what is a phd degree in education

EdD vs. PhD in Education: What’s the Difference?

Career Advice & Advancement Industry Advice Education

If you’re interested in pursuing a doctoral degree in education, one of the first questions you’ll face is: Should I apply for a Doctor of Education (EdD) or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Education?

The decision between these two culminating degrees can be career-defining as each serves a very different purpose despite being equivalent in level. In order to ensure you choose the path that best aligns with your future goals and career path, it’s important to take the time to first understand the differences in program curriculum and future career opportunities that relate to each degree.

Read on to learn about the defining qualities and key differences of an EdD and a PhD in Education to determine which program is the right fit for you.

EdD vs. PhD in Education

A Doctor of Education  is a professional degree designed for practitioners pursuing educational leadership roles. A Doctor of Philosophy in Education , on the other hand, is designed to prepare graduates for research and teaching roles.

“With a PhD, [students are] reviewing the research, seeing a gap in the literature, and generating new knowledge based on a theory or hypothesis,” says Joseph McNabb , a professor of practice in Northeastern’s Graduate School of Education . “Conversely, an EdD student starts with a problem of practice and [works to learn] the skills it will take to resolve that complex problem of practice.”

What is an EdD degree?

An EdD, or Doctor of Education , is a professional doctorate best suited for experienced educators and mid- to senior-level working professionals who want to lead and implement change within their organization.

EdD candidates work in a broad range of fields ranging from K-12 and higher education to nonprofits, government, healthcare, and the military. What each share is a desire to transform their everyday environment and apply the lessons learned through their doctorate to a complex, critical issue facing their workplace. 

The EdD is practice-based. Students in an EdD program don’t want to just research their area of interest, but leverage that research in ways that could positively influence their community or organization’s decision-making process.

Learn More: 5 Tips for Choosing Your EdD Concentration

Those who pursue an EdD focus on qualitative, exploratory research. Students collect data and conduct individual interviews, observations, or focus groups to construct hypotheses and develop strategies that can help solve or clarify a specific problem of practice, such as how to support student veterans transitioning to civilian life or how to foster more female leaders in higher education—two dissertation topics recently explored through Northeastern’s EdD program .

What can you do with an EdD Degree?

While an EdD can be applied to a variety of industries and career options—such as K-12, higher education, the nonprofit sector, or civic service—there are several job titles you’ll likely come across within your cohort of classmates. They include:

• Postsecondary education administrators: Postsecondary education administrators work in colleges or universities, and typically oversee faculty research, academics, admissions, or student affairs. Some job titles that fall under this category include president, vice president, provost, and dean. The average annual salary for a postsecondary education administrator rings in at $102,610 .
• Elementary and secondary school education administrators: Superintendents, who are the top executives of a school district, fall under this category. They manage academic programs, spending, and the staffing of all educational facilities within their district, and typically earn an average of $111,020 per year .
• Top executives : In education, a top executive could be a “chief learning officer” or “chief academic officer”—senior-level professionals who drive and develop strategies that help their organization meet critical business goals. Top executives make an average of $103,840 per year .
• Instructional coordinators : Instructional coordinators create and manage school curricula and other educational materials. They help teachers implement effective classroom learning strategies and measure the effectiveness of what’s being taught and how. The average annual salary for instructional coordinators is $74,620 .

These are just a few of the many career opportunities available to EdD graduates.

Learn More: 8 Careers You Can Pursue with a Doctorate in Education

What is a PhD in Education?

A PhD in Education is a terminal degree best suited for individuals who want to pursue a career in academia or research at the university level.

Students in PhD or doctoral programs take a more theoretical, study-based approach to learning. In most cases, their goal is to master a specific subject or add their unique findings to a body of existing literature. PhD candidates conduct original research in the hopes of driving change in their field or inspiring others to make change based on their work.

A PhD is the degree most popular amongst those who aspire to become a professor or obtain a tenure position. Through these programs, students tend to focus on getting published in well-respected journals, presenting at national conferences, and learning how to teach future educators.

What can you do with a PhD in Education?

While some of the above roles can also be earned through a PhD program, the most common job titles for PhD-holders include:

• Postsecondary teachers: Postsecondary teachers instruct students at a college or university. When they’re not in the classroom, they’re often focused on conducting research, attending conferences, and publishing scholarly papers and books. Postsecondary teachers earn an average $84,380 per year .
• Academic researcher : Researchers often have the opportunity to create their own centers or institutes, hire staff to help carry out their work, and secure funding for that work. Salaries often vary by subject area, but a general academic researcher typically earns an average of $85,234 per year .

EdD or PhD: Which is better for you?

Once you’ve explored the differences between an EdD and PhD in Education, the most relevant question to consider will be: What’s the next step I want to take in my career, and which degree can help me achieve my professional goals? The answer to this question will determine which degree program you ultimately pursue.

Earning your doctorate can pay off no matter which path you choose. Professionals with a doctoral degree earn an average of $109,668 a year —far more than master’s degree holders. Similarly, doctoral degree holders see an unemployment rate of only 1.6% compared to the national unemployment rate of 2%.

Regardless of which degree you ultimately pursue, there is enormous potential for you to advance your career in the field of education. Evaluating your needs and values will help you understand whether an EdD or PhD in Education is best suited to your personal and professional goals.

Editor’s Note: This article was originally published in July 2017. It has since been updated for accuracy and relevance.

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About scott w. o'connor, related articles, 5 tips for choosing your edd concentration.

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6 Benefits of Online EdD Programs

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Ed.D. vs. Ph.D. in Education: What is the Difference?

If you’re considering advancing your career in education, you’ve likely considered choosing between a Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) vs. a Ph.D. in Education. Or, at the very least, you’ve probably wondered what the difference between a Doctorate in Education and a Ph.D. is.

While these are both advanced doctoral programs, choosing one of these degree paths over another can ultimately define the direction in which your career goes.

A Doctorate in Education is a professional degree program for those who want to become leaders. The Ph.D. in Education, on the other hand, is designed for those who wish to continue teaching or who desire to conduct research that will add to the breadth of knowledge surrounding the field of education. And as such, the content of these degree programs is different.

This article will explore these doctoral programs to help you decide which program is right for you and your career goals.

Ed.D. — An Introduction to a Doctorate of Education

What is a doctorate of education degree and its purpose.

A Doctorate in Education, or Ed.D., is a terminal degree that prepares students for academic and administrative roles in K-12 and higher education.

A Program for School Leaders

Students in this doctoral program gain the skills and experience they need to become influential leaders, policymakers, and researchers with a focus on education in an increasingly global world.

Graduates of this program use existing research to help improve practices in the field of education and develop new research.

Prerequisites and Qualifications

Every college and university will have different prerequisites and qualifications for students to earn acceptance into their Educational Leadership degree program.

At University of Bridgeport, our Educational Leadership (Ed.D.) degree requirements include the following:

• Master’s degree from an accredited institution with a cumulative graduate GPA of 3.0 or higher
• Certificate of advanced studies, education specialist (Ed.S.), or a sixth-year degree

Additionally, Ed.D. candidates will need the following required materials:

• Application
• Official transcripts for the last degree earned
• One letter from a colleague and one letter from a supervisor
• The reasons for wanting to undertake doctoral studies
• The most significant personal and professional accomplishments
• The extent to which your personal and professional responsibilities will allow you to devote the necessary time and effort to the program
• A detailed description of your potential research topic
• Writing sample (ex: Master’s thesis, published or submitted journal article, scholarly paper)
• Official TOEFL scores for non-native English speakers

Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) Curriculum

A Doctorate in Education prepares students to take active leadership careers upon graduation.

Thus, the Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) program curriculum comprises courses in educational leadership, research and analysis, international education, and dissertation.

Students can expect to take hybrid Ed.D. courses such as:

• Public School Finance Workshop in Curriculum Development
• Constitutional Law
• Intro to Research
• Action Research
• Literature Review
• Organization Management
• Education Leadership
• Urban Leadership
• Postsecondary Teaching or Leadership Experience
• Comparative Education
• Dissertation Proposals

Expected Length of Program

An Ed.D. generally takes between three and four years to be completed. However, with a focus on career advancement and leadership, this degree can be completed more quickly than a Ph.D.

At University of Bridgeport, our students enroll in a hybrid (primarily online) program and earn their degree in as few as three years. Students will complete all their classes online except for two one-week doctoral residences in person during the first two summers of the program.

Throughout these three years, candidates collaborate and communicate with peers worldwide and our expert faculty through online discussion boards and collaborative assignments. In the third year of the Ed.D. program, students dedicate their time to writing and defending their dissertations.

Ed.D. Career Goals and Outcomes

The primary goal for many Doctorate of Education graduates is to become a leader in their school or school district. However, an Ed.D. prepares candidates for various Ed.D. career opportunities , including school leadership. Here are just a few of the jobs that an Ed.D. can prepare you for after graduation:

• Higher Education Administrator
• Academic Dean
• College Professor
• Curriculum Specialist
• Education Consultant
• Leadership in K-12 educational settings
• Policymaker
• A leader of independent/private schools worldwide

Advantages of Earning a Doctorate in Education

Pursuing a Doctorate in Education comes with many benefits. Not only can you serve as a leader in education, but you can also rest assured knowing that these programs are designed with the working teacher in mind.

Many Ed.D. programs offer asynchronous learning options or the ability to take a lower course load while still being considered a “full-time” student. Additionally, some programs require fewer years of study to be completed, allowing working educators to begin their careers as school leaders all the more quickly.

Plus, there are even online Ed.D. programs available for students who require even more flexibility in their doctorate program.

Ready to become a more experienced leader in your organization?

Take the next step in your career and learn more about university of bridgeport’s online ed.d. program, ph.d. — introduction to ph.d. in education, what is a ph.d. in education.

A Ph.D. in Education is typically research-oriented and prepares students for intellectual leadership roles.

An Academic Degree for Researchers and Professors

Graduates with a Ph.D. in Education often pursue careers conducting research, curriculum analysis and development, or educating future teachers.

If interested in leadership roles, Ph.D. graduates are more likely to find positions as college or university administrators than as K-12 administrators.

Admission requirements, prerequisites, and qualifications for Ph.D. in Education programs will vary depending on the institution. For example, while many programs require a master’s degree in a related field, others might only require a bachelor’s degree.

That said, typical requirements for Ph.D. in Education programs include the following:

• Qualifying GRE or GMAT scores
• Postsecondary transcripts
• Statement of purpose
• Writing sample
• Personal statement
• Letters of recommendation

Students should be aware that nearly all Ph.D. candidates have prior experience in research. Therefore, coming to the table with previous research experience from their undergraduate and graduate studies can help set students apart from other applicants.

Ultimately, research the Ph.D. programs you are interested in to ensure you meet all the admission prerequisites and requirements.

Ph.D. in Education Curriculum

Ph.D. programs focus on the development of strong foundational knowledge in theory. And like a Doctorate in Education program, a Ph.D. in Education will focus on research and analysis topics.

Coursework involves qualitative and quantitative research and is marked by close collaboration with faculty. Students might also learn how to publish their research in academic journals, present research findings at educational conferences, and secure grant funding as future faculty.

A Ph.D. in Education typically consists of ninety credits. Some courses that students in Ph.D. programs may take include:

• Introduction to Quantitative Methods in Educational Research
• Design Research in Education
• Educational Policy Analysis
• Foundations of Teaching and Learning
• Professional Seminar in Administration
• Dissertation Proposal Seminar

Additionally, students must pass a cumulative exam and submit a dissertation before earning their Ph.D. in Education.

Both Ph.D. and Ed.D. programs have similar curriculums. They both cover various research topics to provide students with the skills in research and analysis needed for upper-level careers in education.

However, Ed.D. courses go beyond these research topics by covering educational leadership, international education, and dissertation preparation. This prepares students for a variety of career outcomes.

Length of Program

Unlike an Ed.D., the Ph.D. can last between four and six years. And a student may sometimes take even longer to complete their research and dissertation.

As such, a Ph.D. is not typically the best program for professionals who wish to continue working while pursuing their doctorate.

Ph.D. in Education Career Goals and Outcomes

While a Ph.D. certainly offers graduates exciting job opportunities, it is heavily geared towards preparing graduates for a career in academia.

Some career opportunities that Ph.D. graduates can look forward to include:

• University professor
• College President
• Sociologists
• Clinical, counseling, and school psychologists
• Training and development specialists

Reasons to Pursue a Ph.D. in Education

For students who are highly motivated to add knowledge to the field of education, the Ph.D. is an excellent choice. It is primarily earned based on intensive, individual research that will eventually be used to create their dissertation.

For example, a Ph.D. fellow might make their dissertation about a specific approach to studying education by focusing on educational policy and how it impacts children.

Additionally, students in Ph.D. in Education programs are often passionate about teaching, learning, and improving education as a whole through research. If you enjoy reading, writing, researching, and communicating, a Ph.D. is the right choice.

Ed.D vs. Ph.D. — What’s the Difference?

Ed.d. vs. ph.d. in education key differences.

Despite the Doctorate in Education and Ph.D. in Education being advanced doctoral degrees and having some curriculum overlap, their outcomes and career goals differ.

Let’s review the key differences between these two programs:

• Average credits: sixty
• Time to complete: three to four years
• Focus: practical application of research
• Ph.D. in Education
• Average credits: ninety
• Time to complete: five to seven years
• Focus: Original research and academic scholarship
• Career outcomes: professor, academic researcher, educational consultant

Career Path Direction

Deciding which degree is right for you will largely depend on the above factors and what you hope to achieve during and after the degree.

If you want a career in administration, policymaking, leadership, and higher education, you should enroll in a Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) program. Graduates have careers as school superintendents, curriculum directors, and educational policymakers.

On the other hand, students interested in teaching at the collegiate level or careers in research, consulting, and government should enroll in a Ph.D. in Education program. They will then be qualified to pursue jobs as professors, academic researchers, and educational consultants.

Skill Set Emphasis

Candidates in Doctorate in Education programs have proven leadership experience and the ability to recognize the problems facing districts or business organizations. They then use their education and training to create and manage education curriculums, help implement effective learning strategies, and measure the effectiveness of what’s being taught and how.

Conversely, Ph.D. in Education candidates prefer to use theoretical and study-based approaches to learning to add their unique findings to the existing field of education. Candidates should be proficient writers and speakers as they focus on being published in well-respected journals and presenting at national conferences.

Program Format and Completion Length

Most colleges and universities offer Ed.D. programs in flexible part-time and online options so that students can continue to work and pursue this advanced degree. However, these programs typically take between three to four years to complete.

Ph.D. in Education programs are primarily in-person, and it is challenging for candidates to work and attend class full-time. They typically take between five to seven years to complete.

Ready to Take the Next Step?

No matter which advanced doctoral degree you choose, both will further your education career and expand your abilities to influence how students learn.

If you want to impact what students learn directly, consider a Ph.D. in Education. However, a Doctorate in Education is the right choice if you want to pursue leadership roles in PreK-12 or higher education and have even more career opportunities.

Take the next step in your career as an education leader by applying to University of Bridgeport’s Ed.D. program today!

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Doctoral programs.

The goal of the GSE PhD in Education is to prepare the next generation of leading education researchers. The cornerstone of the doctoral experience at the Stanford Graduate School of Education is the research apprenticeship that all students undertake, typically under the guidance of their academic advisor, but often with other Stanford faculty as well.

