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Research in tourism sustainability: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis from 1990 to 2022

Affiliations.

1 Centre for Local Economic Development (CENLED), University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
2 University of Manouba, Tunisia.
3 DHET-NRF Sarchi Entrepreneurship Education, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
4 University of Technology and Applied Sciences, Salalah, Oman.
5 Faculty of Tourism & Hotels, Fayoum University, Egypt.
PMID: 37636413
PMCID: PMC10447941
DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18874

Although multiple bibliometric studies have been conducted to analyze publications on various topics within tourism, little attention has been dedicated to systematically analyzing scholarly production on the topic of tourism sustainability. Consequently, this paper aims to conduct a comprehensive bibliometric and systematic review of tourism sustainability. The collected data include 6326 publications retrieved from the Scopus database. The bibliometric technique consists of two major analyses: one on the domain (levels of analysis) and one on knowledge structures. The results indicated a remarkable evolution of tourism sustainability research involving authors, sources, and publications on this subject. Several associations and nations made significant contributions to this theme. Moreover, science mapping approaches were used to thoroughly grasp tourism sustainability-related research's social, intellectual, and conceptual structure. By giving in-depth overviews and insights connected to tourism sustainability and its knowledge structures, this review article has various implications for scientific study and practice.

Keywords: Bibliometrics; Knowledge structures; Sustainability; Tourism; Tourism sustainability.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Article contents

The role of tourism in sustainable development.

Robert B. Richardson Robert B. Richardson Community Sustainability, Michigan State University
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.387
Published online: 25 March 2021

Sustainable development is the foundational principle for enhancing human and economic development while maintaining the functional integrity of ecological and social systems that support regional economies. Tourism has played a critical role in sustainable development in many countries and regions around the world. In developing countries, tourism development has been used as an important strategy for increasing economic growth, alleviating poverty, creating jobs, and improving food security. Many developing countries are in regions that are characterized by high levels of biological diversity, natural resources, and cultural heritage sites that attract international tourists whose local purchases generate income and support employment and economic development. Tourism has been associated with the principles of sustainable development because of its potential to support environmental protection and livelihoods. However, the relationship between tourism and the environment is multifaceted, as some types of tourism have been associated with negative environmental impacts, many of which are borne by host communities.

The concept of sustainable tourism development emerged in contrast to mass tourism, which involves the participation of large numbers of people, often in structured or packaged tours. Mass tourism has been associated with economic leakage and dependence, along with negative environmental and social impacts. Sustainable tourism development has been promoted in various ways as a framing concept in contrast to these economic, environmental, and social impacts. Some literature has acknowledged a vagueness of the concept of sustainable tourism, which has been used to advocate for fundamentally different strategies for tourism development that may exacerbate existing conflicts between conservation and development paradigms. Tourism has played an important role in sustainable development in some countries through the development of alternative tourism models, including ecotourism, community-based tourism, pro-poor tourism, slow tourism, green tourism, and heritage tourism, among others that aim to enhance livelihoods, increase local economic growth, and provide for environmental protection. Although these models have been given significant attention among researchers, the extent of their implementation in tourism planning initiatives has been limited, superficial, or incomplete in many contexts.

The sustainability of tourism as a global system is disputed among scholars. Tourism is dependent on travel, and nearly all forms of transportation require the use of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels for energy. The burning of fossil fuels for transportation generates emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to global climate change, which is fundamentally unsustainable. Tourism is also vulnerable to both localized and global shocks. Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to localized shocks include the impacts of natural disasters, disease outbreaks, and civil unrest. Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to global shocks include the impacts of climate change, economic crisis, global public health pandemics, oil price shocks, and acts of terrorism. It is clear that tourism has contributed significantly to economic development globally, but its role in sustainable development is uncertain, debatable, and potentially contradictory.

conservation
economic development
environmental impacts
sustainable development
sustainable tourism
tourism development

Introduction

Sustainable development is the guiding principle for advancing human and economic development while maintaining the integrity of ecosystems and social systems on which the economy depends. It is also the foundation of the leading global framework for international cooperation—the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015 ). The concept of sustainable development is often associated with the publication of Our Common Future (World Commission on Environment and Development [WCED], 1987 , p. 29), which defined it as “paths of human progress that meet the needs and aspirations of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” Concerns about the environmental implications of economic development in lower income countries had been central to debates about development studies since the 1970s (Adams, 2009 ). The principles of sustainable development have come to dominate the development discourse, and the concept has become the primary development paradigm since the 1990s.

