active research projects (54.28%), opportunities to write (50.33%), opportunities to publish (42.76%), regular research groups (27.96%), and writing projects (23.36%).

Research time provided by employers

We surveyed whether practitioners’ employers provided time for research outside of their clinical practice. A very high percentage (86.19%) of practitioners replied no. Of those who replied yes (13.81%), the number of hours their employers provided for research ranged from 0 to 10 (37.50%) to 20 or more hours (17.05%).

Institutional review boards / research review committees

We hypothesized that one barrier to conducting research outside of a university setting might be the absence of a structured institutional review board (IRB) or research review committee (RRC). Thus, practitioners reported whether their organization had an internal structure to support the ethical review of research projects. The majority of practitioners (71.59%) indicated they did not have this resource, and 28.41% indicated they did.

Research impact on long-term commitment to clinical organizations

One survey question examined the extent to which the opportunity to conduct research influenced a practitioner’s long-term commitment to an organization. The majority (62.83%) indicated that the opportunity did influence their long-term commitment, and 15.47% indicated it did not; 22.15% responded that they were indifferent about research opportunities.

Research impact on job choice

Another question asked whether the opportunity to conduct research had influenced practitioners to accept a position. Some practitioners indicated the opportunity to conduct research did influence their job choice (34.80%), whereas 65.20% indicated that the opportunity to conduct research had never influenced their job choice.

Characteristics of Respondents (Practitioners)

Participants also answered questions related to the interests, values, and barriers of practitioners. These data are summarized in narrative form in what follows and are included in Table ​ Table2 2 .

Summary of Responses to Questions About Practitioners

Respondents’ involvement in research

To obtain data on practitioners’ current involvement in research, participants reported whether they had conducted research in their clinical organization and the type of research they conducted. The majority (68.17%) indicated they had not participated in research, and 31.83% indicated they had. Practitioners who indicated they had not conducted research moved on to the next main question (Question 12). Practitioners who indicated they had conducted research were asked four additional questions about the type of research they conducted. Of the practitioners who participated in research, most had presented at a conference (71.03%). About one third of practitioners had published research (30.95%), some had time provided for research (34.95%), and some had compensation for conducting research (34.63%).

Respondents’ interest in research opportunities

Practitioners reported their interest in research—that is, if they were interested in participating in research, and if so, in what way. The majority of practitioners indicated they were interested in conducting research, with 69.63% stating they would like to present at a conference, and 71.86% stating they would like to publish articles.

Barriers preventing research

Our next question inquired about the primary barrier that kept practitioners from conducting research. Nearly half of all practitioners (47.58%) indicated a lack of time as the primary barrier. This barrier was followed by a lack of research mentorship available (12.58%) and a lack of opportunity (11.94%). Other barriers were noted by less than 10% of practitioners and included lack of interest (6.13%), lack of research community (5.32%), lack of knowledge (3.71%), lack of appropriate protections such as an IRB (3.39%), fear of making a mistake (1.29%), lack of research ideas (1.29%), and other (6.77%).

Practitioners identified the second barrier, and they also identified a lack of time (17.24%), followed by a lack of research community (15.93%) and a lack of opportunity (15.93%). The remaining secondary barriers included the same barriers identified as primary (e.g., fear of making a mistake), with approximately the same percentage of people identifying those as secondary barriers (i.e., 7.55%). Practitioners also had the opportunity to identify any other remaining barriers. These included competing contingencies (26.79%), lack of a research leader (13.21%), lack of support (12.14%), funding (7.86%), setting constraints (7.50%), trained staff/knowledge (5.71%), population constraints (4.64%), parent consent (3.57%), lack of appropriate protections (3.21%), lack of opportunities (1.79%), lack of access to a literature database (1.07%), personal barriers (1.07%), and new organizations (0.71%), and some noted no other barriers existed (10.71%). We also asked practitioners a simple question: Would you conduct research if no barriers existed? Most (83.87%) responded yes, and 7.90% responded no. The remaining practitioners (8.23%) indicated that no barriers existed.

Importance of conducting research

To gauge the overall value practitioners placed on conducting research, we asked one final question: How important is conducting research to you? Response options were along a 5-point Likert scale. The highest percentage of practitioners indicated it was important (36.38%), followed by somewhat important (34.26%), then very important (19.58%), and, finally, not at all important (9.79%).

Most practitioners indicated that conducting research is important on some level, and they reported interest in publishing and presenting at conferences. Yet the majority had never conducted research in their work settings, and 14% of employers offered time to participate in research activities. Of the percentage that had participated in research, presenting at a conference was the most common experience. Possibly, many practitioners presented a study conducted at their place of employment that they may have had a small role or no role in, or presented generally about their organization at conferences, as a lower number of practitioners indicated they had actually participated in active research projects. These data suggest that our practitioner workforce is eager to participate and contribute, but despite this motivation, they have been unable to do so, and when they do, those experiences are limited.

There are many barriers that keep practitioners from conducting research, such as competing contingencies. If these barriers did not exist, an overwhelming majority of practitioners would conduct research in their clinical settings. The profile of individuals sampled in this survey is representative of the primary workforce within the field of applied behavior analysis: early career, certified individuals working for small organizations, specializing in the treatment of young children with ASD. This profile lends itself well to the integration of research into practice for several reasons. First, there are several research questions within the ASD population, across a variety of areas, that remain unanswered. Second, individuals with ASD have a variety of presenting symptoms, and as such, a variety of research questions are likely to be applicable. Third, early career behavior analysts, having just completed degree requirements, will be freshly familiar with experimental design, research processes, and unanswered questions in the literature. An early career behavior analyst might, for example, decide to extend his or her capstone project or master’s thesis in an applied setting within the first year or two of graduation. In the following sections, we discuss the primary barriers that practitioners identified and propose recommendations to overcome them. All recommendations provided in this article can be found in Appendix 2 .

Barrier 1: Lack of Access to an IRB/RRC

One large barrier that we hypothesized would prevent research in applied settings was a lack of access to an IRB or RRC. Indeed, 71.59% of practitioners noted this as a barrier. Luckily, our field has offered recent guidance on this topic. The present article offered concrete guidelines for establishing and maintaining an RRC within a human-services organization. Practitioners wishing to conduct research at their place of employment can follow the guidance in this article and successfully set up their own RRC. Some of these recommendations include recruiting external members to fulfill various roles and clear communication from the RRC chair to the organization about its purpose and the research process. The authors in the LeBlanc study also offer several resources for organizations to establish operational procedures and maintain day-to-day operations.

Barrier 2: Lack of Time

In addition to a lack of an IRB or RRC, practitioners noted several barriers they would need to overcome to conduct research in their work settings. The first and most common barrier was a lack of time. A lack of time can be a major barrier for any initiative, especially for BCBAs working in the ASD industry, as there are many competing contingencies. Some of these competing contingencies include a lack of compensation for research, necessary clinical activities (e.g., report writing), supervision responsibilities (e.g., overlapping sessions and providing feedback to a Registered Behavior Technician), and leadership responsibilities (e.g., meetings, responding to e-mail). However, a lack of time as a barrier can be overcome, even with these competing contingencies.

Paul Silvia, in his book How to Write a Lot (2017), dedicated an entire chapter to barriers that academics face to writing and publishing. Interestingly, the first he identified is a lack of time. His recommendations are ones that the authors of this article have followed over the years, which has resulted in research productivity within a clinical setting. Silvia recommended allotting time to write, instead of “finding” it, and creating a writing schedule and sticking to it ( really sticking to it). Writing time should be treated like a meeting that cannot and does not get canceled. The primary author of this article began implementing an early morning waking schedule and wrote from 4:30 a.m. to at least 6:00 a.m., 5 days per week, for approximately 18 months. Although it took some initial training to transition to this schedule, the schedule resulted in a much higher level of productivity than her previous schedule of specifying “writing days” a few times per month. Although this schedule may not be feasible for everyone, the idea of setting aside time, regardless of what time, is of utmost importance. As Silvia noted, the key to this type of productivity is regularity, choosing small goals that can be accomplished during the writing time, and maintaining a master task analysis of tasks that need to be completed on various projects. The second author of this article breaks down all writing tasks into small, manageable goals and graphs the cumulative number of tasks completed weekly. For example, when writing a manuscript, she divides the manuscript into different tasks (e.g., completing data analysis, formatting graphs, writing results for Participant 1). When breaking the manuscript into smaller tasks, the goal of writing and completing a manuscript seems more feasible. Finally, Silvia asserted that it is also imperative to remove distractions—if an individual carves out writing time and then gets engrossed in managing their e-mail account or reviewing social media content, the writing time will not be productive.

Another time-related barrier that practitioners likely face is when to physically collect data with participants. Students may be accustomed to collecting data during very discrete times—participants may come into a center or research facility on a regular schedule for the allotted time to participate. This is unlikely in applied work. Thus, we recommend that applied research questions be integrated into clinical practice. If the question is truly applied, then data collection can easily be integrated into existing clinical activities, such as overlaps and observations. This minimizes the need to carve out extra time, other than organizing, writing, and editing, which can be accomplished with the aforementioned strategies. Having an RRC is of utmost importance to ensure projects are truly applied and can be conducted during clinical service delivery. This arrangement is indeed possible and is how the authors of this article have conducted most of their research involving human participants within a large clinical organization.

Barrier 3: Lack of Research Mentorship and Lack of Opportunity

The next primary barriers reported were a lack of research mentorship and a lack of opportunity. It is quite possible that a BCBA might find him- or herself as the most senior or experienced individual in the organization but may not feel equipped to conduct research independently.

If no internal mentor can be identified, we recommend reaching out to mentors in the field. First, conduct literature searches on topics of interest and find out who are well published in that area. Next, send them an e-mail and ask if they would be willing to meet with you at a conference or schedule a call for guidance. Most researchers in our field will be excited to respond and provide that guidance and their expertise. You can also consider reaching out to academics to ask if they have any research opportunities available. Many researchers in academic settings may have a very small participant pool from which to collect data. Thus, they may be willing to mentor you in exchange for collecting data on participants at your organization. Finally, the project would need to be approved by your organization’s RRC and the university’s IRB, but this arrangement is quite feasible. In fact, we have had several of these partnerships over the years, which has resulted in great learning opportunities and research publications (e.g., Heinicke et al., 2016 ). Access to participants and your willingness to collect data are often very appealing motivators in exchange for some research guidance, mentoring, and support. This may also increase the number of research opportunities available.

Barrier 4: Lack of a Research Community

This is a very legitimate barrier that practitioners may face. Particularly in a small organization, it may be difficult to identify others who are interested in or supportive of research efforts.

The main way to overcome this barrier is by creating your own community. You may start small with a collaborative project with a university and begin to integrate people into the project. The results of this study suggest that you are highly likely to have a community of practitioners interested in research that may experience the same barriers you do, even if they are not directly employed by the same organization. Thus, beginning to create a group of people who are supportive of research efforts and interested in learning could create a research culture where there had been none before. If your organization can support it, arrange for a volunteer research lab. It will be important, in most organizations, for individuals to fully understand the volunteer nature of the activity and to manage these extra tasks outside of their normal work responsibilities. However, many individuals might be willing to meet during off-hours to learn and contribute to the literature. Finally, if it is not possible to create this culture given your current work arrangement, explore other work settings that have an existing research culture and support.

Overcoming these barriers is clearly important, because nearly all practitioners indicated that they would conduct research if no barriers existed. Our research literature would grow significantly if even half of the practitioners currently not publishing would begin to publish. This increase in contributions to the literature would accelerate our knowledge at a rapid pace and help answer the many unanswered applied questions that currently exist and perhaps inform more basic and translational or bridge research (Carr, Coriaty, & Dozier, 2000 ).

With the strong desire to conduct research, we wondered how much this desire would impact practitioners’ long-term commitment to an organization, and most practitioners indicated it did influence their commitment. This type of response may mean that practitioners will transition to a new company if their organization does not afford them opportunities to conduct research, if they can find another organization that does. If the opportunity to conduct research has a strong influence over this decision, practitioners may wish to try to create opportunities at their organization or locate places of employment that do offer research opportunities. Employers may creatively seek ways to provide research opportunities to their workforce to positively impact recruitment and long-term retention. Although at first glance, it may seem to be a cost to employers in the form of nonbillable time, as outlined in this article, research can be integrated into clinical activities, and the other infrastructure (e.g., RRC) is of little to no cost to the organization. Interestingly, fewer individuals in our survey indicated that the opportunity to conduct research did not historically influence their decision whether to accept a position. This response could be indicative of the small number of organizations that offer research opportunities. Thus, the opportunity may not have influenced most because it likely did not exist among the organizations individuals were deciding among.

To conclude, we would like to make some other recommendations that we believe will help practitioners become productive researchers in applied settings. These recommendations are based on the authors’ own experiences and observations of others who have been productive research practitioners.

Expand Your Research Opportunities

Thus far, we have primarily discussed collecting data in the context of clinical work and conducting data-based research studies. Although this is a great category of research, practitioners should expand their array of options for contributing. For example, many journals have outlets for brief reviews, treatment models, and recommended practice guidelines. There are excellent models in the literature of these types of contributions, many of which were written by practitioners working in the field (see Aguirre, Valentino, & LeBlanc, 2016 , for an example of a literature review; Geiger, Carr, & LeBlanc, 2010 , for an example of a treatment model; and Sellers, Valentino, & LeBlanc, 2016 , for an example of recommended practice guidelines). Adding this kind of research to your agenda as a supplement to data-based studies or as a stand-alone focus can be helpful because it allows you the flexibility to work on it during your own time. You are not limited by participant availability, times for data collection, or participant dropout. Although this type of writing certainly requires a time commitment, practice, and focus, with the appropriate writing schedule and realistic goals, it absolutely can be accomplished.

Identify Clinical Problems and Ask Questions That Will Help You Solve Those Problems

Many of the problems that practitioners face in their daily clinical activities would make excellent research questions. For example, a client who has mastered mands for information using a variety of wh– forms but often makes errors—saying “where” when he should have said “when”—might lead a practitioner to ask the question “I wonder if there is a procedure I can implement to help him discriminate across establishing operations?” As another example, you might notice that when teaching intraverbal behavior and presenting a discriminative stimulus and an echoic prompt, a client repeats both the discriminative stimulus and the response (this clinical problem occurred for the first author and was answered in Valentino, Shillingsburg, Conine, & Powell, 2012 ). When you ask those questions, go to the literature and determine if there is existing literature that will give you the answer. If there is not a clear answer in the literature, conduct the study. If some literature exists, replicate and extend that literature. If you are a supervisor, help your supervisees see their clinical problems as areas for investigation. Several years ago, the primary author was consulting on a case with the primary referral concern being pace of eating. Her mentor helped her see this as an extension of the existing literature on the topic of pace of behavior, and a study was ultimately published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis on the case (Valentino, LeBlanc, & Raetz, 2018 ). What seemed to be a simple clinical consultation turned into a unique way to extend the literature while very effectively addressing the client’s primary clinical concern.

View Research in Practice as Different From Controlled Lab Work

Practitioners who have recently entered the workforce may have a very strict idea about how research should be conducted. This likely stems from experiences with master’s theses in graduate school, which often need to be very controlled and are focused on being an ideal learning opportunity for the student. In clinical practice, many variables influence data collection, participant enrollment, and completion. The data you collect may not be collected under perfectly controlled conditions. This does not mean the data are “bad” or cannot be used. It simply means you will need to control as many variables as you can, and for those you cannot control, you will need to describe the conditions for your readers. In many ways, research focuses on the story you tell about the data, and if the data demonstrate experimental control, it is up to you to describe the data in an interesting way that contributes to the literature. There will naturally be variability, and you will need to describe that variability, not avoid it or throw away a data set because it occurred. As an example, Veazey, Valentino, Low, McElroy, and LeBlanc ( 2016 ) published an article on teaching feminine care skills to females with ASD. There were several procedural changes that occurred over the course of that study, as the authors needed to be very flexible in their clinical approach. However, the last research article published on this topic had been published over 30 years ago, and the authors knew what they had done would be helpful to the behavior-analytic community. The contribution was truly in the writing and the story about the updated procedures, the connection to autonomy and independence for this population, and the unique modifications the authors made to ensure success.

When conducting research as part of your clinical practice, you will inevitably have incomplete data sets. Families may relocate unexpectedly mid-data collection, or you might find that the procedure was implemented incorrectly by a team member or that the participant no longer meets the criteria for the study because the skill developed more quickly than you intended and it is no longer a clinical need. These are natural parts of clinical service delivery. The good news is that you do not have a timeline. You are not trying to graduate by a specific date or turn in a paper by a deadline. Research takes time, and you have that time. Be patient and continue to collect data with other participants who meet the criteria, or if the question does not apply to any of your clients, ask a different question.

To conclude, practitioners are motivated to conduct research during practice. This motivation, however, is met with some barriers. This article offered solutions to some of the common barriers acknowledged. It is our hope that practitioners wishing to conduct applied research will use this article as a resource and source of motivation to begin doing so. It is also our job as a behavior-analytic community to support practitioners in their research endeavors. Organizations that employ behavior analysts should consider ways to allow opportunities for research, and senior leaders in our field should determine ways to mentor and support practitioners. Our field will greatly benefit from these contributions in the form of answers to applied questions, a more research-engaged and connected practitioner group, and overall long-term career satisfaction. Importantly, these efforts are likely to bridge the research-to-practice gap that exists in our field.

Survey of BCBAs’ Research Practices in Applied Settings

Introduction.

Amber Valentino and Jessica Juanico of Trumpet Behavioral Health invite you to participate in a research study. The purpose of this study is to gather information regarding research activities in applied settings. This form includes detailed information about the study to help you decide whether to participate. Please read it carefully and be sure you do not have any questions before you agree to participate.

You will complete a short survey about applied research. The survey is anonymous and it should take you less than 20 min to complete.

Risks and Benefits

There are minimal risks to participating in this survey study. Possible risks include discomfort completing a questionnaire that asks you about your experiences. Loss of confidentiality is also a risk in most research projects. To minimize those risks, no identifying information will be collected. If you have had a bad research-related experience, please contact the principal investigator of this study right away at [email protected]. There is no direct benefit to you for your participation in this research study. This study will help the researchers learn more about the barriers to and opportunities for practitioners to conduct research in applied settings.

Confidentiality

Every effort will be made to keep the information you provide as part of this study confidential. Your information will be collected through SurveyMonkey™, which will keep your responses confidential. The information collected in SurveyMonkey™ will be securely stored in a restricted-access folder on Box.com , an encrypted, cloud-based storage system.

Voluntary participation and withdrawal

Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. If you agree to participate now and change your mind later, you may withdraw at any time by not completing the questionnaire. If you choose to withdraw after you have already submitted the survey, withdrawal will not be possible as the questionnaire is anonymous. The research review committee (RRC) at Trumpet Behavioral Health has reviewed and approved this study. If you have questions about the research study itself, please contact the principal investigator at [email protected].

Informed consent

Informed consent will be obtained on the subsequent page. Please be sure to retain a copy of this form for your records; you can save or print the letter before completing the survey.

• I understand my participation is voluntary, all responses will be kept confidential, and I AGREE to participate.
• I choose not to participate. (Logic ➔ End of survey)
• No (Logic ➔ End of survey)
• 0–2 years
• 3–5 years
• 6–9 years
• Children (0–9 years old)
• Adolescents (10–19 years old)
• Adults (19+ years old)
• Autism spectrum disorders
• Intellectual and developmental disabilities
• Other (please specify)
• 0–50 employees
• 51–100 employees
• 101–250 employees
• 251–500 employees
• 501+ employees
• No (Logic ➔ Question 12)
• No (Logic ➔ Question 14)
• Research mentoring/supervision
• Regular research groups
• Active research projects for employees to participate
• Writing projects for employees to join
• Opportunities to present at conferences
• Opportunities to write
• Opportunities to publish
• No (Logic ➔ Question 16)
• How much time does your organization provide its employees to conduct research (please report in hours per month)?
• Lack of time
• Lack of knowledge
• Lack of interest
• Lack of research community
• Lack of appropriate protections (e.g., IRB)
• Fear of making a mistake
• Lack of research mentorship available
• Lack of research ideas
• Lack of opportunity
• List any other barriers associated with conducting research in your applied setting.
• N/A (I already conduct research and there are no barriers to me doing so.)
• Indifferent
• Yes, it has influenced me to accept or not accept a position.
• No, opportunities for research have never influenced job choice.
• Very important
• Somewhat important

Summary of Recommendations

Compliance with Ethical Standards

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards (however, please note that given the discussion status of this article, it did not involve any human participants).

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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• What is Applied Research? + [Types, Examples & Method]

Every research begins with a clear delineation of the purpose of the investigation as this goes a long way to determine the research process or methodology adopted. In this sense, a researcher may choose to carry out basic research or applied research. 

Applied research is set on providing answers to specific questions in a bid to provide a solution to a defined problem. In this article, we will outline the features of this method of systematic investigation as well as how it differs from other approaches to research. 

What is Applied Research?

Applied research is a type of research design that seeks to solve a specific problem or provide innovative solutions to issues affecting an individual, group or society. It is often referred to as a scientific method of inquiry or contractual research because it involves the practical application of scientific methods to everyday problems. 

When conducting applied research, the researcher takes extra care to identify a problem, develop a research hypothesis and goes ahead to test these hypotheses via an experiment. In many cases, this research approach employs empirical methods in order to solve practical problems. 

Applied research is sometimes considered to be a non-systematic inquiry because  of its direct approach in  seeking a solution to a problem. It is typically a follow-up research design that further investigates the findings of pure or basic research in order to validate these findings and apply them to create innovative solutions.     

Types of Applied Research

There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and development, and action research.

• Evaluation Research

Evaluation research is a type of applied research that analyses existing information about a research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions. This type of applied research is mostly applied in business contexts, for example, an organisation may adopt evaluation research to determine how to cut down  overhead costs.

• Research and Development

Research and development is a type of applied research that is focused on developing new products and services based on the needs of target markets. It focuses on gathering information about marketing needs and finding ways to improve on an existing product or create new products that satisfy the identified needs.

• Action Research

Action research is a type of applied research that is set on providing practical solutions to specific business problems by pointing the business in the right directions. Typically, action research is a process of reflective inquiry that is limited to specific contexts and situational in nature.

Examples of Applied Research 

Applied research is relevant in different fields of study; especially science and social science-related fields. Examples of applied research can be seen in medicine, education, business, engineering, psychology and health, and these would be further explicated below. 

Applied Research Example in Business

Applied research is used in business to build knowledge and develop product solutions. It enables organisations to identify the peculiar needs of target markets and this would help them to create different business strategies that would allow them to satisfy these needs. 

In addition, conducting contractual research would help business owners to get insightful feedback on product gaps that may have, otherwise, been ignored. This is a great way to get first-hand information on target market reactions which can inform brand decisions. 

Applied research also helps employers of labour to identify and address the productivity needs of their workforce. For instance, an organization may carry out applied research in order to measure the effectiveness of its recruitment practices or of its organisational structure. 

• Applied research to improve an organization’s hiring process.
• Applied research to improve workplace efficiency and organizational policies.
• Applied research to bridge skill gaps in the workplace.

Applied Research Examples in Education  

In education, applied research is used to test pedagogic processes in order to discover the best teaching and learning methods. It is also used to test educational policies before implementation and to address different issues associated with teaching paradigms and classroom dynamics for a better learning experience. 

Educational applied research attempts solving a problem by gathering data from primary sources using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. This data serves as empirical evidence which is then subjected to rigorous analysis and description in order to arrive at valid conclusions.

The goal of this research methodology is to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by way of subjecting hypotheses to experimentation within specific settings. Applied research in education is also more utilitarian as it gathers practical evidence that can inform pragmatic solutions to problems. 

Characteristics of Applied Research in Education 

• It clearly highlights generalizations and hypotheses that inform the research findings.
• It relies on empirical evidence.
• It is set at providing solutions to a defined problem.
• It requires accurate observation and description.
• A study into the way to improve teacher-learner classroom engagements.
• A study into the way to improve a school’s readiness for its students.
• A study to build students’ interests in Mathematics.

Applied Research Example in Science

In itself, applied research is a scientific method of investigation because it applies existing scientific knowledge to practical situations. It is useful in different fields including thermodynamics, physics, material sciences and microbiology. 

Examples of applied research in science include the following: 

• Applied research to improve agricultural crop production
• Applied research to treat or cure a specific disease.

Applied Research Examples in Psychology  

There are different reasons psychologists would make use of applied research in the course of their work. In many cases, industrial-psychologists concerned with workplace behavior, human resources and organisational development combine psychological principles with applied research to proffer solutions. 

Examples of applied research in psychology include:

• Applied research to improve workplace commitment by arriving at practical worker-motivation strategies.
• Investigating treatment and management options for anxiety and panic attacks.
• Investigating factors that improve worker’s productivity.

Applied Research Example in Health   

In health and medical sciences, applied research serves as the background to evidence-based and solution-oriented medicine. It effectively merges scientific knowledge and methods with health experiences in order to arrive at accurate and verifiable results; using empirical research data or evidence. 

The adaptation of applied research to medicine is referred to as applied clinical research . Many health and medical practitioners use applied research to measure the extent to which the findings of basic or pure research can be adopted or modified into a solution-oriented approach.

Examples of applied research in health include:

• An investigation to identify the healing properties of a specific herb.
• An investigation to identify the side effects of using a particular drug.

APPLIED RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative and quantitative data collection methods are used in applied research to gather empirical evidence that is further subjected to experimentation in order to arrive at valid research outcomes. The following are data collection methods in applied research:

An interview is a qualitative method of data collection that involves having a one-on-one interaction or discussion with the research subjects in order to gather relevant information that can serve as empirical data. It can be conducted with the use of an audio recorder, digital camera or camcorder.

Even though it is time-consuming and expensive, interviews allow the researcher to gather the most relevant data which gives him or her in-depth knowledge about the research subjects. An interview may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured; depending on the research purpose. 

• Surveys/Questionnaires

A questionnaire is an instrument that is typically used for quantitative data gathering . It outlines a series of questions relating to the research context and requires the research subjects to choose or provide responses that reflect their knowledge and experiences.

There are different types of questions that can be contained in a questionnaire including rating scale question s, close and open-ended questions and fixed alternatives. You can create and administer your applied research survey using data-collection platforms like Formplus . 

You can also start choosing from our over 200 online survey/questionnaire templates.

Here is a step-by-step guide on  how to create and administer questionnaires for applied research using Formplus

Sign in to Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different questionnaires for applied research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin.

Edit Form Title

Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Applied Research Questionnaire”.

Click on the edit button to edit the form.

i. Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 

ii. Edit fields

iii. Click on “Save”

iv. Preview form. 

Form Customization

With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily improve on the appearance of your questionnaire and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images and even change the font according to your needs. 

Multiple Sharing Options

Formplus also provides multiple form sharing options which enables you to easily share your questionnaire with respondents. With the direct social media sharing buttons, you can swiftly share your applied research questionnaire link to your organization’s social media pages. 

You can send out your questionnaire as email invitations to your research subjects too. Formplus also allows you to share your form’s QR code or embed it in your organization’s website for easy access. 