In this apprenticeship model, doctoral students are provided with a multi-year funding package that consists of opportunities each quarter to serve as teaching and research assistants for faculty members' courses and research projects. By this means, and in combination with the courses they take as part of their program, students are prepared over an approximately five-year period to excel as university teachers and education researchers.

The doctoral degree in Education at the GSE includes doctoral program requirements as well as a specialization, as listed below, overseen by a faculty committee from one of the GSE's three academic areas.

Doctoral programs by academic area

Curriculum studies and teacher education (cte).

• ‌ Elementary Education
• ‌ History/Social Science Education
• ‌ Learning Sciences and Technology Design
• ‌ Literacy, Language, and English Education
• ‌ Mathematics Education
• ‌ Science, Engineering and Technology Education
• ‌ Race, Inequality, and Language in Education
• ‌ Teacher Education

Developmental and Psychological Sciences (DAPS)

• ‌ Developmental and Psychological Sciences

Social Sciences, Humanities, and Interdisciplinary Policy Studies in Education (SHIPS)

• ‌ Anthropology of Education
• ‌ Economics of Education
• ‌ Education Data Science
• ‌ ‌Educational Linguistics
• ‌ Educational Policy
• ‌ Higher Education
• ‌ History of Education
• ‌ International Comparative Education
• ‌ Organizational Studies
• ‌ Philosophy of Education
• ‌ Sociology of Education

Cross-area specializations

Learning sciences and technology design (lstd).

LSTD allows doctoral students to study learning sciences and technology design within the context of their primary program of study (DAPS, CTE, or SHIPS).

Race, Inequality, and Language in Education (RILE)

RILE trains students to become national leaders in conducting research on how race, inequality, and language intersect to make both ineffective and effective educational opportunities. RILE allows students to specialize within their program of study (DAPS, CTE, or SHIPS).

Other academic opportunities

• ‌ Concentration in Education and Jewish Studies
• ‌ PhD Minor in Education
• ‌ Stanford Doctoral Training Program in Leadership for System-wide Inclusive Education (LSIE)
• ‌ Certificate Program in Partnership Research in Education
• ‌ Public Scholarship Collaborative

“I came to Stanford to work with faculty who value learning in informal settings and who are working to understand and design for it.”

Doctoral graduates were employed within four months of graduation

of those employed worked in organizations or roles related to education

For more information about GSE admissions and to see upcoming events and appointments:

To learn more about the Academic Services team:

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Doctor of Education : Doctorate Degree in Education

Johns Hopkins’ newly redesigned, global online Doctor of Education is at the forefront of education doctoral programs with the most innovative, challenging, and student-centered program of its kind.

Celebrating its 10th anniversary, the program continues to lead with the “EdD 2.0” offering, which is ideal for the busy education practitioner within any professional context. Our program recognizes that learning is both lifelong and occurs outside of formal schooling.

The vision of the Johns Hopkins EdD program is to prepare education-practitioners across the country and around the world to think critically about problems within their education environment and develop the insights and capacity to lead positive, sustained change.

Questions? Please reach out and we’ll be in touch soon.

Upcoming admissions events.

Have questions about our degree programs, the application, or financial aid and costs? Join us for an inside look at a graduate experience defined by innovation and driven by evidence-based research. Learn more about your area of interest or career path, meet some of our faculty, and connect to the Johns Hopkins School of Education community. Check out our admissions events and register for a virtual information session today.

Fall 2024 Semester Classes Begin

Core Faculty

Yolanda abel, edd.

Associate Professor

Affiliation

Advanced Studies in Education

Administration, Organization & Leadership, Education Policy & Politics, Social Context of Education

Camille Bryant, PhD

Joshua travis brown, phd.

Assistant Professor

Administration, Organization & Leadership, Education Policy & Politics, Postsecondary Education, Social Context of Education

Marcia Davis, PhD

Associate Professor (Research) Co-Director, Center for Social Organization of Schools Director of Research, Baltimore Education Research Consortium

Center for Social Organization of Schools, SOE Leadership

Learning & Instruction, Research, Evaluation & Assessment

Christine Eith, PhD

Interim Department Chair, Advanced Studies in Education Assistant Professor

Keri M. Guilbault, EdD

Associate Professor Interim Director, Doctor of Education Program Faculty Lead, Gifted Education Programs

Counseling & Educational Studies

Gifted Education, Learning & Instruction

Ranjini Mahinda JohnBull, PhD

Learning & Instruction, Mind, Brain, & Teaching

Olivia Marcucci, PhD

Advanced Studies in Education, Center for Safe and Healthy Schools

Social Context of Education

James Diamond, PhD

Educational Technology, Learning & Instruction

E. Juliana Pare-Blagoev, EdD

Eric rice, phd.

Social Context of Education, Urban Education

Laura Flores Shaw, EdD

Assistant Professor Faculty Lead, Doctor of Education

Learning & Instruction

Henry M. Smith, EdD

Administration, Organization & Leadership, Education Policy & Politics

Program Overview

Exceptional education-practitioners will engage with an internationally renowned faculty to cultivate and practice curiosity, critical discourse, and perspective taking in a unique and rigorous course of study using the lenses of social justice, systems thinking, appropriate research methods, and empirical inquiry.

Coursework includes the latest research on the social determinants of education; mind, brain, and teaching; entrepreneurship; data and measurement; and technology. The redesigned program allows our doctoral students to customize their program by expanding their choice of electives so that they may focus more deeply on their professional interests that align with their problem of practice. Our online EdD prepares education practitioners to be transformational leaders within their professional settings.

The vision of the Johns Hopkins EdD program is to impact complex educational problems across the globe by preparing education practitioners to think critically and systemically about problems within their professional settings and develop deep understanding and insights to lead positive, sustained change within those settings.Our graduates create new areas of research, promote distribution and utilization of research findings in professional practice, and contribute to wider public discourse and policy.

Areas of Interest

The EdD program includes areas of interest. Applicants can indicate one or more areas of interest they think are related to a problem of practice and would like to explore. Current areas of interest are:

Creativity, Advanced Learning, and Twice Exceptionality

Digital age learning and educational technology, entrepreneurial leadership in education, mind, brain, and teaching, urban leadership.

Courses in this area of interest are designed to prepare candidates for leadership roles in advanced academics and gifted education with an emphasis on research and application of current best practices in the field. Based on the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC) and Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Advanced Standards in Gifted Education Teacher Training, candidates will develop specialization in leading and evaluating programs and services for students who are creative, advanced, gifted, and twice exceptional. This area of interest is appropriate for candidates who: (a) want to deepen their expertise and prepare for leadership roles in their school, district, or state; (b) work in related nonprofit organizations, independent schools, or plan to develop their own educational enrichment programs; and (c) aspire to move into teacher preparation and research roles.

Available Courses:

• Twice Exceptional Learners
• Creativity in Education
• Seminar I in Gifted and Talented Education
• Leadership of Gifted Education and Talent Development Programs
• Seminar II in Gifted Education and Talent Development Programs
• Research in Gifted Education, Creativity, and Twice Exceptionalities

The Digital Age Learning and Educational Technology area of interest in the EdD program provides students opportunities to take courses in educational communication and technology. Select courses are available from the School of Education’s Digital Age Learning and Educational Technology (DALET) master’s degree program. This program prepares aspiring and practicing professionals and entrepreneurs in the field of educational communication and technology to design, develop, implement, and evaluate digital technology-supported tools and environments for learning across the lifespan in a variety of formal and informal settings, including pre-K–12, higher education, industry, government, and museums.

• Computational Thinking for K-12 Educators
• Explorations in Blended and Hybrid Learning
• Foundations of Online Teaching and Learning
• Fundamentals of Design Thinking
• Gaming and Simulations for Learning
• Instructional Design for Online Learning
• Maker Education: Cultivating Curiosity, Creativity, and Problem Solving in Theory and Practice
• Technology for Learner Variability
• Technology Integration for the 21st Century Learner
• Technology and the Science of Learning

Entrepreneurial Leadership in Education offers a unique opportunity for school and other educational organization leaders in both public and private educational environments. Students develop their knowledge, skills, and dispositions as they engage in leading efforts to build new venture opportunities in varied educational organizations. Through multidisciplinary lenses, educational leaders promote innovation in the paradigms, strategies, values and culture in school systems, social entrepreneurial ventures, and education companies. Each of the courses offers an opportunity to explore leadership theoretical frameworks, identify a Problem of Practice, and create a plan of action, through analysis and synthesis of presentations, readings, and discussion of the current state of multiple educational environments and the visions and challenges for the future.

• Entrepreneurship in Education
• Talent Management and Organizational Finance for Entrepreneurial Leaders
• Data Driven Decision Making
• Partnerships and Educational Organizations

Mind, Brain, and Teaching is designed for educators interested in exploring research from cognitive theories and neurosciences and its potential to inform the education field. Courses promote integration of diverse disciplines that investigate human learning and development. This area of interest builds upon basic and applied research from the fields of cognitive science, psychology and brain sciences, neurology, neuroscience, and education. It provides educators with knowledge of how emerging research in the learning sciences can inform teaching and learning. Students gain the knowledge and skills to interpret basic and applied research and apply relevant findings to educational practices and policies. This area of interest is designed to support the development of knowledge, insights, and competencies among students with two different levels of prior knowledge in the learning sciences: those who have had limited formal exposure to the learning sciences, and those who have a master’s degree or master’s certificate in the learning sciences.

• Fundamentals of Cognitive Development
• Neurobiology of Learning Differences
• Cognitive Processes of Literacy and Numeracy
• Special Topics in Brain Sciences

Cities are usually characterized by diverse populations with rich communities made up of many different races, classes, languages, and nationalities, and this dynamism is a chief strength of urban areas. However, urban schools typically serve populations characterized by high concentrations of poverty and therefore face difficult choices about how to allocate scarce resources. Urban Leadership is designed for educational professionals interested in exploring this dual nature of urban schools through a deep understanding of a Problem of Practice based in their unique context of professional practice. This area of interest prepares educational leaders to work in urban environments through a focus on topics such as building a strength-based understanding of the complexities of urban communities, engaging the latest research on urban educational programs, developing strategies for program improvement, and building partnerships with families, communities, and other organizations.

• Approaches to Urban Education
• Individuals in Urban Context
• Organizations and Institutions
• Partnerships and Community Organizing

Graduates from our EdD program work in diverse areas, including executive roles in educational organizations and start-ups, leadership in K-12 school districts and systems, consultancy in specialized education fields, and more.

• Administrator
• Superintendent
• Instructional Designer
• Chief Learning Officer

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Students should be aware of additional state-specific information for online programs . Johns Hopkins University is a member of the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate , which is the knowledge forum on the EdD. It has a membership of over 100 schools of education in the U.S., Canada, and New Zealand working collaboratively to improve professional preparation in education at the highest level.

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PhD vs. EdD in Education: How Do I Choose?

Aspiring educators can pursue an advanced degree if they want a more prominent teaching position. If you’re interested in a high-level career in education, you have two doctoral degree options: a Doctor of Education (EdD)or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). 

In this guide, we highlight key differences in curricula, prerequisite requirements, application processes and typical career paths that graduates pursue. Keep reading to determine whether a PhD vs. EdD is a better choice for you.

PhD vs. EdD   

While both degrees are at the doctoral level, the focus of each is unique. The main difference between a PhD and EdD is that a PhD is designed for graduates who are seeking careers in education or research-based roles , while an EdD is designed for candidates who want to pursue leadership positions with a real-world focus 1 .

For example, an EdD career path would be more aligned with becoming a university dean or director of research, while those pursuing a PhD would likely choose a career as a college professor or research scholar 2 .

The average program lengths also differ. The average time to complete a PhD in education is 4–7 years, whereas an EdD can take 3–5 years to complete. However, the number of years it will take for you to complete either program will depend on if you’re pursuing full-time or part-time schooling. 

Below we’ll review each type of degree in depth, including their education requirements, career options, program costs and job outlook. 

What Is a PhD in Education?  

A PhD in Education is a Doctor of Philosophy degree designed for candidates pursuing a career in research and academia. Most PhD graduates work in a university as a professor, researcher or both. The PhD curriculum is typically more theory-based compared to an EdD degree 2 .

PhD candidates aim to become thought leaders in the field of education—conducting and publishing research on advanced theoretical topics within their specialization, as well as passing on their knowledge to the next generation of students. PhD graduates put an emphasis on research and devote their career to advancing the body of knowledge available within their field.

Education Requirements 

Earning a PhD in Education is a time-intensive process, but it’s also the highest academic degree within the field. On average, it takes 4–7 years to complete a PhD 3 .

To obtain a PhD, candidates must hold at least a bachelor’s degree and complete the GRE or an equivalent entrance exam. Depending on the field of study, candidates will then complete either a master’s degree or proceed directly to PhD coursework. During the program, candidates will write a dissertation and defend it before receiving their PhD. 

What Can I Do With a PhD? 

Most PhD coursework is theoretical, and the degree is a popular choice for those who aspire to become tenured at a university. The most common career options for PhD candidates include:

• Professor: A professor, or postsecondary teacher, instructs college- or university-level students on advanced topics. In addition to teaching, many professors conduct research and publish papers on new topics within their field. Professors earned a median salary of $79,640 per year in 2021 4 .
• Senior School Administrator: PhD graduates may work at secondary schools in senior administrative roles such as a superintendent. Garnering an average salary of $106,690 in 2022, a role as a secondary school administrator is a popular choice for PhD graduates with a background in working with younger students 5 .
• Chief Learning Officer: PhD graduates who prefer to work in a corporate environment rather than at a university may pursue a career path as a Chief Learning Officer (CLO). Job responsibilities for CLOs include retaining top talent, implementing training and mentorship programs and improving the internal talent available within the company. As of 2021, the median annual salary for a top-level executive was $98,980 per year 6 .
• Medical Science Liaison (MSL): Another option for PhD graduates who want to work outside of academia is a career as a Medical Science Liaison (MSL), whose job responsibilities include building professional relationships with industry leaders in research-related areas. One of the key advantages of becoming an MSL is that it provides more freedom to learn, teach and travel than traditional PhD careers. In 2023, the average salary for an MSL is $147,283 7 .*

Job Outlook

PhD candidates typically pursue careers in academia, focusing on education or performing research in their field of study. For postsecondary educators and researchers, the projected job growth is 12% between 2021 and 2031 4 . This is due to the expected rise in enrollment at postsecondary institutions such as colleges and universities. 

What Is an EdD?

A Doctor of Education (EdD) is a practice-based professional degree that focuses on research applications and leadership roles. The first EdD degree was granted by Harvard University in 1921. The EdD degree was created to develop seasoned educators to serve as faculty at the university level. EdD candidates are solution-focused, aiming to identify and strategize ways to improve real-world problems 8 .

Along with core coursework, many EdD programs offer opportunities to specialize in areas such as healthcare education, teaching and learning and executive leadership. While specializations are optional when earning an EdD, they allow you to gain deeper knowledge and expertise in areas aligned with specific career goals.

To apply for an EdD program, candidates must hold a master’s degree and meet other requirements specific to each program applied to. Once the candidate is accepted into a program, earning an EdD typically requires 3–5 years of study.

EdD programs often attract students who are simultaneously working professionally in the field. For example, the Doctor of Education program at the University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences (USAHS) has a flexible online curriculum, allowing students to continue working while completing their degree at a pace that fits their lifestyle.