Tourism has played an increasingly important role in sustainable development since the 1990s, both globally and in particular countries and regions. For decades, tourism has been promoted as a low-impact, non-extractive option for economic development, particularly for developing countries (Gössling, 2000 ). Many developing countries have managed to increase their participation in the global economy through development of international tourism. Tourism development is increasingly viewed as an important tool in increasing economic growth, alleviating poverty, and improving food security. Tourism enables communities that are poor in material wealth, but rich in history and cultural heritage, to leverage their unique assets for economic development (Honey & Gilpin, 2009 ). More importantly, tourism offers an alternative to large-scale development projects, such as construction of dams, and to extractive industries such as mining and forestry, all of which contribute to emissions of pollutants and threaten biodiversity and the cultural values of Indigenous Peoples.

Environmental quality in destination areas is inextricably linked with tourism, as visiting natural areas and sightseeing are often the primary purpose of many leisure travels. Some forms of tourism, such as ecotourism, can contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and the protection of ecosystem functions in destination areas (Fennell, 2020 ; Gössling, 1999 ). Butler ( 1991 ) suggests that there is a kind of mutual dependence between tourism and the environment that should generate mutual benefits. Many developing countries are in regions that are characterized by high levels of species diversity, natural resources, and protected areas. Such ideas imply that tourism may be well aligned with the tenets of sustainable development.

However, the relationship between tourism and the environment is complex, as some forms of tourism have been associated with negative environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater use, land use, and food consumption (Butler, 1991 ; Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ; Hunter & Green, 1995 ; Vitousek et al., 1997 ). Assessments of the sustainability of tourism have highlighted several themes, including (a) parks, biodiversity, and conservation; (b) pollution and climate change; (c) prosperity, economic growth, and poverty alleviation; (d) peace, security, and safety; and (e) population stabilization and reduction (Buckley, 2012 ). From a global perspective, tourism contributes to (a) changes in land cover and land use; (b) energy use, (c) biotic exchange and extinction of wild species; (d) exchange and dispersion of diseases; and (e) changes in the perception and understanding of the environment (Gössling, 2002 ).

Research on tourism and the environment spans a wide range of social and natural science disciplines, and key contributions have been disseminated across many interdisciplinary fields, including biodiversity conservation, climate science, economics, and environmental science, among others (Buckley, 2011 ; Butler, 1991 ; Gössling, 2002 ; Lenzen et al., 2018 ). Given the global significance of the tourism sector and its environmental impacts, the role of tourism in sustainable development is an important topic of research in environmental science generally and in environmental economics and management specifically. Reviews of tourism research have highlighted future research priorities for sustainable development, including the role of tourism in the designation and expansion of protected areas; improvement in environmental accounting techniques that quantify environmental impacts; and the effects of individual perceptions of responsibility in addressing climate change (Buckley, 2012 ).

Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries, and it has linkages with many of the prime sectors of the global economy (Fennell, 2020 ). As a global economic sector, tourism represents one of the largest generators of wealth, and it is an important agent of economic growth and development (Garau-Vadell et al., 2018 ). Tourism is a critical industry in many local and national economies, and it represents a large and growing share of world trade (Hunter, 1995 ). Global tourism has had an average annual increase of 6.6% over the past half century, with international tourist arrivals rising sharply from 25.2 million in 1950 to more than 950 million in 2010 . In 2019 , the number of international tourists reached 1.5 billion, up 4% from 2018 (Fennell, 2020 ; United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2020 ). European countries are host to more than half of international tourists, but since 1990 , growth in international arrivals has risen faster than the global average, in both the Middle East and the Asia and Pacific region (UNWTO, 2020 ).

The growth in global tourism has been accompanied by an expansion of travel markets and a diversification of tourism destinations. In 1950 , the top five travel destinations were all countries in Europe and the Americas, and these destinations held 71% of the global travel market (Fennell, 2020 ). By 2002 , these countries represented only 35%, which underscores the emergence of newly accessible travel destinations in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and the Pacific Rim, including numerous developing countries. Over the past 70 years, global tourism has grown significantly as an economic sector, and it has contributed to the economic development of dozens of nations.