• Data Reporting

The process of gathering useful information about a research subject which can be used for further research. This can be done through not-for-profit reports, newspapers, website articles and hospital records.

It helps you  gather relevant data that results in more insightful decisions.  However, it is susceptible to bias because the information can easily be exaggerated by the individual or group collecting the data. 

• Observation

A type of data gathering method in applied research that requires the researcher to pay close attention to a subject (s) in order to gather useful information about it. Although bias may arise with this method, observation is widely considered as a universally accepted research practice.

Observation helps the researcher to gather empirical data and thus, it is the starting point for the formulation of a hypothesis. There are different techniques for observation including complete observer, complete participant, participant as observer and observer as participant. 

• Focus Groups

A focus group is a type of qualitative data collection process that allows the researcher to gather information about the disposition, feelings and opinions of the research subjects about a specific issue.

Here, the researcher engages a group comprising 6-10 individuals with a range of open-ended questions with the aim of gathering feedback about their emotional disposition to the issue at hand. This method is cost-effective compared to one-on-one interviews, and the information obtained is insightful and detailed. 

How is Applied Research Different from Basic Research?

Applied research and basic research are common methods of inquiry, based on purpose or utility. However, there are key differences between these 2 research approaches and these would be clearly outlined below: 

Applied research is a type of research that is aimed at the practical application of science in order to solve practical problems. On the other hand, basic research is a type of research that is aimed at expanding knowledge rather than solving problems. 

Basic research is theoretical in nature while applied research is practical and descriptive in nature. Basic research explores and generates theories that may be abstract while applied research tests these theories in order to solve a problem. 

Basic research is universal while applied research is limited. Basic research can focus on diverse or multiple contexts while applied research focuses on specific contexts with the aim of providing a solution to an identified problem. 

Applied research is focused on providing answers or solutions to a specific research question while basic research focuses on multiple concepts at the same time in its quest to expand knowledge. 

• Applied research pays attention to external validity while basic research is more focused on internal validity .

Characteristics of Applied Research 

• Applied research is solution-specific and it addresses practical problems. Unlike basic research that is aimed at theorizing and expanding knowledge, applied research focuses on addressing a particular problem using a range of science-based approaches.
• Applied research is descriptive in nature as it arrives at solutions by experimenting on empirical evidence and describing research outcomes.
• Usually, applied research tests theories arrived at by pure research in order to determine the usefulness of these theories in solving practical problems.
• It describes the relationship between research variables by measuring the characteristics of dependent and independent variables.
• Applied research relies on empirical evidence in order to arrive at valid research outcomes.
• It is not theoretical and it is not directly concerned with the expansion of knowledge.
• Applied research is synthetic in nature.
• It is aimed at the cost-effective reduction of social problems.
• Applied research is action-oriented.

Advantages of Applied Research

• Validity: Applied research is unbiased in nature because it tests empirical evidence in order to arrive at valid research outcomes. It employs carefully mapped-out procedures, and this makes it a more valid research approach.
• It is useful in solving specific problems. It helps individuals and organizations to find solutions to specific problems.

Disadvantages of Applied Research 

• It is not flexible in nature as it is restricted to a stipulated deadline.
• Applied research is limited in nature and it cannot be generalized. In other words, the findings from applied research cannot be generalized.

Conclusion 

Applied research is an important research approach because it helps organisations to arrive at practical solutions to specific problems while improving their productivity and output. Unlike basic research that focuses on generating theories that explain phenomena, applied research pays attention to describing empirical evidence with the aim of providing solutions. 

In carrying out applied research, the researcher combines a number of qualitative and quantitative data-gathering methods including questionnaires, observation methods, and interviews. This helps the researcher to gather empirical evidence that is then subjected to experimentation depending on the type of applied research and the overall focus. 

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Basic vs. applied research

• Coding qualitative data for valuable insights

What is the difference between applied research and basic research?

Examples of basic research vs. applied research, basic vs. applied research: a comparative analysis, the interplay between basic and applied research, introduction.

Basic and applied research look at existing knowledge and create new knowledge in different ways. They share the same basic principles of contributing to knowledge through research findings, but their aims and objectives are distinctly different.

In the vast realm of scientific inquiry, research stands as the cornerstone for advancement, driving our understanding of the world and fostering innovation. At its core, research can be bifurcated into two primary types: applied and basic research . While both serve pivotal roles in contributing to our collective knowledge, they operate with distinct objectives and outcomes.

Any approach that is called basic research delves into the foundational principles and theories of science. It is driven by a researcher's curiosity and the aspiration to expand the frontiers of understanding. The primary goal isn't to solve an immediate problem but to garner knowledge for the sake of understanding.

On the other hand, applied research focuses on analysis intended to solve practical problems. Conducting applied research means seeking solutions to specific, tangible challenges that society or industries face. Using the principles derived from basic research, applied research aims to bring about real-world impact and deliver pragmatic solutions.

Basic research

Basic research, often called "pure" or "fundamental" research , is characterized by its intrinsic quest to unravel the mysteries of nature and society. It is an investigation into the very core of phenomena, aiming to discover new principles, theories, or facts without an immediate application in mind. This kind of research is often propelled by the researcher's curiosity, a thirst to understand the "why" and "how" of things, rather than the "what can we do with it."

Basic research has a relatively broad scope and aims to enhance the existing body of knowledge in a particular field. It's not about creating a new product, improving a process, or solving a current societal problem. Instead, it's about laying the groundwork for future investigations, paving the way for applied research to build upon. Basic research poses questions like, "What are the fundamental principles of this phenomenon?" or "How does this process work at different levels?"

Such goals provide the essential framework upon which much of our modern understanding and technological advancement rests. Without the exploratory and explanatory nature of basic research, the foundational knowledge needed to drive innovation would be missing.

Applied research

While basic research focuses on curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, applied research takes a different approach by examining how real-world phenomena or outcomes can be altered. At its core, applied research is oriented towards identifying practical solutions to specific problems. Its primary objective is not just to add to the existing knowledge base but to leverage that knowledge to develop solutions, innovations, or interventions that can be directly applied in the real world.

Applied research is deeply rooted in real-world issues. Whether it's finding a cure for a specific disease, developing a new technological solution for environmental challenges, or creating strategies to improve education in underprivileged communities, the primary goal is to generate practical outcomes that can be directly implemented. Its relevance is often immediately apparent, as it's tailored to answer particular challenges faced by society, industries, or organizations.

The line between basic and applied research can sometimes blur, especially when foundational discoveries from basic research lead directly to tangible applications. However, the main distinction lies in the intent: while basic research seeks to understand the fundamental nature of phenomena, applied research aims to harness that understanding for tangible benefits.

Applied research is invaluable as it accelerates the transition of theoretical knowledge into practical, impactful solutions. Through applied research, the abstract findings of basic research are transformed into actionable insights, tools, and technologies that shape our daily lives and address pressing challenges.

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Research in the social sciences encompasses a broad spectrum of topics, ranging from understanding human behavior and societal structures to exploring the dynamics of interpersonal relationships. Basic and applied research methods in the social sciences offer unique insights into these areas. Let's delve into some examples to understand their distinct approaches.

Basic research examples

The social construction of reality

A classic area of investigation in sociology is understanding how societies construct reality. This kind of research delves deep into the ways cultures, languages, and institutions shape our understanding of the world. It doesn't immediately aim to solve societal problems but provides essential insights into how perceptions and beliefs are formed. Research methods often used for this type of study include in-depth interviews , participant observations , and ethnographic studies .

Attachment theory in psychology

Attachment theory seeks to understand the deep emotional and physical attachment between a child and at least one primary caregiver. It delves into the nature of attachment and its implications for personal development. The research often involves longitudinal studies that observe behaviors over extended periods.

Applied research examples

Interventions for at-risk youth

Applied researchers might design programs or interventions to help at-risk youth, building on the foundational knowledge of psychology, sociology, and education. The research might involve evaluating the effectiveness of a particular program, using methods like surveys , focus groups , and pre-and-post assessments.

Communication strategies for public health

Understanding human behavior is crucial for successful public health campaigns. Researchers might study the best ways to communicate vital health information to various populations, especially in times of crisis like pandemics. Methods often include A/B testing of messages, surveys to assess message efficacy, and observational studies to gauge real-world behavior following communication campaigns.

The distinction between basic and applied research is not just a matter of intent or outcome; it also encompasses differences in methodologies , scopes, and approaches. Let's undertake a comparative analysis to illuminate these distinctions further, particularly in the context of the social sciences.

Purpose and motivation

Basic research is motivated by the quest for knowledge. It seeks to answer fundamental questions about human behavior, societal structures, and the interplay between various social factors. The driving force here is curiosity. In contrast, applied research is driven by the need to address specific societal or practical problems. Its purpose is to take the theoretical knowledge derived from basic research and convert it into actionable solutions.

Methodological approaches

It's important to acknowledge that there is no one universal research method that can address all potential research inquiries. Moreover, the same research methods, such as conducting interviews or engaging in inductive and deductive reasoning , can be utilized in basic and applied research, but they will differ in their scope and objectives. While applied research is more experimental or confirmatory, a basic research approach is often exploratory or explanatory in nature. Basic research methods include ethnography , in-depth interviews , or longitudinal studies to gain a deep understanding of a topic. The focus is on generating theories and understanding patterns.

Applied research, on the other hand, often employs more structured and targeted methodologies. Surveys , experiments, and evaluations are commonly used to verify propositions, assess the efficacy of interventions, or gauge public opinion. The approach is more pragmatic, seeking results that can inform decisions and guide actions.

Outcomes and results

Basic research outcomes are usually theoretical contributions: new concepts, theories, or insights into existing phenomena. The results expand the academic literature and provide a foundation for future studies.

Applied research results in tangible solutions or recommendations. The outcomes might include a new social program, policy recommendations, interventions, or communication strategies. The results are geared towards immediate implementation and often have direct implications for organizations, governments, or communities.

The discourse on basic and applied research often sets them apart, emphasizing their distinct objectives and methodologies. However, it's crucial to recognize that these research types aren't isolated from each other. They coexist in a symbiotic relationship, where the findings from basic research often provide the foundational knowledge for applied research, and the results of applied research can inspire further basic investigations.

The transition of knowledge

One of the most notable instances of the interplay is how basic research's findings become the bedrock for applied research projects. For example, a basic research study on cognitive development in children might reveal specific patterns or stages. An applied researcher, recognizing the implications of these findings, could then design educational interventions tailored to these developmental stages.

How one complements the other

Basic research pushes the boundaries of our understanding, expanding the horizon of what we know. Applied research, on the other hand, can reframe this expansive knowledge and make it relevant and actionable for society's immediate needs.

But the relationship is reciprocal. Applied research can also highlight gaps in our understanding, pointing out areas where basic research is needed. For instance, if an intervention designed based on current knowledge fails to achieve its intended results, it signals to basic researchers that there might be underlying factors or dynamics not yet understood.

The dynamic continuum

Instead of viewing basic and applied research as two separate entities, it's more accurate to see them as points on a continuum. The knowledge generated by basic research flows towards applied projects, which in turn can inspire further basic investigations. This dynamic loop ensures that research in the social sciences remains both grounded in fundamental understanding and relevant to real-world challenges.

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What is Applied Research? Definition, Types, Examples

Appinio Research · 10.01.2024 · 35min read

Ever wondered how groundbreaking solutions to real-world challenges are developed, or how innovations come to life? Applied research holds the key. In this guide, we will delve deep into the world of applied research, uncovering its principles, methodologies, and real-world impact.  From harnessing cutting-edge technology to address healthcare crises to revolutionizing industries through data-driven insights, we'll explore the diverse domains where applied research thrives.

What is Applied Research?

Applied research is a systematic and organized inquiry aimed at solving specific real-world problems or improving existing practices, products, or services. Unlike basic research, which focuses on expanding general knowledge, applied research is all about using existing knowledge to address practical issues.

The primary purpose of applied research is to generate actionable insights and solutions that have a direct impact on practical situations. It seeks to bridge the gap between theory and practice by taking existing knowledge and applying it in real-world contexts. Applied research is driven by the need to address specific challenges, make informed decisions, and drive innovation in various domains.

Importance of Applied Research

Applied research holds immense significance across various fields and industries. Here's a list of reasons why applied research is crucial:

• Problem Solving:  Applied research provides effective solutions to real-world problems, improving processes, products, and services.
• Innovation:  It drives innovation by identifying opportunities for enhancement and developing practical solutions.
• Evidence-Based Decision-Making:  Policymakers and decision-makers rely on applied research findings to make informed choices and shape effective policies.
• Competitive Advantage:  In business, applied research can lead to improved products, increased efficiency, and a competitive edge in the market.
• Social Impact:  Applied research contributes to solving societal issues, from healthcare improvements to environmental sustainability.
• Technological Advancement:  In technology and engineering, it fuels advancements by applying scientific knowledge to practical applications.

Applied Research vs. Basic Research

Applied research differs from basic research in several key ways:

• Objectives:  Applied research aims to address specific practical problems or improve existing processes, while basic research seeks to expand general knowledge.
• Focus:  Applied research focuses on solving real-world challenges, whereas basic research explores fundamental principles and concepts.
• Applicability:  Applied research findings are directly applicable to practical situations, while basic research often lacks immediate practical applications.
• Immediate Impact:  Applied research has a more immediate impact on solving problems and improving practices, whereas basic research may have longer-term or indirect effects on knowledge and innovation.
• Research Questions:  Applied research formulates research questions related to practical issues, while basic research poses questions to explore theoretical or fundamental concepts.

Understanding these distinctions is essential for researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders in various fields, as it guides the choice of research approach and the expected outcomes of a research endeavor.

Types of Applied Research

Applied research encompasses various types, each tailored to specific objectives and domains. Understanding these types is essential for choosing the right approach to address real-world problems effectively. Here are some common types of applied research, each with its distinct focus and methodologies.

Evaluation Research

Purpose:  Evaluation research assesses the effectiveness, efficiency, and impact of programs, interventions, or policies. It aims to determine whether these initiatives meet their intended goals and objectives.

Methodology:  Researchers employ a range of quantitative and qualitative methods , including surveys, interviews, observations, and data analysis, to evaluate the outcomes and outcomes of programs or interventions.

Example:  Evaluating the impact of a public health campaign aimed at reducing smoking rates by analyzing pre- and post-campaign survey data on smoking habits and attitudes.

Action Research

Purpose:  Action research focuses on solving practical problems within a specific organizational or community context. It involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners to implement and assess solutions.

Methodology:  Action research is iterative and participatory, with researchers and stakeholders working together to identify problems, develop interventions, and assess their effectiveness. It often involves cycles of planning, action, reflection, and adjustment.

Example:  Teachers collaborating with researchers to improve classroom teaching methods and student outcomes by implementing and refining innovative teaching strategies.

Case Study Research

Purpose:   Case study research investigates a particular individual, organization, or situation in-depth to gain a comprehensive understanding of a specific phenomenon or issue.

Methodology:  Researchers collect and analyze a wealth of data, which may include interviews, documents, observations, and archival records. The goal is to provide a detailed and context-rich description of the case.

Example:  A detailed examination of a successful startup company's growth strategies and challenges, offering insights into factors contributing to its success.

Applied Experimental Research

Purpose:  Applied experimental research seeks to establish causal relationships between variables by manipulating one or more factors and observing their impact on outcomes. It helps determine cause-and-effect relationships in real-world settings.

Methodology:  Researchers conduct controlled experiments, similar to those in basic research, but within practical contexts. They manipulate variables and use statistical analysis to assess their effects on specific outcomes.

Example:  Testing the impact of different website designs on user engagement and conversion rates by randomly assigning visitors to various design versions and measuring their interactions.

Survey Research

Purpose:   Survey research involves collecting data from a sample of individuals or organizations to understand their opinions, attitudes, behaviors, or characteristics. It is commonly used to gather quantitative data on specific topics.

Methodology:  Researchers design surveys with carefully crafted questions and administer them to a representative sample of the target population . Statistical analysis is used to draw conclusions based on survey responses.

Example:  Conducting a national survey to assess public sentiment and preferences on environmental conservation initiatives and policies.

These types of applied research provide a framework for approaching real-world challenges systematically. Researchers can choose the most appropriate type based on their research goals, objectives, and the nature of the problem or phenomenon they seek to address. By selecting the right approach, applied researchers can generate valuable insights and practical solutions in various fields and disciplines.

How to Prepare for Applied Research?

In the preparatory phase of your applied research journey, you'll lay the groundwork for a successful study. This phase involves a series of crucial steps that will shape the direction and ethics of your research project.

Identifying Research Questions

One of the key starting points for any applied research endeavor is identifying the right research questions. Your research questions should be clear, specific, and directly related to the problem or issue you aim to address.

• Engage with Stakeholders:  Reach out to individuals or groups who are affected by or have an interest in the issue you're researching. Their perspectives can help you formulate relevant questions.
• Consider Feasibility:  Ensure that your research questions are feasible within your available resources, including time, budget, and access to data or participants.
• Prioritize Impact:  Focus on questions that have the potential to create meaningful change or provide valuable insights in your chosen field.

Formulating Hypotheses

Hypotheses serve as the guiding stars of your research, providing a clear direction for your investigation. Formulating hypotheses is a critical step that sets the stage for testing and validating your ideas.

• Testable Predictions:  Your hypotheses should be testable and capable of being proven or disproven through empirical research.
• Informed by Literature:  Base your hypotheses on existing knowledge and insights gained from the literature review. They should build upon what is already known and aim to expand that knowledge.
• Clarity and Precision:  Write your hypotheses in a clear and precise manner, specifying the expected relationship or outcome you intend to explore.

Literature Review

Conducting a thorough literature review is like embarking on a treasure hunt through existing knowledge in your field. It's a comprehensive exploration of what other researchers have already discovered and what gaps in knowledge still exist.

• Search Strategies:  Utilize academic databases, journals, books, and credible online sources to search for relevant literature.
• Analyze Existing Research:  Examine the findings, methodologies, and conclusions of previous studies related to your research topic.
• Identify Research Gaps:  Look for areas where current knowledge is insufficient or contradictory. These gaps will be the foundation for your own research.

Data Collection Methods

Selecting the proper data collection methods is crucial to gather the information needed to address your research questions. The choice of methods will depend on the nature of your research and the type of data you require.

• Quantitative vs. Qualitative:  Decide whether you will collect numerical data (quantitative) or focus on descriptive insights and narratives (qualitative).
• Survey Design :  If surveys are part of your data collection plan, carefully design questions that are clear, unbiased, and aligned with your research goals.
• Sampling Strategies:  Determine how you will select participants or data points to ensure representativeness and reliability.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are at the heart of responsible research. Ensuring that your study is conducted ethically and with integrity is paramount.

• Informed Consent:  Obtain informed consent from participants, ensuring they understand the purpose of the research, potential risks, and their right to withdraw at any time.
• Confidentiality:  Safeguard participants' personal information and ensure their anonymity when reporting findings.
• Minimizing Harm:  Take measures to mitigate any physical or emotional harm that participants may experience during the research process.
• Ethical Reporting:  Accurately represent your research findings, avoiding manipulation or selective reporting that may mislead readers or stakeholders.

By diligently addressing these aspects of research preparation, you are building a solid foundation for your applied research project, setting the stage for effective data collection and meaningful analysis in the subsequent phases of your study.

How to Design Your Research Study?

When it comes to applied research, the design of your study is paramount. It shapes the entire research process, from data collection to analysis and interpretation. In this section, we will explore the various elements that make up the foundation of your research design.

Research Design Types

Your choice of research design is like selecting the blueprint for your research project. Different research design types offer unique advantages and are suited for different research questions. Here are some common research design types:

• Experimental Design :  In this design, researchers manipulate one or more variables to observe their impact on outcomes. It allows for causal inference but may not always be feasible in applied research due to ethical or practical constraints.
• Descriptive Design:  This design aims to describe a phenomenon or population without manipulating variables. It is often used when researchers want to provide a snapshot of a situation or gain insights into a specific context.
• Correlational Design :  In this design, researchers examine relationships between variables without manipulating them. It helps identify associations but does not establish causation.
• Longitudinal Design :   Longitudinal studies involve collecting data from the same subjects over an extended period. They are valuable for tracking changes or developments over time.
• Cross-Sectional Design :  This design involves data collection from a diverse group of subjects at a single point in time. It's helpful in studying differences or variations among groups.

Sampling Methods

Sampling methods determine who or what will be included in your study. The choice of sampling method has a significant impact on the generalizability of your findings. Here are some standard sampling methods:

• Random Sampling:  This method involves selecting participants or data points entirely at random from the population. It ensures every element has an equal chance of being included, which enhances representativeness .
• Stratified Sampling:  In stratified sampling, the population is divided into subgroups or strata, and then random samples are drawn from each stratum. This method ensures that each subgroup is adequately represented.
• Convenience Sampling:  Researchers choose subjects or data points that are readily available and accessible. While convenient, this method may lead to sampling bias as it may not accurately represent the entire population.
• Purposive Sampling:  In purposive sampling, researchers deliberately select specific individuals or groups based on their expertise, experience, or relevance to the research topic. It is often used when seeking specialized knowledge.

Data Collection Tools

Selecting the right data collection tools is essential to gather accurate and relevant information. Your choice of tools will depend on the research design and objectives. Standard data collection tools include:

• Questionnaires and Surveys:  These structured instruments use standardized questions to gather data from participants. They are suitable for collecting large amounts of quantitative data.
• Interviews:   Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. They provide an opportunity to gather in-depth, qualitative insights from participants.
• Observation:  Direct observation involves systematically watching and recording behaviors or events. It's valuable for studying behaviors or phenomena in their natural context.
• Secondary Data :  Researchers can also utilize existing data sources, such as government reports, databases, or historical records, for their research.

Variables and Measurement

Defining variables and choosing appropriate measurement methods is crucial for ensuring the reliability and validity of your research. Variables are characteristics, phenomena, or factors that can change or vary in your study. They can be categorized into:

• Independent Variables:  These are the variables you manipulate or control in your study to observe their effects on other variables.
• Dependent Variables:  These are the variables you measure to assess the impact of the independent variables.

Choosing the right measurement techniques, scales, or instruments is essential to accurately quantify variables and collect valid data. It's crucial to establish clear operational definitions for each variable to ensure consistency in measurement.

Data Analysis Techniques

Once you have collected your data, the next step is to analyze it effectively. Data analysis involves:

• Data Cleaning:  Removing any errors, inconsistencies, or outliers from your dataset to ensure data quality.
• Statistical Analysis :  Depending on your research design and data type, you may use various statistical techniques such as regression analysis , t-tests, ANOVA, or chi-square tests.
• Qualitative Analysis:  For qualitative data, techniques like thematic analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis help uncover patterns and themes.
• Data Visualization:  Using graphs, charts, and visual representations to present your data effectively.

Chi-Square Calculator :

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Selecting the appropriate analysis techniques depends on your research questions, data type, and objectives. Proper data analysis is crucial for drawing meaningful conclusions and insights from your research.

With a solid understanding of research design, sampling methods, data collection tools, variables, and measurement, you are well-equipped to embark on your applied research journey. These elements lay the groundwork for collecting valuable data and conducting meaningful analyses in the subsequent phases of your study.

How to Conduct Applied Research?

Now that you've prepared and designed your research study, it's time to delve into the practical aspects of conducting applied research. This phase involves the execution of your research plan, from collecting data to drawing meaningful conclusions. Let's explore the critical components in this stage.

Data Collection Phase

The data collection phase is where your research plan comes to life. It's a crucial step that requires precision and attention to detail to ensure the quality and reliability of your data.

• Implement Data Collection Methods:   Execute the data collection methods you've chosen, whether they involve surveys, interviews, observations, or the analysis of existing datasets.
• Maintain Consistency:  Ensure that data collection is carried out consistently according to your research design and protocols. Minimize any variations or deviations that may introduce bias .
• Document the Process:  Keep thorough records of the data collection process. Note any challenges, unexpected occurrences, or deviations from your original plan. Documentation is essential for transparency and replication.
• Quality Assurance:  Continuously monitor the quality of the data you collect. Check for errors, missing information, or outliers. Implement data validation and cleaning procedures to address any issues promptly.
• Participant Engagement:  If your research involves human participants, maintain open and respectful communication with them. Address any questions or concerns and ensure participants' comfort and willingness to participate.

Data Analysis Phase

Once you've collected your data, it's time to make sense of the information you've gathered. The data analysis phase involves transforming raw data into meaningful insights and patterns.

• Data Preparation:  Start by organizing and cleaning your data. This includes dealing with missing values, outliers, and ensuring data consistency.
• Selecting Analysis Methods:  Depending on your research design and data type, choose the appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods. Common techniques include regression analysis , content analysis, or thematic coding .
• Conducting Analysis:  Perform the chosen analysis systematically and according to established protocols. Ensure that your analysis is reproducible by documenting every step.
• Interpreting Results:  Interpretation involves making sense of your findings in the context of your research questions and hypotheses. Consider the statistical significance of the results and any practical implications they may have.
• Visualization:  Create visual representations of your data, such as graphs, charts, or tables, to convey your findings effectively. Visualizations make complex data more accessible to a broader audience.

Interpretation of Results

Interpreting research results is a critical step that bridges the gap between data analysis and drawing conclusions. This process involves making sense of the patterns and insights that emerge from your analysis.

• Relate to Hypotheses:  Determine whether your results support or refute your hypotheses. Be prepared to explain any unexpected findings.
• Contextualize Findings:  Consider the broader context in which your research takes place. How do your results fit into the larger body of knowledge in your field?
• Identify Patterns :  Highlight significant trends, correlations, or relationships you've uncovered. Discuss their practical implications and relevance.
• Acknowledge Limitations:  Be transparent about any limitations in your study that may affect the interpretation of results. This includes sample size, data quality, and potential biases.

Drawing Conclusions

Drawing conclusions is the ultimate goal of your research. It involves synthesizing your findings and answering the research questions you initially posed.

• Answer Research Questions:  Explicitly address the research questions you formulated at the beginning of your study. State whether your findings confirm or challenge your initial hypotheses.
• Highlight Insights:  Emphasize the key insights and contributions of your research. Discuss the practical implications of your findings and their relevance to the field.
• Recommend Actions:  Based on your conclusions, suggest practical steps, recommendations, or future research directions. How can your research contribute to addressing the problem or challenge you investigated?
• Consider Implications:  Reflect on the broader implications of your research for stakeholders, policymakers, or practitioners in your field.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

During the data collection, analysis, interpretation, and conclusion-drawing phases, it's essential to be aware of common pitfalls that can affect the quality and integrity of your research.

• Sampling Bias :  Ensure that your sample is representative of the population you intend to study. Address any bias that may have been introduced during data collection.
• Data Manipulation:  Avoid manipulating or selectively reporting data to fit preconceived notions. Maintain transparency in your analysis and reporting.
• Overinterpretation:  Be cautious of drawing overly broad conclusions based on limited data. Acknowledge the limitations of your study.
• Ignoring Ethical Considerations:  Continuously uphold ethical standards in your research, from data collection to reporting. Protect participants' rights and privacy.
• Lack of Validation:  Ensure that the methods and tools you use for data collection and analysis are valid and reliable. Validation helps establish the credibility of your findings.