The EdD program culminates in a dissertation (or dissertation in practice) that allows EdD candidates to tackle real-world problems or contribute original research in their field of study. 

What Can I Do With an EdD? 

An EdD is a valuable degree in any number of fields, such as higher education, healthcare, government and nonprofit organizations. Some common EdD career paths include:

• Healthcare Educator: Some EdD programs focus on pedagogical strategies within specialized areas of expertise. For example, USAHS’ EdD program trains educators within the health sciences field. Graduates train the next generation of healthcare practitioners in nursing, physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech-language pathology, athletic training and other areas, or they may teach and serve as mentors in healthcare administration. Teaching settings include universities, nursing schools, healthcare organizations and more. In 2021, the median pay for a health education specialist was $48,860 9 . 
• Provost: A provost is typically a senior-level administrator at a college or university who functions as the school’s chief academic officer. Provosts help develop institutional goals and strategies, determine fund allocation, and assist with the school’s daily operations. In 2021, the median pay for a postsecondary education administrator, such as a provost, was $96,910 per year 10 .
• Dean: A dean is an upper-level university administrator who oversees several related departments or an entire college within the university. Deans may also work in operations-related positions, including dean of student affairs or dean of admissions. The median pay for postsecondary education administrators (including deans) in 2021 was $96,910 per year 10 .
• Top-Level Executive: An EdD degree can prepare candidates for executive roles such as a CLO or Chief Academic Officer (CAO) within an educational institution or a business with an educational component. In these positions, an executive can create strategies to solve business problems and help their organization develop and meet goals for business development. As of 2021, the median pay for a top-level executive was $98,980 per year 6 .
• Curriculum Designer: Curriculum designers develop educational programs and instructional materials—in print or online—for schools, organizations and companies. They can also help teachers and trainers implement the curriculum and evaluate learning outcomes. The median pay in 2021 for curriculum designers was $63,740 11 . 

An EdD is a degree for experienced educators who want to further their knowledge to improve the education system in its entirety. Although most EdD graduates hold jobs in the education sector , other opportunities include leadership roles in business, government and nonprofit organizations 12 . 

Postsecondary education administrators have a projected growth of 7% from 2021 to 2031, which is as fast as the national average for all occupations 10 .

PhD vs. EdD: 5 Factors To Consider

Here are some important factors to consider when determining whether an EdD or a PhD is right for you.

 1. Career Goals  

First, think about your career goals. If you’re interested in educating future students and publishing theory-based research, you might consider pursuing a PhD in Education. If you are more interested in applying research to real-world foundational and institutional issues, an EdD may be a better choice. 

2. Day-to-Day Work

Consider what your day-to-day work would consist of as a graduate of each degree program. With a PhD, you would likely teach classes and work with graduate students to perform research. An EdD degree may lead to a career more focused on creating educational policy and developing leadership in educational institutions.

3. Types of Coursework

Completing a degree at the doctoral level is rigorous regardless of whether you choose an EdD or PhD. In PhD programs, coursework typically centers on conducting qualitative and quantitative research culminating in a dissertation. By contrast, EdD coursework focuses on leadership and education, treating research as a component rather than the main focus of the degree.

4. Online Programs 

If you’re already working as an educator or aren’t able to commute, online programs give you the flexibility to complete an EdD or PhD at home and at your own pace. 

Programs such as USAHS’ Doctor of Education are delivered almost completely online, with optional on-campus immersions where you can engage in discussions, presentations and Q&A sessions face-to-face with professors, guest speakers and fellow students.

5. Specialization Options 

If you want to specialize within your degree, do some research to determine which EdD or PhD programs have options to concentrate on the area you’re interested in. While concentrations differ at each university, EdD and PhD programs have certain staples. PhD concentrations include areas such as educational psychology and special education, while popular EdD concentrations include educational leadership and teaching.

Both an EdD and PhD in Education offer excellent career options. Regardless of the decision you make, it’s essential to choose the career path that is right for you and best aligns with your career goals. 

Take the Next Step With Your Education

Interested in pursuing higher education in health sciences? USAHS offers an EdD degree that allows you to specialize in healthcare education, like Nurse Educator, Teaching and Learning, Athletic Training and Executive Leadership. It’s an online program that also offers optional immersions. 

Contact an enrollment advisor when you’re ready to apply to a one-of-a-kind program. 

The University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences (USAHS) offers an online EdD program designed for working clinicians and healthcare educators, with optional on-campus immersions. Specializations include Nurse Educator, Athletic Training, Teaching and Learning, and Executive Leadership. Complete coursework when and where you want and earn your advanced degree while keeping your work and life in balance.

*The information provided on this website is based on self-reported data and is intended for general informational purposes only. PayScale is a limited data source that relies on voluntary submissions from individuals and employers.

Please be aware that the accuracy, completeness, and reliability of the data may vary due to its voluntary nature and limited scope. While efforts are made to maintain the data’s accuracy, we cannot guarantee its absolute correctness or currency.

• University of The People, “What Is An Ed.D. And Why Is It Important For Your Future?,” University of The People , last modified July 2022, https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/what-is-doctor-of-education/  
• School of Education Online Programs, “EdD vs. PhD in Education: Why Choose an EdD?,” SOEOnline , last modified October 2022, https://soeonline.american.edu/blog/edd-vs-phd/  
• Coursera, “How Long Does It Take to Get a PhD?,” Coursera , last modified June 2023, https://www.coursera.org/articles/how-long-does-it-take-to-get-a-phd  
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Postsecondary Teachers,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , last modified October 2022, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/postsecondary-teachers.htm  
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “May 2022 Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , last modified Modified April 2023, https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_nat.htm#00-0000  
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Top Executives,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , last modified September 2022, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/top-executives.htm  
• Payscale, “Average Medical Science Liason Salary,” PayScale, last modified 2023, https://www.payscale.com/research/US/Job=Medical_Science_Liaison/Salary  
• Harvard Graduate School of Education, “Doctor of Education Leadership,” Harvard Graduate School of Education , https://www.gse.harvard.edu/degrees/edld  
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Health Education Specialists and Community Health Workers,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , last modified October 2022, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/health-educators.htm  
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Postsecondary Education Administrators,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , last modified October 2022, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/postsecondary-education-administrators.htm  
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Instructional Coordinators,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics , last modified October 2022, https://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/instructional-coordinators.htm
• Graduate Programs Staff, “8 Careers You Can Pursue with a Doctorate in Education,” Northeastern University Graduate Programs , last modified September 2019, https://graduate.northeastern.edu/resources/careers-with-doctorate-in-education/

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EdD vs. PhD in Education: Why Choose an EdD?

EdD or PhD? This is one of the first decisions aspiring education leaders face when exploring options for advanced degrees. The need for leaders in the field has never been greater. Integrating new educational methods and technology, addressing diversity and other social issues, and managing growing requirements for remote learning—these are just a few of the issues currently challenging educators. Taking a step toward earning an EdD or a PhD requires that prospective students first explore the differences between them to determine which track best serves their interests and aspirations.

Both degrees prepare graduates for rewarding careers and leadership roles in the education field , but they vary significantly in terms of study focus and typical career paths. Future education leaders wondering why to get an EdD or a PhD should understand the differences between the two degrees before they choose to pursue one.

What Is a Doctor of Education (EdD) Degree?

An EdD is an advanced degree in the education field that prepares graduates to succeed in leadership roles in higher education. EdD curricula incorporate heavy coursework in education policy, research methods, current social and political issues impacting students and teachers, developing teams and procedures, collaborating with internal and external partners, and managing and planning budgets.

EdD programs provide a solid foundation in modern education system operations, as well as extensive tools to create strategies and implement solutions to help schools and educational organizations succeed. Someone who has an EdD can teach or serve as an educator, but the degree program is more focused on helping graduates become leaders of educational organizations.

What Is a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Degree?

A PhD is an advanced degree that individuals and professionals can typically earn after attaining a master’s degree. A PhD can be attained in several academic subjects, including education, and often prepares students for careers in more research-oriented positions, as well as university and college instructor roles. The curriculum for a PhD in education can vary by school, but it often includes coursework in educational research and evaluation, teaching methods, and a larger dissertation on topics or subjects in the education field.

Job Outlook

In broad terms, EdD programs help graduates gain a deep understanding of education as a field and profession, developing leadership expertise for various educational settings. The PhD track is more research oriented, helping graduates prepare for both the classroom and research aspects of teaching at a postsecondary institution. A closer look at career paths, salary projections, and growth outlooks can help differentiate the programs further.

EdD vs. PhD: Common Career Paths

When considering why to get an EdD or a PhD, it’s important to look at what happens after graduation. EdD and PhD programs’ different areas of focus mean each program best prepares graduates for different career options. The most common path for PhD recipients is to go right back into postsecondary education, with the hope of becoming tenured professors at a college or university. Gaining an EdD opens a variety of doors in the education sector.

Professional Options with an EdD

EdD graduates will have some research background, for example, in examining the implementation of a new curriculum and student response. EdD graduates also benefit from classes focused on leadership and strategic planning, which provide a more business-oriented viewpoint of education and illustrate how policies can impact education at all levels.

Educators who earn an EdD can choose to pursue any of a variety of paths throughout education. Most commonly, they go into elementary, secondary, or postsecondary administration, serving in such roles as college dean or school district superintendent. EdD graduates from a school such as American University can also become college professors or run education-based nonprofit organizations.

Professional Options with a PhD

PhD programs place greater emphasis on research, and graduates commonly work in academia or pursue academic research. Experts in their specific area of focus, they may choose to continue their research with students or other professors.

A person who holds a PhD in education can serve as a professor at a university, a consultant, or a researcher in a government education agency or organization, as well as in a larger leadership role in school or university administration.

EdD vs. PhD: Salary Comparison

Many education leadership roles can be filled by professionals who have earned either an EdD or a PhD, so their respective earning potential is difficult to define precisely. Salaries largely depend upon experience and geographic location. Salary ranges for postsecondary educators, for example, vary widely depending on whether an educator is working at the associate or assistant level or has attained a full professorship. 

According to Payscale, the median annual salary for professionals with a PhD in education is approximately $80,000. Payscale notes that assistant professors of postsecondary/higher education have a median annual salary of roughly $69,000. 

Doctoral degree holders who attain advanced roles in academia earn higher salaries:  Deans with the degree have a median salary of around $93,000 annually, according to Payscale. 

The median annual salary for EdD degree holders is around $80,000 in June 2022, according to Payscale. Salaries for EdD professionals can vary significantly by role. For example, Payscale reports the median annual salary of associate professors working in postsecondary/higher education is around $71,000, while EdD professionals serving in an executive director role have a median salary of around $104,000 per year.

Growth Outlook for EdD vs. PhD

The bright career outlook for degree holders is another reason to get an EdD or PhD. Advanced leadership roles for education professionals generally have a positive growth outlook. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the number of jobs for postsecondary teachers will grow by 12 percent between 2020 and 2030, which is much faster than the average 8 percent growth the BLS projects for all professions. The BLS estimates that over the same period, postsecondary education administrator positions will grow by 8 percent, which is on par with the national job growth average projected by the BLS.

Differences Between EdD and PhD 

EdDs and PhDs are valuable to professionals seeking to become leaders in education. Both require significant commitments—a doctoral-level degree can take three years or more to complete. While there’s overlap between the coursework and career options for EdD and PhD programs, a review of the differences can help determine a good fit for prospective students.

The curricula for the degrees themselves prepare students for different career paths after they graduate. There are generally more options and specialties for PhD programs than there are for EdD programs. An EdD primarily prepares graduates to become leaders and strategists in the education field—for example, as superintendents, deans, provosts, and school district officials—while a PhD is more tailored to preparing graduates for instructional and research roles in education and higher education, for example, as professors and researchers.

This doesn’t mean that an EdD degree holder can’t serve as a professor or an instructor in a university environment or that a PhD in education degree holder can’t succeed as a superintendent or a dean. EdD programs just focus on the larger scope and strategy of an educational organization or institution, while PhD programs are more tightly focused on academic research.

EdD candidates learn about different educational and leadership styles and how education fits into the larger world. They explore policy at the local, state, national, and international levels. Ultimately they discover how to spearhead change throughout the educational system. EdD graduates can learn how to make strategic partnerships and forge meaningful relationships in the professional world.

PhD students focus much more on research methods and data collection. They typically explore a more narrowly focused dissertation than that of EdD students. PhD students often choose their specific area of research and then spend much of their time collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data so that they can draw informed conclusions. While EdD work looks at systemic progress and trends, PhD work typically examines education theory and methods, with the end goal of having them applied directly in the classroom.

Ultimately both degrees are associated with professionals who’ve earned leadership roles in education, and both degrees enable degree holders to make a positive impact on students’ lives and on educational communities.

Why Get an EdD?

One of the main reasons to get an EdD is that it can prepare graduates to take on leadership roles in different aspects of education. These are more commonly operational roles in academia, such as a higher education administrator. However, an EdD education can also lead to roles in a classroom setting, such as a professor.

The process of earning an EdD degree helps individuals gain expertise in concepts such as leadership, academic policy, and resource management. While these skills are often useful in administration, policy development and implication, and leadership contexts, an EdD can also give degree holders the foundational knowledge to conduct academic research. 

Choosing an EdD Program

No two EdD programs are alike. Exploring their differences can help prospective students determine the program that’s the right fit for them. EdD programs may offer varying specializations, for example, education policy and leadership or school administration. Programs can also differ in delivery options, such as online versus in-person coursework. 

Benefits of an Online EdD

Individuals who opt to pursue their EdD through an online program can benefit in several ways. A significant advantage is the flexibility of an online program, as its structure makes it possible for students to build their studies and coursework around their existing schedule.

Another benefit of an online EdD program is that students who are concurrently working full-time can immediately apply what they’ve learned to their job. Additionally, the flexibility of an online program fosters discipline, such as good time management, which is essential for professional success.

Become an Education Leader  

As society continues to evolve, effective leadership will be needed to guide educational institutions toward a brighter future. Earning an EdD can prepare an individual to guide others confidently as an academic leader, either in the classroom or in an administrative role. Being fully able to lead this charge can make earning an EdD an immensely satisfying achievement.

American University’s online EdD in Education Policy and Leadership program offers students a flexible option to participate in an innovative EdD program from one of the nation’s leading universities. Because the program is online, professionals have the ability to pursue their educational leadership goals and connect with established thought leaders and decision makers, all while still being able to balance their other responsibilities. 

Explore American University’s innovative program to learn more about how the EdD in Education Policy and Leadership program can help educators advance in their field and change lives.

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What’s the Difference Between a PhD and EdD in Education?

What Is an Ed.D. Degree?

What is a ph.d. in education, ed.d. vs ph.d. in education: key differences.

• Ed.D. vs Ph.D. in Education: Which is Right for You?

An Ed.D. degree is a doctoral degree in education focused on educational leadership. The abbreviation stands for Educationis Doctor, and the degree indicates that the person holding it has advanced leadership knowledge in teaching, administration, and education research. According to the Carnegie Project on the Education Doctorate, the Ed.D. “prepares educators for the application of appropriate and specific practices, the generation of new knowledge, and for the stewardship of the profession.” (Source: https://www.cpedinitiative.org/page/framework)

Ed.D. degrees emphasize transformational leadership skills—that is, leadership that can change systems to better serve students and their communities, rather than leadership that merely manages efforts within the existing system. In the modern educational environment, where educators seek to provide an excellent education to students from an ever more diverse range of background and abilities, transformational leadership is in demand.