Given the growth of international tourism and its emergence as one of the world’s largest export sectors, the question of its impact on economic growth for the host countries has been a topic of great interest in the tourism literature. Two hypotheses have emerged regarding the role of tourism in the economic growth process (Apergis & Payne, 2012 ). First, tourism-led growth hypothesis relies on the assumption that tourism is an engine of growth that generates spillovers and positive externalities through economic linkages that will impact the overall economy. Second, the economic-driven tourism growth hypothesis emphasizes policies oriented toward well-defined and enforceable property rights, stable political institutions, and adequate investment in both physical and human capital to facilitate the development of the tourism sector. Studies have concluded with support for both the tourism-led growth hypothesis (e.g., Durbarry, 2004 ; Katircioglu, 2010 ) and the economic-led growth hypothesis (e.g., Katircioglu, 2009 ; Oh, 2005 ), whereas other studies have found support for a bidirectional causality for tourism and economic growth (e.g., Apergis & Payne, 2012 ; Lee & Chang, 2008 ).

The growth of tourism has been marked by an increase in the competition for tourist expenditures, making it difficult for destinations to maintain their share of the international tourism market (Butler, 1991 ). Tourism development is cyclical and subject to short-term cycles and overconsumption of resources. Butler ( 1980 ) developed a tourist-area cycle of evolution that depicts the number of tourists rising sharply over time through periods of exploration, involvement, and development, before eventual consolidation and stagnation. When tourism growth exceeds the carrying capacity of the area, resource degradation can lead to the decline of tourism unless specific steps are taken to promote rejuvenation (Butler, 1980 , 1991 ).

The potential of tourism development as a tool to contribute to environmental conservation, economic growth, and poverty reduction is derived from several unique characteristics of the tourism system (UNWTO, 2002 ). First, tourism represents an opportunity for economic diversification, particularly in marginal areas with few other export options. Tourists are attracted to remote areas with high values of cultural, wildlife, and landscape assets. The cultural and natural heritage of developing countries is frequently based on such assets, and tourism represents an opportunity for income generation through the preservation of heritage values. Tourism is the only export sector where the consumer travels to the exporting country, which provides opportunities for lower-income households to become exporters through the sale of goods and services to foreign tourists. Tourism is also labor intensive; it provides small-scale employment opportunities, which also helps to promote gender equity. Finally, there are numerous indirect benefits of tourism for people living in poverty, including increased market access for remote areas through the development of roads, infrastructure, and communication networks. Nevertheless, travel is highly income elastic and carbon intensive, which has significant implications for the sustainability of the tourism sector (Lenzen et al., 2018 ).

Concerns about environmental issues appeared in tourism research just as global awareness of the environmental impacts of human activities was expanding. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm in 1972 , the same year as the publication of The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972 ), which highlighted the concerns about the implications of exponential economic and population growth in a world of finite resources. This was the same year that the famous Blue Marble photograph of Earth was taken by the crew of the Apollo 17 spacecraft (Höhler, 2015 , p. 10), and the image captured the planet cloaked in the darkness of space and became a symbol of Earth’s fragility and vulnerability. As noted by Buckley ( 2012 ), tourism researchers turned their attention to social and environmental issues around the same time (Cohen, 1978 ; Farrell & McLellan, 1987 ; Turner & Ash, 1975 ; Young, 1973 ).

The notion of sustainable development is often associated with the publication of Our Common Future , the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, also known as the Brundtland Commission (WCED, 1987 ). The report characterized sustainable development in terms of meeting “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987 , p. 43). Four basic principles are fundamental to the concept of sustainability: (a) the idea of holistic planning and strategy making; (b) the importance of preserving essential ecological processes; (c) the need to protect both human heritage and biodiversity; and (d) the need to develop in such a way that productivity can be sustained over the long term for future generations (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ). In addition to achieving balance between economic growth and the conservation of natural resources, there should be a balance of fairness and opportunity between the nations of the world.

Although the modern concept of sustainable development emerged with the publication of Our Common Future , sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management that were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries (Blewitt, 2015 ; Grober, 2007 ). Sustainable forest management is concerned with the stewardship and use of forests in a way that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, and regeneration capacity as well as their potential to fulfill society’s demands for forest products and benefits. Building on these ideas, Daly ( 1990 ) offered two operational principles of sustainable development. First, sustainable development implies that harvest rates should be no greater than rates of regeneration; this concept is known as maximum sustainable yield. Second, waste emission rates should not exceed the natural assimilative capacities of the ecosystems into which the wastes are emitted. Regenerative and assimilative capacities are characterized as natural capital, and a failure to maintain these capacities is not sustainable.