By navigating the data collection, analysis, interpretation, and conclusion-drawing phases with care and attention to detail, you'll be well-prepared to confidently share your research findings and contribute to advancing knowledge in your field.

How to Report Applied Research Results?

Now that you've conducted your applied research and drawn meaningful conclusions, it's time to share your insights with the world. Effective reporting and communication are crucial to ensure that your research has a real impact and contributes to the broader knowledge base.

Writing Research Reports

Writing a comprehensive research report is the cornerstone of communicating your findings. It provides a detailed account of your research process, results, and conclusions. Here's what you need to consider:

Structure of a Research Report

• Title:  Create a concise, informative title that reflects the essence of your research.
• Abstract:  Summarize your research in a clear and concise manner, highlighting key objectives, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Introduction:  Provide an overview of your research topic, objectives, significance, and research questions.
• Literature Review:  Summarize relevant literature and identify gaps in existing knowledge that your research addresses.
• Methodology:  Describe your research design, sampling methods, data collection tools, and data analysis techniques.
• Results:  Present your findings using tables, charts, and narratives. Be transparent and objective in reporting your results.
• Discussion:  Interpret your results, discuss their implications, and relate them to your research questions and hypotheses.
• Conclusion:  Summarize your main findings, their significance, and the implications for future research or practical applications.
• References:  Cite all sources and studies you referenced in your report using a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

Writing Tips

• Use clear and concise language, avoiding jargon or overly technical terms.
• Organize your report logically, with headings and subheadings for easy navigation.
• Provide evidence and data to support your claims and conclusions.
• Consider your target audience and tailor the report to their level of expertise and interest.

Creating Visualizations

Visualizations are powerful tools for conveying complex data and making your research findings more accessible. Here are some types of visualizations commonly used in research reports:

Charts and Graphs

• Bar Charts:  Ideal for comparing categories or groups.
• Line Charts:  Effective for showing trends or changes over time.
• Pie Charts:  Useful for displaying proportions or percentages.
• Data Tables:  Present numerical data in an organized format.
• Cross-tabulations:  Show relationships between variables.

Diagrams and Maps

• Flowcharts:  Visualize processes or workflows.
• Concept Maps:  Illustrate connections between concepts.
• Geographic Maps:  Display spatial data and patterns.

When creating visualizations:

• Choose the correct type of visualization for your data and research questions.
• Ensure that visualizations are labeled, clear, and easy to understand.
• Provide context and explanations to help readers interpret the visuals.

Presenting Your Research

Presenting your research to an audience is an opportunity to engage, educate, and inspire. Whether it's through a conference presentation, seminar, or webinar, effective communication is vital.

• Know Your Audience:  Tailor your presentation to the interests and expertise of your audience.
• Practice:  Rehearse your presentation to ensure a smooth delivery and confident demeanor.
• Use Visual Aids:  Enhance your presentation with visual aids such as slides, images, or videos.
• Engage with Questions:  Encourage questions and discussions to foster interaction and clarify points.
• Stay within Time Limits:  Respect time constraints and stay on schedule.

Peer Review Process

Before your research is published, it typically undergoes a peer review process. This involves experts in your field evaluating the quality, validity, and significance of your work. The peer review process aims to ensure the integrity and credibility of your research.

• Submission:  Submit your research manuscript to a journal or conference for review.
• Editorial Review:  The editorial team assesses your submission's fit with the journal's scope and may conduct an initial review for quality and compliance.
• Peer Review:  Your manuscript is sent to peer reviewers who evaluate it for methodology, validity, significance, and adherence to ethical standards.
• Feedback and Revision:  Based on reviewers' feedback, you may be asked to revise and improve your research.
• Acceptance or Rejection:  After revisions, the manuscript is reevaluated, and a decision is made regarding publication.

Publishing Your Research

Publishing your research is the final step in sharing your findings with the broader scientific community. It allows others to access and build upon your work. Consider the following when choosing where to publish:

• Journal Selection:  Choose a reputable journal that aligns with your research field and target audience.
• Review Process:  Understand the journal's peer review process and requirements for submission.
• Open Access:  Consider whether you want your research to be open access, freely accessible to all.

Once published, actively promote your research through academic networks, conferences, and social media to maximize its reach and impact.

By effectively reporting and communicating your research findings, you contribute to the advancement of knowledge, inspire others, and ensure that your hard work has a meaningful impact on your field and beyond.

Applied Research Examples

To provide a deeper understanding of applied research's impact and relevance, let's delve into specific real-world examples that demonstrate how this type of research has addressed pressing challenges and improved our lives in tangible ways.

Applied Medical Research: mRNA Vaccines

Example:  mRNA (messenger RNA) vaccine technology, exemplified by the COVID-19 vaccines developed by Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna, is a remarkable achievement in the field of applied medical research.

Applied researchers in this domain utilized mRNA technology to create vaccines that provide immunity against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Unlike traditional vaccines, which use weakened or inactivated viruses, mRNA vaccines instruct cells to produce a harmless spike protein found on the virus's surface. The immune system then recognizes this protein and mounts a defense, preparing the body to combat the actual virus.

Impact:  The rapid development and deployment of mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic have been groundbreaking. They've played a crucial role in controlling the spread of the virus and saving countless lives worldwide. This example underscores how applied research can revolutionize healthcare and respond swiftly to global health crises.

Environmental Science and Applied Research: Ocean Cleanup

Example:  The Ocean Cleanup Project, founded by Boyan Slat, is an ambitious endeavor rooted in applied research to combat plastic pollution in the world's oceans.

This project employs innovative technology, such as large-scale floating barriers and autonomous systems, to collect and remove plastic debris from the ocean. Applied researchers have played a pivotal role in designing, testing, and optimizing these systems to make them efficient and environmentally friendly.

Impact:  The Ocean Cleanup Project is a testament to the power of applied research in addressing pressing environmental challenges. By removing plastic waste from the oceans, it mitigates harm to marine ecosystems and raises awareness about the urgent need for sustainable waste management.

Business and Applied Research: E-commerce Personalization

Example:   E-commerce giants like Amazon and Netflix use applied research to develop sophisticated personalization algorithms that tailor product recommendations and content to individual users.

Applied researchers in data science and machine learning analyze user behavior, preferences, and historical data to create recommendation systems. These algorithms utilize predictive analytics to suggest products, movies, or shows that align with a user's interests.

Impact:  The application of research-driven personalization has transformed the e-commerce and streaming industries. It enhances user experiences, increases customer engagement, and drives sales by presenting customers with products or content they are more likely to enjoy.

Agriculture and Applied Research: Precision Agriculture

Example:  Precision agriculture employs data-driven technology and applied research to optimize farming practices.

Farmers utilize satellite imagery, sensors, and data analytics to monitor crop conditions, soil health, and weather patterns. Applied research guides the development of precision farming techniques, enabling more efficient resource allocation and reducing environmental impact.

Impact:  Precision agriculture increases crop yields, conserves resources (such as water and fertilizer), and minimizes the ecological footprint of farming. This approach contributes to sustainable and economically viable agriculture.

These real-world examples underscore the versatility and impact of applied research across diverse domains. From healthcare and environmental conservation to business, education, and agriculture, applied research continually drives innovation, addresses critical challenges, and enhances the quality of life for individuals and communities worldwide.

Conclusion for Applied Research

Applied research is a powerful force for solving real-world problems and driving progress. By applying existing knowledge and innovative thinking, we can address healthcare challenges, protect our environment, improve businesses, enhance education, and revolutionize agriculture. Through this guide, you've gained valuable insights into the what, why, and how of applied research, unlocking the potential to make a positive impact in your field. So, go forth, conduct meaningful research, and be part of the solution to the world's most pressing issues. Remember, applied research is not just a concept; it's a practical approach that empowers individuals and teams to create solutions that matter. As you embark on your own applied research endeavors, keep the spirit of inquiry alive, remain open to new ideas, and never underestimate the transformative power of knowledge put into action.

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What is Applied Research in psychology?

March 21, 2024

From academia and behavioral health to military and corrections, there are many ways psychology can help people.

In fact, mental health programs in hospitals, non-profits, governmental programs, and more have their origins in carefully researched data that psychology professionals have helped create.

Whether they’re designing studies, conducting research, or interpreting the final data, a master’s-level research psychology professional can inform best practices in psychology to tackle important issues like recidivism, PTSD, and depression.

Bethany Lohr, PhD, faculty chair of Capella University’s Clinical Psychology program, explains the benefits of an advanced degree in Applied Research for both clinical professionals and those following an academic path.

Q. First of all, what is applied research?

A. Applied research is a scientific study within the field of psychology that focuses on solving problems and innovating new technologies. Its main purpose is to conduct scientific research and apply it to real-world situations. As opposed to delivering mental health services, it’s about looking at human behavior and thinking of ways to meet the needs of a given situation.

Q. What type of skills could I develop with an MS in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research?

A. Skills that could help you be effective in the field of applied research include:

• Observation: The ability to observe and take note of what you observe is a critical skill.
• Data analysis: Be able to interpret statistics as well as understand trends and draw predictions based on data.
• Creative problem-solving: Be curious and able to approach a problem from different angles in the search for possible solutions.
• Interpersonal communication: Be prepared to spend time interviewing different groups and reporting findings.
• Ethical awareness: Act with integrity when factors such as privacy and informed consent come up depending on the setting.
• Adaptability: Remain level-headed amid changing circumstances.

    Learn how a Master of Science in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research can help you build professional skills.

Q. What are some ways applied research can be used? 

A. An applied research specialization could be used in any field where psychological research is an element.

A background in applied research in clinical psychology helps someone design and lead a study, interpret findings and advocate for programs based on those interpretations. Further, it helps make them the right person to lead training for these programs.

Applied research is often a relevant subject area for people who write government grants, such as those who write for mental health programs. An applied research background provides understanding to skillfully interpret the government’s massive data sets and advocate for legislation that relies on data to support it.

Pertaining to healthcare, applied research in clinical psychology could be applied to projects related to quality improvement or quality assurance in areas like emergency room waiting times, patient data collection, triage and other improvements that can impact patient care.

In the case of workforce development, applied research could be used to tailor questions to determine which strategies work best to motivate employees. When hiring, applied research could be applied to help establish job qualifications or criteria to best meet the needs of a department and screen candidates who will mesh well with team dynamics.

Applied research can help some organizations analyze what kinds of prompts might inspire people to volunteer their time and skills to charities.

Applied research could even come into play in theme park design when deciding where to place trash cans or queue line management to keep guests engaged.

All these situations rely on the analysis of human behavior and predictions and proposals based on those observations.

Q. Beyond the workplace, who else is the MS in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research for?

A. A Master of Science in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research program involves coursework that teaches the research skills and knowledge that may help you prepare when pursuing a PhD . Major topics in a PhD program could include research methodology, psychotherapy theories, tests and measurement, psychopathology, human development, ethical principles and diversity.

Additionally, the applied research specialization can help prepare you to pursue a PsyD in Clinical Psychology .

Q. Is this specialty just for academics and non-therapy professionals? Would therapy professionals benefit from this knowledge as well?        

 A. Someone in the therapy field can also benefit from understanding applied research, especially if they think they’ll want to pursue a doctoral degree down the road. If they want to continue in therapy practice, this master’s can help them interpret psychology research that may inform their therapeutic treatment plans.

 In short, applied research may be a good option for expanding professional expertise. It all depends on your professional goals.  

Learn more about Capella’s Master’s in Clinical Psychology, Applied Research degree program.

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Applied Research

Applied research “aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory” [1] . Applied research is considered to be non-systematic inquiry and it is usually launched by a company, agency or an individual in order to address a specific problem. [2]

   Applied research can be divided into the following three categories:

1. Evaluation research . This type of research focuses on analysing existing information about the phenomenon in order to generate objective research outcomes. A study into the ways of reducing supply-chain costs can be mentioned as an example for an evaluation research.

2. Research and Development . It is a type of applied research that focuses on the development of new products and services to satisfy needs and wants of target customer segment. This type of applied research is the least relevant to a business dissertation.

3. Action research . This type of study aims to tackle specific business problems. For example, a research into the ways of restoring Starbucks brand image in UK after the tax scandal can be classified as an action research.

Differences between Applied Research and Fundamental (Basic) Research

The difference between applied and  fundamental or basic research  is straightforward – findings of applied research can be applied to resolve problems, whereas fundamental studies are used simply to explore certain issues and elements. Applied research can be a follow-up to the findings of a fundamental research.

Moreover, differences between applied and basic research can be summarized into three points:

1. Differences in purpose . Purpose of applied studies is closely associated with the solution of specific problems, while the purpose of fundamental studies relate to creation of new knowledge or expansion of the current knowledge without any concerns to applicability.

2. Differences in context . In applied studies, research objectives are set by clients or sponsors as a solution to specific problems they are facing. Fundamental studies, on the other hand, are usually self-initiated in order to expand the levels of knowledge in certain areas.

3. Differences in methods .  Research validity is an important point to be addressed in all types of studies. Nevertheless, applied studies are usually more concerned with external validity, whereas internal validity can be specified as the main point of concern for fundamental researchers.

Examples of Applied Research

The following are examples for applied research. You can notice that each of these studies aim to resolve a specific and an immediate problem.

• A study into marketing strategies to appeal to the aspirations of millenials in China
• An investigation into the ways of improving employee motivation in Marriot Hotel, Hyde Park
• Development of strategies to introduce change in Starbucks global supply-chain management with the view on cost reduction
• A study into the ways of fostering creative deviance amongst employees without compromising respect for authority.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Applied Research

The advantages and disadvantages of applied and fundamental research mirror and contrast each other. On the positive side, applied research can be helpful in solving specific problems in business and other settings.

On the negative side, findings of applied research cannot be usually generalized. In other words, applicability of the new knowledge generated as a result of this type of research is limited to the research problem. Moreover, applied studies usually have tight deadlines which are not flexible.

You need to specify the type of your research in the earlier part of the research methodology chapter in about one short paragraph. Also, in this paragraph you will have to justify your choice of research type.

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance   contains discussions of research types and application of research methods in practice. The e-book also explains all stages of the  research process  starting from the  selection of the research area  to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as  research philosophy ,  research approach ,  research design ,  methods of data collection  and  data analysis , sampling and others are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

[1] Kothari, C.R. (2008) “Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques” New Age International

[2] Bajpai, N. (2011) “Business Research Methods” Pearson Education India

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Methodology

• Types of Research Designs Compared | Guide & Examples

Types of Research Designs Compared | Guide & Examples

Published on June 20, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

When you start planning a research project, developing research questions and creating a  research design , you will have to make various decisions about the type of research you want to do.

There are many ways to categorize different types of research. The words you use to describe your research depend on your discipline and field. In general, though, the form your research design takes will be shaped by:

• The type of knowledge you aim to produce
• The type of data you will collect and analyze
• The sampling methods , timescale and location of the research

This article takes a look at some common distinctions made between different types of research and outlines the key differences between them.

Table of contents

Types of research aims, types of research data, types of sampling, timescale, and location, other interesting articles.

The first thing to consider is what kind of knowledge your research aims to contribute.

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The next thing to consider is what type of data you will collect. Each kind of data is associated with a range of specific research methods and procedures.

Finally, you have to consider three closely related questions: how will you select the subjects or participants of the research? When and how often will you collect data from your subjects? And where will the research take place?

Keep in mind that the methods that you choose bring with them different risk factors and types of research bias . Biases aren’t completely avoidable, but can heavily impact the validity and reliability of your findings if left unchecked.

Choosing between all these different research types is part of the process of creating your research design , which determines exactly how your research will be conducted. But the type of research is only the first step: next, you have to make more concrete decisions about your research methods and the details of the study.

Read more about creating a research design

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
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• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Basic vs. applied research: what’s the difference?

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Research can be used to learn new facts, create new products, and solve various problems. Yet, there are different ways to undertake research to meet a desired goal. 

The method you choose to conduct research will most likely be based on what question you want to answer, plus other factors that will help you accurately get the answer you need. 

Research falls into two main categories: basic research and applied research. Both types of research have distinct purposes and varied benefits. 

This guide will help you understand the differences and similarities between basic and applied research and how they're used. It also answers common questions about the two types of research, including:

Why is it called basic research?

What is more important, basic research or applied research?

What are examples of pure (basic) research and applied research?

Analyze basic and applied research

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• What is basic research?

Basic research (sometimes called fundamental or pure) advances scientific knowledge to completely understand a subject, topic, or phenomenon. It's conducted to satisfy curiosity or develop a full body of knowledge on a specific subject.

Basic research is used to bring about a fundamental understanding of the world, different behaviors, and is the foundation of knowledge in the scientific disciplines. It is usually conducted based on developing and testing theories.

While there is no apparent commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research, it is the foundation of research used for other projects like developing solutions to solve problems. 

Examples of basic research

Basic research has always been used to give humans a better understanding of all branches of science and knowledge. However, it's not specifically based on identifying new things about the universe.

Basic research has a wide range of uses, as shown in the following examples:

Investigation into how the universe began

A study searching for the causes of cancer

Understanding the components that make up human DNA

An examination into whether a vegetarian diet is healthier than one with meat

A study to learn more about which areas in the world get the most precipitation

Benefits of conducting basic research

Called basic research because it is performed without an immediate or obvious benefit, this type of research often leads to vital solutions in the future. While basic research isn't technically solution-driven, it develops the underlying knowledge used for additional learning and research. 

There are many benefits derived from basic research, including:

Gaining an understanding of living systems and the environment

Gathering information that can help society prepare for the future

Expanding knowledge that can lead to medical advances

Providing a foundation for applied research

• What is applied research?

Applied research studies particular circumstances to apply the information to real-life situations. It helps improve the human condition by finding practical solutions for existing problems.

Applied research builds off facts derived from basic research and other data to address challenges in all facets of life. Instead of exploring theories of the unknown, applied research requires researchers to use existing knowledge, facts, and discoveries to generate new knowledge. 

Solutions derived from applied research are used in situations ranging from medical treatments or product development to new laws or regulations.

Examples of applied research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems that exist under current conditions. However, it's not only used for consumer-based products and decisions.

Applied research can be used in a variety of ways, as illustrated by the following examples:

The investigation of ways to improve agricultural crop production

A study to improve methods to market products for Gen Z consumers

Examination of how technology can t make car tires last longer

Exploration of how to cook healthy meals with a limited budget

A study on how to treat patients with insomnia

Benefits of using applied research

Although applied research expands upon a foundation of existing knowledge, it also brings about new ideas. Applied research provides many benefits in various circumstances, including:

Designing new products and services

Creating new objectives

Providing unbiased data through the testing of verifiable evidence

• Basic research vs. applied research: the differences

Both basic and applied research are tactics for discovering specific information. However, they differ significantly in the way research is conducted and the objectives they achieve. 

Some of the most notable differences between basic and applied research include the following:

Research outcomes: curiosity-driven vs. solution-driven

Basic research is generally conducted to learn more about a specific subject. It is usually self-initiated to gain knowledge to satisfy curiosity or confirm a theory. 

Conversely, applied knowledge is directed toward finding a solution to a specific problem. It is often conducted to assist a client in improving products, services, or issues.

Research scope: universal scope vs. specific scope

Basic research uses a broad scope to apply various concepts to gain more knowledge. Research methods may include studying different subjects to add more information that connects evidence points in a greater body of data.

Meanwhile, applied research depends on a specific or narrow scope to gather specific evidence to address a certain problem.

Research approaches: expanding existing knowledge vs. finding new knowledge

Researchers conduct basic research to fill in gaps between existing information points. Basic knowledge is an expansion of existing knowledge to gain a deeper understanding. It is often based on how, what, or why something is the way it is. Although applied research may be based on information derived from basic research, it's not designed to expand the knowledge. Instead, the research is conducted to find new knowledge, usually in the form of a solution.

Research commercialization: Informational vs. commercial gain

The main basis of product development is to solve a problem for consumers.

Basic research might lead to solutions and commercial products in the future to help with this. Since applied research is used to develop solutions, it's often used for commercial gain.

Theory formulation: theoretical vs. practical nature

Basic research is usually based on a theory about a specific subject. Researchers may develop a theory that grows and changes as more information is discovered during the research process. Conversely, applied research is practical in nature since the goal is to solve a specific problem.

• Are there similarities between applied and basic research?

While some obvious differences exist, applied and basic research methods have similarities. For example, researchers may use the same methods to collect data (like interviews, surveys , and focus groups ) for both types of research. 

Both types of research require researchers to use inductive and deductive reasoning to develop and prove hypotheses . The two types of research frequently intersect when basic research serves as the foundation for applied research.

While applied research is solution-based, basic research is equally important because it yields information used to develop solutions to many types of problems. 

• Methods used in basic research and applied research

While basic and applied research have different approaches and goals, they require researchers or scientists to gather data. Basic and applied research makes use of many of the same methods to gather and study information, including the following:

Observations: Studying research subjects for an extended time allows researchers to gather information about how subjects behave under different conditions.

Interviews: Surveys and one-to-one discussions help researchers gain information from other subjects and validate data.

Experiments: Researchers conduct experiments to prove or disprove certain hypotheses based on information that has been gathered.

Questionnaires: A series of questions related to the research context helps researchers gather quantitative information applicable to both basic and applied research.

• How do you determine when to use basic research vs. applied research?

Basic and applied research are both helpful in obtaining knowledge. However, they aren't usually used in the same settings or under the same circumstances. 

When you're trying to determine which type of research to use for a particular project, it's essential to consider your product goals. Basic research seeks answers to universal, theoretical questions. While it works to uncover specific knowledge, it's generally not used to develop a solution. Conversely, applied research discovers answers to specific questions. It should be used to find out new knowledge to solve a problem.

• Bottom line

Both basic and applied research are methods used to gather information and analyze facts that help build knowledge around a subject. However, basic research is used to gain understanding and satisfy curiosity, while applied research is used to solve specific problems. Both types of research depend on gathering information to prove a hypothesis or create a product, service, or valuable process. 

By learning more about the similarities and differences between basic and applied research, you'll be prepared to gather and use data efficiently to meet your needs.

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Applied Research Examples: Empowering Real-World Solutions

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Applied research plays a crucial role in various fields, providing practical solutions to real-world problems and driving advancements in technology, healthcare, business, and more. It bridges the gap between theory and practice by translating scientific knowledge into tangible outcomes that positively impact individuals, organizations, communities, or industries. Applied research enables us to develop innovative solutions, refine existing practices, and make informed decisions based on evidence. By focusing on practical applications, applied research contributes to advancements in various fields, ultimately leading to societal progress and improvement. It serves as a driving force for innovation, economic growth, and the overall betterment of individuals and communities. 

What is Applied Research and its purposes?

Applied research is a systematic and practical approach to investigating real-world problems and finding practical solutions. It makes application of scientific methods and techniques to gather and analyze data, conduct experiments, and make evidence-based recommendations. The primary purpose of applied research is to address specific issues or challenges in various fields. It aims to make better-existing practices, processes, or products, validate the effectiveness of interventions or programs, inform policy decisions, and contribute to the development and implementation of evidence-based strategies. 

When using Applied Research

Some common applications of applied research include:

Business and Marketing

Through the utilization of applied research, organizations can gain valuable insights into consumer behavior, evaluate marketing strategies, assess market trends, and identify opportunities for product development and innovation.

Healthcare and Medicine

Applied research is conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of medical treatments, interventions, and healthcare policies. It helps in the advancement of patient outcomes, optimizes healthcare delivery systems, and informs evidence-based medical practices.

In education, applied research informs curriculum development, evaluates program effectiveness, guides evidence-based instruction, informs policy decisions, supports professional development, and optimizes student assessment and evaluation.

Public Policy and Governance

Policymakers can leverage data-driven insights to inform decision-making, evaluate program effectiveness, and enhance governance practices. This approach fosters evidence-based policymaking, promotes transparency, and facilitates effective and equitable governance.

Environmental Studies

Applied research is used to address environmental challenges, such as climate change, pollution, and natural resource management. It helps develop sustainable practices, assess the environmental impact of policies and projects, and guide conservation efforts.

Technology and Engineering

Optimizing efficiency and advancing technology, applied research in technological and engineering fields develops and upgrades products, systems, and processes, addressing practical problems with innovative solutions.

Agriculture and Food Science

Applied research is conducted to raise agricultural practices and crop yields, ensure food safety, and develop sustainable farming methods. It addresses challenges related to food production, distribution, and environmental impact.

Types of Applied Research

Applied research includes various types tailored to address specific practical issues and inform decision-making. Some common types of applied research are:

Evaluation Research

This type of research focuses on assessing the effectiveness, efficiency, and impact of programs, interventions, policies, or initiatives. It measures outcomes, identifies strengths and weaknesses, and provides recommendations for improvement.

Action Research

Action research involves collaborative inquiry and problem-solving in real-world settings. It emphasizes the active participation of stakeholders to identify and address practical challenges, often leading to immediate changes or interventions.

Research and Development

R&D is a type of applied research with the objective to create innovative products and services to meet market needs. It requires gathering market information, improving existing products, and developing new ones to fulfill customer demands and enhance organizational effectiveness.

Policy Research

Generating evidence-based recommendations for policymakers, policy research plays a crucial role in informing policy development, implementation, and evaluation. By analyzing existing policies and identifying areas for improvement, it aims to shape effective and informed decision-making processes.

Data Collection Methods

Data collection methods refer to the techniques and approaches used to gather information or data for research purposes. These methods vary depending on the nature of the research question, the type of data needed, and the resources available. Here are some common data collection methods:

This collects data through structured questionnaires or interviews. They can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for gathering information from a large number of participants and obtaining self-reported data on attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographics.

Interviews conduct one-on-one or group conversations with participants to gather detailed information. Interviews can be structured (with predetermined questions), semi-structured (with a set of guiding questions), or unstructured (allowing for open-ended discussion). Interviews are useful for exploring complex topics, capturing in-depth insights, and understanding participants’ perspectives.

Observations

The method of observation watches and records behaviors, actions, or events in their natural settings. Researchers can be participant observers (actively participating in the observed context) or non-participant observers (observing from a distance). Observations are valuable for studying social interactions, behaviors, and patterns in real-life contexts.

Experiments

Experiments manipulate variables under controlled conditions to determine cause-and-effect relationships. Participants are assigned to different experimental conditions, and data is collected to assess the impact of the manipulated variables. Experiments allow researchers to study causal relationships and test hypotheses.

Data Analysis Methods

Data analysis methods are the techniques and procedures used to analyze and interpret data collected during a research study. These methods help researchers make sense of the data, identify patterns, draw conclusions, and answer research questions. Data analysis plays a crucial role in research as it transforms raw data into meaningful insights and supports evidence-based decision-making. Some common data analysis methods are:

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics summarize and describe the main characteristics of the data. They include measures such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions. Descriptive statistics provide a snapshot of the data’s central tendency, dispersion, and distribution.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics make inferences or draw conclusions about a population based on a sample. These methods help researchers test hypotheses, determine statistical significance, and make generalizations. Examples of inferential statistics include t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), regression analysis, and chi-square tests.