By completing an Ed.D. program, experienced educators can develop executive-level leadership skills, advanced education policy knowledge, pedagogical skills, and research capabilities to innovatively solve problems for the schools and students they serve.

Who Is a Good Fit for an Ed.D. Degree?

Ed.D. degrees are aimed at current education professionals working directly in their organizations outside of academia. These professionals may include:

• Pre-K-12 teachers, counselors, curriculum advisors, and other classroom personnel
• School principals and other administrators
• School district officials
• Administrators within government education departments
• College administrators
• Mid-career executives in educational consultancies or private businesses such as textbook publishers

Essentially, Ed.D. programs are ideal for experienced education professionals who hold a master’s degree and who do not want to work mostly within academic education research. While Ed.D. programs can also teach advanced classroom teaching skills, the primary role of an Ed.D. degree vs. a Ph.D. is to empower the professionals who are shaping and leading today’s schools and colleges.

Ed.D. Career Options

Ed.D. career options will vary depending on your previous work experience and your master’s degree field of study. However, the degree is designed to equip you for senior leadership roles.

• School District Administrator or Superintendent - An Ed.D. degree can equip you to lead in public school districts, either as an upper-level administrator or as the superintendent (in some larger cities known as the Chief Executive Officer). According to Payscale.com, the average salary for a school superintendent in the U.S. is currently $117,216. *Source  
• Academic Dean - Usually found in colleges and universities but sometimes also in larger private K-12 schools, deans oversee a specific academic department or area of operations (e.g. student affairs). They manage instructors, analyze student performance data, help set curriculum plans, etc. According to Payscale.com, the average salary for an academic dean is $90,236. *Source  
• Provost - A provost or vice president is a senior academic administrator who acts as deputy to a college president. Provosts are primarily responsible for directing the academic programs at a college or university and have authority over deans. Payscale.com currently estimates the average annual salary for provosts at $147,730. *Source  
• College President - Earning your Ed.D. could prepare you to become the CEO or president of a college or university, ultimately responsible for setting the academic and social direction of your school, as well as ensuring it has the budgetary resources to change and expand with the times. Pay for college presidents can vary widely depending on the size and type of their institution, but in 2016, the median take-home pay for public university presidents was $431,000. *Source  
• Company Executive - The skills you learn in an Ed.D. program can also apply to careers in private industry, particularly companies within the education sector such as textbook publishers or educational technology companies. However, the Ed.D. can also equip you to lead training efforts within large corporations unrelated to education. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, median pay for top executives in 2017 was $104,700 per year. * Source

Benefits of an Ed.D. Program

What are the benefits of an Ed.D. program? Aside from expanded pay potential and the opportunity for more responsibility, there are several.

• Advanced research with practical outcomes: In an Ed.D. program, you’ll be required to conduct research into an educational problem, and thanks to the program’s more practical focus, you can dive deep into an area which is of pressing concern to you at your current place of work.
• Raise your relevance: Earning your doctorate in education can help you stay up to date on policy, technology, and pedagogical ideas that are changing the field.
• Fill in skill and knowledge gaps: Most educators spend their time focused on one aspect of teaching or leadership. By completing your Ed.D., you can round out your knowledge and expertise with advanced course content in teaching methods, building community relationships, education law, etc.
• Time to completion: In general, an Ed.D. degree requires 60 credits of work beyond the master’s degree and a dissertation or capstone project. They usually take less time to complete than a Ph.D.—in some cases, depending on the program, as few as three years.
• Study while continuing to work: Because the Ed.D. is aimed more at administrators and practitioners, institutions often structure the program to accommodate working schedules, meaning you can “earn while you learn”.

A Ph.D. in Education is a research-intensive academic degree focused on producing leaders who can nurture new educators, either within college classrooms or as leaders within educational institutions. Ph.D. programs in education emphasize the production of scholarship-- the research and analysis which describes for practitioners and policy makers what works in education, what doesn’t work, and why that is.

Typically, Ph.D. in Education degrees aim to produce researchers who can also teach at the university level, ensuring that new teachers get off to a strong start in their careers and that mid-career teachers gain the advanced skills they need to serve students even more effectively, whether as master teachers, administrators, or school counselors. Education Ph.D. graduates may also serve as administrators, whether at the K-12 level, in higher education, or in government departments and private companies which serve education.

Who Is a Good Fit for a Ph.D. in Education?

While current teachers and administrators can make a good fit for Ph.D. in education programs, they should already have a demonstrated focus on research in their careers before applying. Other potential good fits for education Ph.D.s are academics from other fields who are interested in investigating specific problems within the field of education.

These may include:

• Sociologists
• Counselors or people with psychology degrees
• Child social workers

Ph.D. in Education Career Options

There is some overlap between the careers you can pursue with an Ed.D. and the careers you can pursue with a Ph.D. in Education. Your ability to pursue administrative roles will vary depending on your previous experience managing others within an education setting. Other roles may include:

• College Professor   – Ph.D. graduates in education can often obtain work teaching in education programs at colleges and universities. They may work with new undergraduates, experienced teachers, administrators, or public policy students. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median 2017 salary for postsecondary teachers of all types was $76,000. *Source  
• Sociologist   – As a graduate of a Ph.D. in Education program, you could work in sociological research related to education, conducting surveys, analyzing data, and working to identify the impact of educational policies on schools and students. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the median salary for sociologists in 2017 was $79,650. *Source  
• Training and Development Manager   – Private companies need skilled educational professionals who can help them develop effective training programs for employees and executives. As a training and development manager, you can put the knowledge gained in your education Ph.D. program to work researching and designing corporate training plans. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that training and development managers earned a median salary of $108,250 in 2017. *Source  
• Public Policy Director   – With your Ph.D. in Education, you may also qualify to lead policy creation and advocacy efforts within non-profit organizations or government departments. You would apply your research and analysis skills to this role, along with managerial skills as you direct the work of junior policy analysts and researchers. Payscale.com reports that the average annual salary for this role is $76,486. *Source

Benefits of a Ph.D. in Education Program

With its emphasis on research and teaching, the Ph.D. in Education demands full-time commitment, can take longer to complete than an Ed.D. and can be difficult to complete while continuing to work. However, it has its own benefits for those who truly want to follow a scholarly career path.

• More common degree: There are more Ph.D. programs in education available than there are Ed.D. programs. This means you will have more options when it comes to finding a college that suits you. It also means you will have more options in terms of choosing a specialization program.
• Funding is more available: Many colleges and universities provide funding for Ph.D. students to pay their tuition and some living costs while they study. In exchange, Ph.D. students assist their supervisors in research, perform graduate assistant teaching duties, and represent the university at conferences and other professional events. These are all excellent activities for building a resume in academia—and you could get paid to do them.
• Learn widely applicable research skills: The research methodologies you learn in a Ph.D. program go beyond those taught in an Ed.D. program and can apply to many career paths after graduation. This is especially true if you work with research involving large data sets and analysis software. Many companies are looking for data analysts, no matter what field of study their degree was in. *Source

The two doctoral degrees in education overlap in many ways, but also feature key differences in terms of their intended student prospects, aims, goals, and formats.

Career Path Direction

When it comes to deciding on a Ph.D. vs. Ed.D., consider where you’ve come from and where you want to go. If you are an established classroom teacher or administrator and want advanced skills to continue solving complex problems as a leader in that area, choose an Ed.D. If you have a more academic background and want to investigate major issues around education through research or want to contribute to the profession by training new teachers in colleges, choose the Ph.D.

Skill Set Emphasis

Related to the differing career path goals of a Ph.D. vs. Ed.D., the skills emphasized in each degree do vary. Ed.D. students will focus primarily on hands-on, transformational leadership skills within education settings at any level. Ph.D. students will cover many courses in research methodologies, spend more time producing a dissertation and other scholarly publications, and focus on teaching and mentoring college students.

Research Goals

Both Ed.D. and Ph.D. programs teach advanced research skills, including statistics, data analysis, and qualitative and quantitative methodologies such as surveys and other investigation tools. However, the research aims in each degree differ.

Ed.D. programs teach research skills to help students employ those processes to solve very specific problems through the application of evidence to practical solutions.

Ph.D. programs teach more open-ended academic inquiry skills, designed to contribute to the wider body of scholarship which informs education practice and policy.

Program Format and Completion Length

The final difference between Ed.D. programs vs. Ph.D. programs is the way the formats are commonly structured by colleges and universities. Because of its more practical, hands-on focus, the Ed.D. is usually a credit-based program that can be delivered via online study as well as on-campus study (or with some combination of the two). In addition, Ed.D. programs are often designed to accommodate working education professionals, whether they are teachers, curriculum designers, or administrators.

Finally, Ed.D. degree programs are typically shorter than other doctoral degrees in education, with programs lasting anywhere from two to four years in length. Ph.D. in Education programs are more likely to be full-time residential programs which require students to leave full-time jobs to pursue. While some Ph.D. programs focused on educational leadership may be structured for people who need to keep working, they are less common in other specialization areas. Ph.D. degrees are also competency-based, meaning whether you earn the degree or not depends on the defense of your dissertation. Because of this requirement, they are more likely to take in the region of 5-7 years to finish.

Ed.D. vs Ph.D. in Education: Which Is Right for You?

In summary, the chief difference between an Ed.D. and a Ph.D. is about the long-term career goals of the student. Which one is right for you will depend on where you’ve come from in your career to this point and where you want to go. Dedicated to solving problems in education through hands-on, transformational leadership? An Ed.D. program is likely to be the best bet for you. Passionate about scholarly research and policy development within academic settings? You may be ideal for a Ph.D. program. We hope this guide has helped you understand the differences between an   Ed.D. in Education Leadership   and a Ph.D. program in education with more clarity. Good luck with your career in education, no matter which degree you choose!

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PhD vs. EdD in Education: Nine expert tips to help you choose [with infographic]

If you want to elevate your career in education, an advanced degree can open the door to more job opportunities. Many schools offer graduate programs in education, but before you go down a rabbit hole of research, first decide if you want to get a PhD or EdD degree.

A PhD and EdD in education are both doctoral degrees. The one you choose will have a significant impact on your graduate school experience, and your career as well. (Already know what you want? Visit our Admission and Deadlines and Requirements pages for more information.)

For a quick overview of differences between the two degrees, view the infographic below or download it here .

Before we explore tips to guide your decision, let’s review important context for each degree.

What is a PhD in Education?

A PhD is a doctorate in philosophy. Historically, it was the first degree offered to students in the field of education and is perhaps more well-known than the EdD.

The PhD in Education is ideal for students who are excited by a career in research. Programs train you to interpret existing theory on a subject, identify opportunities for exploration, and advance theory through critical analysis. It is not necessarily a degree that prepares you for an administrative or leadership role.

With a PhD in Education, you will become an authority on a particular topic or range of topics, and make recommendations on how practitioners should approach or implement them. Examples of research topics might include teaching practices, the effect of learning environments on student outcomes, and inequity in education.

What is an EdD in Education?

An EdD is a doctorate in education, and prepares you for a career in educational leadership. Like the PhD degree, you will learn to interpret research. However, EdD programs train you to apply the research in real-world settings.

While pursuing your EdD degree, you will study critical theory and determine how you can implement it to drive change in K–12 classrooms, universities, community colleges and other organizations. You will also reflect on your role as a leader. Top EdD programs encourage you to analyze your relationship to your research topics and work environments. The goal is to ensure that your leadership is fair and equitable for all people.

PhD vs. EdD: What are the main differences?

The table below summarizes the key differences between a PhD and EdD in education:

Find your program

PhD vs. EdD: How to choose

To help you figure out which doctorate in education is right for you, check out these nine helpful tips:

1. Follow your passion

Rather than focusing on the title of the degree, think about what motivates you. Why did you get into education in the first place? Do you want to have a direct impact on classrooms or pursue big-picture change behind the scenes? You may assume that one degree is more prestigious than another, but it’s important to choose a path that will bring you personal satisfaction that is consistent with your career goals.

2. Picture your day-to-day

PhD and EdD programs are a significant time investment. If you’re struggling to decide because both degrees sound rewarding, try picturing what your daily life might look like in each program.

A PhD in Education is decidedly more research-heavy. A majority of your study will include—but is not limited to—investigating theory and research methodologies. By contrast, EdD programs include the application of your research. Much of your time will be spent using your knowledge to solve professional challenges.

3. Explore career options with a PhD in Education

Earning your PhD in education will make you a more desirable candidate for a range of research-oriented positions. Your ability to evaluate research and make recommendations will be a valuable skill to many organizations.

Many people with PhD in education degrees secure jobs as:

• University professor
• Research scholar
• Education director
• Policy researcher

Want specific examples? For a list of positions held by recent graduates from USC Rossier’s PhD in Urban Education program (PhD), check out our Benefits and Career Paths page.

4. Explore career options with an EdD in Education

EdD programs prepare you for different kinds of senior positions. You will be eligible for leadership roles primarily in education administration, however your high-level skill-set will be desirable to certain nonprofits and businesses as well.

Position titles for professionals with an EdD degree may include:

• Superintendent
• University or college president
• Director of a research center
• Development manager
• Curriculum developer

5. Compare PhD vs. EdD coursework

Doctor in education programs are rigorous and challenging, and while both are rooted in research, their paths diverge. Coursework in PhD programs highlights qualitative and quantitative research methods, and gives you the tools needed to perform your own research. You will also work on your dissertation, and be required to take oral and written exams.

Additionally, PhD students typically have the chance to work one-on-one with a research faculty member on their research. As you narrow your search for a graduate school, remember to review faculty and consider opportunities for collaboration.

EdD courses in educational leadership train you to view common problems in education from multiple perspectives. Courses early in the program urge you to use research as a tool that can provide practical solutions that promote equity. As you progress, you will then take actionable steps to address a problem of practice.

6. Review PhD vs. EdD specializations at different schools

You want to choose a university that aligns with your personal interests. Start by reviewing schools’ mission statements. Do they seem principle-driven or focused on ushering you through the program?  You also want to check out the concentrations offered by each program. Select a program that is going to let you explore issues and challenges that matter to you.

Concentrations vary by university. For example, some concentrations may include educational leadership in K–12 schools, educational psychology or higher education. Expect universities located in or near cities to offer concentrations exploring urban education settings as well.

7. Consider PhD and EdD online programs

If you’re a working professional and don’t want to commute to a physical campus while you earn a degree, an online doctor of education program may be right for you. Online programs cover the same information as their in-person counterparts, but offer a little more flexibility for students.

However, classes such as those included in USC Rossier’s Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership online program are held live, meaning you are required to attend the online class at a specific day and time.Note: It may be easier to find online options for EdD than PhD programs.

8. Research PhD vs. EdD dissertation requirements

A traditional part of a PhD in education is the dissertation. Dissertation requirements vary by program and school, but generally include thorough investigation of a topic from multiple angles, copious research, and an exam to defend your written work once it’s completed.

By contrast, some EdD programs require you to complete a dissertation in practice. Using research methods learned in the program, you will attempt to resolve a problem in education dealing with equity and access. You may also have the chance to work alongside a group of students and an advisor to tackle the problem. In addition to the different requirements of PhD and EdD dissertations, individual schools may want you to explore issues that fall within their philosophical focus.