Shortly after the emergence of the concept of sustainable development in academic and policy discourse, tourism researchers began referring to the notion of sustainable tourism (May, 1991 ; Nash & Butler, 1990 ), which soon became the dominant paradigm of tourism development. The concept of sustainable tourism, as with the role of tourism in sustainable development, has been interpreted in different ways, and there is a lack of consensus concerning its meaning, objectives, and indicators (Sharpley, 2000 ). Growing interest in the subject inspired the creation of a new academic journal, Journal of Sustainable Tourism , which was launched in 1993 and has become a leading tourism journal. It is described as “an international journal that publishes research on tourism and sustainable development, including economic, social, cultural and political aspects.”

The notion of sustainable tourism development emerged in contrast to mass tourism, which is characterized by the participation of large numbers of people, often provided as structured or packaged tours. Mass tourism has risen sharply in the last half century. International arrivals alone have increased by an average annual rate of more than 25% since 1950 , and many of those trips involved mass tourism activities (Fennell, 2020 ; UNWTO, 2020 ). Some examples of mass tourism include beach resorts, cruise ship tourism, gaming casinos, golf resorts, group tours, ski resorts, theme parks, and wildlife safari tourism, among others. Little data exist regarding the volume of domestic mass tourism, but nevertheless mass tourism activities dominate the global tourism sector. Mass tourism has been shown to generate benefits to host countries, such as income and employment generation, although it has also been associated with economic leakage (where revenue generated by tourism is lost to other countries’ economies) and economic dependency (where developing countries are dependent on wealthier countries for tourists, imports, and foreign investment) (Cater, 1993 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Khan, 1997 ; Peeters, 2012 ). Mass tourism has been associated with numerous negative environmental impacts and social impacts (Cater, 1993 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Fennell, 2020 ; Ghimire, 2013 ; Gursoy et al., 2010 ; Liu, 2003 ; Peeters, 2012 ; Wheeller, 2007 ). Sustainable tourism development has been promoted in various ways as a framing concept in contrast to many of these economic, environmental, and social impacts.

Much of the early research on sustainable tourism focused on defining the concept, which has been the subject of vigorous debate (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ; Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Inskeep, 1991 ; Liu, 2003 ; Sharpley, 2000 ). Early definitions of sustainable tourism development seemed to fall in one of two categories (Sharpley, 2000 ). First, the “tourism-centric” paradigm of sustainable tourism development focuses on sustaining tourism as an economic activity (Hunter, 1995 ). Second, alternative paradigms have situated sustainable tourism in the context of wider sustainable development policies (Butler, 1991 ). One of the most comprehensive definitions of sustainable tourism echoes some of the language of the Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustainable development (WCED, 1987 ), emphasizing opportunities for the future while also integrating social and environmental concerns:

Sustainable tourism can be thought of as meeting the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future. Sustainable tourism development is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that we can fulfill economic, social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems. (Inskeep, 1991 , p. 461)

Hunter argued that over the short and long terms, sustainable tourism development should

“meet the needs and wants of the local host community in terms of improved living standards and quality of life;

satisfy the demands of tourists and the tourism industry, and continue to attract them in order to meet the first aim; and

safeguard the environmental resource base for tourism, encompassing natural, built and cultural components, in order to achieve both of the preceding aims.” (Hunter, 1995 , p. 156)

Numerous other definitions have been documented, and the term itself has been subject to widespread critique (Buckley, 2012 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Liu, 2003 ). Nevertheless, there have been numerous calls to move beyond debate about a definition and to consider how it may best be implemented in practice (Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Liu, 2003 ). Cater ( 1993 ) identified three key criteria for sustainable tourism: (a) meeting the needs of the host population in terms of improved living standards both in the short and long terms; (b) satisfying the demands of a growing number of tourists; and (c) safeguarding the natural environment in order to achieve both of the preceding aims.

Some literature has acknowledged a vagueness of the concept of sustainable tourism, which has been used to advocate for fundamentally different strategies for tourism development that may exacerbate existing conflicts between conservation and development paradigms (Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Liu, 2003 ; McKercher, 1993b ). Similar criticisms have been leveled at the concept of sustainable development, which has been described as an oxymoron with a wide range of meanings (Adams, 2009 ; Daly, 1990 ) and “defined in such a way as to be either morally repugnant or logically redundant” (Beckerman, 1994 , p. 192). Sharpley ( 2000 ) suggests that in the tourism literature, there has been “a consistent and fundamental failure to build a theoretical link between sustainable tourism and its parental paradigm,” sustainable development (p. 2). Hunter ( 1995 ) suggests that practical measures designed to operationalize sustainable tourism fail to address many of the critical issues that are central to the concept of sustainable development generally and may even actually counteract the fundamental requirements of sustainable development. He suggests that mainstream sustainable tourism development is concerned with protecting the immediate resource base that will sustain tourism development while ignoring concerns for the status of the wider tourism resource base, such as potential problems associated with air pollution, congestion, introduction of invasive species, and declining oil reserves. The dominant paradigm of sustainable tourism development has been described as introverted, tourism-centric, and in competition with other sectors for scarce resources (McKercher, 1993a ). Hunter ( 1995 , p. 156) proposes an alternative, “extraparochial” paradigm where sustainable tourism development is reconceptualized in terms of its contribution to overall sustainable development. Such a paradigm would reconsider the scope, scale, and sectoral context of tourism-related resource utilization issues.