Data Mining

Data mining uses computational algorithms to discover patterns, trends, and relationships within large datasets. It helps identify hidden insights and generate predictive models. Data mining techniques include association rule mining, classification, clustering, and anomaly detection.

Applied Research Methodology

Applied research methodology refers to the systematic approach used to conduct applied research studies. It is a series of steps and procedures designed to gather relevant data, analyze it, and draw meaningful conclusions to address real-world problems or provide practical solutions. The methodology for applied research typically includes the following key components:

Problem Identification

Clearly defining and understanding the specific problem or issue to be addressed is the first step in applied research methodology. Conducting a thorough literature review, consulting with experts, and engaging stakeholders are essential steps to gain insights into the problem’s context, scope, and potential impact.

Research Design

Developing a research design involves determining the appropriate research approach, such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods, based on the research objectives and the nature of the problem. It also includes selecting the appropriate data collection methods, sampling techniques, and data analysis procedures.

Data Collection

Data collection methods are chosen based on the research design and the type of data required. Common data collection methods include surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, case studies, and document analysis. Rigorous data collection techniques ensure the collection of accurate and reliable data relevant to the research problem.

Data Analysis

Data analysis is about processing, organizing, and interpreting the collected data to derive meaningful insights. Depending on the nature of the data, quantitative analysis techniques such as statistical analysis, regression analysis, or data mining may be used. Qualitative analysis techniques, such as thematic analysis or content analysis, can be employed for textual or qualitative data.

Results and Conclusion

The analyzed data is used to draw conclusions, identify patterns, and make inferences related to the research problem. The results are presented in a clear and concise manner, often through tables, charts, or visualizations. Conclusions should be supported by evidence from the data analysis and aligned with the research objectives.

Examples of Applied Research

The applied research examples illustrate how this addresses real-world issues and aims to provide practical solutions that can be implemented and make a meaningful impact in various domains. Here are some applied research examples across different fields:

In healthcare, the focus is finding practical solutions to improve patient care and outcomes. For example, a study investigating the effectiveness of a new medical treatment or therapy for a specific condition would be considered applied research.

The primary objective is to increase teaching methods, curriculum development, and student learning outcomes. This involves evaluating the effectiveness of various instructional approaches and designing interventions to foster improved student engagement and achievement.

In the domain of business and marketing, the emphasis is on tackling practical issues encountered by organizations. This can include analyzing consumer behavior to devise impactful marketing strategies or conducting market research to evaluate the viability of introducing a new product. Such endeavors align with the principles of applied research.

Environmental Science

The objective is to devise practical solutions for addressing environmental challenges. This can encompass studying the effects of pollution on ecosystems, formulating sustainable practices, or assessing the efficacy of conservation initiatives. These pursuits align with the principles of applied research.

Engineering and Technology

The emphasis of applied research on engineering and technology is to create inventive solutions for real-world problems. This could entail research endeavors aimed at enhancing energy efficiency, refining manufacturing techniques, or pioneering novel materials.

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Science in School

What is it good for basic versus applied research teach article.

Author(s): Martin McHugh, Marcus Baumann, Sarah Hayes, F. Jerry Reen, Laurie Ryan, Davide Tiana, Jessica Whelan

Basic research is often misunderstood by the public and misconstrued by the media. Try this role play to learn how research is funded and how basic research advances and protects society.

In 2019, an international research group published a paper examining the effect of the song Scary Monsters and Nice Sprites by Skrillex on the breeding behaviours of mosquitos. [ 1 ]  The paper became a viral news story, with many media outlets using the ‘obscure’ research story to generate clicks. However, the research concluded that, when mosquitos were exposed to the song, they bit less and refrained from mating. The paper generated equal amounts of praise and criticism but highlights the potential of basic research and creative thinking in science. Indeed, the historical problem with basic research is the lack of immediate commercial objectives. To non-scientists, basic research can seem like a waste of money, whereas applied research, designed to solve practical problems with obvious scientific and societal benefits, seems like a better use of resources.

The following activity will bring the debate into the classroom and allow students to explore the pros and cons of basic and applied research. Using an argumentation framework, students will discuss the merits of a variety of research projects, with updates to show how some of them later turned out to be important for vaccine development for COVID-19.

What kinds of research should be funded?

In this activity, students will be divided into groups of funders and scientists. Using the materials provided, the scientists will pitch their research proposals to the funders, who will have €100 000 at their disposal. The activity will also provide cues to promote argumentation among students to develop critical thinking, reasoning, communication, and scientific literacy skills. [ 2 ]

Learning objectives and context

After the activity, students should understand

• how scientific research is funded and that this involves difficult decisions;
• the difference between basic and applied research;
• how applied research relies on basic research findings, and that it is difficult to predict what might become useful.

To set the scene, students should be asked who they think funds scientific research. Students will generate multiple answers, from the government to universities and industry. Truthfully, funding can come from a variety of sources and can be public, private, national, or international.

The next question is how do funding bodies select what research should be funded. Scientific research is often broadly divided into two types: basic research (also called fundamental research) and applied research.

• Basic research is about pushing the boundaries of our understanding and generating new knowledge. An example is researching how a physiological process works at the molecular level.
• Applied research involves applying existing knowledge to create solutions to specific problems. An example is developing a treatment for a disease.

However, many research projects have elements of both basic and applied research. Research scientists from around the world must compete and push the merits of their work to get funding.

The following role-play activity will put students in the shoes of both the funding bodies and scientists. In groups, students will be asked to pitch their project proposal to the funders, who will ultimately decide how to allocate €100 000 to a variety of projects.

A key element of this lesson is to encourage debate and argumentation. Students acting as scientists should try to convince funders with their words. They should be encouraged to make claims, rebuttals, and back up their statements with data, if possible. Each scientist will have an individual text that will give them the information to argue effectively. To support debate, funders are given a list of key questions, along with more probing questions. This activity can also be extended over multiple lessons to allow students time to debate.

Funder information sheet

Project proposal cards

Discussion cards

• For this role-play activity, divide students into groups of five or six. Each group requires four scientists and at least one funder.
• Hand out the project proposal cards to the four scientists in each group.There are four project proposals and each scientist should get a different one. One of these proposals is highly applied, while the others are more basic. All funders receive the same information sheet and can allocate €100 000. If there are two funders in a single group, then they must come to a consensus.
• Give students 10 minutes to read over their documents. Funders need to be aware of the key questions (on the information sheet) they can use to assess the proposals. Scientists need to be aware of the key arguments they need to make to receive funding (on the proposal cards).
• Each scientist then gets 2 minutes uninterrupted to make their ‘pitch’ for funding. Once complete, funders need to ask key questions and all scientists are allowed argue their positions against each other. This should take around 15 minutes.
• At the end of the activity, funders are asked to fill in the funding-allocation table at the bottom of their information sheet. This is to be kept private.
• In turn, ask the funders from each group to the front of the class. The table on their sheets can be copied onto the board and funders can fill this out. Once complete, they need to give a brief justification to the class for their decision.
• Throughout this process, ask the students if they are seeing any patterns emerging in the funding between groups.
• Ask whether the students think each project is more basic or applied.
• Next, hand out the discussion cards to each group. Project 3 is purely applied and has a clear link to vaccines, but these cards describe how proposals 1, 2, and 4 turned out to be fundamental to the development of the COVID-19 vaccine in unexpected ways.
• Get the class to discuss whether this new information would have changed their funding decisions.
• Discuss whether the applications envisioned by the researchers were necessarily those that turned out to be important.

As previously stated, the goal of this activity is that students understand how research is funded and the differences between applied and basic research. The activity is designed to highlight how basic research often forms the foundation for applied research. Both types of research are important, but basic research can be perceived negatively in the eyes of the public. It is often impossible to predict how knowledge gained through a basic research project could be vital for an application in the future. Often multiple scientific advances have to be combined for an applied impact. Sometimes, scientists must accept that they may not be able to identify an immediate application for new knowledge generated. However, without new knowledge, we may lack the foundation for future applications that could be years away.

In this example, the three more basic research proposals proved to be vital to the final application. This can be easily illustrated with proposal cards 1 and 3. Proposal card 1 discusses modified mRNA, and this research underpinned the manufacture of the COVID-19 vaccine. The two proposals are so closely linked that you can replace the word ‘polynucleotide(s)’ with mRNA on proposal card 3 and the document still makes perfect sense.

As a follow up to this activity, ask students to go online and find the most obscure and weird basic scientific research (that has been published in a peer-reviewed journal) they can find. The Ig Nobel Prizes are a good source of inspiration for this. Similar to the mosquito example used in the introduction to this activity, get the students to find practical applications behind the headlines and articles.

[1] Dieng H et al. (2019). The electronic song “Scary Monsters and Nice Sprites” reduces host attack and mating success in the dengue vector Aedes aegypti . Acta tropica 194 :93–99. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.03.027

[2] Erduran S, Ozdem Y, Park JY (2015). Research trends on argumentation in science education: a journal content analysis from 1998–2014 . International Journal of STEM Education , 2 :5. doi: 10.1186/s40594-015-0020-1.

• Discover CRISPR-Cas9 and how it revolutionized gene editing: Chan H (2016)  Faster, cheaper, CRISPR: the new gene technology revolution .  Science in School   38 :18–21.
• Read an article on different techniques to resolve and predict protein structures: Heber S (2021)  From gaming to cutting-edge biology: AI and the protein folding problem .  Science in School   52 .
• Read an article on how modern vaccines work: Paréj K (2021)  Vaccines in the spotlight .  Science in School   53 .
• Visit the Annals of Improbable Research , which runs the Ig Nobel Prizes, to learn more about research that makes you laugh and then makes you think.
• Read a simple explanation of basic research and its importance from the National Institute of Health.
• Read a short article from Harvard University on the importance of basic research .
• Watch a video on the potential uses of CRISPR outside gene editing.
• Watch a video on how 50 years of fundamental research enabled the rapid development of mRNA vaccines for COVID-19.
• Read an article from STAT describing the main steps that – 50 years later – led to COVID-19 mRNA vaccines .
• Watch a video introducing the ESRF and its 41 beamlines .
• Read an article from Scientific American that underlines the important issue of research funding and final profits .
• Read an article from c&en magazine on synchrotrons and their uses .
• Read an   interview with Katalin Karikó  in  Scientific American  that discusses her role in developing the mRNA technology used in COVID-19 vaccines.

Dr Martin McHugh is the education and public engagement officer for SSPC , the Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) research centre for pharmaceuticals at the University of Limerick. Formerly a researcher in informal learning and part-time lecturer on science education, he has degrees from NUI Galway and the University of Edinburgh in environmental science and teaching. He is also a qualified secondary school science and biology teacher.

Dr Marcus Baumann is an assistant professor in the School of Chemistry at University College Dublin. He leads a research group aiming to develop new methods for the sustainable generation of drug-like molecules through the use of continuous-flow technologies. These methods are based on using light and enzymes in combination with machines to synthesise biologically active molecules.

Dr Sarah Hayes is the chief operating officer (COO) of SSPC . Sarah’s background is in physical chemistry and she received her PhD in Science Education. Sarah has many years of teaching experience as a physics and chemistry teacher. Through her various roles, she has been involved in research, curriculum development, and continuous professional development courses. Her most significant focus has been informal and non-formal learning and engagement.

Dr Jerry Reen is a lecturer in molecular microbial ecology at University College Cork. His research team study polymicrobial biofilm communities to understand molecular communication systems between species in disease and biotechnology. They also apply molecular technologies to harness biocatalytic proteins and bioactive compounds of marine origin.

Laurie Ryan is an assistant lecturer in general science at Athlone Institute of Technology (AIT). She is a former secondary school science teacher and conducts research in the area of STEM education and outreach. She is currently finishing her PhD examining argumentation in non-formal learning environments.

Dr Davide Tiana is a lecturer in inorganic chemistry at University College Cork. His independent group uses computational chemistry to study, understand, and explain chemistry. Their research goals range from developing new models to better explain chemical interactions (e.g., chemical bonding, dispersion forces) to the design of new molecules such as nanodrugs.

Dr Jessica Whelan is a lecturer at the University College Dublin School of Chemical and Bioprocess Engineering. Her research focuses on developing tools and approaches to optimize the production of proteins, vaccines, and cell and gene therapies. The aim is to make medicines available to patients at the highest quality and lowest cost possible.

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1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. the importance of reliability and repeatability of underwater noise research.

• Adulteration (voltage sensitivity drift). The German Technical Center for Ships, Naval Weapons, Technology, and Maritime Research (WTD71) describes the research carried out on the change in voltage sensitivity with the age of the tested hydroacoustic sensor in [ 12 ]. The article presents the calibration characteristics (dependence of voltage sensitivity on frequency) of the same hydrophone, which was carried out four times in the years (2002, 2004, 2006, and 2012). The characteristics show that there are frequencies for which the voltage sensitivity is unchanged and those for which the sensitivity differs in extreme cases by 1.5 dB re 1 V/µPa. The author’s comment is as follows: “It shows variations less than 1.5 dB which is within the uncertainty range of the underwater measurement. Therefore, this hydrophone did not change the frequency dependent sensitivity. In case of a wide spread or a tonal deviation the hydrophone would not be used further in the measurement chain. New hydrophones will be calibrated at this facility as well and compared with the manufacturer calibration”. The described facility is accredited facility in the Plöner lake. Similar research [ 13 ] was carried out at the Polish Naval Academy as part of the EDA SIRAMIS project. Drift voltage sensitivity hydrophone Reson TC-4032 between 2010 and 2013 reached 2.2 dB re 1 V/µPa ( Figure 3 and Figure 4 ). It should be emphasized that both tests were conducted in the frequency ranges from 4 kHz (WTD-71), 5 KHz (PNA), to over 100 KHz. However, similar tests are not carried out for lower frequencies. It seems that this type of research containing the trend of changes in sensitivity with the aging of measurement sensors should be included in general practice.
• Immersion of the sensors during measurements (different measurement depths should result in sensitivity correction in the measurement results). Document [ 14 ] presents research on changes in the voltage sensitivity of hydrophones depending on changes in the pressure in which they are placed. The hydrophone was subjected to pressure changes from 0.5 MPa to 3.5 MPa in the frequency range from approximately 50 Hz to 1600 Hz. Pressure changes can be interpreted as changes in the hydrophone’s immersion in the sea, which corresponded to changes from approx. 50 m to approx. 350 m. With such a pressure change, for a frequency of 800 Hz, the largest change in voltage sensitivity was obtained, which was approx. 1.4 dB re 1 V/µPa, with smaller pressure differences; these changes were correspondingly smaller. The question arises whether the sensors should be calibrated taking into account the target operating pressure.
• The underwater structure on which the sensor is mounted (directly or at a distance). Voltage sensitivity tests depending on the frequency and directional characteristics were carried out in a large open water reservoir. Two configurations of underwater recorders were tested. In one, the hydrophone was mounted directly to the recorder structure; in the other, it was located 2.5 m away on a cable. The tests were carried out in the frequency range from 1 kHz to 100 kHz, and even for the lowest frequency of 1 kHz, differences of several decibels in the voltage sensitivity of hydrophones mounted directly on the cable [ 15 ].
• Frequency range used (special attention should be paid to calibration in the frequency range used). Particular attention should be paid to the frequency range of calibration. Measuring equipment should only be used to the extent to which it has been calibrated. This also applies to the software in which the signal is processed. Various signal processing procedures may introduce additional measurement uncertainties into the measurement system.
• Waves/tides for very low frequency ranges. As shown above, fluctuations in water level changes (caused e.g., by tide) in the case of installing sea noise recorders on bottom structures may cause changes in sensitivity. For example, in the English Channel, near Saint Malo, tide differences can reach several meters
• Other (e.g., method of calibration, attenuation of the electronic channel).

2.2. Calibration Recommendations

• (D11C1) Primary: The spatial distribution, temporal extent, and levels of anthropogenic impulsive sound sources do not exceed levels that adversely affect populations of marine animals. Member states shall establish threshold values for these levels through cooperation at union level, taking into account regional or subregional specificities.
• (D11C2) Primary: The spatial distribution, temporal extent, and levels of anthropogenic continuous low-frequency sound do not exceed levels that adversely affect populations of marine animals. Member states shall establish threshold values for these levels through cooperation at Union level, taking into account regional or subregional specificities.
• Facilitate the implementation of the Regional Action Plan on Underwater Noise;
• Develop regional core indicators on underwater noise;
• Carry out regional assessments on occurrence and impacts of underwater noise in the Baltic Sea.

3. Results and Discussion

• Support for the conduct of scientific research or development work in areas related to metrology by entities of the higher education and science system, in cooperation with the President of the Central Office of Measures, hereinafter referred to as “GUM”.
• Supporting the implementation of projects aimed at increasing the level of research capabilities of metrological institutions, strengthening intellectual capital, increasing the competitiveness of the Polish economy in strategic areas for the country, developing modern technologies, and stimulating the development of metrology, in particular in the areas of health, environment, energy, and advanced measurement techniques, as well as development of digital technologies.
• Proven procedures for establishing state standards:
• No fees for the area and use of the existing building as part of the future metrological infrastructure;
• Self-sufficiency of national institutions when it comes to calibration of sensors and devices in the area of underwater acoustics—saving costs and time;
• Access to full metrological infrastructure while reducing maintenance costs for participating institutions;
• Possibility of using infrastructure and equipment in teaching (lectures and laboratories) related to metrology in underwater acoustics and, after expansion, in the offshore area;
• Possibility of using the infrastructure to conduct scientific research and test new products related to underwater/offshore acoustics;
• Having appropriate certificates for devices may be important/helpful in obtaining orders resulting from tenders and research grants;
• It is planned that the future Underwater Acoustics Laboratory will be managed on the basis of cooperation/establishing a consortium with interested institutions and with the participation of the Central Office of Measures as the National Metrological Institute.

4. Conclusions

• The ensuring of reliability and repeatability, leading to improvement of research in the area of marine ecology through traceable calibration of hydrophones and measuring instrumentation enables the identification of the critical parameters in the analyzed marine system and, in consequence, makes it possible to undertake the counter-measures for effective protection of the selected objects of fauna and flora in this system. A complexity of the presented subject is illustrated in Figure 1 , explaining the causes and effects relations in marine ecology with stressing the place and role of calibration underwater acoustics sensors and measuring devices, as well as in Figure 2 , showing challenges in the research of marine ecology system and ways to solve the formulated problem.
• The importance of reliability and repeatability of underwater noise research results from the changes in the sensitivity of hydrophones, that is, dynamic pressure sensors, which is mainly caused by adulteration (voltage sensitivity drift), immersion of the sensors during measurements, underwater mounting conditions of the sensors, as well as the waves/tides phenomena, and is presented and discussed in chapter 2.
• Calibration recommendations concerning hydrophones, based on research studies presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4 , cover the analysis of the previously described influencing factors on the reliability and repeatability of underwater acoustic measurements. These recommendations are strictly connected with the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MFSD) and included in appropriate legal standards and related documents presented in Table 1 .
• The analysis of the low frequency calibration systems worldwide, illustrated in Table 2 , shows that commonly accepted and used by numerous well recognized institutions, and confirmed by existing standards, frequency range of calibrations of underwater acoustics devices used in measurement and modelling phenomena in area of marine ecology is defined as a frequency below 1 kHz.
• The Polish case-study based on the development of metrological infrastructure in the underwater acoustic measurements in GUM (Central Office of Measures, Poland) shows that ensuring the reliability and reliability of measurements in the field of underwater acoustics in civil and military applications with the participation of the Central Office of Measures in Warsaw (Polish NMI) is crucial and will be further developed.

Author Contributions

Institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Listewnik, K.J.; Mindykowski, J. Study on the Ensuring of Reliability and Repeatability of Research in the Area of Marine Ecology through Calibration of Underwater Acoustics Devices. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 7725. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177725

Listewnik KJ, Mindykowski J. Study on the Ensuring of Reliability and Repeatability of Research in the Area of Marine Ecology through Calibration of Underwater Acoustics Devices. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(17):7725. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177725

Listewnik, Karol Jakub, and Janusz Mindykowski. 2024. "Study on the Ensuring of Reliability and Repeatability of Research in the Area of Marine Ecology through Calibration of Underwater Acoustics Devices" Applied Sciences 14, no. 17: 7725. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177725

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Maravilla, Wes H. G., et al. "A Qualitative Meta-Synthesis of English Education Studies Regarding Development of Taiwanese Students' Skills in the University Level." International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research , vol. 4, no. 1, 2023, pp. 256-262, doi: 10.11594/ijmaber.04.01.23 .

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Technology is crucial to language learning particularly the English language and entails enormous potential. It is also clear that the evolution of technology in the present times has a significant impact on how well foreign language learners acquire their new language. As a result, the current study's objective is to give a meta-synthesis of research findings on student development activities published in prestigious academic journals. Eight 2020–2022 studies examined English language learning innovations. For a systematic review, the studies were grouped using the Critical Skills for Evaluation Program (CASP) checklist and PRISMA 2020 flow diagram. Thematic analysis identified four primary themes were: (1) Using multimedia technology for speaking, (2) Designing and delivering writing courses, (3) Internet-based listening and reading pedagogy, (4) Attending cramming classes. The study's meta-theme, dimensions of a student development activity, emerged. It is advised that teachers and students consider the following aspects of the student development activity in their regular English language study.

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Preventing White supremacy: an applied conceptualization for the helping professions

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• Open access
• Published: 01 September 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  52 , ( 2024 )

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• Loran Grishow-Schade   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-6246-1195 1  

This perspective paper synthesizes insights from social work research, Critical Race Theory (CRT), and Critical Whiteness Studies (CWS) to develop a strategy for preventing White supremacy and promoting racial justice. It examines the intricate feelings of White guilt and shame, advocating for introspection, comprehension, and active engagement by White individuals toward systemic reform. The paper underscores CRT principles like Interest Convergence and Critique of Liberalism to examine concepts such as Moral Injury, Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress, and White Shame Culture. Three main obstacles to racial justice are identified: perceptions of power, funding dynamics, and attitudes toward White identity. The paper argues that racial healing should not be solely the responsibility of people of color, emphasizing the crucial role of White people in anti-racism work within supportive settings that foster growth rather than stress and humiliation. Focusing on prevention, the paper argues for social work practices that eliminate conditions obstructing optimal social functioning while challenging oppressive systems. This includes implementing trauma-informed approaches and fostering group work centered on empathy, relationship-building, and reflection. Advocating a strategy that champions our collective liberation, it suggests social work praxis as central to applying interpersonal and group solutions to systemic racism. The paper stresses the need for preventative funding in social services—highlighting tangible action steps and reforming funding strategies to support long-term engagement and address root causes of marginalization and oppression. This integral strategy calls for a collective push toward an equitable society, significantly enriching the discourse on CRT and CWS within social work.

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The foundations of Critical Whiteness Studies (CWS), an interdisciplinary field—were laid in the previous century through the works of eminent thinkers such as W.E.B. Du Bois [ 1 ], James Baldwin [ 2 ], Zora Neal Hurston [ 3 ], Gloria Anzaldúa [ 4 ], and Vine Deloria Jr. [ 5 ] among others. These authors challenged 'Whiteness' as an unseen status quo, emphasizing its recognition to dismantle racialized oppression. CWS, a product of Critical Race Theory (CRT), builds on the work of these influential thinkers and scrutinizes White culture and its role in perpetuating systems of White supremacy, emphasizing the need to explore the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of White people [ 6 ].

Recent scholars have applied CWS principles specifically to social work. Scholars such as Nylund [ 7 ], Jeyasingham [ 8 ], and Hafen [ 9 ] have shown how entrenched White perspectives in social work hinder social justice. Their work advocates for deeper analysis of Whiteness and Whitenormativity, formal anti-racism education, and encourages White social workers to confront White supremacy culture. These studies highlight the importance of incorporating CWS into social work to combat systemic racism.

As social work strives to stay relevant and adaptive, by integrating CWS into our knowledge, skills, and abilities, as our sibling fields of psychology [ 10 ] and education [ 11 ] began more explicitly over a decade ago, we can advance our understanding of how to prevent White supremacy. This paper explores key barriers—how we think about power, funding, and attitudes toward race and racism among White practitioners—that hinder the adoption of CWS in North American social work.

The predominantly White (68.8%) and politically liberal (55%) social work field in the US presents a unique backdrop for exploring its racist history and White supremacy [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. This demographic implies a majority of White liberals, grouped under the term “liberal” for this paper.

Social work has a long-standing history of racism, acknowledged and apologized for by the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) in a 2021 press release [ 16 ]. CRT shows racism is entrenched in societal structures and daily interactions, often unnoticed by those with privilege [ 17 ]. CRT redefines racism as systemic inequities, not just isolated acts of discrimination. CRT and the Racial Contract expose the historical roots of racism within societal norms, perpetuating systemic inequities [ 18 ]. CRT calls for deconstructing racial categories and confronting systemic injustices for significant change. Social work’s connection to White supremacy has been examined through CRT [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. However, the reluctant adoption of CWS in social work raises questions, given the critical role of race and racism in the US. This situation suggests a deeper issue.

1 Positionality

In social work research, acknowledging our 'positionality'—our unique perspective shaped by personal experiences—is crucial [ 22 ]. This self-awareness helps us manage biases and understand how our backgrounds influence our research. Holding a license in social work and being a White, non-binary, queer, neurodivergent, HIV-positive millennial renting in a mid-Atlantic city while juggling three jobs and a marketplace insurance plan distinctly influences my approach to social work. As a White social worker, I use “we,” “us,” and “our” pronouns when discussing White social workers to avoid any real or perceived allusions to expertise, elitism, or an us-versus-them mentality.

In this paper, “Whiteness” is shorthand for White Culture. In the tradition of queer and feminist theories, which critiques the normalization of heterosexuality and cisgender identities through the study of heteronormativity and cisnormativity, I find “Whitenormativity” to be more precise, parallel, and streamlined to other social movements pointed toward our collective liberation from systems of oppression.

This paper speaks specifically to White practitioners, acknowledging our shared experience. In the context of the social construction of Whiteness, I find myself having this conversation with a diverse spectrum of people who have internalized this experience. This includes those who are biologically White and those who are culturally White—people who are often mis/read as biologically White. We are all part of this conversation, seeking healing and understanding. “White people” refers to individuals who are biologically or culturally White.

Lastly, I employ the term "collective liberation" instead of "anti-racism" as our end goal because it highlights that everyone's freedom is interconnected. "Collective liberation" addresses not just racism, but also other forms of oppression like sexism and classism. This term helps readers understand that dismantling White supremacy benefits the entire community, emphasizing solidarity and the well-being of all.

3 The (myth of a) White monolith

CWS critiques and examines the dynamics of race, Whiteness, and Whitenormativity [ 23 ]. These concepts can be large and opaque, so let us start by remembering that race and Whiteness do not exist in a social vacuum. Our relationships with gender, class, ability, sexuality, religion, immigration status, and age impact our relationship to race. As Lorde said, “There is no such thing as a single-issue struggle because we do not live single-issue lives” [ 24 ].