9. Estimate your time commitment

Before committing to a doctorate in education program, make sure you understand how much time it will take. A PhD in Education typically requires four to six years to complete, while EdD programs take three years, and may be completed while you work.

Additionally, some PhD programs are full-time commitments. Because of the workload, you can’t work a full-time schedule. However, your tuition is covered by a graduate assistantship. A Master’s degree may also not be necessary for acceptance into a PhD program.

USC Rossier resources

If you’re still unsure about which doctorate in education is right for you, we’re happy to provide personalized guidance .

You can also use USC Rossier’s simple career survey tool.

Curious about the requirements for our doctoral programs ? Check out the list of program comparisons. As a school that has offered doctoral degrees for 100 years, USC Rossier is uniquely positioned to provide insight and expertise on doctoral programs in education

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Many students who are pursuing a master’s degree may wonder what the next step is. Some students have big goals that involve the highest level of education possible—a doctorate degree. WGU provides bachelor’s and master’s degrees that are vital in helping students be prepared for doctorate degree programs. Doctorate degrees will almost always require students to be a graduate with a bachelor’s and master’s degree before pursuing their doctorate, and WGU can be affordable and straightforward way to get those degrees so you are ready to pursue additional education coursework. If you're attending graduate school or have finished your master's degree, perhaps a doctorate is the next step you should take.

Doctorate degree programs are highly specialized programs that allow students to pursue research or other specializations. Doctorate programs include PhD, EdD, MD, DO, JD, and more. 

Many students who want to pursue a doctorate degree immediately think of a PhD, but could an EdD be another good option for you if you're interested in an education degree? It’s important to understand the differences between these specialization programs to determine which is the best fit for you and your career goals.

PhD or Doctorate of Philosophy is ideal for those wanting to pursue an academic career. These degree programs are more focused on research and give you the opportunity to do exploration in a field of study.

EdD or Doctorate in Education is more catered to those wanting a hands-on leadership role. If you’re hoping to become a leader in education, government, or nonprofits, this degree program could be a great option for you. Ed.D. students find there is a focus in their coursework on educational leadership.

The type of degree you should pursue will largely depend on what you hope to do with your career. It’s extremely important to learn about all of your options so you can make an informed decision, and pursue a degree that will ultimately be the best for your future. 

What is an EdD degree?

A Doctorate in Education or EdD degree focuses on applying research and knowledge to real world situations. EdD programs prepare students for a wide variety of positions in all kinds of industries. Rather than developing new research, EdD candidates use existing research to inform their decisions, leading to improved practices within their area of study. Educational leadership in K-12 or college settings are important for this specialization.

Interpreting research is a key part of EdD study—critical theory and leadership are important elements of these programs. EdD is practice-based because those pursuing this degree are leveraging their research in real ways everyday. EdD students will collect data and conduct interviews and focus groups to develop strategies and make observations about a specific problem or practice. 

EdD degrees are popular with experienced educators, teaching faculty, or mid-level or senior-level working professionals who are hoping to implement change in their organization. EdD programs will prepare students for academic, administrative, clinical, professional, leadership, and research positions in K-12 and higher education, government, private organizations, and more. 

Typical Ed.D. programs will be around 60-66 credit hours, and will have a final price tag of between $20,000 and $60,000. There may be additional fees for attending, costs conferences and certification programs, etc.

Career opportunities for EdD graduates.

There are many job opportunities that open up when you have an Ed.D. including:

Dean. A dean is responsible for coordinating the activities for a school or a college within a school. A school may have a dean for their business, law, or medical school as well as one for the entire school. They may help develop academic policies, manage budgets, participate in faculty decisions, and more. The average annual salary for deans is about $95,000 , with the lowest 10% earning $55,000 per year and the highest 10% earning more than $194,000 per year. The need for deans is expected to grow 7% by 2028, meaning there will be roughly 206,100 jobs for deans. With colleges expanding and growing more deans will be needed to meet demand. 

Education administrators. Educational administrators are needed for all age students, from kindergarten to college level. Education administrators may have different roles based on what they are specifically in charge of. Some may be in charge of admissions and make decisions on which students are admitted. Others are in charge of budgets, schedules, hiring and firing educators, and more. The average annual salary for education administrators is $85,000 , with the bottom 10% earning around $46,000 per year and the top 10% earning more than $146,000 per year. There are 44,000 education administration jobs currently in the United States, and the profession is expected to grow over the next several years.

Elementary, middle, and high school principal. Principals are the center of a school, running all of the elements of their school to help faculty and students succeed. They manage school activities and staff, oversee class schedules, implement curriculum standards, discipline students, meet with parents and teachers to discuss student needs, assess and prepare reports on test scores and progress, manage budgets, and more. The average annual salary for principals is around $96,000 per year. The bottom 10% earn a yearly salary of $63,000, with the top 10% earning more than $148,000 per year. Employment of principals is expected to grow 4%, meaning there will be more than 286,000 principal jobs for those interested in this career. 

Instructional coordinators. Instructional coordinators are in charge of the curriculum for students. They develop and implement curriculum in a school, organize and conduct teacher trainings and conferences, analyze test data, review curriculum standards with school staff, recommend and teach educational techniques, develop procedures for teachers, train new teachers, and mentor school staff. Instructional coordinators earn an average annual salary of $66,000 per year, with the bottom 10% earning around $38,000 per year and the top 10% earning more than $103,000 per year. Instructional coordinator jobs are expected to grow 6% by 2028, with more than 193,000 jobs. This is largely due to new technology making changes in instruction and curriculum crucial for student success. 

Superintendent. A school superintendent oversees the daily operations and long distance planning for a school district. They supervise school principals, work with the school board, and manage financial responsibilities for the district. They are often involved in hiring staff, solving problems, and working to get additional resources for a school or a district. The average annual salary for a superintendent is $94,000 per year. This position is expected to grow 8% by 2026, as schools continue to expand and grow. 

With an Ed.D. degree, there are many career possibilities you can pursue. If a hands-on position in education sounds like a great option for you, consider an Ed.D. degree.

What is a PhD in education?

PhD programs are more study-based roles, and are often a better fit for those who want to research instead of manage others. A PhD graduate may write papers and conduct research about learning technology rather than implement it in a school. A PhD is technically a doctorate in philosophy, and was the first degree offered to students in the field of education, making it very well known. A PhD program helps students interpret existing theories, identify opportunities for more research, and use critical analysis to advance theories. Ph.D. programs help students become an authority on a particular topic and will be able to make recommendations or write papers on that subject. 

A PhD program is a popular choice for those who want to become professors and gain tenured positions in a school. They focus on getting published in journals, presenting at conferences, and more. 

A Ph.D. program takes 3-6 years and over 90 credit hours to complete, and will cost anywhere from $40,000 to $90,00. There are likely additional fees for conferences, presentations, and other expenses. However, many PhD students are able to get research funding to help defray their costs. 

Career opportunities for PhD in education graduates.

There are many career options for those who have earned a PhD including: 

Academic researcher. Academic researchers are in charge of running studies to get more in-depth knowledge about the subject. They utilize new research techniques to develop studies in areas that haven’t been carefully looked at, to get a better understanding of the world we live in. Their research is often published in books or journals to help create better knowledge. Academic researchers earn an average of $64,000 per year, but this will greatly vary based on where they work and how much of their work is published. The field of academic research is growing, especially as more colleges and universities set aside funds to develop more studies.

Education director. Education directors direct and shape the teaching processes of a school or district. They may work directly with instructional coordinators to help guide the curriculum that will be taught. They may run educational programs in non-school settings like museums or non-profits. They work with educational committees and groups to serve communities and meet the needs of students.  

Policy researcher. Policy researchers are responsible for understanding current policies and their impact on communities. This can involve teacher salaries, adult education, job training, graduation rates, class and school sizes, and more. These professionals analyze test scores, safety, and many other areas to help schools and districts understand why certain things are happening in their community. They may then work with politicians to help create new laws that help more students be successful in an area. Policy researchers earn an average of $58,000 per year. This field is growing slowly, but is gaining traction as more communities see the value in analysts to help with their community situation. 

Professor. Professors are the most popular career choice for those who pursue a PhD. Professors teach classes, large and small, to college students. They may head up clubs or organizations in their field, help students with projects and field work, conduct research and write papers, and be involved with their college or university goals. Professors earn an average yearly salary of $79,000, with the bottom 10% earning around $40,000 per year, and the top 10% earning more than $174,000. The career outlook for professors is good, expected to grow 11% by 2028, due to many schools needing to meet high demand from more student enrollment. 

Which degree is right for you?

At the end of the day, both a Ph.D. and Ed.D. are great degree options. It really comes down to what kind of work you want to do with your degree. Similar costs and time commitment mean that either degree could be the right fit. You have to determine if you are more interested in hands-on, management and leadership learning, or if you’d rather delve into research and focus on that aspect of your knowledge. Whichever degree option is best for you, it will be important to start with the right educational background in order to succeed. A bachelor’s or master’s degree from WGU can help you get the background you need to be prepared to pursue a doctorate degree.

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EdD vs PhD: Which Education Degree Should You Get?

Teachers that are looking to use their leadership skills to create change in policy, curriculum, and research can use a doctorate degree to get roles in research, postsecondary schools, and K-12 education. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), postsecondary education jobs are projected to grow  12%  between 2020-2030.

However, teachers wanting to earn a high-level degree must choose between a doctor of education (EdD) or a doctor of philosophy in education (PhD) degree. While both are excellent options, the two degrees lead to very different coursework, requirements, and career outcomes.

What Are EdD and PhD In Education Degrees For?

A doctorate degree in education gives people a variety of career paths. The  different  programs can lead to private and public sector jobs including: 

• Administrator
• Superintendent
• Policy maker
• Postsecondary teacher
• College president
• Education director

The EdD and PhD are both terminal degrees that make teachers and educators experts in their fields. A good job outlook and growth projections make a doctorate degree worth the time and money. 

Picking Between an EdD or PhD In Education Program

The curriculum and job prospects of an EdD and PhD program are different. You should consider your interests and career goals when deciding which type of degree to obtain.

• A PhD program  is rooted in research and theory and students learn to interpret research.
• And EdD program  is rooted in leadership and application and students are taught how to apply the research to a real-world setting.

The EdD degree is available to professionals who already hold a master’s degree and want to advance their career and receive a boost in income. 

The EdD program prepares students to apply research to real-world settings and to find work in educational leadership. This degree  rewards  students with the skill set and ability to create change in their professional environment by:

• Develop the tools to become a better administrator
• Résumé credibility and expanded career search
• Learn the latest technology in instructional design
• Qualify for senior educational leadership positions

The overall goal of getting an EdD degree is to become a good leader and transfer knowledge to an education environment to create positive change. 

Coursework  includes a focus on professional leadership, solutions, and solving problems in practice. 

Teachers and administrators  are best suited for an EdD. Many programs are geared towards the working professional and are offered online or in a hybrid model. 

Those who complete an EdD degree often choose to work in a K-12 setting or in college administration.

On average, an EdD degree takes  three years  to complete including a dissertation. This timeframe can be dependent on: 

• Previous education
• Online vs. in-person programs
• Part-time vs. full-time study

Since obtaining an EdD degree is both time-consuming and a financial commitment, finding a program that meets a person’s career goals, work-life balance, and interests is critical.

EdD Career Outcomes And Salaries

Careers in education are growing and the job outlook for this profession is positive. Someone with an EdD degree can expect an increase in income and responsibility. 

A few examples of careers available to people with an EdD degree are highlighted below. 

• Median Salary: $80,560 
• Career Outlook: +912% (2020-2030)

Postsecondary teachers instruct students beyond high school. They are typically referred to as faculty or professors and may write books, conduct research, and publish papers. 

• Median Salary: $97,500 
• Career Outlook: +8% (2020-2030)

A postsecondary education administrator works in the college setting usually in student services, student affairs, admission, registrar’s office, or oversees faculty, research, and academics.

• Median Salary: $107,680 

Top executives are usually in charge of the organization’s big picture. They create strategies and policies to meet goals. 

• Median Salary: $98,490 

School principals oversee all aspects of the school setting including managing staff, curriculum, and the health and safety of the students. 

A PhD in education prepares people to  critically analyze and interpret  research. 

Those that hold a PhD become experts in a given field of education such as teaching practices, inequity in education, and how learning environments shape student outcomes. 

Coursework  includes a focus on education, quantitative and qualitative research, and a close collaboration with faculty. 

A PhD  dissertation  focuses on creating new research in a particular field whereas a dissertation in an EdD program focuses on solving a particular problem found in a school setting. 

People who have a passion for new research and advanced theory along with the desire to become an expert in a particular education field are best suited for a PhD in education. 

Career options  for those that hold a PhD in education include:

• University professor
• Research scholar
• Policy researcher

PhD of education students will enjoy using their skill set to shape new research and create best practices that will affect teaching and learning for years to come.

On average, a PhD in education degree takes  4-6 years  to complete including an original research dissertation.  

Unlike the EdD degree, the PhD program is a full-time commitment and not well suited for the working professional. Not many schools offer an online PhD in Education program. 

Program timeline may be dependent on:

• Student funding 
• Dissertation complexity

Since obtaining a PhD degree is both time-consuming and a financial commitment, finding a program that meets a person’s career goals, work-life balance, and interests is critical.

PhD In Education Career Outcomes And Salaries

As with EdD careers, careers for PhD graduates are projected to see significant job growth. Someone with a PhD degree can expect an increase in income and responsibility. 

While EdD professionals seek to obtain roles as superintendents, deans, principals, and other education administrative positions, PhD professionals seek roles as professors, scholars, and researchers. 

• Career Outlook: +12% (2020-2030)

Postsecondary professors instruct students beyond high school. They may also be referred to as faculty. Professors often write books, conduct research, and publish papers.

Postsecondary education administrators who hold a PhD may oversee faculty research, or work in student affairs, attendance, and academics.

• Median Salary: $59,870 
• Career Outlook: +4% (2020-2030)

Survey researchers conduct qualitative research and analyze the data for trends that can influence education policy and help shape education decisions and plans.

Doctor Of Education (EdD) vs Educational Specialist (EdS)

Another option for career advancement in education is the educational specialist (EdS). An EdS is a postgraduate degree for those that already have a master’s degree, but don’t want to pursue a doctorate. This program is designed for the working professional who wants to add to their skill set but in half the time it takes to complete an EdD program. 

The EdS is a  graduate certificate  that does not require a dissertation or capstone project to complete and is geared towards those that work in the K-12 setting. However, this option is not designed for people who want to work in higher education or organizational leadership.

What To Look For In Educational Doctoral Degree Programs

When comparing different EdD and PhD programs, you should also consider factors outside of career outcomes such as online flexibility and accreditation. 

Online vs. On-Campus Learning

While most PhD programs are full-time and conducted in person, online EdD programs are becoming more abundant, and many schools offer the option to complete the degree on a part-time or full-time basis to accommodate busy schedules and the working professional. The biggest benefits of online learning include:

• Flexibility and self-paced learning
• Better time management
• Improved virtual and communication and collaboration
• Faster graduation times
• Ability to work from anywhere

Accreditation

Accreditation is critical for any educational institute. It certifies that the school and its curriculum meet the appropriate standards and qualifications outlined by the  U.S. Department of Education  and/or the  Council for Higher Education  accreditation. 