“Sustainability,” “sustainable tourism,” and “sustainable development” are all well-established terms that have often been used loosely and interchangeably in the tourism literature (Liu, 2003 ). Nevertheless, the subject of sustainable tourism has been given considerable attention and has been the focus of numerous academic compilations and textbooks (Coccossis & Nijkamp, 1995 ; Hall & Lew, 1998 ; Stabler, 1997 ; Swarbrooke, 1999 ), and it calls for new approaches to sustainable tourism development (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ; Garrod & Fyall, 1998 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Sharpley, 2000 ). The notion of sustainable tourism has been reconceptualized in the literature by several authors who provided alternative frameworks for tourism development (Buckley, 2012 ; Gössling, 2002 ; Hunter, 1995 ; Liu, 2003 ; McKercher, 1993b ; Sharpley, 2000 ).

Early research in sustainable tourism focused on the local environmental impacts of tourism, including energy use, water use, food consumption, and change in land use (Buckley, 2012 ; Butler, 1991 ; Gössling, 2002 ; Hunter & Green, 1995 ). Subsequent research has emphasized the global environmental impacts of tourism, such as greenhouse gas emissions and biodiversity losses (Gössling, 2002 ; Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ; Lenzen et al., 2018 ). Additional research has emphasized the impacts of environmental change on tourism itself, including the impacts of climate change on tourist behavior (Gössling et al., 2012 ; Richardson & Loomis, 2004 ; Scott et al., 2012 ; Viner, 2006 ). Countries that are dependent on tourism for economic growth may be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Richardson & Witkoswki, 2010 ).

The early focus on environmental issues in sustainable tourism has been broadened to include economic, social, and cultural issues as well as questions of power and equity in society (Bramwell & Lane, 1993 ; Sharpley, 2014 ), and some of these frameworks have integrated notions of social equity, prosperity, and cultural heritage values. Sustainable tourism is dependent on critical long-term considerations of the impacts; notions of equity; an appreciation of the importance of linkages (i.e., economic, social, and environmental); and the facilitation of cooperation and collaboration between different stakeholders (Elliott & Neirotti, 2008 ).

McKercher ( 1993b ) notes that tourism resources are typically part of the public domain or are intrinsically linked to the social fabric of the host community. As a result, many commonplace tourist activities such as sightseeing may be perceived as invasive by members of the host community. Many social impacts of tourism can be linked to the overuse of the resource base, increases in traffic congestion, rising land prices, urban sprawl, and changes in the social structure of host communities. Given the importance of tourist–resident interaction, sustainable tourism development depends in part on the support of the host community (Garau-Vadell et al., 2018 ).

Tourism planning involves the dual objectives of optimizing the well-being of local residents in host communities and minimizing the costs of tourism development (Sharpley, 2014 ). Tourism researchers have paid significant attention to examining the social impacts of tourism in general and to understanding host communities’ perceptions of tourism in particular. Studies of the social impacts of tourism development have examined the perceptions of local residents and the effects of tourism on social cohesion, traditional lifestyles, and the erosion of cultural heritage, particularly among Indigenous Peoples (Butler & Hinch, 2007 ; Deery et al., 2012 ; Mathieson & Wall, 1982 ; Sharpley, 2014 ; Whitford & Ruhanen, 2016 ).

Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development

A wide body of published research is related to the role of tourism in sustainable development, and much of the literature involves case studies of particular types of tourism. Many such studies contrast types of alternative tourism with those of mass tourism, which has received sustained criticism for decades and is widely considered to be unsustainable (Cater, 1993 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Fennell, 2020 ; Gursoy et al., 2010 ; Liu, 2003 ; Peeters, 2012 ; Zapata et al., 2011 ). Still, some tourism researchers have taken issue with the conclusion that mass tourism is inherently unsustainable (Sharpley, 2000 ; Weaver, 2007 ), and some have argued for developing pathways to “sustainable mass tourism” as “the desired and impending outcome for most destinations” (Weaver, 2012 , p. 1030). In integrating an ethical component to mass tourism development, Weaver ( 2014 , p. 131) suggests that the desirable outcome is “enlightened mass tourism.” Such suggestions have been contested in the literature and criticized for dubious assumptions about emergent norms of sustainability and support for growth, which are widely seen as contradictory (Peeters, 2012 ; Wheeller, 2007 ).

Models of responsible or alternative tourism development include ecotourism, community-based tourism, pro-poor tourism, slow tourism, green tourism, and heritage tourism, among others. Most models of alternative tourism development emphasize themes that aim to counteract the perceived negative impacts of conventional or mass tourism. As such, the objectives of these models of tourism development tend to focus on minimizing environmental impacts, supporting biodiversity conservation, empowering local communities, alleviating poverty, and engendering pleasant relationships between tourists and residents.

Approaches to alternative tourism development tend to overlap with themes of responsible tourism, and the two terms are frequently used interchangeably. Responsible tourism has been characterized in terms of numerous elements, including

ensuring that communities are involved in and benefit from tourism;

respecting local, natural, and cultural environments;

involving the local community in planning and decision-making;

using local resources sustainably;

behaving in ways that are sensitive to the host culture;

maintaining and encouraging natural, economic, and cultural diversity; and

assessing environmental, social, and economic impacts as a prerequisite to tourism development (Spenceley, 2012 ).

Hetzer ( 1965 ) identified four fundamental principles or perquisites for a more responsible form of tourism: (a) minimum environmental impact; (b) minimum impact on and maximum respect for host cultures; (c) maximum economic benefits to the host country; and (d) maximum leisure satisfaction to participating tourists.

The history of ecotourism is closely connected with the emergence of sustainable development, as it was born out of a concern for the conservation of biodiversity. Ecotourism is a form of tourism that aims to minimize local environmental impacts while bringing benefits to protected areas and the people living around those lands (Honey, 2008 ). Ecotourism represents a small segment of nature-based tourism, which is understood as tourism based on the natural attractions of an area, such as scenic areas and wildlife (Gössling, 1999 ). The ecotourism movement gained momentum in the 1990s, primarily in developing countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa, and nearly all countries are now engaged in some form of ecotourism. In some communities, ecotourism is the primary economic activity and source of income and economic development.

The term “ecotourism” was coined by Hector Ceballos-Lascuráin and defined by him as “tourism that consists in travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals” (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1987 , p. 13). In discussing ecotourism resources, he also made reference to “any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas” (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1987 , p. 14). The basic precepts of ecotourism had been discussed long before the actual use of the term. Twenty years earlier, Hetzer ( 1965 ) referred to a form of tourism “based principally upon natural and archaeological resources such as caves, fossil sites (and) archaeological sites.” Thus, both natural resources and cultural resources were integrated into ecotourism frameworks from the earliest manifestations.

Costa Rica is well known for having successfully integrated ecotourism in its overall strategy for sustainable development, and numerous case studies of ecotourism in Costa Rica appear in the literature (Chase et al., 1998 ; Fennell & Eagles, 1990 ; Gray & Campbell, 2007 ; Hearne & Salinas, 2002 ). Ecotourism in Costa Rica has been seen as having supported the economic development of the country while promoting biodiversity conservation in its extensive network of protected areas. Chase et al. ( 1998 ) estimated the demand for ecotourism in a study of differential pricing of entrance fees at national parks in Costa Rica. The authors estimated elasticities associated with the own-price, cross-price, and income variables and found that the elasticities of demand were significantly different between three different national park sites. The results reveal the heterogeneity characterizing tourist behavior and park attractions and amenities. Hearne and Salinas ( 2002 ) used choice experiments to examine the preferences of domestic and foreign tourists in Costa Rica in an ecotourism site. Both sets of tourists demonstrated a preference for improved infrastructure, more information, and lower entrance fees. Foreign tourists demonstrated relatively stronger preferences for the inclusion of restrictions in the access to some trails.

Ecotourism has also been studied extensively in Kenya (Southgate, 2006 ), Malaysia (Lian Chan & Baum, 2007 ), Nepal (Baral et al., 2008 ), Peru (Stronza, 2007 ), and Taiwan (Lai & Nepal, 2006 ), among many other countries. Numerous case studies have demonstrated the potential for ecotourism to contribute to sustainable development by providing support for biodiversity conservation, local livelihoods, and regional development.