Generalizations about White people fail to honor the diverse White experience. We must consider the spectrum of identities that exist simultaneously to being raced: we are gendered, aged, classed, sexed, abled, and our ethnicities determined. Our social positioning may simultaneously grant us social privileges and disadvantages. A single father on welfare in Elko, Nevada, who is White, has a different—better and worse—social experience than a mother with an au pair in Baldwin Hills, California, who is Black. Socially, we have a range of experiences within races. Being White is no different.

For example, within the White community, there is significant diversity in terms of ethnicity and experiences. Recognizing this diversity is crucial for a nuanced discussion on race and Whiteness. Nearly two-thirds of Romani Americans report feeling discriminated against due to their heritage, with close to 80% agreeing that Americans treat Roma people differently from other minority groups [ 25 ]. Similarly, Jewish people face ongoing challenges, particularly due to the current conflict in Palestine, impacting perceptions and experiences of discrimination globally [ 26 ]. These examples underscore the importance of recognizing the diverse and intersectional experiences within the White community, emphasizing the need for a nuanced discussion on race and Whiteness in social work.

Now we have a shared language and context; let’s dive in.

4 Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory (CRT) emerged from students of color at Ivy League institutions in the 1970s and '80s [ 27 ]. It aimed to challenge entrenched White supremacist narratives in academia and the legal field. Delgado and Stefancic identified its core principles: Interest Convergence, Revisionist History, Critiquing Liberalism, and Structural Determinism [ 28 ].

4.1 Core principles of CRT

Interest Convergence : Civil rights gains for communities of color often align with White self-interest. This challenges the idea that progress is purely driven by altruism.

Revisionist History : CRT reexamines America’s history, challenging majoritarian views and presenting marginalized perspectives.

Critique of Liberalism : Critical race theorists argue that liberal concepts like color blindness and neutral constitutional principles fail to address systemic racial issues.

Structural Determinism : The idea that the societal structure and its inherent vocabulary are fundamentally ill-equipped to redress certain systemic wrongs.

This paper will focus on the principles of Interest Convergence and Critique of Liberalism. Future research should explore White social workers' relationship with Revisionist History and Structural Determinism.

4.2 Focus on interest convergence

Introduced by Derrick Bell in 1980, Interest Convergence examines power dynamics and the limitations of zero-sum thinking in racial equity and justice [ 29 ]. There are many examples, and history is more complex than a summary can capture:

During the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed enslaved people in the Confederacy. This act was not only driven by moral considerations but also by the Union's strategic interests in undermining the Confederate war effort and bolstering its own military forces [ 29 ].

The US Civil Rights Act of 1964 was influenced by the emotional impact of President Kennedy's assassination, generating sympathy among White Americans and a shared interest in honoring his legacy by ending discrimination [ 30 ].

In Canada, establishing the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) following the Oka Crisis in 1990 demonstrates Interest Convergence [ 31 ]. The federal government's interests in political stability and maintaining its international human rights image aligned with and benefited from Indigenous demands for recognition and justice.

Understanding how White interests intersect with those of minoritized racial groups is key to advancing collective liberation. This shared liberation comes from meeting the interests of White people with Indigenous, Black, Latin@, and Asian populations. We must do both; we cannot do either/or. We must not de-center but co-center. This argument relies on resolving contradictions like de-centering White people in CRT and how our approaches can create reinforce White supremacy [ 32 ]. This leads us to examine the ideologies guiding our understanding of racial dynamics and their impact on professional practices.

4.3 Zero-Sum ideologies and its implications

In understanding equality and justice, we encounter the zero-sum paradigm of social progress. In economic or game theory, a zero-sum scenario is where one participant's gain or loss is balanced by the other's. Both groups cannot win. Both participants cannot lose: a competition. In discussions on racism and equality, a zero-sum viewpoint implies that advancements for marginalized groups result in losses for the dominant group. For example, opportunities for people of color through affirmative action or fair hiring practices are seen as reducing opportunities for White individuals. With limited resources or one job posting, there can be only one “winner,” making everyone else a “loser.”

In social work, zero-sum thinking is often applied to power. Abrams defines power as the ability to acquire what one needs and persuade others to help; essentially, it revolves around winning [ 33 ]. Discussions on power frequently suggest that it must be "taken" [ 34 ] or taken "away from" [ 35 ] dominant populations (re: White, straight, able, men)—and redistributed [ 36 ]—implying that non-dominant populations (re: people of color, queer, disabled, women and gender nonconforming, nonbinary, and trans people) cannot persuade others to assist them in securing what they need. This binary model fosters a harmful either/or mindset: one either has power or does not.

Seeing power as socially constructed allows us to view it as expandable and shareable. Community organizing and coalition-building can create new, collaborative forms of power, promoting social justice for all. Interest Convergence shows that aligning the interests of dominant and marginalized groups can expand and equitably distribute power. This framework challenges zero-sum thinking by showing that progress for marginalized groups does not come at the expense of dominant groups.

Because of the perils of the illusory truth effect—where we begin to believe false information is correct merely because it is repeated—we can start to construct a reality of power that portrays social justice as a competition. This method maintains social inequity by competing for power, bypassing the need for collaboration or communal power [ 33 , 37 ]. We neglect the tools and trainings—power mapping, community organizing, strategic alliances and partnerships, social media campaigns, narrative and framing techniques, crowdfunding and resource mobilization, volunteer networks, digital advocacy, grassroots lobbying, and coalition building—that instruct us on how to achieve this, which demonstrate the evidence and legacy of how to build power out of nothing [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. We forfeit power by adopting a scarcity mindset, overlooking our social work education.

4.5 Zero-sum implications

For example, many White liberal social workers adhere to biological essentialism, which asserts that racial identities dictate behaviors and capabilities [ 41 ]. This philosophy suggests White individuals are inherently racist and are therefore intrinsically incapable of addressing race and racism. This makes change or justice seem unattainable [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. White people will always win: zero-sum. Such a stance not only simplifies complex racial dynamics but also ignores the diversity within White communities. Casting racial dynamics as a rigid power battle, where White people monopolize authority, cultivates zero-sum ideologies. This view ignores Interest Convergence and sees power as a limited resource to be reallocated, rather than a socially constructed concept that can be expanded and equitably distributed.

4.6 Misconceptions

Table 1 catalogs how zero-sum thinking and distorted views of power have created a wide array of biases, assumptions, and misconceptions within anti-racism work. It shows us how far we have strayed from recognizing the power of Interest Convergence to creating social change.

The Table begins with the prevalent assumption (#1) that all White individuals are inherently racist or uniformly benefit from racial privilege. This view ignores individual complexities like socioeconomic status, education, and personal values. Additionally, it challenges the way of thinking (#2) that White people cannot comprehend or tackle racism by ourselves, highlighting the significance of both individual efforts and collective action in addressing racism. The table also draws attention to the diversity within White communities, revealing a wide spectrum of (#4) awareness and engagement with racial issues. It demonstrates that White individuals can make significant contributions to collective liberation efforts (#5), countering the myth of our ineffectiveness or non-involvement. By questioning the assumption that White people are excluded from responsibility (#3) and the one-directional impact of racism (#7), Table  1 advocates for the possibility of change and fluid power dynamics inherent in CRT’s social construction thesis [ 27 ].

Table 1 examines misconceptions about White individuals and clarifies how these perceptions impact social workers' actions and inactions. By adhering to the flawed zero-sum paradigm, we overly focus on interventions, often neglecting a holistic approach to prevent White supremacy.

4.7 Reverse racism

For many White people, zero-sum thinking aligns with 'reverse racism'—power being taken from and redistributed from White people [ 42 , 43 , 56 , 57 ]. Many scholars in the helping professions maintain that reverse racism does not—and cannot—exist. This stance is supported by key arguments: (1) reverse racism misunderstands discrimination and racism, (2) ignores historical context and power dynamics, (3) misinterprets discrimination dynamics, (4) denies racial privileges, (5) misunderstands affirmative action, and (6) neglects evidence of White advantages. [ 58 , 59 ].

However, a 2017 report revealed that 55% of White respondents believed that racism against White people exists [ 60 ]. In 2020, data from FiveThirtyEight showed that 73% of Republicans, 38% of independents, and 22% of Democrats shared this belief [ 61 ]. Public figures like Elon Musk and Scott Adams have propagated these narratives, indicating growing acceptance of reverse racism among White individuals [ 62 ]. This data shows an interest by White people to acknowledge racism against White people in contemporary American culture despite the key arguments that maintain it cannot exist.

While some White people fear that systemic racism against White people is emerging as we become a racial minority, it is important to focus on creating equitable systems that prevent any form of systemic oppression. This demographic shift is part of the natural progression of society in the US and is projected to occur within the next two decades. However, this change will not happen suddenly; we are already in the transitional phase. White nationalist groups have weaponized this notion and propagated The Great Replacement Theory, suggesting that White individuals in the US are experiencing systematic displacement and eradication [ 63 ]. This conspiracy has been cited in the manifestos of mass shootings at the Christchurch Mosque in New Zealand and Walmart in El Paso, Texas, in 2019; the Squirrel Hill synagogue shooting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 2018; and the Tops Supermarket shooting in Buffalo, New York, in 2022 [ 64 ].

Even if textbook definitions do not support the existence of reverse racism, many White people believe it exists. Ignoring this belief can have deadly consequences, as evidenced by these violent acts. We must also recognize our unintentional role in fostering dangerous narratives due to a disconnect between our theory and practice concerning White people. For instance, children born between 2008 and 2016, who grew up during Barack Obama's presidency, will experience Donald Trump as their first president who is White. This shift in experience underscores the evolving nature of our language, demographics, societal experiences, and the importance of updating our social definitions accordingly. As social workers, it is imperative that our practices reflect these changes to effectively serve our communities.

4.8 The intervention vs. prevention binary

A second oversight in social work's fight against White supremacy is the false dichotomy between intervention and prevention. Effectively addressing systemic racism in social work requires a nuanced understanding of intervention and prevention strategies. Balancing intervention—challenging oppressive systems [ 65 , 66 ]—with prevention—eliminating conditions that obstruct optimal social functioning [ 67 , 68 , 69 ]—is essential. CRT’s principle of Interest Convergence can guide this balance by identifying common interests supporting immediate interventions and long-term preventive measures. We must see these approaches as complementary, with a focus on preventive measures. Like addressing a flood, we need to aid survivors and construct a dam to stop future occurrences.

However, efforts to shift social work culture toward prevention often go unheeded [ 70 ]. If we understand White supremacy as a problem White people have created, then preventing White supremacy means working with White people. As reported by Guidestar, the database of registered nonprofits in the US, the majority of organizations working within community and economic development, education, human rights, and human services are explicitly working with Black (29%), Latin@ (20.6%), Native (16.1%), Multi-Racial (15.4%), and Asian (11.2%) populations [ 71 ]. While these organizations play a crucial role in supporting marginalized communities, the limited focus of nonprofits working explicitly with White people—only 3.7%—highlights a significant gap. Without addressing the population that perpetuates White supremacy, it can feel unpreventable, leading to misconceptions about its inevitability.

Effectively combating White supremacy in social work requires a balanced approach that integrates both intervention and prevention strategies. Viewing these methods as complementary enables us to address immediate harms while eliminating the conditions that allow systemic racism to persist. While prioritizing preventive measures is essential, we must also recognize the necessity of immediate interventions to challenge oppressive systems and support those affected. Currently, many efforts overlook the principle of Interest Convergence, focusing more on harm reduction than on reducing harm itself. By aligning our strategies, we can more properly attune our praxis.

4.9 Example: “de-centering Whiteness”

The phrase and practice of “de-centering Whiteness” has become common in the US [ 32 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ]. De-centering is generally known as the process of moving away from treating White cultural norms, values, and perspectives as the default or standard in our literature, classrooms, and staff meetings throughout the helping professions. However, based on the misconceptions we hold around race and racism (see Table  1 ) White people might feel hesitant to engage in spaces focused on decentering Whiteness due to fears of being labeled or judged, self-doubt about our understanding of racism, and feelings of exclusion from responsibility. Additionally, we may perceive that our contributions are undervalued or that their unique perspectives and experiences are not considered relevant. “De-centering” then becomes internalized as code for shutting down or tuning out White people. People of color are centered; White people are de-centered: zero-sum. There is no talk of co-centering. Often, it’s these spaces that profess to support CRT who are suddenly fumbling one of its core principles (re: Interest Convergence). Ironically, by getting White people to stop talking about Whiteness the interests of Republicans and conservative movements to stifle race-related conversations are inadvertently supported in liberal spaces [ 76 , 77 , 78 ].

Centering leadership from marginalized groups while holding White individuals accountable for most of the work can be seen as an attempt to manufacture Interest Convergence. This well-intentioned strategy risks reducing White individuals' agency to mere compliance rather than active participation, leading to superficial engagement that lacks genuine understanding and long-term commitment to racial justice. Moreover, this approach can inadvertently reinforce zero-sum thinking by implying that the empowerment of people of color necessitates the disempowerment of White individuals. Instead, a more effective strategy would involve co-creating spaces where White people and people of color can lead and collaborate, recognizing the unique contributions and responsibilities of each group. This balanced approach aligns with the principles of Interest Convergence by ensuring that the interests of all parties are considered and integrated into the collective effort to dismantle systemic racism.

Over the past decade, many North American classrooms, conferences, and social service providers have shifted toward 'De-Centering Whiteness.' While the goal is to de-center Whitenormativity, current literature suggests removing White people from these conversations [ 32 ]. Literature shows that when White people enter race and racism conversations, we often feel poorly informed, miseducated, or uneasy. Our involvement decreases, and we anticipate that Indigenous, Latin@, Black, and Asian people will fill the silence, teach, and lead [ 48 , 72 , 74 ]. This often places an undue burden on people of color to lead and educate. This dynamic creates an escape for White people from engaging meaningfully in intergroup dialogues [ 75 ].

In social work, misinterpreting 'de-centering' Whiteness fosters a belief in zero-sum equity—that making space for marginalized groups means taking space from White individuals [ 56 ]. A recent journal example illustrates this by advocating for inclusivity while suggesting the education system 'de-emphasize' Whiteness, reflecting a counterproductive shift toward zero-sum thinking. What is more: White people do not have to internally stop ourselves from showing up, because other well-intentioned White people are already telling us to sit down and not speak.

The flawed approach that elevating marginalized voices requires silencing White voices reinforces the erroneous belief that White perspectives on racism are fixed, ignoring the fluid nature of racial interactions. This, coupled with increasing societal segregation, raises vital questions about our collective liberation and the importance of mutual accountability among all racial demographics [ 79 , 80 ].

Interest Convergence suggests that efforts to prevent White supremacist structures—like de-centering Whiteness or avoiding race discussions—hinder collective progress. Instead of removing White voices from the conversation, Interest Convergence advocates for a balanced approach where the interests of both White individuals and marginalized groups are aligned. Involving White people in race-based initiatives can bridge understanding and foster collective action toward systemic change. Overlooking the role of White individuals in addressing systemic racism by failing to acknowledge the impact of race only serves to preserve the structures we are seeking to change.

This oversight underscores the need for careful integration of CWS and CRT within social work.

Implementing Interest Convergence in social work invites us to collaboratively confront and address systemic racism. This collaboration is central to both CRT and effective social work practice, challenging us to move beyond binary perspectives of intervention and prevention toward true inclusivity and accountability.

5 Critical Whiteness Studies

Critical Whiteness Studies (CWS) explores Whiteness as a social construct and its implications across cultural, historical, and institutional contexts [ 6 , 81 ]. Scholars from various disciplines contribute to CWS by examining the origins, manifestations, and privileges of White people. It is crucial to examine Whiteness itself, rather than taking it for granted. This involves questioning how Whiteness is constructed, maintained, and contested, and understanding its role in systemic racism. CWS's mission is evident in its engagement with CRT, aiming to prevent oppressive systems and encourage ethical practices that address race and power complexities. By understanding how Whiteness operates within social work and other fields, we can identify and address the unique stresses, such as Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress (PITS) and moral injury, thereby facilitating more authentic engagement for our collective liberation.

5.1 Liberalism and CWS

Since 68.8% of social workers in the US are White and operate within Western Liberalism's political and moral framework, this paper uses Critical Race Theory's Critique of Liberalism along with CWS [ 28 ]. The Critique of Liberalism argues that the ideas of individualism, equality, and freedom in classical liberalism can hide systemic racial injustices [ 82 ]. For decades, the anti-racism movement has relied on the narrative that education is the answer to injustice: if we know better, we do better. However, recent data shows that support for Black Lives Matter has declined, and many believe race relations have not improved [ 83 ]. Addressing these issues through CWS is essential for social work. It underscores the need for something deeper with concrete actions to prevent systemic injustices, moving beyond mere education and awareness.

5.2 Mental health needs of White liberals

When White people realize that our beliefs in liberalism clash with systemic racial injustices, we have a spectrum of emotional responses, including cognitive dissonance, guilt, shame, emotional exhaustion, and identity crises. In 2020, at the height of the dual pandemics of COVID-19 and systemic racism, only 11.2% of White people received counseling or therapy at least once from a mental health professional [ 84 ]. This suggests that seeking mental health support was not a widespread response—or financially viable—among White people, even amidst a global health crisis and civil unrest. Stigmas around mental health are still quite high [ 85 ], which may contribute to this low percentage. Therefore, when White people do seek mental health support, it is crucial to use skilled interventions to address these emotional responses and prevent these responses from reinforcing White supremacy.

This paper advocates addressing the mental health needs of White liberals as a strategy to prevent the perpetuation of White supremacy. This argument is supported by the works of Baldwin [ 2 ], Morrison [ 86 ], and Menakem [ 87 ], who highlight racism as a manifestation of White people’s troubled relationship with mental health. Central to this discussion is exploring guilt and shame among White social work students, a common thread in recent studies [ 88 , 89 , 90 ]. By addressing these mental health challenges, we can better equip White people to engage in collective liberation work without being hindered by emotional barriers, ultimately contributing to the prevention of systemic racism.

5.3 Guilt and shame

Guilt and shame, while related, influence self-concept and self-esteem differently. Guilt is transient, triggered by wrongdoing (re: 'I did something bad'), offering a pathway to rectification [ 91 , 92 ]. Shame, however, is more enduring, entailing a deeper internalization of fault (re: 'I am bad'), which can significantly hinder personal and professional growth. As White people become more aware of racial privilege and systemic racism, we often experience these emotions. Understanding these emotions through lived experiences is essential for navigating discussions on race and racism. However, color-blind and post-racial approaches can exacerbate or dismiss these feelings, denying the need for systemic reform. Therefore, developing a positive White racial identity requires acknowledging the emotional landscape of being White [ 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 ], particularly in the dynamics between guilt and shame.

5.4 White guilt

White guilt, emerging from the 1960s liberation movements, has evolved, resulting in diverse viewpoints on preventing racism today [ 50 , 97 ]. White guilt is the remorse some White people feel when we recognize racial injustices and how our race protects us from these injustices. Research around trust and self-worth offers valuable insight into White guilt. While cultivating a robust moral compass is beneficial [ 98 , 99 ]—particularly for middle-class White people—feelings of White guilt can hinder our ability to trust ourselves and have positive self-worth. This highlights the importance of addressing White guilt for societal progress and individual well-being [ 100 , 101 ].

Moreover, this overwhelming sense of guilt can lead White individuals to believe that we are incapable of leading or co-leading anti-racism work. Current social justice narratives suggest that White individuals cannot prevent White supremacy without the leadership of people of color [ 102 , 103 , 104 ]. This perspective emphasizes the importance of centering the experiences and leadership of people of color in anti-racism initiatives. However, it is sometimes misinterpreted as suggesting that only people of color should lead these efforts [ 49 , 105 ] (See Table  1 , misconceptions 8 through 10). Such misinterpretations can lead to the simplistic belief that White people are always guilty of wanting to maintain White supremacy, which makes it hard to believe we can fight against it effectively.

High-profile incidents like the deaths of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, and Breonna Taylor have ignited a racial awakening among many White people, with the Black Lives Matter movement keeping this dialogue at the forefront [ 106 , 107 , 108 ]. The enduring presence of the Black Lives Matter movement, highlighting police brutality, has made it difficult for many White people to ignore these issues. From 2016 to 2019, the Pew Research Center observed a 50% increase in White people recognizing racial discrimination [ 109 ]. By the decade’s end, a majority of White Americans (55%) acknowledged that racial discrimination was occurring in the US. The escalation of conversations surrounding race, racism, Whitenormativity, and White supremacy across various platforms, including the Super Bowl Halftime Show [ 110 ], housekeeping magazines aimed at suburban mothers [ 111 ], and children's networks like Nickelodeon, which aired an eight-minute and forty-six-second tribute to George Floyd [ 112 ], has brought racism, from interpersonal to systemic, into the limelight of national discourse.

This widespread exposure to discussions of racism has influenced White American culture and profoundly affected our collective consciousness. Against this backdrop, White Americans' understanding of our role in a racially structured society has begun to unravel. This confrontation with explicit racism and the realization of complicity in systemic injustice has led to what some describe as “moral injury” among White liberals, affecting deeply held moral values and beliefs.

5.5 Moral injury and perpetration-induced traumatic stress

Moral injury, initially associated with traumatic experiences like warfare, has found increasing relevance in racial discourse [ 48 , 113 , 114 ]. It arises when individuals experience, witness, or fail to prevent actions that contradict their moral beliefs and expectations. This contradiction leads to profound psychological distress, characterized by guilt, shame, disgust, anger, struggles with self-forgiveness, and changes in behavior, relationships, and spirituality. It may also include feelings of betrayal by leaders or peers [ 115 , 116 ]. This construct can emerge as White people confront our involvement in a racist system, particularly when viewed through the Critique of Liberalism [ 42 , 45 , 49 ]. Depending on the perceived severity of the racist act, moral injury often manifests as feelings associated with White guilt [ 113 , 114 ]. Prolonged engagement with guilt-like thoughts can exacerbate stress, potentially leading to a state of emotional paralysis; being stuck.

Research on perpetration-induced traumatic stress (PITS), initially applied to combat veterans and executioners [ 117 , 118 ], now extends to White populations grappling with this emotional paralysis or "stuckness" [ 48 , 113 ]. At the heart of PITS is the struggle to transcend the discomfort of moral injury, marked by continuous distressing memories and psychological distress [ 119 ]. This traumatic stress is characterized by persistent avoidance of trauma-associated stimuli and negative changes in cognition and mood. PITS takes the concept of moral injury one step further by internalizing the conflict—transitioning from "I have done something bad" to "I am bad," which reflects the shift from guilt to shame.

Given the recent emergence of PITS, moral injury, White shame, and White guilt in both academic and public discourse [ 48 , 90 , 120 ], it is important to clarify that these terms are often used interchangeably. However, moral injury is more closely related to White guilt, while PITS is more aligned with White shame. Each term represents a deeper psychological impact, compounding the initial trauma with self-condemnation.

5.6 Emotional impact of White shame and guilt on anti-racist efforts

Two recent studies have examined the issue of White shame's impact on our collective liberation from White supremacy, yielding insightful findings. The first study, conducted in 2019 by Grzanka, Frantell, and Fassinger [ 120 ], explore the relationship between emotions and attitudes toward racism among White people. It found that White shame was weakly and negatively correlated with racist attitudes, suggesting that higher levels of such shame do not inherently lead to reduced racist views. In contrast, White guilt was strongly associated with rejecting racist attitudes, indicating that guilt might be a more effective motivator for White individuals to adopt anti-racist perspectives. The study suggests that emotional responses to racism, particularly guilt, can be leveraged in educational and social initiatives to encourage deeper anti-racist commitments. This insight suggests focusing on guilt rather than inducing shame to interrupt and interrogate racist attitudes within White communities.

The second study by Brock-Petroshius, Garcia-Perez, Gross, and Abrams found that shame was significantly linked with fewer anti-racist behaviors than colorblind attitudes [ 90 ]. This finding suggests that White shame acts as a considerable obstacle to engaging in anti-racist actions. Although the research team did not identify a significant relationship between guilt and anti-racist behaviors, they acknowledged the existence of a positive relationship. This underlines the need for interventions to help White MSW students manage feelings of shame or guilt from reduced colorblind attitudes and highlights the importance of reducing White shame and promoting anti-racist actions. Shame can inhibit anti-racist activities despite a deeper understanding of racism and a solid intent to engage in anti-racist actions. Interestingly, more respondents said they felt higher levels of shame compared to empathy or guilt, even though the average score for shame was similar to that of guilt. The self-perception of shame among respondents is notably higher than that of empathy or guilt. This discrepancy highlights the personal impact and potentially more profound experience of shame, suggesting it may significantly influence behaviors or attitudes.

These studies suggest that while White guilt might motivate anti-racist perspectives, without careful management, White guilt could potentially lead to White shame, which does not inherently reduce racist views [ 90 , 120 ]. These findings highlight the need for interventions to guide White individuals through guilt-related experiences and away from the paralyzing effects of shame, enabling meaningful actions towards our collective liberation.

5.7 White Shame Culture

White Shame Culture, a feature of contemporary White liberalism, arises from the acknowledgment of racial privilege and the perpetuation of White supremacy. It is characterized by pervasive feelings of shame related to racial identity, fueled by social justice discourses that often frame racial equity as a zero-sum competition. This culture is marked by a lack of positive White racial identity formation and resistance to transformative practices aimed at achieving collective liberation. White Shame Culture is rampant with untreated moral injury and Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress (PITS), often disguised as the "Good White Person" complex [ 44 ], where individuals strive to be seen as morally superior without addressing underlying issues. Understanding White Shame Culture involves examining its systemic manifestations, which extend beyond individual anxieties to influence group norms, values, and traditions. Addressing this culture requires proactive racial justice measures and educational initiatives that transform shame into constructive action, fostering a positive and equitable racial identity.

For example, the term "Karen" exemplifies societal entitlements and racial insensitivity [ 121 ], causing anxiety among White women about public shaming and social ostracization [ 122 , 123 , 124 ]. While some women do exhibit 'Karen' behaviors (re: entitled, often territorial policing, racially insensitive), the misappropriation of the term outside of these behaviors helps to perpetuate White Shame Culture, making it difficult for White women to build a positive identity around their Whiteness. CRT and CWS stress introspection and fostering positive White identities as key steps toward equity [ 27 , 81 , 87 ].

Furthermore, social justice literature advises White individuals to brace for potential isolation from other White people and possible rejection from communities of color, contributing to heightened internalized guilt among White liberals [ 42 , 125 , 126 , 127 ]. Public shaming and social ostracization, intertwined with the fear of isolation, underscore pervasive anxiety among White individuals as we confront our racial identities, transforming personal guilt into communal and internal shame.

To mitigate this shame, some White individuals downplay or conceal our racial identity, adopt cultural markers of other groups, sidestep discussions on White-specific topics, or use pseudonyms and avatars online [ 128 , 129 ]. This effect, distinct from cultural appropriation, often results in White individuals tokenizing academics and artists of color, frequently out of context, as a performative act of anti-racism [ 130 ]. This can also look like White people having a pronounced lack of patience and empathy for other White people or claiming expertise on the experiences of people of color. These behaviors, a form of credentialing to be received as a “Good White Person” [ 131 ], mirror the chameleon effect, critiqued by CRT and CWS as performative, indicating a need for authentic engagement with racial matters beyond superficial actions.