Choosing a school that is accredited is extremely important and it gives degrees credibility and validity and will be valued by employers. 

Many programs and departments within a school may have a separate accreditation called programmatic accreditation. This accreditation elevates the credibility of the program and shows that the department has designed a program that meets a standard of excellence. 

Programmatic accreditation also ensures that students will receive the appropriate training and knowledge to be successful in their given fields. 

Applying To Education Doctoral Programs

Admissions requirements for education doctoral programs depend on the type of school, degree, and program modality desired. A master’s degree, letters of recommendation, GRE score, work experience, and prior grades are a few examples of typical education doctoral application requirements.

Admission Requirements For EdD and PhD Programs

Admission requirements for an  EdD program  typically include:

• A minimum grade point average of 3.0 in the last 60 units of upper-division courses taken
• Passing GRE score
• Three academic or professional letters of recommendation
• A statement of purpose
• Essay on an assigned topic
• Master’s or specialist degree in education 
• Three years practical experience
• Currently employed as a full-time educator
• Application fee

Admission requirements for a  PhD program  typically include:

• Statement of purpose
• Three letters of recommendation 
• College and university transcripts

EdD vs PhD in Education FAQ

• One degree is not considered “better” than the other. Both the PhD and EdD pathways end in a terminal doctorate degree and both programs are designed for different career goals and interests.
• An EdD is a terminal doctorate degree that is designed for the working educational professional (teacher or administrator) who wants to advance their career and apply research in a real-life setting.
• An EdD program is typically three years in length, while a PhD program typically takes four to six years to complete. 
• The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that doctoral degrees in education are a growing profession that offers both rewarding and healthy salaries for those who pursue them.
• https://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/postsecondary-teachers.htm
• https://rossier.usc.edu/phd-vs-edd-in-education-nine-expert-tips-to-help-you-choose-with-infographic/
• https://www.franklin.edu/blog/is-a-doctorate-in-education-worth-it
• https://www.eddprograms.org/resources/is-an-edd-worth-it/
• https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/postsecondary-education-administrators.htm
• https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/top-executives.htm
• https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/elementary-middle-and-high-school-principals.htm
• https://www.waldenu.edu/programs/education/resource/how-to-tell-if-i-want-an-edd-or-a-phd-in-education
• https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/survey-researchers.htm
• https://www.onlineeddprograms.com/faqs/edd-vs-eds-degree
• https://education.ufl.edu/curriculum-teaching/edd/admissions-requirements/
• https://ed.stanford.edu/admissions/application-reqs/phd

Home > Blog > Tips for Online Students > Higher Education News > Is a PhD Degree for Me? This is What it Means

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Is a PhD Degree for Me? This is What it Means

Updated: June 19, 2024

Published: December 26, 2019

Wherever you are in your educational journey, you’ve likely heard of the graduate degree called a PhD degree. You may be wondering what is a PhD degree, what are PhD requirements, and what it means to earn a PhD. At this point, you may be questioning if getting a PhD is the right next step for you.

To receive a PhD, you will add the title “Dr.” to you name, but there is much more to it than that. Here, we will dive into what a PhD means, what it takes to earn one, the different kinds of PhD degrees that exist, and the reasons why you may choose to take the path to graduate with one.

What is a PhD?

First thing’s first, let’s define all the ins and outs of what a PhD means. PhD is an abbreviation for “Doctor of Philosophy.”

A PhD is the ultimate academic degree you can earn in a field of choice. To earn a PhD, you must complete original research and evaluate a theory. More often than not, this includes data analysis. This fact is true no matter where you are in the world.

Unlike undergraduate degrees, a PhD is heavily focused on research. As such, lectures are not all that common when working towards earning the degree, but they do still exist. Rather, students will focus particularly on an aspect of the subject choice to create a dissertation. Along with a written thesis, students must present their work orally (known as a “viva voce”) to a group of examiners.

A PhD is recognized around the world as the highest academic achievement. Therefore, no matter where you go, it bears with it an international standard of understanding and a level of respect. It allows for you to be a professor in academia and work in a highly specialized position within the field.

Requirements and Length of Time

While the payoffs of a PhD may seem enticing, the journey to earn your PhD is not an easy or short one.

More often than not, a PhD comes after a master degree. Yet, that’s not always true. Some institutions allow students to skip the master degree and move straight from a bachelor degree into a PhD program.

The time length of a PhD program can vary, but it generally takes three to four years to complete. If a student chooses to study part-time, it could take upwards of six or seven years to graduate.

In order to be accepted into a PhD program, there are a variety of PhD requirements. The most important requirement tends to be proof of high academic standing from your master degree. Some schools may also factor in your bachelor degree grades.

Grades also play a role in assessing the type of funding you may receive. If you have low grades, but still want to pursue a PhD, you’ll likely have to self-fund.

Along with grades, most institutions will also require the following:

1. Proof of language proficiency in the language you will pursue your PhD.

2. resume of work experience and transcript of academic courses., 3. a personal statement sharing your reasons why you want to pursue a phd in your respective field and perhaps why you are choosing the institution., 4. a phd research proposal, which includes:.

• Your proposed research topic
• Experience regarding the subject matter
• Gaps in current knowledge, your understanding of current findings
• Your research methodology
• How your research and its implications will affect the world

Photo by  Wadi Lissa  on  Unsplash

How to get a phd.

Getting a PhD requires planning, research, and commitment. Some schools vary in their requirements to apply, so it’s best practice to create your list of desired schools and research their needs.

You can choose to get a PhD at any age, but it’s best to start thinking proactively when you are moving along your graduate degree program.

Here are the main steps it takes to get a PhD:

1. Get a bachelor’s degree

2. complete the gre, 3. apply to graduate schools, 4. begin master’s or phd program, 5. if master’s, graduate and then apply again for a phd program, 6. complete phd coursework, 7. start research and write a dissertation, 8. share dissertation and get published, 9. graduate with a phd, types of phd.

There are different categories of PhD degrees. However, students only choose between professional and academic. Higher and honorary PhDs are awarded later in one’s career.

These include:

Granted in traditional subjects by performing academic research (PhD/Doctor of Philosophy/Th.D – Doctor of Theology)

Professional

These contribute directly to a specific vocational field (Doctor of Business Administration, Doctor of Engineering, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Social Science, Doctor of Architecture, etc.)

Higher/Honorary

To honor esteemed researchers and professionals, an honorary PhD may be rewarded (Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Science – Science, Technology, Engineering and Math, Doctor of Science – Arts and Humanities)

Reasons to Get a PhD

Everyone has their own reasons for why they want to get their PhD. Here are some motivations behind why you may choose to pursue the degree:

1. Intellectual challenge:

As the final degree in academics, a PhD will challenge your intellectual abilities.

2. Career goals:

Your chosen career requires that you have the degree (i.e., becoming a professor).

3. Personal passion:

You enjoy the subject matter and want to be an expert in the field.

4. Research:

You have something to contribute or know how to fill a gap in the current information.

Photo by  Abby Chung  from  Pexels

The bottom line.

Earning a Doctor of Philosophy degree is not only for those who wish to become a professor . Whether your future career requires the degree or not, you may still want to pursue the academic challenge.

The most common trait of a PhD relies on research. As such, a government agency or organization may also want to fund you in performing research if you have something worthwhile to contribute to your field of study.

As the ultimate destination in terms of degrees, the title of PhD next to your name is well-respected and universally acknowledged. However, before enrolling in a program, make sure that you have the time, resources, and personal passion to fulfill all the necessary requirements.

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Department of Geography

Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

The Ph.D. is a different kind of degree from the master’s degree. A doctoral candidate in geography must be capable of making original contributions to knowledge and scholarship. For the students to make such contributions, they must concentrate on a narrow and clearly defined field of study. We require, however, that doctoral candidates know more of geography than their particular specialties; thus, any aspirant for a doctorate must obtain master’s training or its equivalent before being admitted to doctoral candidacy. In short, admission to doctoral candidacy is official recognition that a student’s general foundation in the breadth of geography is satisfactory. Students then devote their attention to developing depth in chosen specialties.

The general requirements for a doctoral degree in geography are more rigorous than those for a master’s degree. At the same time, the greater flexibility of the doctoral program allows advanced students to pursue programs of study tailored to their special interests and needs.

Progress through the degree is marked by: 

• Successful performance in a verbal qualifying exam; 
• Four-day written comprehensive exam, with a verbal portion after the written answers have been assessed by the committee;  
• Formal dissertation proposal; and 
• Verbal defense of a completed dissertation.

The four-year Ph.D. program is reserved for students who have a master’s degree from another graduate program. That can be another geography program at another university, a non-geography program at another university, or a non-geography program at Penn State.

Students entering the four-year Ph.D. program must take the doctoral qualifying exam in their first year. A committee from three of the four fields of geography and formally appointed by the Graduate Program Officer will administer the qualifying exam. The qualifying exam can take place any time during the year, but students in the four-year Ph.D. program typically take it during spring semester.

Students in the four-year Ph.D. program complete a comprehensive exam and defend their dissertation proposal in the second year. Depending on the needs of their research, and in agreement with their doctoral committee, students can fulfill these two requirements in either order. Once students have successfully passed their comprehensive exam and defended their proposal, they typically take two years to research, write, and defend their dissertations.

Our online Graduate Student Handbook explains the program requirements for all degrees.

What Are The Highest-Paying Jobs In The U.S.?

Updated: Apr 29, 2024, 1:29pm

Key Takeaways

• Out of the 20 highest-paying occupations according to the BLS, most are in the healthcare industry. ¹
• As of July 2023, the U.S. population stood at more than 334.9 million people. ²
• As of March 2024, 60.3% of the U.S. population aged 16 and older was employed. ³
• The average projected growth rate for all U.S. jobs from 2022–32 is 2.8%, adding approximately 4.7 million jobs total. ⁴
• Between 2019 and 2021, 49.8% of U.S. workers aged 25 years and older held an associate degree or higher. ⁵
• The median wealth of U.S. households increased during the Covid-19 pandemic, from $128,200 in 2019 to $166,900 in 2021. ⁶
• Among race and ethnicity groups in the U.S., Asian American households make the highest median annual income at $108,700, and Black households make the lowest at $52,860. ⁷

Looking for a rewarding, high-paying job? Healthcare jobs rank among the best-paying occupations in the U.S., but becoming a doctor isn’t your only option. In fact, you may not even need a graduate degree to secure one of the highest-paying jobs.

Though in general, incomes increase with degree level, qualifications for the highest-paying jobs in the U.S. vary from no degree requirement to a doctorate plus several years of experience.

U.S. income data shows that several factors influence salaries, including college major, industry, race and gender. Diving into the data reveals a complex relationship between education, income and employment. Keep reading to learn about the United States’ highest-paying jobs.

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Highest-Paying Occupations in the U.S.

What are the highest-paying jobs in America? Unsurprisingly, physicians, surgeons and psychiatrists rank near the top of the list. But chief executives, airline pilots and athletes also rank high.

Many of the highest-paying occupations in America are also among the fastest-growing jobs . For example, computer scientists, software developers, physician assistants and healthcare managers all report six-figure median salaries and projected job growth exceeding 20% from 2022–32, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).

Explore the highest-paying jobs based on BLS salary data in the table below. ¹ , ⁸

Qualifications for High-Earning Jobs

Want to know how to get a high-paying job? Earning a degree is a smart first step since high-earning jobs often require a college degree. And for many high-paying medical jobs , you’ll need a doctorate.

Explore the requirements and earning potential for different jobs with high average salaries below.

Physicians and Surgeons ⁹

• Physicians and surgeons typically need a bachelor’s degree and a medical degree.
• Three to nine years of an internship, a residency or a subspecialization
• One to three years of a fellowship
• In 2022, the median annual pay for physicians and surgeons was $229,300.
• Employment for physicians and surgeons is projected to grow by 3% from 2022–32.

The highest-paying medical jobs include pediatric surgeons, cardiologists, orthopedic surgeons and radiologists . These specialties report average annual salaries between $350,000 and $450,000.

However, medical doctors and surgeons often spend a decade or even longer on post-baccalaureate training and invest significant funds in their education. Median student debt among med students in the class of 2023 was $200,000, according to the Association of American Medical Colleges. 10

Athletes and Sports Competitors ¹¹

• Athletes and sports competitors do not need formal education credentials, but they should have deep knowledge of their sport and strong athletic skills.
• Athletes usually begin training when they’re young and progress through various levels of competition until they reach the professional level.
• Certain sports and states require licensure or other credentials; for example, racecar drivers should have a valid driver’s license and a credential from an approved automobile racing organization to compete.
• In 2022, the median pay for athletes and sports competitors was $94,270 per year.
• Employment for these professionals is projected to grow by 9% from 2022–32, significantly faster than average.

Breaking into the competitive field of sports is difficult but can pay off. Athletes and sports competitors earn a median pay of over $94,000 per year, making this one of the highest-paying jobs without a college degree requirement.

Athlete salaries vary widely, with the lowest-earning 10% athletes earning less than $28,000 per year, while the highest-paid 10% make more than $239,000. The athlete profession is volatile, and careers tend not to last long, adding to the challenges of working in this field.

Dentists ¹²

• Dentists must graduate from an accredited dental program and pass written and clinical exams.
• In 2022, the median pay for dentists was $159,530 per year.
• Employment for dentists is projected to grow by 4% from 2022–32.

Like physicians and surgeons, dentists earn high salaries, but they need a doctorate to practice. The highest-paid dental professionals include oral and maxillofacial surgeons, orthodontists and prosthodontists.

While demand for dentists continues to grow, high educational requirements keep the profession relatively small, with around 155,000 dentists practicing in 2022.

Airline and Commercial Pilots ¹³

• Airline pilots may need a bachelor’s degree and prior commercial or military pilot experience.
• For on-the-job training, commercial pilots typically need flight training and to meet FAA requirements.
• In 2022, the median pay for airline and commercial pilots was $148,900 per year.
• Employment for airline and commercial pilots is projected to grow by 4% from 2022–32.

Airline pilots rank among the highest-paying jobs that require only a bachelor’s degree. Prospective pilots must also meet physical health requirements and complete flight training.

Even the lowest-paid pilots report six-figure salaries, with the highest-paid professionals earning a median pay of $239,000. The highest-paying industries include express delivery services and scheduled air transportation. ¹³

U.S. Employment Rates and Layoffs

With 2023 layoffs making headlines, it’s worth looking at the U.S. unemployment rate over the past two decades. The country’s current sub-4.0% unemployment rate is historically low. ³ Economic events such as the Great Recession and the Covid-19 pandemic have shaped U.S. employment rates and layoffs in the 21st century, putting many people on the hunt for a recession-proof job .

U.S. Employment Grew Steadily From the End of the 2008–09 Great Recession to the Beginning of the Covid-19 Pandemic ¹⁴ , ¹⁵

• The U.S. unemployment rate in December 2007 rose from 5% to 10%.
• By late 2009, nearly 15 million people were unemployed.
• After the Great Recession led to a national spike in unemployment, the country’s labor force slowly recovered.
• By 2017, total employment numbers grew to 5% higher than in 2007.