Community-Based Tourism

Community-based tourism (CBT) is a model of tourism development that emphasizes the development of local communities and allows for local residents to have substantial control over its development and management, and a major proportion of the benefits remain within the community. CBT emerged during the 1970s as a response to the negative impacts of the international mass tourism development model (Cater, 1993 ; Hall & Lew, 2009 ; Turner & Ash, 1975 ; Zapata et al., 2011 ).

Community-based tourism has been examined for its potential to contribute to poverty reduction. In a study of the viability of the CBT model to support socioeconomic development and poverty alleviation in Nicaragua, tourism was perceived by participants in the study to have an impact on employment creation in their communities (Zapata et al., 2011 ). Tourism was seen to have had positive impacts on strengthening local knowledge and skills, particularly on the integration of women to new roles in the labor market. One of the main perceived gains regarding the environment was the process of raising awareness regarding the conservation of natural resources. The small scale of CBT operations and low capacity to accommodate visitors was seen as a limitation of the model.

Spenceley ( 2012 ) compiled case studies of community-based tourism in countries in southern Africa, including Botswana, Madagascar, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In this volume, authors characterize community-based and nature-based tourism development projects in the region and demonstrate how community participation in planning and decision-making has generated benefits for local residents and supported conservation initiatives. They contend that responsible tourism practices are of particular importance in the region because of the rich biological diversity, abundant charismatic wildlife, and the critical need for local economic development and livelihood strategies.

In Kenya, CBT enterprises were not perceived to have made a significant impact on poverty reduction at an individual household level, in part because the model relied heavily on donor funding, reinforcing dependency and poverty (Manyara & Jones, 2007 ). The study identified several critical success factors for CBT enterprises, namely, awareness and sensitization, community empowerment, effective leadership, and community capacity building, which can inform appropriate tourism policy formulation in Kenya. The impacts of CBT on economic development and poverty reduction would be greatly enhanced if tourism initiatives were able to emphasize independence, address local community priorities, enhance community empowerment and transparency, discourage elitism, promote effective community leadership, and develop community capacity to operate their own enterprises more efficiently.

Pro-Poor Tourism

Pro-poor tourism is a model of tourism development that brings net benefits to people living in poverty (Ashley et al., 2001 ; Harrison, 2008 ). Although its theoretical foundations and development objectives overlap to some degree with those of community-based tourism and other models of AT, the key distinctive feature of pro-poor tourism is that it places poor people and poverty at the top of the agenda. By focusing on a very simple and incontrovertibly moral idea, namely, the net benefits of tourism to impoverished people, the concept has broad appeal to donors and international aid agencies. Harnessing the economic benefits of tourism for pro-poor growth means capitalizing on the advantages while reducing negative impacts to people living in poverty (Ashley et al., 2001 ). Pro-poor approaches to tourism development include increasing access of impoverished people to economic benefits; addressing negative social and environmental impacts associated with tourism; and focusing on policies, processes, and partnerships that seek to remove barriers to participation by people living in poverty. At the local level, pro-poor tourism can play a very significant role in livelihood security and poverty reduction (Ashley & Roe, 2002 ).

Rogerson ( 2011 ) argues that the growth of pro-poor tourism initiatives in South Africa suggests that the country has become a laboratory for the testing and evolution of new approaches toward sustainable development planning that potentially will have relevance for other countries in the developing world. A study of pro-poor tourism development initiatives in Laos identified a number of favorable conditions for pro-poor tourism development, including the fact that local people are open to tourism and motivated to participate (Suntikul et al., 2009 ). The authors also noted a lack of development in the linkages that could optimize the fulfilment of the pro-poor agenda, such as training or facilitation of local people’s participation in pro-poor tourism development at the grassroots level.

Critics of the model have argued that pro-poor tourism is based on an acceptance of the status quo of existing capitalism, that it is morally indiscriminate and theoretically imprecise, and that its practitioners are academically and commercially marginal (Harrison, 2008 ). As Chok et al. ( 2007 ) indicate, the focus “on poor people in the South reflects a strong anthropocentric view . . . and . . . environmental benefits are secondary to poor peoples’” benefits (p. 153).

Harrison ( 2008 ) argues that pro-poor tourism is not a distinctive approach to tourism as a development tool and that it may be easier to discuss what pro-poor tourism is not than what it is. He concludes that it is neither anticapitalist nor inconsistent with mainstream tourism on which it relies; it is neither a theory nor a model and is not a niche form of tourism. Further, he argues that it has no distinctive method and is not only about people living in poverty.