Paradoxically, these external stressors, expectations of rejection, internalized stigma, and identity concealment align with Minority Stress Theory (MST), initially designed to understand stressors faced by marginalized groups [ 132 ]. Increasingly prevalent among White liberals, these characteristics underscore the emergence of MST-like experiences, signaling a need for understanding and supportive mental-health measures for White people struggling with PITS.

Exploring these emotional dynamics and behavioral patterns through CRT and CWS unveils the intricate web of White guilt and shame and emphasizes moving beyond performative gestures toward our collective liberation. This deep-seated anxiety, shared across the political spectrum, highlights the reach of White supremacy and shame—and the need to transform the norms, values, and traditions that maintain it within liberal settings. Addressing the psychological impact of these dynamics is paramount in preventing White supremacy and fostering environments conducive to introspection and meaningful action.

While anti-racism work has traditionally focused on the implications of White supremacy for populations of color [ 133 , 134 , 135 ], it is equally critical to address the escalating racialized anxiety within White populations. As Charles notes, "White America could not perpetrate five hundred years of dehumanizing injustice without traumatizing itself” [ 113 ]. By integrating insights from the Critique of Liberalism, CWS, moral injury, and PITS, we achieve a nuanced understanding of White Shame Culture and its ramifications, advocating for informed dialogues and collective efforts toward racial equity and the work necessary to prevent White supremacy at individual and systemic levels.

6 Applications for social work

The application of CWS and CRT in social work is crucial to effectively address systemic racism. Group work is a pivotal strategy in this endeavor [ 136 ], highlighting the importance of interpersonal relationships and individual commitments in shaping and transforming the systems and institutions we navigate. Reflective and transformative approaches, which involve continuous self-assessment and adaptation in practice, are essential in social work education and practice. These approaches enable the identification and correction of ingrained prejudices, fostering genuine understanding and collective liberation.

White social work practitioners face unique challenges, including negative emotions and mistrust towards our coworkers, which can hinder collaborative efforts. Addressing anti-White bias, alongside other forms of bias, and promoting empathy are vital steps in cultivating an inclusive environment where all individuals can contribute meaningfully to the fight against White supremacy. By integrating these insights and acknowledging the diverse perspectives within the field, social workers can play an instrumental role in leading our collective liberation.

6.1 Group work

A significant tool to prevent White supremacy lies in our ability to work with groups. Intergroup dialogue, as outlined by Bohm [ 137 ], is an exceptionally well-crafted tool to meet this moment. Bohm explains that dialogue involves participants openly sharing their thoughts and experiences, which helps everyone gain a clearer understanding and work together more effectively. Dialogue is not merely a conversation where we wait for our turn to speak; it requires us to actively listen and truly understand the other person's perspective before considering how our own views align or differ. In a dialogue, there is no attempt to win. The zero-sum mindset is avoided. Instead, everybody wins if anybody wins. This collective spirit is vital for genuine collaboration and preventing systemic issues like White supremacy.

Combating White supremacy relies on group work that improves interpersonal relationships and acknowledges individual contributions. As Toseland and Rivas find [ 136 ], group work nurtures the socio-emotional needs of individuals and the group. Since group work is mandated by the Council on Social Work Education [ 138 ], we must hold ourselves accountable for not fully utilizing this powerful tool effectively in the fight against White supremacy. By critically examining and reflecting on our group work practices, we can identify and correct ingrained prejudices, fostering genuine understanding and actions toward our collective liberation.

While some perspectives in social work focus on racism as a macro-level problem inherent in systemic and institutional discrimination, it is crucial to consider the influence of individual and collective values and morals in shaping these systems and institutions. We must stop thinking of systems and institutions as amorphous, wandering behemoths. Policies and laws are simply the morals and values of a group of people.

Interpersonal relationships and individual commitments are crucial for group work in preventing White supremacy. However, some White social work practitioners may harbor negative emotions toward our White counterparts, including frustration and mistrust, as observed in certain contexts. These feelings are often borne out in classrooms [ 139 ], professional forums [ 140 ], and social media comment sections of many social work organizations. Many social workers recognize that historical contributions by White individuals have played a significant role in shaping contemporary societal issues. Contributions to oppressive ideologies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries can still shape contemporary dynamics, fueling mistrust toward White colleagues, especially White, straight, cisgender men [ 121 , 141 , 142 ].

6.2 Addressing anti-White bias

Despite social work’s efforts to address racism and White supremacy over the past fifty years [ 143 , 144 , 145 ], some White people feel devalued and discriminated against in social work curricula [ 88 , 146 ]. As of 2017, White students are now underrepresented in higher education, with significant decreases in Ivy League schools, the University of California system, and a 31.49% decrease of enrollment at major institutions since 1980 [ 147 ]. Within classrooms, many White students argue that coursework overlooks anti-White bias and induces guilt or discomfort about our racial identity [ 88 ]. Cases like the Ontario school principal who took his own life after being accused of White supremacist behavior during a training session—led by a social worker—for public educators highlight the emotional toll such discussions can take, notably when adequate support is lacking [ 148 , 149 ]. These practices highlight how disconnected social work has become from our best practices for social change and adherence to the NASW Code of Ethics in our anti-racism work [ 150 ].

Many articles, publications, and media on White supremacy for White audiences emphasize White privilege. While this is an important aspect, it creates a single-story narrative of Whiteness. Very little is said about the ways White people are negatively impacted—directly and indirectly—by White supremacy. However, the work of scholars like Todd Jealous and Haskell [ 47 ], Brock-Petroshius [ 90 ], Grzanka [ 120 ], Lensmire [ 52 ], Spanierman [ 151 ], Burnett [ 50 ], Charles [ 113 ], and Grishow-Schade [ 114 ], and the insights from the Spillway [ 48 ], highlight the importance of our collective role in understanding this issue. These authors reveal the paradox of being White in contemporary U.S. culture, where we are both perpetrators and victims of White supremacy. This perspective calls for active involvement, stressing the need to complicate the narrative that White people only have positive and privileged racialized experiences.

Even though research shows the inefficacy of inducing guilt, shame, and discomfort about racial identity [ 90 , 120 ], social workers have continued to use these approaches. However, in a profession built on values of service, social justice, dignity, and integrity [ 143 ], we must question whether these methods truly benefit White racial identity development and strengthen the relationships needed for group work. Sustainable growth is challenging amidst emotional dysregulation [ 152 ], as it can hinder our ability to adhere to our Code of Ethics. Therefore, fostering emotional attunement and empathy is essential for constructive dialogue and ethical practice. Change needs empathy.

Feelings of hostility or mistrust toward White people from various racialized communities can be understood from a psychological, emotional, and somatic perspective [ 153 , 154 ]. These communities have borne the brunt of racism, impacting their relationship to White culture and White people. However, similar emotional responses among White social workers toward other White people need a different analytical lens. By adopting the CWS framework, we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding the presumption of guilt among White social workers by White social workers. It also provides tools to navigate and mitigate these feelings, enhancing the effectiveness of social work across diverse racial and ethnic contexts and preventing White supremacy. This dynamic of White people harboring negative feelings toward other White people can also be seen as profitable within the context of the Nonprofit Industrial Complex (NPIC), which underscores the financial motivations behind these emotional responses.

6.3 The Nonprofit Industrial Complex

Financial sustainability in social service nonprofits often depends on external funding rather than clients paying for services. The NPIC highlights the dynamics among nonprofit organizations, government agencies, and private funders, showing how reliance on external funding can divert social movements from their core objectives and create caution in confronting harmful practices by funders due to fear of losing financial support [ 155 ].

The NPIC tends to fund intervention services over preventative measures, showing a bias for immediate solutions over addressing root causes. This bias is evident in child welfare, where only 11 percent of funds are directed toward preventative efforts, underscoring the constraints of the current funding landscape [ 156 ].

Smith critiques the 501(c)(3) model [ 157 ], which many social justice organizations adopt to secure tax-deductible donations and foundation grants. This model can co-opt movements, forcing them to conform to the priorities of funders rather than their communities. The NPIC promotes a social movement culture that is non-collaborative, narrowly focused, and competitive—re: zero-sum, Liberalism—often stifling genuine activism and innovation.

The NPIC's competitive nature forces groups to vie for limited resources, often promoting their work at the expense of broader coalition-building. This competition can dilute the focus on systemic change and maintain the status quo. This liberal approach often prioritizes incremental change and personal achievements rather than addressing systemic inequalities through group efforts. By focusing on individual success, the NPIC undermines the power of collective action and solidarity, which are essential for achieving true social justice. Foundations, while providing temporary relief, can mask underlying issues like White supremacy, as they often prefer funding projects that do not challenge systemic inequalities.

Spade advocates for a paradigm shift in the NPIC toward prevention-focused strategies that address the root causes of marginalization and oppression [ 158 ]. Drawing inspiration from public health successes like anti-smoking campaigns, Spade emphasizes that balancing immediate interventions with long-term preventative measures is crucial. Combining insights from INCITE! Women of Color Against Violence—who wrote the seminal guide to the NPIC [ 155 ]—with Spade there exists a profound transformation required in funding strategies centered on racial equity. This reform aims to support individual and group efforts necessary for systemic change, ensuring a fairer distribution of financial resources and promoting sustainable change [ 155 , 156 , 159 ].

Recent research from the Philanthropic Initiative for Racial Equity reveals that nonprofits received $4.47 billion in race-related funding in 2020 alone [ 160 ]. Further analysis shows that foundations, funds, and trusts provided $111.58 billion for race-focused initiatives in education, health, human rights, and social rights from 2003 to 2021. Of this, only 0.49% ($557 million) was allocated for initiatives serving "people of European descent." Through the lens of CRT and CWS, this is less than half a cent of every dollar spent on race-related funding for preventative actions.

Thus, how we think about our work—considering power dynamics, Liberalism, zero-sum thinking, and the balance between prevention and intervention—greatly influences our funding strategies. To address these challenges, it is crucial to explore alternative resources and strategies that prioritize prevention over short-term interventions. Informed by CRT and CWS praxis, this shift toward preventative paradigms is vital for our funding streams. By focusing on preventive measures, we can better address the root causes of social issues, ensuring our efforts lead to sustainable change. This strategy aligns with our mission to promote social justice, challenges the systemic constraints of the NPIC, and advocates for a more equitable distribution of financial resources, ultimately reimagining how social work can meet the needs of all communities.

7 Preventing systemic racism

Integrating CWS and CRT within social work is fundamental to effectively addressing systemic racism. Group work is a pivotal strategy, emphasizing the importance of interpersonal relationships and individual commitments in transforming our systems and institutions. Reflective and transformative approaches enable the identification and correction of ingrained prejudices, fostering genuine understanding and collective liberation. Intergroup dialogue and critical examination of group work practices can enhance collaboration and mitigate systemic issues like White supremacy.

Secondly, White social work practitioners face unique challenges, including anti-White bias, negative emotions, and White Shame Culture that can hinder collaboration. Addressing these biases and promoting empathy, an essential quality in our work, are vital for creating an inclusive environment.

Lastly, the Nonprofit Industrial Complex (NPIC) presents additional challenges, often prioritizing intervention over prevention. However, a shift towards prevention-focused strategies that address root causes, informed by CRT and CWS, is beneficial and urgent for sustainable change and social justice.

Maintaining momentum in these efforts can be challenging. As Mondros and Wilson observed [ 161 ], participation often declines after initial enthusiasm peaks. To counter this, it is crucial to focus on factors that encourage long-term engagement, such as emphasizing the group's impact, building a supportive community, maintaining a strong interest in tasks, and recognizing every member's contribution.

By focusing on these aspects, especially within the context of White social workers, we enhance individual accountability and strengthen interpersonal relationships. This approach fosters a resilient and committed community ready to tackle and prevent systemic racism through evidence-based practices in group work, aiming to root out deep-seated prejudices that fuel racial inequities.

Ultimately, embracing reflective, group-based efforts and shifting towards collective, community-focused liberation will pave the way for a social justice environment where ideals are actively pursued and realized. Social workers must adopt these principles to foster a more equitable and just profession, ensuring that our efforts lead to meaningful and sustainable change.

7.1 How we start

The transformation toward preventative work in social services requires social workers across nonprofit organizations, academic institutions, and funding bodies to address pivotal areas. This task necessitates a profound understanding of the intersection of racism and mental health, specifically among White individuals.

First and foremost, it is essential to recognize the diversity within White populations. Being White does not equate to uniform experiences or perspectives. Social workers must comprehend the unique racial experiences and perceptions of White individuals, debunking common misconceptions about homogeneity within this group. By acknowledging this diversity, we can tailor our approaches to be more effective and sensitive to individual experiences.

Facilitating intergroup dialogue is another critical aspect. Dialogues about systemic racism often stir feelings of guilt and shame. Social workers can provide spaces for constructive intergroup dialogue, mitigating feelings of isolation and potential radicalization. These dialogues can help bridge gaps in understanding and foster a sense of community and shared responsibility in addressing racism.

Implementing trauma-informed approaches is integral to promoting understanding and preventing racism. Social workers need to acknowledge the unique stresses that White individuals might experience like PITS, moral injury, and MST. Trauma-informed approaches can support these individuals in their journey toward healing, helping us understand and combat the roots of racism within ourselves and our communities.

Debunking misconceptions about race, racism, and White supremacy is a critical role for social workers (See Table 1 ). Challenging harmful stereotypes and assumptions fosters a nuanced understanding of these complex issues. By promoting accurate and comprehensive views of these topics, we can dismantle the biases that perpetuate systemic racism.

Promoting and building leadership among White individuals in collective liberation work shifts the responsibility of preventing White supremacy away from marginalized populations who are most impacted by it. Encouraging White people to take initiative allows for respect for each group's unique healing and restoration paths from a place of lived experience. This shift is essential for fostering a collective commitment to social justice.

Advocating for transparency through open and honest discussions about racialized harm and trauma is necessary for healing. Social workers should offer resources to help White individuals understand our role in systemic racism and White Shame Culture. These discussions can pave the way for greater awareness and responsibility in addressing racial harm.

Practicing empathy is crucial in these efforts. Understanding that everyone is at different stages in comprehending race and racism can facilitate more productive interventions. Some White individuals are firmly rooted in White Shame Culture, some traverse between Shame and Supremacy Cultures depending on their context, and others actively seek a return to explicit forms of White supremacy. By meeting individuals where they are, social workers can guide ourselves and other White people more effectively toward greater awareness and action.

Group work plays a significant role in addressing contemporary systemic and institutional racism. Often, the failure to tackle the policies, practices, and values of groups and organizations perpetuates these issues. The key to systems change is merely group work. Even the largest companies in the world do not have more than 12 people on their board of directors. Collaborative efforts are essential for driving significant change.

Lastly, reforming funding strategies to prioritize preventive measures over short-term interventions is critical. By addressing the root causes of societal issues and promoting sustainable, equitable social change within the NPIC framework, we can create long-lasting impacts. Investing in prevention work is essential for fostering a more just and equitable society.

7.2 Action steps

Provide immediate resources and build emotional resilience : offer accessible resources that support immediate needs, such as crisis hotlines, counseling services, and support groups. Build emotional resilience by creating spaces for emotional expression and open discussions without fear of judgment, such as community workshops and peer support circles.

Promote anti-racist actions : engage in meaningful conversations about race and racism, especially with those who may not share your views. If everyone in the room has the same definition of justice, it’s not a diverse space [ 162 ]. Approach these conversations with compassion, patience, empathy, and understanding. For example, organize intergroup dialogues that foster new relationships.

Create healing affinity spaces : develop and maintain healing spaces that allow for personal growth and deeper understanding within affinity groups. Examples include dedicated rooms in community centers for reflective practices, online support groups, and retreats focused on racial healing and identity exploration.

Encourage reflective practices : promote introspective activities such as reflective journaling, meditation, or self-assessment exercises. These practices help individuals organize and deeply understand our thoughts and experiences, fostering personal growth. Provide resources like guided journals, online meditation sessions, and self-assessment tools while being mindful to reflect on more than only our privileges.

Leverage technology for engagement : utilize online platforms and social media to facilitate the exploration of racial identity and intergroup dynamics. Choose the medium that best supports individual learning and engagement styles. Examples include virtual discussion groups, webinars, and interactive educational platforms.

Shift accountability to include all parties : ensure accountability mechanisms consider the needs of those harmed, those who caused harm, and their communities. Accountability should validate humanity while enabling behavior correction. Implement restorative justice practices that involve all parties in the accountability process.

Build community support : foster community building through local meetups, online forums, or social media groups. These communities offer support and foster meaningful relationships grounded in compassion and empathy. Examples include organizing neighborhood potlucks, creating online discussion groups, and hosting community-building events. Consider a support group for people in White Shame Culture.

Understand the difference between shame and guilt : educate individuals on the difference between shame ("I am bad") and guilt ("I did something bad"). Effective accountability should avoid reinforcing White Shame Culture. Provide educational workshops and resources that focus on understanding and applying this distinction.

Proactive and reactive approaches : implement both proactive and reactive strategies to heal and prevent harm. This dual approach is essential for sustainable personal and societal change. Examples include preemptive educational campaigns and responsive support services for those affected by racial harm.

8 Conclusion

To address systemic racism and White supremacy, integrating Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Critical Whiteness Studies (CWS) into social work is essential. By examining principles like Interest Convergence and Critique of Liberalism, we can better understand power dynamics and move beyond zero-sum thinking in our approach to racial equity. This paper highlights the importance of supporting White individuals in understanding race by addressing Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress (PITS), moral injury, and White Shame Culture.

Self-reflection is crucial for White people in addressing racism. Morrison [ 86 ] and Baldwin [ 2 ] argue against the idea that people of color should be solely responsible for correcting or leading efforts to undo racial injustices. Menakem, a social worker, extends this argument by insisting that White people must reclaim and redefine Whiteness to embody responsibility and care [ 87 ]. He suggests building communities and supporting White leaders in anti-racism work rather than relying on Black individuals. Fred Jealous further extends this argument, challenging White people embedded in White Shame Culture with a poignant question: "Can you access the truth of your preciousness? And that's the starting place for the discussion. Can you access that? And if you can access that, can you stay there? Use it as a starting place from which to connect to all of life and from which to take a look at where you put your attention with other humans" [ 163 ].

White individuals must take a lead in preventing White supremacy. As demonstrated, these arguments are supported by the concept of Interest Convergence [ 29 , 164 ]. Various racial groups have developed strategies over centuries that meet the emotional, mental, and physical needs of White people, advocating for spaces where White individuals can heal independently—and communally—without interference [ 87 , 165 ]. This paper calls for White individuals to actively engage in collective liberation efforts, emphasizing the importance of internal community engagement before extending these efforts to broader societal interactions.

Integrating CWS offers a novel, preventative strategy to address modern White supremacy. It aims to explore the motivations behind White supremacy without justifications, tone policing, or diminishing the impact on colleagues of color. The ethos of this paper come from Audre Lorde's insight that new tools—compassion, patience, and respect—are essential in dismantling the house of White supremacy [ 166 ].

Social workers play a crucial role in applying an interpersonal approach to systemic racism. Understanding that systems and institutions are groups of individuals, this paper highlights the role of social workers in reflective practice, advocacy for systemic change, and fostering trauma-informed intergroup dialogues. Through these methods, social workers can make significant strides in preventing systemic racism.

This paper envisions a future where social work actively leads efforts toward an equitable and inclusive society. This vision is based on collective efforts, grounded in compassion, understanding, and a commitment to justice. Recognizing that liberation from oppressive systems is best achieved through collaborative efforts, social work must move beyond merely confronting White supremacy. Let’s prevent it.

8.1 Concluding positionality

A key challenge is motivating White social workers to address our racialized mental health needs. Over the years, I have focused on understanding White individuals through a trauma-informed lens. The most formidable challenge has been inspiring White social workers to consistently acknowledge and address our mental health needs related to race. I have experienced firsthand the reluctance of White colleagues—from standing faculty in schools of social work to direct service providers—to confront their racialized fears and insecurities, reflecting the pervasiveness of White Shame Culture in the helping professions. This culture leaves a significant imprint on contemporary social work practice. Confronting and addressing White Shame Culture is crucial for advancing social work toward its true potential. I acknowledge the emotional impact this discussion may have had on you, dear reader. I see you, precious friend. Me, too.

Data availability

This perspective piece primarily discusses and reviews existing literature, puts forward controversial positions or speculative hypotheses, or highlights work from one or a few research groups. Therefore, it does not involve the collection or analysis of original data, which is why this type of article does not include a data set.

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Acknowledgements

My deepest gratitude to Ben Jealous, Ariel Schwartz, Amy Hillier, Jessie Harper, Erin Cross, Jerry Bourjolly, Danna Bodenheimer, Jenny Skinner, Fred Jealous, and Lynn Burnett for their invaluable contributions in reviewing and cultivating the initial ideas of this paper. I am deeply grateful for those who, even in their pain, could only support my work privately. Their struggle with White shame taught me that it can be stronger than love, and that lesson has been profound. For Meade, Elizabeth, and Matthew.

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• Published: 30 August 2024

Specific blood metabolite associations with Gout: a Mendelian randomization study

• Huiqiong Zeng 1 ,
• Junda Lai 2 ,
• Zhihang Liu 3 ,
• Wei Liu 4 &
• Ye Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0008-7238-1013 1  

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Computational biology and bioinformatics

Gout, common metabolic disorders, have poorly understood links with blood metabolites. Exploring these relationships could enhance clinical prevention and treatment strategies.

We applied bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis, using data from a genome-wide association (GWAS) study of 486 blood metabolites. Gout data was obtained from FinnGen R8 (7461 gout and 221,323 control cases). We implemented the inverse variance-weighted (IVW) method for main analytical approach. Extensive heterogeneity, pleiotropy tests, leave-one-out analysis, and reverse MR were conducted to validate the robustness of our findings. Both Bonferroni and False Discovery Rate (FDR) corrections were used to adjust for multiple comparisons, ensuring stringent validation of our results.

Initial MR identified 31 candidate metabolites with potential genetic associations to gout. Following rigorous sensitivity analysis, 23 metabolites as potential statistical significance after final confirmation. These included metabolites enhancing gout risk such as X-11529 (OR = 1.225, 95% CI 1.112–1.350, P  < 0.001), as well as others like piperine and stachydrine, which appeared to confer protective effects. The analysis was strengthened by reverse MR analysis. Additionally, an enrichment analysis was conducted, suggesting that 1-methylxanthine may be involved in the metabolic process of gout through the caffeine metabolism pathway.

Identifying causal metabolites offers new insights into the mechanisms influencing gout, suggesting pathways for future research and potential therapeutic targets.

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Large-scale cross-ancestry genome-wide meta-analysis of serum urate

Target genes, variants, tissues and transcriptional pathways influencing human serum urate levels

Genomic atlas of the plasma metabolome prioritizes metabolites implicated in human diseases

Introduction.

Gout is caused by metabolic disorder (hyperuricemia), but it shares risk factors and pathophysiological mechanisms with other metabolic diseases. Its main characteristics include arthritis and the deposition of urate crystals. Studies indicate that the prevalence of gout in the general population ranges from 1% to 4%, and it is higher in certain regions (such as the Pacific Islands) and specific subgroups (such as the elderly, those with renal dysfunction, or metabolic syndrome). For example, the estimated prevalence of adult gout in the United States is approximately 3.9% [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Gout is closely related to metabolic processes, especially those involving urate metabolism. It is characterized by elevated serum uric acid levels, which crystallize and cause inflammation and acute gouty arthritis. This condition is closely associated with metabolic syndrome, which is linked to cerebrovascular disease, cardiovascular disease, and renal damage, thus imposing a significant economic burden on society [ 4 ]. Although various lifestyle and genetic factors associated with gout risk have been identified, current research results are inconsistent in terms of specific metabolic changes. For example, abnormal increases or decreases in the concentrations of metabolites such as hypoxanthine, uric acid, 2-deoxyadenosine, creatinine, homocysteine, D-glucose, DL-2-aminohexanoic acid, and adenosine may occur in the blood of gout patients [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. The observational nature of studies limits our ability to establish a causal relationship between these metabolites and the development of gout, as such studies are prone to confounding factors and reverse causality. With the development of high-throughput technologies, such as multivariable genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and cluster analysis, advanced research methods allow us to measure and analyze blood metabolites more accurately, enhancing our understanding of disease mechanisms at the molecular level [ 10 ]. To further explore the causal relationship between gout and blood metabolites, this study plans to utilize Mendelian randomization (MR) methods based on GWAS data. By using genetic variants as natural experiments, MR methods can infer causality by analyzing the relationship between these variants and the disease. Compared to traditional observational studies, this method reduces research bias and provides more robust statistical results [ 11 , 12 ]. This comprehensive research approach helps deepen our understanding of gout and related metabolic diseases, promoting the development of personalized medicine and precision treatment.

Materials and methods

We conducted MR analysis using publicly available GWAS data to assess the causal impact of exposure factors, blood metabolites, on the outcome factor, gout. We performed a bidirectional two-sample MR analysis to investigate the genetic causal relationship between blood metabolites and gout, following three key assumptions: (1) Metabolite instrumental variables (IVs) are associated with the outcome of gout, (2) Metabolite IVs are unrelated to confounders of gout, and (3) IVs affect gout only through the exposure. To ensure the robustness of the results, we performed careful IVs selection, as outlined in the flowchart (Fig. 1 ) and data table (Table 1 ) [ 13 ].

Research framework diagram.

Exposure variable collection

This study utilized the genome-wide association study (GWAS) by Shin et al. in 2014, which included 7824 adults from two European cohorts, TwinsUK and KORA, encompassing approximately 2.1 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) [ 14 ]. Metabolic profiling of fasting serum samples was conducted through non-targeted mass spectrometry and comprehensive high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, successfully identifying 486 serum metabolites (see details in Table S1 ). Of these, 309 were confirmed via the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database and categorized into eight major biochemical classes: amino acids, carbohydrates, cofactors and vitamins, energy, lipids, nucleotides, peptides, and xenobiotics. The remaining 177 unknown metabolites were not further analyzed due to undefined chemical properties. Complete statistical data of these genome-wide association summary datasets are publicly accessible through the Metabolomics GWAS server. Additionally, standardized identification, relative quantification, data reduction, and quality assurance processes conducted by Metabolon, Inc. ensured the accuracy and reliability of the data. This research not only provides an in-depth understanding of the biochemical pathways of known metabolites but also lays the groundwork for the functional exploration of unknown metabolites and future biomedical research.

Outcome data collection

The GWAS summary data for gout were obtained from the R8 version of the dataset in the Finngen biobank ( www.finngen.fi/fi ). This study included 462,933 adult samples of European ancestry from the UK Biobank, comprising 7461 gout patients and 221,323 healthy controls. All participants had obtained local ethical approval and provided informed consent, making additional ethical approval unnecessary for this study.