0.4%: Average Annual Growth of U.S. Labor Force From 2010–20 ¹⁴ , ¹⁶

• By 2019, 88% of men and 76% of women between the ages of 25 and 54 were working or seeking work.
• The national unemployment rate surged to 13% in the second quarter of 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.
• Unemployment lowered to 6.7% by the fourth quarter of 2020.

1.6 Million: Layoffs as of December 2023 ¹⁷ , ¹⁸

• The industries most affected by 2023 layoffs included professional and business services, leisure and hospitality, and construction.
• In April 2020, Covid-19 lockdowns led to the layoffs of 16 million Americans.
• While the pandemic continued to affect the workforce, the number of layoffs dropped to 1.6 million in December 2023.

3.8%: U.S. Unemployment Rate as of March 2024 ³ , ¹⁹

• North Dakota (2%)
• South Dakota (2.1%)
• Vermont (2.2%)
• Maryland (2.5%)
• Nebraska (2.5%)
• In contrast with the high unemployment rate in 2020, the U.S. unemployment rate dropped below 4.0% in 2024.
• As of 2024, the groups with the highest unemployment rate include teenagers and those with a high school diploma or less.

6.4 Million: Unemployed People in the U.S. as of March 2024 ³ , ¹⁹

• California (5.3%)
• The District of Columbia (5.2%)
• Nevada (5.1%)
• Washington (4.8%)
• New Jersey (4.8%)
• Most of America’s unemployed workers had been unemployed for less than five weeks, followed by those unemployed for 5 to 14 weeks.

Average Income by Demographic

In 2021, the average income in the U.S. exceeded $60,000 for the first time, according to data from the Social Security Administration .

That’s a significant increase over the $50,000 average wage in 2017 or the $40,000 average wage in 2007. Since 1985, only one year—2009, the depths of the Great Recession—has seen a drop in average wages.

$48,060: 2023 Median Individual Income in the U.S. 20 , 7

U.S. Census data reveals that the median household income exceeded $74,000 in 2022. As the number of people in the household increases, so does the median household income.

Earnings by Race and Gender

• In 2023, full-time wage and salary working women earned a median weekly income of $1,005, which was 83.6% of the $1,202 median earned by men. ²¹
• In 2022, Black women earned 70% as much as white men, and Hispanic women earned only 65% as much. ²²
• On average, white U.S. households have significantly more wealth than all but Asian households. ⁶

Race and gender influence income, with white and Asian Americans reporting higher median incomes than Black or Hispanic Americans. Women also reported lower earnings than men, with Black and Hispanic women experiencing the largest gender pay gap.

Women earn less in spite of the fact that they are more likely to hold college degrees than men, with 48% of employed women and 41% of employed men holding a bachelor’s degree or higher in 2022. ²²

Income, Employment and Educational Attainment

How does educational attainment––also known your degree level––impact income and employment? The research is clear: Earning a college degree usually equates to a higher household income, lower unemployment rate and higher lifetime earnings. And yet most U.S. workers do not hold a college degree.

While a higher level of education often pays off, the degree type matters. The highest-paying majors include business and STEM, while liberal arts, education and fine arts majors report lower wages. ²³

50.3%: Proportion of U.S. Workers Ages 25 and Older Without College Degrees ⁵

• More than half of U.S. workers do not hold a college degree, yet several of the highest-paying careers require one.
• College graduates make up 76.5% of chief executives, for example, and 67.5% of athletes and sports competitors.

$118,300: Median Annual Household Income Where Householder Holds a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher ⁷

• Some college: $68,690
• High school, no college: $51,470
• No high school diploma: $34,850

Household income and educational attainment share a strong correlation. Compared to households where a high school diploma represents the highest educational attainment, householders with a bachelor’s degree or higher report a median household income nearly twice as high. And only households with bachelor’s degrees report a six-figure median annual income.

$60,000: Median Annual Income for Recent College Graduates With Bachelor’s Degrees, Ages 22 to 27 ²³

For high school graduates of the same age, median earnings were $36,000 per year. This shows that even for early-career professionals, a bachelor’s degree tends to pay off.

Income and Unemployment Rate by Degree Attainment

Professionals with higher-level degrees tend to report higher median salaries and lower unemployment rates. In fact, a bachelor’s degree means nearly $600 more in weekly pay compared with a high school diploma. And when comparing people with a high school diploma and doctorate, those with a high school diploma report a four-times higher unemployment rate. ²⁴

Lifetime Earnings: Workers With Bachelor’s Degrees Earn 75% More Than Those With Only High School Diplomas ²⁵

Degree level affects lifetime earnings, with a significant boost for those with a bachelor’s degree or higher. As the lifetime earning figures below demonstrate, college is worth it .

• Professional degree: $4.7 million
• Doctorate: $4 million
• Master’s degree: $3.2 million
• Bachelor’s degree: $2.8 million
• Associate degree: $2 million
• Some college, no degree: $1.9 million
• High school diploma: $1.6 million
• No high school diploma: $1.2 million

College Majors With the Highest Median Midcareer Wages ²³

When it comes time to choose a major , you’re also shaping your earning potential. Based on mid-career wages, earning an engineering degree offers the highest income.

• Chemical engineering: $133,000
• Computer engineering : $125,000
• Aerospace engineering: $120,000
• Electrical engineering : $112,000
• Mechanical engineering : $111,000
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates
• U.S. Census Bureau, QuickFacts
• BLS, April 5, 2024 Employment Situation Summary
• BLS, Sept. 6, 2023 Employment Projections News Release
• BLS, Educational Attainment for Workers 25 Years and Older by Detailed Occupation
• Pew Research Center, “Wealth Surged in the Pandemic, but Debt Endures for Poorer Black and Hispanic Families”
• U.S. Census Bureau, Income in the United States: 2022
• BLS, Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH)
• BLS OOH, Physicians and Surgeons
• Association of American Medical Colleges, You Can Afford Medical School
• BLS OOH, Athletes and Sports Competitors
• BLS OOH, Dentists
• BLS OOH, Airline and Commercial Pilots
• BLS Monthly Labor Review (MLR), Projections Overview and Highlights, 2020–30
• BLS MLR, “Great Recession, Great Recovery? Trends From the Current Population Survey”
• BLS MLR, “Unemployment Rises in 2020, as the Country Battles the Covid-19 Pandemic”
• BLS, April 2, 2024 Job Openings and Labor Turnover Summary
• BLS, The Economics Daily (TED), “Temporary Layoffs Remain High Following Unprecedented Surge in Early 2020”
• BLS, Local Area Unemployment Statistics
• Social Security Administration, Average Wage Index
• BLS TED, “Women’s Earnings Were 83.6% of Men’s in 2023”
• Pew Research Center, “The Enduring Grip of the Gender Pay Gap”
• Federal Reserve Bank of New York, The Labor Market for Recent College Graduates
• BLS Employment Projections, Education Pays
• Georgetown University, the College Payoff

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About the Highest-Paying Jobs

What is the highest-paid job in the world.

Healthcare jobs rank among the highest-paid occupations in the world. In the U.S., pediatric surgeons reported the highest average salaries, earning over $449,320 in May 2023, according to the BLS.

What career has the highest salary?

Physicians and surgeons report the highest salaries in the U.S., with pediatric surgeons earning the highest mean wage at nearly $450,000 per year, the BLS reports. Cardiologists, orthopedic surgeons, radiologists and surgeons also rank among the highest-paid occupations in the country.

What is the highest-paying IT job?

Computer and information research scientists report the highest pay in tech, with a median salary of $145,080 in May 2023, per the BLS. The highest-paying tech jobs requiring only a bachelor’s degree include software developer, computer network architect and information security analyst.

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With five years of experience as a writer and editor in the higher education and career development space, Ilana has a passion for creating accessible, relevant content that demystifies the higher-ed landscape for traditional and nontraditional learners alike. Prior to joining Forbes Advisor's education team, Ilana wrote and edited for websites such as BestColleges.com and AffordableCollegesOnline.org.

The 15 Graduate Schools With the Best Return on Investment

The post-college job landscape can be daunting. Should you just go to grad school instead? That depends on what you plan to study.

Obviously not all grad programs are created equal. And not everyone has the resources to spend another five to six figures on a degree with not-so-great financial or professional prospects (or worse, one that no one will have any use for by the time you’re 30). So we asked IvyWise for a few guidelines for gauging whether a master's degree is the right path for you.

First, ask yourself why. Start with some soul-searching, advises Team IvyWise. Be honest about your motivations. Are you a recent college graduate who is unsure about what you want to do? Then taking time off to reflect, and then getting a job that puts your bachelor’s to use, is better than spending more years and more money on another degree you’re not even that excited about. On the other hand, if you are crystal clear about your long-term career goals—and how this degree will help achieve them—then grad school may be worth it. Have C-suite ambitions? Then a master’s is essential. According to a 2021 study , half of North American CEOs have one, while 74% of Europe’s top executives do.

When should you go? “There are advantages to working in the field for a few years prior to applying to graduate schools, as it can give you a better understanding of yourself, in particular the knowledge and skill gaps you need to fill to advance in your chosen field,” Team IvyWise says. “It also allows you to contribute your professional experiences in the classroom.” Plus, some employers will even pay for grad school. But again, it all depends on your personal goals. Do keep in mind, though, that certain programs, especially MBAs, often want applicants to have work experience.

How to find the right program. Ultimately, you know what’s best for you, but look for certain clues. For example, “programs that emphasize real-world application in their curriculums, and where you can participate in internships and applied learning projects, contribute to industry and academic publications, and receive mentorship,” Team IvyWise says.

And then there is the ROI. That specialized, skills-based expertise is becoming an increasingly valuable asset should be a factor when determining whether a certain program is going to be worth it in the end. To help narrow it all down, we asked IvyWise's consultants for a list of the degrees (and the top schools for each) with the best return on investment . Below, with insight gleaned from metrics like job opportunities, student feedback, and earning potential, among other things—as well as with the help of resources like the U.S. World News Report, Georgetown University's Center on Education and the Workforce, and the Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity —they make the case for which MBA programs, STEM subjects, and liberal arts degrees are really going to pay off.

The Best MBA Programs

Despite the oft-cited opinion that going to business school doesn’t amount to more than a very costly networking exercise, there are plenty of reasons to justify the time and financial investment it takes to obtain an MBA, especially if you want to change careers, switch industries, or just earn more money. According to IvyWise's consultants, in today’s job market an increasing number of employers are looking at grad school degrees as an indicator that candidates have acquired valuable skills, including leadership, teamwork, and strategic thinking.

To maximize your investment towards an MBA, “look for programs with far-reaching industry alumni networks and robust career services,” advises the IvyWise team, who created a list of the top business schools that are worth it, based on data both quantitative (median starting salary, tuition, ranking) and qualitative (including skills acquired, career paths, and fellowship opportunities).

Georgia Institute of Technology

SCHELLER COLLEGE OF BUSINESS Atlanta, Georgia

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $189,539 Lifetime return on investment: $1,623,056

“Georgia Tech’s MBA program focuses on the intersection of business and technology, offering 14 STEM-designated concentrations, including sustainability and the TI:GER program, which prepares students to become technology innovators.”

University of Texas at Austin

MCCOMBS SCHOOL OF BUSINESS Austin, Texas

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $207,935 Lifetime ROI: $1,879,816

“McCombs’s home city of Austin is consistently named one of the best cities in the U.S. for business, technology, entrepreneurship, startups, job growth, real estate, and livability, so students will surely be able to explore their professional interests in a wide variety of fields.”

Indiana University

KELLEY SCHOOL OF BUSINESS Bloomington, Indiana

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $170,927 Lifetime ROI: $1,593,023

“Kelley’s MBA program is particularly strong in professional development, beginning during orientation with Me, Inc., a one-of-a-kind business professional development workshop that guides students to identify the right professional fits for their skills, personalities, and values—and ultimately setting them up for long-term success.”

University of Michigan

STEPHEN M. ROSS SCHOOL OF BUSINESS Ann Arbor, Michigan

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $218,806 Lifetime ROI: $2,300,312

“UMich’s MBA offering is known for REAL (Ross Experiences in Action-Based Learning), a program that allows students to learn business by actually doing business. Hallmarks of the approach includes providing resources for new business ideas, offering seven-week-long consulting projects in 20 countries, letting students manage one of six student-led investment funds overseeing millions of dollars, and having them manage real businesses.”

Duke University

FUQUA SCHOOL OF BUSINESS Durham, North Carolina

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $228,716 Lifetime ROI: $2,646,085

“Fuqua’s Global Academic Travel Experience (GATE) encourages students to dive into international business for two months, starting with six weeks of interactive coursework on a particular country’s history and current economic landscape, followed by an intense 2-week tour to the country or region studied that includes meetings with business and government leaders in a wide variety of industries and economic sectors.”

Top STEM Degrees

Engineering.

The School: MIT

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $386,193 Lifetime ROI: $6,534,312

“Engineering degrees are routinely in the top five highest earning master’s degrees. With jobs growing across the discipline and median annual salaries falling in the high $150,000 range for some areas, a career in engineering ensures growth and financial stability. MIT’s rank as the #1 school for engineering, plus its strong selection of graduate programs, world-class faculty, extensive industry pipelines, and cutting-edge lab facilities make MIT an excellent (and highly competitive) choice. The Master of Engineering in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (MEng) program enables students to solve some of the world’s hardest problems and conduct groundbreaking research to drive progress in every sector touched by electrical engineering, computer science, and artificial intelligence and decision-making.”

Computer Science

The School: Columbia University

FU FOUNDATION SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCE New York, New York

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $463,450 Lifetime ROI: $6,041,342

“No surprise here, as steady career advancement and strong earning potential makes computer science a lucrative academic discipline. Particularly high-growth areas include AI, Machine Learning, Big Data, Cybersecurity, and Software Development. Columbia’s M.S. in Computer Science program provides advanced education in several tracks, including computational biology, natural language processing, and software systems, while also offering opportunities to participate in state-of-the-art research. In addition, its strong reputation, robust alumni network, well-connected faculty, and NYC location make it ideal for establishing industry connections and getting applied experience—and all contribute to the high ROI of the program.”

Applied & Computational Mathematics

The School: University of Washington, Seattle

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS Seattle, Washington

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $169,280 Lifetime ROI: $909,219

“Actuaries and economists are some of the highest paying jobs in this field, but this is a discipline that can be applied across so many sectors, including finance, business, technology, government, scientific research, and healthcare. UW is internationally known for being at the forefront of cutting-edge research, and the Department of Applied Mathematics offers a welcoming environment that is also flexible for working professionals, thanks to both in-person and online options. As a top-rated public institution with strong value for money, UW is known for its exceptional research profile and collaborative faculty—not to mention the perks of its location in Seattle, and its proximity to beautiful natural settings.”

Architecture

The School: Notre Dame University

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE Notre Dame, Indiana

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $137,145 Lifetime ROI: $1,306,807

“As we face the worsening impacts of climate change, architects are at the forefront of thoughtful and sustainable design to adapt to new demands. Using alternative and recycled materials, engaging in eco-friendly design practices, and repurposing old buildings are some of the ways this field is evolving to meet society’s needs. Not to mention all the advances in technology, which make this a particularly exciting time to be an architect. A unique facet of Notre Dame’s Master of Architecture program is that all students are required to spend a semester in Rome to do a deep dive into Italy’s rich history of successful urbanism and lasting architecture. A classical approach with a focus on principled design and community is the Notre Dame program’s M.O., while the emphasis on academic advising and teaching assistant positions, as well as a 100% placement rate upon graduation, are some of the top reasons it is a stellar choice for those interested in architecture.”