IVs selection and MR analysis

First, we retrieved SNPs associated with blood metabolites ( P  < 5e-5) as IVs, selected according to widely applied operational standards [ 15 ] to assess the correlation between metabolites and gout. Secondly, we filtered out linkage disequilibrium (LD) among the included IVs ( r 2  < 0.001, LD distance = 10,000 kb). Third, we excluded SNPs directly related to gout ( P  < 0.05). The strength of the IVs was estimated using the F -statistic, with F  < 10 indicating exclusion of weak instrument bias.

To enhance the accuracy and robustness of MR analysis, we utilized the PhenoScanner V2 website to exclude SNPs significantly associated with known risk factors, including palindromic SNPs. This measure aims to eliminate SNPs that may bias the MR estimates, ensuring more stable and reliable results [ 16 ], see Table S2 for details.

In our study, we initially screened 31 potential metabolites associated with the development of gout (Table S3 ). Subsequently, we applied the Bonferroni correction algorithm (α = 0.05, P B  = 0.05/486, P B  = 1e-4) to correct the type I error rate in multiple hypothesis testing and identified a metabolite with a significant causal relationship with gout. Metabolites with a Bonferroni-adjusted P -value below 1e-4 were considered statistically significant. Two results had P -values less than 1e-4; However, due to the limited number of results, we adjusted the threshold to 1e-4 <  P B  < 0.05 [ 17 ]. The 29 metabolites with Bonferroni values between 1e-4 and 0.05 were classified as having potential statistical significance.

After Bonferroni correction, we conducted heterogeneity analysis using Cochran’s Q test to evaluate heterogeneity among the estimated SNP effects, with P  > 0.05 indicating no significant heterogeneity. Horizontal pleiotropy was examined using MR Egger intercept tests and Mendelian randomization multivariable Effect Residual and Outlier (MR-PRESSO) methods, with P  > 0.05 indicating no horizontal pleiotropy. Following sensitivity analysis, of the two results meeting the stricter significance criterion, only one remained significant. Moreover, out of the 29 metabolites, 22 retained their status of potential statistical significance after the analysis.

Following rigorous statistical analysis and sensitivity testing, the remaining 23 metabolites were confirmed to meet the criteria for potential statistical association with the development of gout. These metabolites demonstrated significant associations with gout development, supported by multiple analytical methods, and thus qualified as positive metabolites in the study.

Subsequently, we conducted reverse MR analysis on these 23 positive findings; this additional analysis was pivotal in determining whether the observed relationships could be due to reverse causation [ 18 ]. The Bonferroni-adjusted P -value below 2e-4 were considered statistically significant (0.05/23). Our primary analytical approach was the Inverse Variance-Weighted (IVW) method, which enhances statistical power by synthesizing results from multiple independent studies. Additionally, we utilized four other methods for sensitivity analysis: MR Egger, Simple mode, Weighted median, and Weighted mode, to further validate the robustness of our results.

The significance of these 23 metabolites in gout-related investigations was underscored. We used the MR Steiger filtering test to examine the causal directionality between each extracted SNP and the exposure and outcome, which is valuable for enhancing the accuracy of causal inference [ 19 ]. Additionally, we conducted leave-one-out analysis to assess the robustness of MR results by sequentially excluding individual SNPs to evaluate the sensitivity of the remaining SNPs’ effect estimates. We also employed scatterplot and funnel plot methods to visually inspect for potential outliers and assess the overall distribution and heterogeneity of the estimates [ 20 , 21 ].

To accurately assess the strength of the association between the metabolites and gout, and to reduce the false discovery rate (FDR), we employed the Benjamin-Hochberg method, setting a significance threshold at P BH  < 0.05. These findings were analyzed and visualized on the online platform “ https://www.bioinformatics.com.cn ” (last accessed on January 12, 2023), with details and citations documented in reference [ 22 ].

MR analyses and Steiger filtering analyses were performed in R Studio (version 4.2.1) using the TwoSampleMR package (version 0.5.6). Finally, we used funnel plots to detect and assess publication bias and visualize the distribution of study results, aiding in identifying potential confounding bias (analysis date: September 2023).

Metabolite pathway enrichment analysis

In our study, metabolic pathway analysis was initially conducted using the KEGG database ( https://www.kegg.jp/ ) for 23 potential metabolites as specific causal relationships; however, no significant results were obtained. Consequently, the scope of our analysis was expanded to include 31 initial candidate metabolites for further pathway investigation. This analysis aimed to understand the functionality and interactions of metabolites, facilitating the identification of potential metabolic pathways [ 23 ]. Using metaconflict 5.0 ( https://www.metaboanalyst.ca/ ), we analyzed blood metabolites via KEGG pathways [ 24 ], analyzed in July 2024.

Initiatory MR results

We selected 486 metabolites as IVs, with the number of IVs ranging from 4 to 631. The validity tests for all these IVs demonstrated that the minimum F -statistics exceeded 10 (see Table S3 ), indicating that they are sufficiently robust to support effective MR analyses for investigating associations with gout. Using the IVW method, we explored the causal relationships between known metabolites and gout. We identified 31 preliminary candidate metabolites with potential causal associations with gout, which included 2 amino acids, 1 carbohydrate, 5 lipids, 1 peptide, 2 xenobiotics, and 20 unknown metabolites. Among these, 19 metabolites were positively correlated with gout risk, while 12 were negatively correlated. All of candidate genetic metabolites met the criteria with FDR < 0.05 (Fig. 2 ). The top 5 positively correlated metabolites were as follows: mannoses (b = 1.42, 95% CI = 2.14 ~ 0.194, P FDR  = 0.0006, P  = 0.00003), X-11529 (b = 0.20, 95% CI = 1.11 ~ 1.35, P FDR  = 0.0006, P  = 0.00004), X-13429 (b = 0.37, 95% CI = 1.44 ~ 1.82, P FDR  = 0.020, P  = 0.002), X-11593 (b = 0.55, 95% CI = 1.18 ~ 2.55, P FDR  = 0.021, P  = 0.005), and undecanoate (b = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.45 ~ 8.57, P FDR c = 0.021, P  = 0.005). The top 5 negatively correlated metabolites were: stachydrine (b = −0.31, 95% CI = 0.60 ~ 0.90, P FDR  = 0.020, P  = 0.003), bradykinin ( b  = −0.18, 95% CI = 0.74 ~ 0.94, P FDR  = 0.020, P  = 0.003), 1-linoleoylglycerol ( b  = −0.36, 95% CI = 0.53 ~ 0.93, P FDR  = 0.026, P  = 0.012), X-11530 (b = −0.28, 95% CI = 0.53 ~ 0.93, P FDR  = 0.026, P  = 0.012), and piperine ( b  = −0.33, 95% CI = 0.56 ~ 0.94, P FDR  = 0.026, P  = 0.014). Among these, 1 carbohydrate, 2 amino acids, 3 lipids, 1 xenobiotics, and 12 unknown metabolites increased the risk of gout, while 10 metabolites (2 lipids, 1 peptide, 1 xenobiotics, and 8 unknown metabolites) had a protective effect. In these two analyses, the highest odds ratio (OR) was for the carbohydrate mannoses (OR = 4.13, 95% CI = 2.14 ~ 0.194). In the MR Steiger test, the correct direction of causality was confirmed.

The x-axis represents the result of OR estimated by the IVW method.

After the Bonferroni correction ( P -value < 1e-4), two metabolites — mannose and X-11529 — remained statistically significant. When the significance threshold was adjusted to 1e-4 <  P -value < 0.05, a total of 29 blood metabolites were found to potentially have a causal relationship with gout.

Upon further analysis for heterogeneity and pleiotropy, only X-11529 among these two metabolites maintained statistical significance. Of these 29 metabolites, 22 still showed significant associations. All the 23 potential metabolites met the criteria with FDR < 0.05 (Table S4 and Fig. 3 ).

The forest plot of MR results after sensitivity analysis.

The top 5 among 23 positively correlated metabolites were: X-11529 (b = 0.20, 95% CI = 1.11 ~ 1.35, P FDR  = 0.0006, P  = 0.00004), X-13429 ( b  = 0.37, 95% CI = 1.44 ~ 1.82, P FDR  = 0.020, P  = 0.002), X-11593 ( b  = 0.55, 95% CI = 1.18 ~ 2.55, P FDR  = 0.021, P  = 0.005), X-08402 ( b  = 0.61, 95% CI = 1.84 ~ 2.83, P FDR  = 0.021, P  = 0.006), and undecanoate ( b  = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.45 ~ 8.57, P FDR  = 0.021, P  = 0.005). The top 5 among 23 negatively correlated metabolites were consistent with the 31 candidate metabolites.

Sensitivity analysis

To assess the stability of the results, sensitivity analyses were performed on 31 preliminary selected candidate metabolites causally related to gout, including MR-Egger regression, Cochrane’s Q, MR-PRESSO, leave-one-out analysis, and funnel plots. As mentioned above, a total of 23 potential positive results were obtained.

The results of Cochrane’s Q showed no heterogeneity in the causal relationship between the 23 potential blood metabolites and gout ( P  > 0.05), and MR-PRESSO also indicated no pleiotropy ( P  > 0.05) (Table S4 ). After Bonferroni correction, we found one blood metabolites significantly associated with an increased risk of gout: X-11529, which is an unknown type (OR = 1.23, 95% CI = 1.11 ~ 1.35), leave-one-out analysis did not reveal single SNP bias (Fig. 4A ), and the funnel plot was symmetric (Fig. 4B ), confirming the reliability of the causal relationship in the result.

A Leave-one-out plot showing the effect of individual SNPs on the estimated association with gout. Points indicate effect estimates with the SNP omitted; horizontal lines are 95% confidence intervals. The red line is the overall effect size. B Scatter plot of MR analysis comparing two methods by plotting SNPs’ ratio estimates (x-axis) against precision (y-axis), with black for Inverse variance weighted and blue for MR Egger. B Scatter plot representing the MR analysis methods applied to assess the causal effect of metabolite X-11529 on gout. Each dot represents an SNP, plotted with its respective ratio estimate (β-IVW or β-Egger) on the x-axis and the precision of the estimate (1/standard error) on the y-axis. The IVW method is shown in light blue, while the MR Egger method is depicted in dark blue, with the vertical lines representing their respective overall causal estimates. Abbreviation:Mendelian randomization (MR), Odds Ratios (OR), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), Inverse variance weighted (IVW), confidence interval (CI), false discovery rate (FDR).

Exploring the causal relationship between gout to blood metabolites

Further investigation into the causal relationship between gout to the 23 potential blood metabolites was conducted using reverse MR analysis. The preliminary analysis, prior to statistical adjustment, indicated that levels of 15 metabolites were increasing, while 8 metabolites showed a decrease (Table S5 and Fig. S1 ). However, after applying the Bonferroni method to adjust for multiple comparison errors (adjusted significance threshold at P value = 0.05/23 = 0.002), the changes in these metabolites did not reach statistical significance. This suggests that under strict statistical standards, the impact of gout on these 21 metabolites could not be confirmed to have a causal relationship. This finding is consistent with the results from the forward MR analysis, indicating that more evidence is needed to interpret the relationship between gout and metabolites.

Metabolic pathway

In our study, metabolic pathway analysis was conducted on 23 specific potential causal relationships. It was revealed that the gout-associated metabolite 1-methylxanthine is related to the caffeine pathway ( P  = 0.019), while 2-aminobutyrate is enriched in the cysteine and methionine metabolism pathway ( P  = 0.056), and isovalerate is enriched in the protein digestion and absorption pathway ( P  = 0.040), as illustrated in Supplementary Fig. S1 and Table S6 .

In this study, we utilized the causal associations between blood metabolites and gout through a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian Randomization (MR) analysis. We employed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) as instrumental variables (IVs) for this purpose. MR is a statistical methodology that utilizes genetic variants to establish causality, thereby enhancing our comprehension of the impact of specific genetic factors on disease susceptibility [ 12 ].

We initially identified 31 candidate metabolites associated with gout risk through comprehensive genome-wide association study (GWAS) and MR analysis. After applying stringent Bonferroni correction, Benjamin-Hochberg method, and sensitivity analyses, we confirmed 1 metabolite with a Bonferroni-corrected P -value less than 1e-4 as significantly associated with gout risk, while 22 metabolites with Bonferroni-corrected P -values between 1e-4 and 0.05 were identified as potentially associated with gout risk, enhancing the robustness of our findings. The identification of these metabolites unveils potential pathological mechanisms and may provide new biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of gout. Notably, our data revealed that certain metabolites, such as X-11529, awere significantly associated with increased gout risk; conversely, metabolites like stachydrine, bradykinin, and piperine were associated with reduced gout risk. This might reflect the regulatory roles of these metabolites under pathological conditions on gout. By conducting reverse MR analysis on these associations, we further validated the causal directions of these relationships, strengthening the credibility of our study. These results underscore the potential roles of specific metabolites in the pathological process of gout. Overall, our study not only enhances the understanding of the association between gout and blood metabolites but also verifies the authenticity of these relationships through various statistical methods. As far as we are aware, there is limited research on this subject.

Gout is an inflammatory arthropathy triggered by a disturbance in uric acid metabolism and is prevalent worldwide, with an increasing incidence in recent years. According to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study, the prevalence of gout in the United States rose from 2007 to 2016 [ 25 ]. Gout is associated with socioeconomic status, being more common in lower-income populations. There are significant differences in prevalence and treatment patterns across different regions globally, with genetics, diet, and lifestyle all playing contributory roles. It is projected that by 2060, mortality related to gout may increase by 55%, posing a significant challenge to public health [ 26 ].

The complex role of metabolites in the development of gout has garnered significant attention, particularly through the application of metabolomic technologies such as proteomics and lipidomics. These methods have been instrumental in identifying potential biomarkers linked to gout. Recent metabolic research has identified essential pathways and specific metabolites that regulate serum uric acid levels, a critical determinant in gout. By analyzing blood and urine metabolites, biomarkers for pathological states, particularly gout and hyperuricemia, can be detected [ 27 , 28 ]. Notably, metabolites including uric acid, hypoxanthine, xanthine, guanosine, adenosine, Kynurenic Acid (KYNA), 2-Aminoethylphosphonic acid (2PY), DL-2-aminoheptanoic acid (2AMIA), and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAALB4) are proposed as biomarkers for gout [ 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Recent studies have shown significant changes in lipid, carbohydrate, amino acid, and energy metabolism in gout patients, highlighting the link between metabolic dysregulation and gout [ 32 ]. These findings open new avenues for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment, although the bidirectional causal relationships between specific metabolites and gout are yet to be established.

Mannose, a carbohydrate closely related to glucose, plays a crucial role in protein glycosylation and energy provision. It is produced during the digestion of polysaccharides and glycoproteins, and notably influences the immune system by boosting antibody production against viruses [ 33 ]. Recent studies have established a significant link between mannose levels and gout. Metagenomic analyses have revealed notable differences in the gut microbiota composition between gout patients and healthy individuals, specifically highlighting an increased abundance of genes involved in mannose metabolism [ 34 ]. Additionally, the Chinese herbal medicine Wuwei Shexiang pill, recognized for its therapeutic potential in treating gout, may exert its effects by inhibiting several metabolic pathways including those of sugar and mannose, linoleic acid, and phenylalanine, thus mitigating symptoms of gout [ 35 ]. These findings underscore the critical role of mannose in the pathogenesis and management of gout, aligning with the risk effects observed in this study.

Piperine, extracted from plants, offers bioenhancing and anti-inflammatory benefits. It shows promise in gout treatment by inhibiting the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, crucial for gout-related inflammation. This leads to reduced gout symptoms, prevents tophi, and protects cartilage. Piperine also decreases leukocyte infiltration, lipid peroxidation, and C-reactive protein production, aiding gout management [ 36 ]. Additionally, it increases cell membrane permeability, enhancing drug transport into cells [ 37 ]. Animal studies confirm that piperine alleviates urate-induced gouty arthritis in mice by reducing lysosomal enzymes, lipid peroxidation, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels, and boosting antioxidants [ 38 ]. Consistent with the analysis presented, piperine aligns as a protective factor against gout.

Stachydrine from Motherwort exhibits notable anti-inflammatory effects, crucial for gout management [ 39 ]. It reduces key inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and TNF-α, impedes platelet-neutrophil aggregation, and inhibits neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation, which are important in the pathology of gout [ 40 ]. It also curtails oxidative stress, aiding in osteoclast inhibition, anti-fibrosis, and tissue protection [ 41 , 42 ]. Moreover, stachydrine provides osmoprotective advantages, reducing the risk of gout-related kidney damage [ 43 ]. Our findings, alongside existing studies, highlight stachydrine’s potential as a therapeutic for gout-induced bone and tissue damage, although further clinical trials are needed to validate its clinical benefits.

1-Methylxanthine is a natural alkaloid akin to caffeine and theophylline,affects the central and cardiovascular systems. It is a caffeine metabolism byproduct [ 44 ]. Febuxostat inhibits xanthine oxidase (XO) to reduce uric acid levels, raising 1-methylxanthine’s excretion and effectiveness [ 45 ]. Studies confirm its importance in gout research; derivatives like 7-methylxanthine prevent urate crystal formation, potentially preventing gout attacks [ 46 , 47 ]. A study found caffeine, as a prodrug of 1-Methylxanthine, links caffeine dose to 1-Methylxanthine/1-methyluric acid (1MU) ratio in urine, aiding gout treatment monitoring [ 48 ]. These insights offer new avenues for managing and treating gout.

Our study, utilizing MR analysis, discovered that bradykinin may have a protective role in gout, diverging from previous observational studies that identified it as primarily pro-inflammatory [ 49 , 50 ]. This discrepancy may be attributed to an insufficient control of confounding factors in earlier research [ 51 ]. Furthermore, we observed that the bradykinin receptor 2 (B2 receptor) decreases leukocyte infiltration and tissue damage, underscoring its critical role in gout therapy and its potential as a therapeutic target [ 52 ]. More research might elucidate the role and therapeutic value of bradykinin at various stages of gout, with the potential to offer novel strategies for gout management.

A metabolomics study identified 23 serum metabolomic biomarkers differentially expressed across various stages of gout, predominantly associated with uric acid metabolism and oxidative stress [ 7 ]. The regulation of serum uric acid concentration is a complex process involving genetic, lifestyle, and environmental factors. Current data on the relationship between caffeine and gout or hyperuricemia are limited and controversial [ 53 , 54 ]. Our results suggested that 1-methylxanthine might exacerbate the onset of gout through the caffeine pathway, consistent with prior literature. For instance, studies have indicated that excessive consumption of caffeine-containing coffee could elevate serum uric acid levels in healthy individuals, potentially due to caffeine influencing biochemical reactions (such as increasing the activity of xanthine oxidase) and modulating metabolic processes in the kidneys [ 55 , 56 ]. A metabolomics analysis of Han Chinese individuals revealed that potential genetic targets related to gout are primarily enriched in the caffeine metabolism pathway, as well as the cysteine and methionine metabolism pathways [ 57 ]. However, the specific mechanisms and causal relationships require further investigation. This study identified two additional metabolic pathways closely related to gout: cysteine and methionine metabolism, and protein digestion and absorption. It highlights the critical role of amino acids in the production or excretion of uric acid, which is intimately connected to gout [ 58 ]. Furthermore, purines present in proteins can be metabolized into uric acid, affecting uric acid levels [ 59 ]. This research emphasizes the importance of further investigation into the metabolic pathways of caffeine and their relevance to biological functions associated with gout.

The strengths of our research: Our research utilized MR to establish causality, relying on publicly available data, thus obviating the need for individual-level datasets. This methodological choice significantly reduces both time and financial costs associated with data acquisition. Our analysis diverges from traditional methods by employing a comprehensive, large-scale GWAS dataset to elucidate the relationships between metabolites and gout, offering insights that are unique in the field. Although our findings align with previous studies, our research boasts a more rigorous methodology. An earlier MR study [ 60 ], did not employ the Steiger test to exclude IVs indicating reverse causation, not did they conduct reverse MR analysis, potentially affecting the robustness of their findings. By contrast, we believe our study makes a valuable contribution and extension to the field through the use of a more stringent methodological approaches. Importantly, MR’s advantage over observational studies lies in its ability to minimize confounding variables, thereby enhancing the validity and reliability of our findings regarding the causal effects of metabolites on gout. To further validate these associations, we conducted detailed sensitivity analyses. These analyses specifically addressed potential issues such as horizontal pleiotropy and genetic confounding, ensuring the robustness and reliability of the causal inferences drawn from our study.

However, there are limitations to our study. First, the GWAS data used are exclusively from European populations, which reduces the impact of population heterogeneity on the results but raises issues of generalizability. The conclusions may not necessarily apply to other populations. Further validation in more diverse populations using additional GWAS data is needed to confirm the generalizability of our results. Secondly, over half of the 31 candidate blood metabolites identified are unknown, indicating limited understanding and incomplete knowledge of gout pathogenesis. Further research is needed to elucidate their functions and biological roles. Thirdly, while our method is theoretically robust, further randomized controlled trials are crucial to verify causal relationships and translate findings into clinical applications, specifically in preventing or treating gout. Future research should address these limitations for a comprehensive understanding and reliable evidence.

A metabolome-wide MR scan identified 31 candidate metabolites associated with gout risk, particularly mannose, 1-methylxanthine. Piperine and stachydrine may protect against gout. 1-methylxanthine was linked through caffeine metabolism pathway. Further research is needed for biomarker validation and pathogenesis exploration.

Data availability

All data used in this study are available in publicly available datasets. The discovery dataset can be found from Finn biobank ( https://storage.googleapis.com/finngen-public-data-r8/summary_stats/finngen_R8_M13_GOUT.gz/ , consisting of 7461 cases of gout and 221,323 healthy control). The datasets produced and/or analyzed in the course of this study can be accessed by reaching out to the corresponding author upon making a reasonable request.

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This work was financially supported in part by research grants from Shenzhen Science and Technology Project (JCYJ20210324111805014). Scientific research of Guangdong Provincial Bureau of Traditional Chinese Medicine Project (20221343) with Ye Zhang.

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Traditional Chinese Medicine Department of Immunology, Women & Children Health Institute Futian Shenzhen, #2002 Jintian Road, Shenzhen, 518000, China

Huiqiong Zeng & Ye Zhang

Department of Human Life Sciences, Beijing Sport University, Haidian district, Beijing, #48 Xinxi Road, 100029, China

Department of National Cybersecurity Center, Wuhan University, Wuchang District, #299 Bayi Road, Wuhan, 430072, Hubei, China

Zhihang Liu

First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine; National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, #314 Anshanxi Road, Tianjin, 300381, China

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Conception and design: HQ Z, JD L, and W L. Data curation: all authors. Formal analysis: JD L, ZH L, and HQ Z. Investigation: all authors. Methodology: all authors. Project administration: Y Z, ZH L, and W L. Resources: all authors. Data analysis: HQ Z, ZH L, and JD L. Supervision: W L,ZH L, and Y Z. Writing—original draft: HQ Z, JD L, and W L. Writing—review & editing: Y Z, HQ Z, and W L. Approval of final manuscript: all authors.

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Correspondence to Wei Liu or Ye Zhang .

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Zeng, H., Lai, J., Liu, Z. et al. Specific blood metabolite associations with Gout: a Mendelian randomization study. Eur J Clin Nutr (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-024-01497-7

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Published : 30 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-024-01497-7

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Repackaging legacy software for protein structural domain annotation: an OSSS project

ARC worked with the Orengo group (UCL Structural & Molecular Biology) on a project to make an existing bioinformatics data pipeline more portable, scalable and ready to be applied to huge new datasets

30 August 2024

Figure 1 (above)   Outline of the  CATH  classification pipeline.

One of the fundamental building blocks in the field of Computational Biology is the identification of evolutionary relationships between proteins. However, proteins can be large and complex; they often consist of multiple independent units known as structural domains (defined as compact, semi-independent folding units). These domains have their own evolutionary story and are often seen recurring in different contexts in different multi-domain proteins. As such, being able to accurately identify the boundaries of these structural domains, i.e. recognising where structural domains start and stop, is a crucial first step in all subsequent analyses such as protein engineering, disease diagnostics and drug design. Providing accurate domain boundaries at scale can be a non-trivial problem though; often requiring expert manual curation, guided by a variety of metrics from automated algorithms.

What we did

The Orengo Group has used an automated data pipeline for many years while creating and maintaining the CATH database of protein structural domains [1]. Part of this data pipeline involved running algorithms responsible for identifying protein structural domains from 3D data. However this pipeline consisted of old code that was difficult to maintain, difficult to extend with more modern algorithms, and also difficult to move over to new compute facilities at UCL. Dr Robert Vickerstaff from ARC worked with Dr Ian Sillitoe from the Orengo group in UCL SMB to isolate existing legacy code into portable modules that could be run as independent units of work in addition to gluing these modules together using a modern, well tested workflow management framework (Nextflow). This would provide the flexibility and portability to allow these data pipelines to be easily adopted both within HPC facilities at UCL and in the wider community as part of larger data workflows.

The main work achieved as part of this Open Source Software Sustainability (OSSS) funded project  was to build Nextflow data pipelines that could be run natively on the HPC facilities both in ARC and Computer Science with minimal changes to configuration. In addition, the existing Nextflow scripts were refactored to take into account patterns of recommended best practices. This helped to make the scripts more maintainable, easier to extend in the future and easier to share with the community. The project is still in active development and is available on GitHub [2].

[1] https://www.cathdb.info

[2] https://github.com/UCLOrengoGroup/cath-alphaflow

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• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
• National Institutes of Health

Probiotics: Usefulness and Safety

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} What are probiotics?

Probiotics are live microorganisms that are intended to have health benefits when consumed or applied to the body. They can be found in yogurt and other fermented foods, dietary supplements , and beauty products. Cases of severe or fatal infections have been reported in premature infants who were given probiotics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned health care providers about this risk.

Although people often think of bacteria and other microorganisms as harmful “germs,” many are actually helpful. Some bacteria help digest food, destroy disease-causing cells, or produce vitamins. Many of the microorganisms in probiotic products are the same as or similar to microorganisms that naturally live in our bodies.

What types of bacteria are in probiotics?

Probiotics may contain a variety of microorganisms. The most common are bacteria that belong to groups called Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium . Other bacteria may also be used as probiotics, and so may yeasts such as Saccharomyces boulardii .

Different types of probiotics may have different effects. For example, if a specific kind of Lactobacillus helps prevent an illness, that doesn’t necessarily mean that another kind of Lactobacillus or any of the Bifidobacterium probiotics would do the same thing.

Are prebiotics the same as probiotics?

No, prebiotics aren’t the same as probiotics. Prebiotics are nondigestible food components that selectively stimulate the growth or activity of desirable microorganisms.

What are synbiotics?

Synbiotics are products that combine probiotics and prebiotics.

How popular are probiotics?

The 2012 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) showed that about 4 million (1.6 percent) U.S. adults had used probiotics or prebiotics in the past 30 days. Among adults, probiotics or prebiotics were the third most commonly used dietary supplement other than vitamins and minerals. The use of probiotics by adults quadrupled between 2007 and 2012. The 2012 NHIS also showed that 300,000 children age 4 to 17 (0.5 percent) had used probiotics or prebiotics in the 30 days before the survey.