The School: Ohio State University

COLLEGE OF NURSING Columbus, Ohio

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $113,590 Lifetime ROI: $686,656

“Two million new jobs will be added in the healthcare sector in the next 10 years, and in particular, there is a 38% projected growth for nurse anesthetists, nurse midwives, and nurse practitioner roles. Practitioners, especially, are highly skilled medical professionals who enjoy a great degree of career fulfillment, versatility, and advancement. OSU’s option for a Graduate Entry Master of Science in Nursing welcomes students with a college degree in a different major to transition to the field after meeting specific prerequisites, while the traditional master’s program is designed for those who have already obtained a bachelor’s degree in nursing. No matter which path a student chooses, the OSU College of Nursing is consistently ranked among the best in the U.S. and sets graduates up for success in roles across private practices, clinics, hospitals, managed care organizations, and governmental agencies and across specialties like pediatrics, nurse-midwifery, psychiatry, and women’s health.”

Top Liberal Arts Degrees

Applied psychology.

The School: University of Southern California

DANA & DAVID DORNSIFE COLLEGE OF LETTERS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES Los Angeles, California

Median annual salary 10 years after graduationn: $118,274 Lifetime ROI: $812,883

“A master’s in psychology will enable you to pursue work across industries, from education to healthcare to the private sector, and in various roles like school counseling, social work, corporate training, and criminology. With a projected 6% job growth in the next ten years, this is a great career path. USC’s applied psychology students explore how psychology fosters organizational success, setting them up for a wide variety of careers, including learning and development; user experience; diversity, equity, and inclusion; consumer insights; and organizational consulting. The program also has exciting global immersion components and robust career services. The emphasis on cross-sectoral applied training is apparent in the alumni who have jobs in large consulting firms, innovative tech companies, and media, as well as those traditional counseling roles. Plus, an online option provides flexibility for working professionals.”

Communications

The School: Northwestern University

SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATION Evanston, Illinois

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $118,496 Lifetime ROI: $983,693

“Communications encompasses a broad range of roles across marketing, technical writing, human resources, public relations, social media, and journalism. Salaries and earning potential will vary widely across these areas, but at the higher end, the median salary for advertising, marketing, and promotions managers was $135,900 in 2019. Students pursuing a Master of Science in Communication at Northwestern can customize their programs to suit the skills and topics they are most passionate about, with innovative elective options like brand management, crisis communication management, generative AI & the media, and public persuasion. Northwestern’s MSC is one of the most user-friendly options out there, with a rolling admissions process, online modalities, and customizable curricular options. It also takes just one year to complete, making it a more affordable option.”

Human Resources

The School: Pepperdine University

GRAZIADIO BUSINESS SCHOOL Malibu, California

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $178,885 Lifetime ROI: $1,399,249

“According to the BLS, jobs in this sector will grow 5% between 2022 and 2032. Human Resource professionals can find particularly high paying jobs in the professional, scientific, and technical service industries. Pepperdine’s online Master of Science in Human Resources program offers a curriculum aligned with the official requirements of the Society for Human Resource Management and provides the relevant skills needed by modern HR professionals. A standout online option for busy professionals, the 16-month program features two immersion experiences in Los Angeles, which enables cohort community-building and knowledge application in professional settings. The program has an extensive global network and offers robust career development services, including one-on-one executive coaching.”

International Affairs & Public Policy

The School: American University

SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL SERVICE Washington, D.C.

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $120,343 Lifetime ROI: $565,479

“For those who enjoy public service and international engagement, careers in these fields can facilitate highly rewarding opportunities to make an impact on the local, national, or global levels. AU has two excellent schools for international affairs master’s degrees and public affairs and is ranked by U.S. News & World Report as #5 in Global Policy and Administration, #12 in Public Policy, and #13 in Public Affairs. Students getting the M.A. in International Affairs Policy and Analysis (IAPA) self-design specializations by selecting courses in areas such as environmental policy, foreign policy, and peace-building, and apply their analytical skills and substantive experiences to real-world problems in the Integrated Policy Exercise course, a capstone experience. The Master in Public Policy (MPP) program emphasizes experiential learning opportunities in Washington, D.C., and students select from 11 concentrations, like Education Policy, Public Financial Management, and Cyber Policy and Management.”

The School: Johns Hopkins University

KRIEGER SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Baltimore, Maryland

Median annual salary 10 years after graduation: $166,959 Lifetime ROI: $1,560,302

“Providing an extremely useful and broadly applicable skill set, economics degrees can be leveraged in industry roles or for advanced study. Specialized skills will enable you to take on high-level positions, including those dealing in personal financial management, national budget concerns, or international lending. (According to the BLS, in 2022, econ master’s degree holders made about 15% more than those who just completed a bachelor’s degree.) JHU’s M.S. in Applied Economics program focuses on preparing students to support decision-making processes involving global markets and policy, while the M.S. in Financial Economics sets students up for careers that focus on modeling financial markets, forecasting trends, and elevating decision-making in both the public and private sectors. Multiple program modalities, three intake terms, and numerous electives make this a highly customizable option. Plus, Johns Hopkins’s MSFE has a lower tuition than similar programs in business schools. For those who want to pursue an in-person degree, the program’s D.C. campus scores high for professional networking and a vibrant city life. The program is also heavily focused on career placement, ensuring your time and money are well-spent.”

Leena Kim is an editor at Town & Country , where she covers travel, jewelry, education, weddings, and culture.

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The College set to launch 16 new degree programs

12 of those programs aim to increase accessibility for online students

Students working with School of Earth and Space Exploration Professor Arjun Heimsath collecting data in the field. Photo courtesy Pamela Zager-Maya

The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Arizona State University is launching 16 new academic programs in fall 2024. Twelve of those programs will include online formats, expanding learning opportunities for students across the country.

Ara Austin , senior director of online engagement and strategic initiatives and a clinical associate professor in the  School of Molecular Sciences , knows the importance of growing the amount of options for online students.

“The College offers online degree programs which are not offered elsewhere across natural sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines,” she said.

“In addition to the required coursework, online students can participate in student organizations, research opportunities and internships remotely. These experiences help students to engage in the greater ASU community and set them up for success after graduation.”

One specific program overseen by Austin was created to further engage online students and offer unique experiences surrounding research opportunities. The  Online Undergraduate Research Scholars (OURS) program helps students participate in research projects in a remote setting.

“Research experiences are crucial for students considering graduate programs, and it gives the students a way to immerse themselves in a specific field or topic that they are passionate about in an applied way,” Austin said.

Between online and on-ground options, The College is dedicated to creating supportive and accessible environments for all students.

Explore some of the new offerings available this fall:

Graduate certificate in American Studies: Online graduate students now have the ability to survey the complexities surrounding politics and social change in the United States. The certificate trains students in applied research methods, critical methodologies, history and the use of storytelling to represent diverse communities.  

Master of Urban and Environmental Planning: Now offered in an online platform, students from around the world can begin their career in planning in public, private, consulting, development and nonprofit sectors. This program offers the same curriculum available to on-campus students. 

BS in biological sciences (neurobiology, physiology and behavior):   Online students can now dive into this concentration of biological sciences. Students will discover how animals and humans function, think and behave, and explore molecular and cellular processes of organismal systems. The program will also provide the tools necessary to understand ecological and evolutionary influences, and develop holistic approaches to animal functions. Students also have the existing on-campus option.

Minor in classics:  Students wanting to expand their knowledge of the ancient world will become immersed in the language and literature of Greek and Roman antiquity through this new minor. The on-campus program includes courses in philosophy, language, art and religion to provide a background on Greek and Roman antiquity.

Minor in classical civilizations: Available for on-campus students, this minor provides a solid grounding in ancient civilization and mythology, along with an interdisciplinary introduction to the ancient world as a whole. Students can uncover insights into any major, as the goal of the program is to aid in obtaining a clearer vision of the future by studying the wisdom of the past.

BA in culture, technology and environment: Launched last year, the culture, technology and environment program on the Tempe campus became the first to draw from all three schools within the humanities division at The College. Now students will be able to engage in humanistic approaches to an array of issues through the new online degree program. The degree addresses current issues such as approaching equitable and diverse global citizenship, climate change, environmental justice and ethical disputes surrounding technology.

Read more: The future is a story

BS in earth and environmental sciences: The new earth and environmental sciences degree will teach students how to examine the physical sciences and process-oriented geosciences focused on Earth’s surface environment while establishing foundational understandings about the evolution of Earth’s systems. It provides another option for students, along with the existing  BA in earth and environmental sciences . Both degrees have also been made available through ASU Online.

BA in English (narrative studies): A new English degree concentration will be available for students on the Tempe campus this fall. The program will dive into the various forms, contexts and cultures of narrative. Those interested in dissecting the nature of storytelling will learn methods to interrogate the social, historical, aesthetic and ethical dimensions of stories.

MA in global security (irregular warfare):   The new online graduate program will allow students to focus their study topics on warfare such as proxy wars, counterinsurgency, narrative warfare and other forms of modern conflict. Courses teach both theoretical and practical aspects of irregular warfare and its importance in the global security environment.

Read more: ASU launches new international relations program

Graduate certificate in Holocaust and genocide studies: The new online graduate certificate gives students the necessary context to further educate others about the Holocaust and other acts of genocide. This certificate helps students understand representation, memorialization and commemoration along with providing theoretical and historiographical grounding to understand the Holocaust and examining other genocides in world history.

BA in international relations:  This new degree, available on the Tempe campus and online, provides students with vital knowledge of intelligence; diplomacy and international trade; law; and institutions as they head into the world of public service, and prepares them to work with some of the field’s experts and policy practitioners.

Read more: First-of-its-kind online Italian minor launches at ASU

BS in international relations:   Also available on the Tempe campus and online, this new degree helps students develop analytical and quantitative skills in order to take on careers in international public service. Students will learn about data-driven solutions to enact meaningful change in public, nonprofit and private sectors.

Minor in Italian:   Launching this fall, the new online minor will become the first and only program of its kind in the country. Online students will now have the opportunity to learn the Italian language while enhancing their knowledge of Italian history, geography and environment. The minor also offers opportunities to study abroad to further expand linguistic skills or to engage in research collaborations. Students also have the existing on-campus option.

MS in neuroscience: A new master’s degree on the Tempe campus offers students the opportunity to gain advanced knowledge of fundamental neuroscientific concepts. Students will be able to understand the genetic, molecular, cellular and circuit-level changes that occur in the presence of neurodegenerative disease, altered development and disorders.

Graduate certificate in public history: Students looking to kick-start a career as a public historian will gain necessary and applicable skills to do so through the school’s new online graduate certificate. This program allows graduate students to explore local and community history, museum studies, archival training and more. Students also have the existing on-campus option.

Undergraduate certificate in workplace communication: This certificate available on the Tempe campus will teach participants how to lead various teams and create well-versed presentations. Communication skills learned in this program will complement a wide range of majors and will aid in maximizing productivity and satisfaction in professional settings.

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I moved to Thailand for graduate school. The free degree I earned isn't recognized in the US, but it inspired my side business.

• Charissa Enget, 29, was granted a full-ride scholarship to earn a master's degree in Thailand.
• She thought the campus was in Bangkok, but it was in Khampaeng Saen — a district two hours away.
• After returning to the US, she found out the degree was not American-accredited, but it inspired her side business.

This as-told-to essay is based on a conversation with Charissa Enget, a content creator and cybersecurity architect who gained her graduate degree in Thailand. It has been edited for length and clarity.

My family moved around when I was a kid. We spent two years in China and a few more in Venezuela. Those experiences sparked my interest in living abroad again as an adult.

So, after I graduated with a mechanical engineering degree from Oklahoma State University in 2017 and was trying to decide where to go for a graduate degree , I thought it could be the perfect opportunity.

I was open to moving anywhere and also applied to schools in Spain and New Zealand, but Kasetsart University in Thailand was the first school to offer me a full ride for the two-year Master of Engineering program.

My mom freaked out about how far away I would be. She didn't come around until the day we went to the airport. Her anxiousness had gotten me a bit scared of going as well. But I had come up with a plan: if things went south, I would just ditch school and spend all the money I'd saved on a long vacation .

I thought my school was in the capital, but found out it was in the countryside

When university representatives picked me up at the airport and told me it would be a two-hour ride to the campus, I was confused.

"What do you mean it's a two-hour journey? It's only 20 minutes away," I said. They looked at each other and started laughing.

They replied, "That's the Bangkok campus. You're going through the Kamphaeng Saen campus!"

My whole stomach dropped. I had no idea what I was getting into. When I applied for the scholarship, I thought Bangkok was the only campus.

It turns out that the school has three other campuses. I had misunderstood the university website, probably because it's mostly in Thai, and had been reading the translated copy.

I felt lonely for the first few months

Since the students on campus didn't speak English, my professor was the only person I could talk to. Sometimes, I would go for days without speaking to anybody except my mom on the phone.

Depending on the class, the professors would either teach in Thai and translate it to English for me, or I just got taught one-on-one.

I thought about quitting a few times during the first couple of weeks but decided to give myself six months and try to learn the language . My plan was that if I still hated it, then I could quit.

I tried my hardest to learn Thai. I studied it for about two hours every day on an app called ThaiPod101. After four months, I understood my first spoken sentence. Six months later, I could have basic conversations.

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I made some good Thai friends, and that made life way better. I got enveloped in Thai culture because I could talk to them. My Thai friends would invite me to their houses on the weekends to have dinner with their families. They accepted me with open arms.

The university experience was different from what I was used to

In my Thai university, they were taught engineering from the ground up. For example, they would learn how to program a scoreboard and make it work because they build everything to save on cost. So, I learned more in-depth about all these technologies.

My American university felt more innovative . As an undergraduate in the US, I had to think creatively to solve engineering problems. In Thailand, they preferred that I follow procedures and instruction manuals.

The cost of living was also much lower. I didn't cook at all for two years, as every meal costs around $1.50.

I lived in an off-campus dorm, and it was fully furnished with a TV, refrigerator, bathroom, and balcony. The cost was covered by my scholarship.

Without a scholarship, the graduate program would have still been more affordable than pursuing a graduate degree in the US.

According to Kasetsart University's  website , master's students pay around $1,200 to $1,500 a year for tuition and an additional international student fee of $512 per semester.

In comparison, tuition for a similar program at Oklahoma State University for out-of-state students, excluding other fees, is $17,890 a year.

I've moved back to the US but travel back to Thailand often

After completing my graduate degree in 2020, I returned to the US. Although my master's degree was not American-accredited, it did make for good conversations during interviews. I now work as a cybersecurity architect.

I've also started a side business, where I run group tours of around 20 people to Thailand once or twice a year. We visit places like Chiang Mai and Bangkok to see waterfalls and hill tribes and just experience Thailand together. I charge around $1,800 to $2,000 per person, depending on the destination.

Now, I live in Houston, and in my two years there, I've only met two of my neighbors.

But in Thailand, people were always outside everywhere I walked, and they talked and got to know me.

I liked that about living in Thailand — you're never lonely there.

Do you have a story about choosing to attend college outside the US that you want to share? Get in touch with the reporter, Erin: [email protected] .

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