How might probiotics work?

Probiotics may have a variety of effects in the body, and different probiotics may act in different ways.

Probiotics might:

• Help your body maintain a healthy community of microorganisms or help your body’s community of microorganisms return to a healthy condition after being disturbed
• Produce substances that have desirable effects
• Influence your body’s immune response.

How are probiotics regulated in the United States?

Government regulation of probiotics in the United States is complex. Depending on a probiotic product’s intended use, the FDA might regulate it as a dietary supplement, a food ingredient, or a drug.

Many probiotics are sold as dietary supplements, which don’t require FDA approval before they are marketed. Dietary supplement labels may make claims about how the product affects the structure or function of the body without FDA approval, but they aren’t allowed to make health claims, such as saying the supplement lowers your risk of getting a disease, without the FDA’s consent.

If a probiotic is going to be marketed as a drug for treatment of a disease or disorder, it has to meet stricter requirements. It must be proven safe and effective for its intended use through clinical trials and be approved by the FDA before it can be sold.

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The community of microorganisms that lives on us and in us is called the “microbiome,” and it’s a hot topic for research. The Human Microbiome Project, supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) from 2007 to 2016, played a key role in this research by mapping the normal bacteria that live in and on the healthy human body. With this understanding of a normal microbiome as the basis, researchers around the world, including many supported by NIH, are now exploring the links between changes in the microbiome and various diseases. They’re also developing new therapeutic approaches designed to modify the microbiome to treat disease and support health.

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) is among the many agencies funding research on the microbiome. Researchers supported by NCCIH are studying the interactions between components of food and microorganisms in the digestive tract. The focus is on the ways in which diet-microbiome interactions may lead to the production of substances with beneficial health effects.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} What has science shown about the effectiveness of probiotics for health conditions?

A great deal of research has been done on probiotics, but much remains to be learned about whether they’re helpful and safe for various health conditions.

Probiotics have shown promise for a variety of health purposes, including prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea (including diarrhea caused by Clostridium difficile ), prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis and sepsis in premature infants, treatment of infant colic , treatment of periodontal disease , and induction or maintenance of remission in ulcerative colitis .

However, in most instances, we still don’t know which probiotics are helpful and which are not. We also don’t know how much of the probiotic people would have to take or who would be most likely to benefit. Even for the conditions that have been studied the most, researchers are still working toward finding the answers to these questions.

The following sections summarize the research on probiotics for some of the conditions for which they’ve been studied.

Gastrointestinal Conditions

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• Probiotics have been studied for antibiotic-associated diarrhea in general, as well as for antibiotic-associated diarrhea caused by one specific bacterium, Clostridium difficile . This section discusses the research on antibiotic-associated diarrhea in general. C. difficile is discussed in a separate section below.
• A 2017 review of 17 studies (3,631 total participants) in people who were not hospitalized indicated that giving probiotics to patients along with antibiotics was associated with a decrease of about half in the likelihood of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. However, this conclusion was considered tentative because the quality of the studies was only moderate. Patients who were given probiotics had no more side effects than patients who didn’t receive them.
• Probiotics may be helpful for antibiotic-associated diarrhea in young and middle-aged people, but a benefit has not been demonstrated in elderly people, according to a 2016 review of 30 studies (7,260 participants), 5 of which focused on people age 65 or older. It’s uncertain whether probiotics actually don’t work in elderly people or whether no effect was seen because there were only a few studies of people in this age group.
• A review of 23 studies (with 3,938 participants) of probiotics to prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children provided moderate quality evidence that probiotics had a protective effect. No serious side effects were observed in children who were otherwise healthy, except for the infection for which they were being treated.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} Clostridium difficile Infection

• The bacterium Clostridium difficile can infect the colon (large intestine) of patients who have received antibiotics, causing diarrhea that can range from mild to severe. C. difficile infection is difficult to treat and sometimes comes back after treatment. It’s more common in people who take antibiotics long-term and in elderly people, and it can spread in hospitals and nursing homes. C. difficile infection affects about half a million people a year in the United States and causes about 15,000 deaths.
• A 2017 analysis of 31 studies (8,672 total patients) concluded that it is moderately certain that probiotics can reduce the risk of C. difficile diarrhea in adults and children who are receiving antibiotics. Most of these studies involved hospital patients. The analysis also concluded that the use of probiotics along with antibiotics appears to be safe, except for patients who are very weak or have poorly functioning immune systems.
• The types of probiotics that would be most useful in reducing the risk of C. difficile diarrhea, the length of time for which they should be taken, and the most appropriate doses are uncertain.

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• A 2014 review of 14 studies (1,182 participants) of probiotics for constipation in adults showed some evidence of benefit, especially for Bifidobacterium lactis .
• A 2017 evaluation of 9 studies (778 participants) of probiotics for constipation in elderly people indicated that probiotics produced a small but meaningful benefit. The type of bacteria most often tested was Bifidobacterium longum . The researchers who performed the evaluation suggested that probiotics might be helpful for chronic constipation in older people as an addition to the usual forms of treatment.
• A 2017 review looked at 7 studies of probiotics for constipation in children (515 participants). The studies were hard to compare because of differences in the groups of children studied, the types of probiotics used, and other factors. The reviewers did not find evidence that any of the probiotics tested in the children were helpful. A second 2017 review, which included 4 of the same studies and 2 others (498 total participants in the 6 studies examined), took a more optimistic view of the evidence, noting that overall, probiotics did increase stool frequency, and that the effect was more noticeable in Asian than European children.

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• Diarrhea is a common side effect of chemotherapy or radiotherapy for cancer. It’s been suggested that probiotics might help prevent or treat this type of diarrhea. However, a 2018 review of 12 studies (1,554 participants) found that the evidence for a beneficial effect of probiotics was inconclusive.

.header_greentext{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_bluetext{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_redtext{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_purpletext{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_blacktext{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_whitetext{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2f!important;}.Green_Header{color:green!important;font-size:24px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Blue_Header{color:blue!important;font-size:18px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Red_Header{color:red!important;font-size:28px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Purple_Header{color:purple!important;font-size:31px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Yellow_Header{color:yellow!important;font-size:20px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.Black_Header{color:black!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;}.White_Header{color:white!important;font-size:22px!important;font-weight:500!important;} Diverticular Disease

• In diverticulosis, small pouches develop at weak spots in the wall of the colon (large intestine). In most cases, this does not cause any symptoms. If symptoms (such as bloating, constipation, diarrhea, or cramping) do occur, the condition is called diverticular disease. If any of the pouches become inflamed, the condition is called diverticulitis. Patients with diverticulitis can have severe abdominal pain and may develop serious complications.
• A 2016 review of 11 studies (764 participants) of probiotics for diverticular disease was unable to reach conclusions on whether the probiotics were helpful because of the poor quality of the studies.

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• Inflammatory bowel disease is a term for a group of conditions that cause a portion of the digestive system to become inflamed; the most common types are ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody), loss of appetite, weight loss, and fever. The symptoms can range from mild to severe, and they may come and go. Treatment includes medicines and in some cases, surgery.
• A 2014 review of 21 studies in patients with ulcerative colitis (1,700 participants) indicated that adding probiotics, prebiotics, or synbiotics to conventional treatment could be helpful in inducing or maintaining remission of the disease. The same review also looked at 14 studies (746 participants) of probiotics, prebiotics, or synbiotics for Crohn’s disease and did not find evidence that they were beneficial.

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• A 2018 review of 53 studies (5,545 total participants) of probiotics for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) concluded that probiotics may have beneficial effects on global IBS symptoms and abdominal pain, but it was not possible to draw definite conclusions about their effectiveness or to identify which species, strains, or combinations of probiotics are most likely to be helpful.

For more information, see the NCCIH fact sheet on irritable bowel syndrome .

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• A 2018 review evaluated 11 studies (5,143 participants) of probiotics or prebiotics for prevention of traveler’s diarrhea and found evidence that they may be helpful. However, the review didn’t assess the quality of the studies and didn’t include data on side effects.
• A 2017 clinical practice guideline by the International Society of Travel Medicine stated that there’s insufficient evidence to recommend probiotics or prebiotics to prevent or treat traveler’s diarrhea. The guidelines acknowledged that there’s evidence suggesting a small benefit but pointed out that studies vary greatly in terms of factors such as the probiotic strains used, the causes of the diarrhea, and geographic locations. Also, some studies had weaknesses in their design.

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• Colic is excessive, unexplained crying in young infants. Babies with colic may cry for 3 hours a day or more, but they eat well and grow normally. The cause of colic is not well understood, but studies have shown differences in the microbial community in the digestive tract between infants who have colic and those who don’t, which suggests that microorganisms may be involved.
• A 2018 review of 7 studies (471 participants) of probiotics for colic, 5 of which involved the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938, found that this probiotic was associated with successful treatment (defined as a reduction of more than half in daily crying time). However, the effect was mainly seen in exclusively breastfed infants.
• No harmful effects were seen in a review of 4 studies (345 participants) of L. reuteri DSM 17938 for colic or in a small NCCIH-funded study that included repeated physical examinations and blood tests in infants with colic who were given this probiotic, as well as parents’ reports of symptoms.

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• Necrotizing enterocolitis is a serious, sometimes fatal disease that occurs in premature infants. It involves injury or damage to the intestinal tract, causing death of intestinal tissue. Its exact cause is unknown, but an abnormal reaction to food components and the microorganisms that live in a premature baby’s digestive tract may play a role.
• A 2017 review of 23 studies (7,325 infants) showed that probiotics helped to prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in very-low-birth-weight infants. However, the results of individual studies varied; not all showed a benefit. Probiotics that included both Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium seemed to produce the best results, but it was not possible to identify the most beneficial strains within these large groups of bacteria.
• None of the infants in the studies described above developed harmful short-term side effects from the probiotics. However, the long-term effects of receiving probiotics at such a young age are uncertain. Outside of these studies, there have been instances when probiotics did have harmful effects in newborns. In 2023, the FDA warned health care providers that premature infants who are given probiotics are at risk of severe, potentially fatal infections caused by the microorganisms in the products.

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• Sepsis is a serious illness in which the body has a harmful, overwhelming response to an infection. It can cause major organs and body systems to stop working properly and can be life threatening. The risk of sepsis is highest in infants, children, the elderly, and people with serious medical problems. One group particularly at risk for sepsis is premature infants.
• A review of 37 studies (9,416 participants) found that probiotics were helpful in reducing the risk of sepsis in premature infants.

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.header_greentext{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_bluetext{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_redtext{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_purpletext{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_blacktext{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_whitetext{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;}.green_header{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.blue_header{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.red_header{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.purple_header{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.yellow_header{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.black_header{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.white_header{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;} dental caries (tooth decay).

• A small amount of research, all in infants and young children, has examined the possibility that probiotics might be helpful in preventing dental caries (also called cavities or tooth decay). A review of 7 studies (1,715 total participants) found that the use of probiotics was associated with fewer cavities in 4 of the 7 studies, but the quality of the evidence was low, and no definite conclusions about the effectiveness of probiotics could be reached.

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• Periodontal diseases result from infections and inflammation of the gums and bone that surround and support the teeth. If the disease is severe, the gums can pull away from the teeth, bone can be lost, and teeth may loosen or fall out.
• A 2016 review of 12 studies (452 participants) that evaluated probiotics for periodontal disease found evidence that they could be a helpful addition to treatment by reducing disease-causing bacteria and improving clinical signs of the disease. However, effects may differ for different probiotics.

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.header_greentext{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_bluetext{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_redtext{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_purpletext{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_blacktext{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_whitetext{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;}.green_header{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.blue_header{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.red_header{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.purple_header{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.yellow_header{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.black_header{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.white_header{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;} allergic rhinitis (hay fever).

• A review of 23 studies (1,919 participants) in which probiotics were tested for treating allergic rhinitis found some evidence that they may be helpful for improving symptoms and quality of life. However, because the studies tested different probiotics and measured different effects, no recommendations about the use of probiotics could be made. Few side effects of probiotics were reported in these studies.

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• A review of 11 studies (910 participants) of probiotics for asthma in children had inconclusive results.

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• Atopic dermatitis is an itchy chronic skin disorder that’s associated with allergies but not caused by them. It’s most common in infants and may start as early as age 2 to 6 months. Many people outgrow it by early adulthood. Atopic dermatitis is one of several types of eczema.
• A 2017 review of 13 studies (1,271 participants) of probiotics for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in infants and children did not find consistent evidence of a beneficial effect. A review of 9 studies (269 participants) in adults provided preliminary evidence that some strains of probiotics might be beneficial for symptoms of atopic dermatitis.

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• It’s been suggested that changes in people’s lifestyles and environment may have led to reduced contact with microorganisms early in life, and that this decrease may have contributed to an increase in allergies. This is sometimes called the “hygiene hypothesis,” although factors unrelated to hygiene, such as smaller family size and the use of antibiotics, may also play a role. Studies have been done in which probiotics were given to pregnant women and/or young infants in the hope of preventing the development of allergies.
• A 2015 review of 17 studies (4,755 participants) that evaluated the use of probiotics during pregnancy or early infancy found that infants exposed to probiotics had a lower risk of developing atopic dermatitis, especially if they were exposed to a mixture of probiotics. However, probiotics did not have an effect on the risks of asthma, wheezing, or hay fever (allergic rhinitis).

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.header_greentext{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_bluetext{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_redtext{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_purpletext{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_yellowtext{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_blacktext{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_whitetext{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.header_darkred{color:#803d2fimportant;}.green_header{color:greenimportant;font-size:24pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.blue_header{color:blueimportant;font-size:18pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.red_header{color:redimportant;font-size:28pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.purple_header{color:purpleimportant;font-size:31pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.yellow_header{color:yellowimportant;font-size:20pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.black_header{color:blackimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;}.white_header{color:whiteimportant;font-size:22pximportant;font-weight:500important;} acne.

• Research has identified mechanisms by which probiotics, either taken orally or used topically (applied to the skin), might influence acne. However, there has been very little research in people on probiotics for acne, and the American Academy of Dermatology’s 2016 guidelines for managing acne state that the existing evidence isn’t strong enough to justify any recommendations about the use of probiotics.

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• When the liver is damaged and unable to remove toxic substances from the blood, the toxins can build up in the bloodstream and affect the nervous system. This may lead to impairments of brain function called hepatic encephalopathy.
• A 2017 review looked at 21 studies (1,420 participants) of probiotics for hepatic encephalopathy and concluded that they were generally of low quality. There was evidence that compared with a placebo (an inactive substance) or no treatment, probiotics probably had beneficial effects on hepatic encephalopathy, but it was uncertain whether probiotics were better than lactulose, a conventional treatment for liver disease.

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• Probiotics have been tested for their effects against upper respiratory infections (a group that includes the common cold, middle ear infections, sinusitis, and various throat infections). A 2015 evaluation of 12 studies with 3,720 total participants indicated that people taking probiotics may have fewer and shorter upper respiratory infections. However, the quality of the evidence was low because some of the studies were poorly conducted.

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• A 2015 review of 9 studies (735 participants) of probiotics for the prevention of urinary tract infection did not find evidence of a beneficial effect.

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• Probiotics have an extensive history of apparently safe use, particularly in healthy people. However, few studies have looked at the safety of probiotics in detail, so there’s a lack of solid information on the frequency and severity of side effects.
• The risk of harmful effects from probiotics is greater in people with severe illnesses or compromised immune systems. When probiotics are being considered for high-risk individuals, such as premature infants or seriously ill hospital patients, the potential risks of probiotics should be carefully weighed against their benefits. Cases of severe or fatal infections have been reported in premature infants who were given probiotics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned health care providers about this risk.
• Possible harmful effects of probiotics include infections, production of harmful substances by the probiotic microorganisms, and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from probiotic microorganisms to other microorganisms in the digestive tract.
• Some probiotic products have been reported to contain microorganisms other than those listed on the label. In some instances, these contaminants may pose serious health risks.

NCCIH-Funded Research

NCCIH sponsors a variety of research projects related to probiotics or the microbiome. In addition to the previously mentioned studies on diet-microbiome interactions in the digestive tract, recent topics include:

• The mechanisms by which probiotics may help to reduce postmenopausal bone loss
• Engineering probiotics to synthesize natural substances for microbiome-brain research
• The mechanisms by which certain probiotics may relieve chronic pelvic pain
• The effects of a specific Bifidobacterium strain on changes in short-chain fatty acid production in the gut that may play a role in antibiotic-associated diarrhea.

More To Consider

• Don’t use probiotics as a reason to postpone seeing your health care provider about any health problem.
• If you’re considering a probiotic dietary supplement, consult your health care provider first. This is especially important if you have health problems. Anyone with a serious underlying health condition should be monitored closely while taking probiotics.
• Take charge of your health—talk with your health care providers about any complementary health approaches you use. Together, you can make shared, well-informed decisions.

For More Information

Nccih clearinghouse.

The NCCIH Clearinghouse provides information on NCCIH and complementary and integrative health approaches, including publications and searches of Federal databases of scientific and medical literature. The Clearinghouse does not provide medical advice, treatment recommendations, or referrals to practitioners.

Toll-free in the U.S.: 1-888-644-6226

Telecommunications relay service (TRS): 7-1-1

Website: https://www.nccih.nih.gov

Email: [email protected] (link sends email)

Know the Science

NCCIH and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) provide tools to help you understand the basics and terminology of scientific research so you can make well-informed decisions about your health. Know the Science features a variety of materials, including interactive modules, quizzes, and videos, as well as links to informative content from Federal resources designed to help consumers make sense of health information.

Explaining How Research Works (NIH)

Know the Science: How To Make Sense of a Scientific Journal Article

Understanding Clinical Studies (NIH)

A service of the National Library of Medicine, PubMed® contains publication information and (in most cases) brief summaries of articles from scientific and medical journals. For guidance from NCCIH on using PubMed, see How To Find Information About Complementary Health Approaches on PubMed .

Website: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

MedlinePlus

To provide resources that help answer health questions, MedlinePlus (a service of the National Library of Medicine) brings together authoritative information from the National Institutes of Health as well as other Government agencies and health-related organizations.

Website: https://www.medlineplus.gov

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• Bafeta A, Koh M, Riveros C, et al. Harms reporting in randomized controlled trials of interventions aimed at modifying microbiota: a systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine . 2018;169(4):240-247.
• Blaabjerg S, Artzi DM, Aabenhus R. Probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in outpatients—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Antibiotics . 2017;6(4).pii:E21.
• Butel M-J. Probiotics, gut microbiota and health. Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses . 2014;44(1):1-8.
• Cohen PA. Probiotic safety—no guarantees. JAMA Internal Medicine . 2018;178(12):1577-1578.
• Degnan FH. The US Food and Drug Administration and probiotics: regulatory categorization. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2008;46(Suppl 2):S133–S136.
• Didari T, Solki S, Mozaffari S, et al. A systematic review of the safety of probiotics. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety . 2014;13(2):227–239.
• Dryl R, Szajewska H. Probiotics for management of infantile colic: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Archives of Medical Science. 2018;14(5):1137-1143.
• Fijan S. Microorganisms with claimed probiotic properties: an overview of recent literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014;11(5):4745-4767.
• Ford AC, Harris LA, Lacy BE, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: the efficacy of prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics and antibiotics in irritable bowel syndrome. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics . 2018;48(10):1044-1060.
• Goldenberg JZ, Yap C, Lytvyn L, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile -associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017;(12):CD006095. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on January 23, 2018.
• Guarner F, Khan AG, Garisch J, et al. World Gastroenterology Organisation Global Guidelines. Probiotics and Prebiotics. October 2011. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology . 2012;46(6):468–481.
• Hempel S, Newberry SJ, Maher AR, et al. Probiotics for the prevention and treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA . 2012;307(18):1959–1969.
• Hempel S, Newberry S, Ruelaz A, et al. Safety of Probiotics to Reduce Risk and Prevent or Treat Disease. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment no. 200. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2011. AHRQ publication no. 11-E007.
• Rao SC, Athalye-Jape GK, Deshpande GC, et al. Probiotic supplementation and late-onset sepsis in preterm infants: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2016;137(3):e20153684.
• Sanders ME, Akkermans LM, Haller D, et al. Safety assessment of probiotics for human use. Gut Microbes . 2010;1(3):164-185.
• Thomas JP, Raine T, Reddy S, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis in very low-birth-weight infants: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Acta Paediatrica . 2017;106(11):1729-1741.
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Warning Regarding Use of Probiotics in Preterm Infants. Issued September 29, 2023. Accessed at  https://www.fda.gov/media/172606 on October 2, 2023.
• Zuccotti G, Meneghin F, Aceti A, et al. Probiotics for prevention of atopic diseases in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy. 2015;70(11):1356-13

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• Bae J-M. Prophylactic efficacy of probiotics on travelers’ diarrhea: an adaptive meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Epidemiology and Health . 2018;40:e2018043.
• Black LI, Clarke TC, Barnes PM, Stussman BJ, Nahin RL. Use of complementary health approaches among children aged 4-17 years in the United States: National Health Interview Survey, 2007-2012. National health statistics reports; no 78. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2015.
• Cao L, Wang L, Yang L, et al. Long-term effect of early-life supplementation with probiotics on preventing atopic dermatitis: a meta-analysis. Journal of Dermatological Treatment . 2015;26(6):537-540.
• Clarke TC, Black LI, Stussman BJ, Barnes PM, Nahin RL. Trends in the use of complementary health approaches among adults: United States, 2002–2012. National health statistics reports; no 79. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2015.
• Dalal R, McGee RG, Riordan SM, et al. Probiotics for people with hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2017;(2):CD008716. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on November 15, 2018.
• Dimidi E, Christodoulides S, Fragkos KC, et al. The effect of probiotics on functional constipation in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . 2014;100(4):1075-1084.
• Doron S, Snydman DR. Risk and safety of probiotics. Clinical Infectious Diseases . 2015;60(Suppl 2):S129-S134.
• Fatheree NY, Liu Y, Taylor CM, et al. Lactobacillus reuteri for infants with colic: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Journal of Pediatrics . 2017;191:170-178.
• Ghouri YA, Richards DM, Rahimi EF, et al. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics in inflammatory bowel disease. Clinical and Experimental Gastroenterology . 2014;7:473-487.
• Gibson GR, Hutkins R, Sanders ME, et al. Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology . 2017;14(8):491-502.
• Goldenberg JZ, Lytvyn L, Steurich J, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of pediatric antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2015;(12):CD004827. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on November 2, 2018.
• Hao Q, Dong BR, Wu T. Probiotics for preventing acute upper respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2015;(2):CD006895. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on March 6, 2018.
• Hoffmann DE, Fraser CM, Palumbo FB, et al. Probiotics: finding the right regulatory balance. Science . 2013;342(6156):314-315.
• Huang R, Hu J. Positive effect of probiotics on constipation in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2017;7:153.
• Huang R, Ning H, Shen M, et al. Probiotics for the treatment of atopic dermatitis in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2017;7:392.
• Jafarnejad S, Shab-Bidar S, Speakman JR, et al. Probiotics reduce the risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in adults (18-64 years) but not the elderly (>65 years): a meta-analysis. Nutrition in Clinical Practice . 2016;31(4):502-513.
• Jørgensen MR, Castiblanco G, Twetman S, et al. Prevention of caries with probiotic bacteria during early childhood. Promising but inconsistent findings. American Journal of Dentistry . 2016;29(3):127-131.
• Kechagia M, Basoulis D, Konstantopoulou S, et al. Health benefits of probiotics: a review. ISRN Nutrition . 2013;2013:48165.
• Kelesidis T, Pothoulakis C. Efficacy and safety of the probiotic Saccharomyces boulardii for the prevention and therapy of gastrointestinal disorders. Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology . 2012;5(2):111-125.
• Kober M-M, Bowe WP. The effect of probiotics on immune regulation, acne, and photoaging. International Journal of Women’s Dermatology . 2015;1(2):85-89.
• Lahner E, Bellisario C, Hassan C, et al. Probiotics in the treatment of diverticular disease. A systematic review. Journal of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases . 2016;25(1):79-86.
• Lin J, Zhang Y, He C, et al. Probiotics supplementation in children with asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 2018;54(9):953-961.
• Marcason W. Probiotics: where do we stand? Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2013;113(10):1424.
• Martínez-Martínez MI, Calabuig-Tolsá R, Cauli O. The effect of probiotics as a treatment for constipation in elderly people: a systematic review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 2017;71:142-149.
• Matsubara VH, Bandara HM, Ishikawa KH, et al. The role of probiotic bacteria in managing periodontal disease: a systematic review. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy . 2016;14(7):643-655.
• Notay M, Foolad N, Vaughn AR, et al. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics for the treatment and prevention of adult dermatological diseases. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology . 2017;18(6):721-732.
• Oelschlaeger TA. Mechanisms of probiotic actions – A review. International Journal of Medical Microbiology . 2010;300(1):57-62.
• Osborn DA, Sinn JKH. Prebiotics in infants for prevention of allergy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2013(3):CD006474. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on March 6, 2018.
• Petschow B, Doré J, Hibberd P, et al. Probiotics, prebiotics, and the host microbiome: the science of translation. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences . 2013;1306:1–17.
• Reid G. Probiotics: definition, scope and mechanisms of action. Best Practice & Research: Clinical Gastroenterology. 2016;30(1):17-25.
• Riddle MS, Connor BA, Beeching NJ, et al. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of travelers’ diarrhea: a graded expert panel report. Journal of Travel Medicine . 2017;24(Suppl 1):S63-S80.
• Sanders ME, Guarner F, Guerrant R, et al. An update on the use and investigation of probiotics in health and disease. Gut. 2013;62(5):787-796.
• Schwenger EM, Tejani AM, Loewen PS. Probiotics for preventing urinary tract infections in adults and children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2015;(12):CD008772. Accessed at www.cochranelibrary.com on November 9, 2018.
• Shanahan F. A commentary on the safety of probiotics. Gastroenterology Clinics of North America . 2012;41(4):869–876.
• Steele SR, McCormick J, Melton GB, et al. Practice parameters for the management of Clostridium difficile infection. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum . 2015;58(1):10-24.
• Sung V, D’Amico F, Cabana MD, et al. Lactobacillus reuteri to treat infant colic: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics . 2018;141(1):e20171811.
• Vallabhaneni S, Walker TA, Lockhart SR, et al. Fatal gastrointestinal mucormycosis in a premature infant associated with a contaminated dietary supplement—Connecticut, 2014. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2015;64(6):155-156.
• Venugopalan V, Shriner KA, Wong-Beringer A. Regulatory oversight and safety of probiotic use. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2010;16(11):1661-1665.
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Acknowledgments

NCCIH thanks Yisong Wang, Ph.D., and David Shurtleff, Ph.D., for their review of the 2019 update of this publication.

This publication is not copyrighted and is in the public domain. Duplication is encouraged.

NCCIH has provided this material for your information. It is not intended to substitute for the medical expertise and advice of your health care provider(s). We encourage you to discuss any decisions about treatment or care with your health care provider. The mention of any product, service, or therapy is not an endorsement by NCCIH.

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