Slow Tourism

The concept of slow tourism has emerged as a model of sustainable tourism development, and as such, it lacks an exact definition. The concept of slow tourism traces its origin back to some institutionalized social movements such as “slow food” and “slow cities” that began in Italy in the 1990s and spread rapidly around the world (Fullagar et al., 2012 ; Oh et al., 2016 , p. 205). Advocates of slow tourism tend to emphasize slowness in terms of speed, mobility, and modes of transportation that generate less environmental pollution. They propose niche marketing for alternative forms of tourism that focus on quality upgrading rather than merely increasing the quantity of visitors via the established mass-tourism infrastructure (Conway & Timms, 2010 ).

In the context of the Caribbean region, slow tourism has been promoted as more culturally sensitive and authentic, as compared to the dominant mass tourism development model that is based on all-inclusive beach resorts dependent on foreign investment (Conway & Timms, 2010 ). Recognizing its value as an alternative marketing strategy, Conway and Timms ( 2010 ) make the case for rebranding alternative tourism in the Caribbean as a means of revitalizing the sector for the changing demands of tourists in the 21st century . They suggest that slow tourism is the antithesis of mass tourism, which “relies on increasing the quantity of tourists who move through the system with little regard to either the quality of the tourists’ experience or the benefits that accrue to the localities the tourist visits” (Conway & Timms, 2010 , p. 332). The authors draw on cases from Barbados, the Grenadines, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago to characterize models of slow tourism development in remote fishing villages and communities near nature preserves and sea turtle nesting sites.

Although there is a growing interest in the concept of slow tourism in the literature, there seems to be little agreement about the exact nature of slow tourism and whether it is a niche form of special interest tourism or whether it represents a more fundamental potential shift across the industry. Conway and Timms ( 2010 ) focus on the destination, advocating for slow tourism in terms of a promotional identity for an industry in need of rebranding. Caffyn ( 2012 , p. 77) discusses the implementation of slow tourism in terms of “encouraging visitors to make slower choices when planning and enjoying their holidays.” It is not clear whether slow tourism is a marketing strategy, a mindset, or a social movement, but the literature on slow tourism nearly always equates the term with sustainable tourism (Caffyn, 2012 ; Conway & Timms, 2010 ; Oh et al., 2016 ). Caffyn ( 2012 , p. 80) suggests that slow tourism could offer a “win–win,” which she describes as “a more sustainable form of tourism; keeping more of the economic benefits within the local community and destination; and delivering a more meaningful and satisfying experience.” Research on slow tourism is nascent, and thus the contribution of slow tourism to sustainable development is not well understood.

Impacts of Tourism Development

The role of tourism in sustainable development can be examined through an understanding of the economic, environmental, and social impacts of tourism. Tourism is a global phenomenon that involves travel, recreation, the consumption of food, overnight accommodations, entertainment, sightseeing, and other activities that simultaneously intersect the lives of local residents, businesses, and communities. The impacts of tourism involve benefits and costs to all groups, and some of these impacts cannot easily be measured. Nevertheless, they have been studied extensively in the literature, which provides some context for how these benefits and costs are distributed.

Economic Impacts of Tourism

The travel and tourism sector is one of the largest components of the global economy, and global tourism has increased exponentially since the end of the Second World War (UNWTO, 2020 ). The direct, indirect, and induced economic impact of global travel accounted for 8.9 trillion U.S. dollars in contribution to the global gross domestic product (GDP), or 10.3% of global GDP. The global travel and tourism sector supports approximately 330 million jobs, or 1 in 10 jobs around the world. From an economic perspective, tourism plays a significant role in sustainable development. In many developing countries, tourism has the potential to play a unique role in income generation and distribution relative to many other industries, in part because of its high multiplier effect and consumption of local goods and services. However, research on the economic impacts of tourism has shown that this potential has rarely been fully realized (Liu, 2003 ).

Numerous studies have examined the impact of tourism expenditure on GDP, income, employment, and public sector revenue. Narayan ( 2004 ) used a computable general equilibrium model to estimate the economic impact of tourism growth on the economy of Fiji. Tourism is Fiji’s largest industry, with average annual growth of 10–12%; and as a middle-income country, tourism is critical to Fiji’s economic development. The findings indicate that an increase in tourism expenditures was associated with an increase in GDP, an improvement in the country’s balance of payments, and an increase in real consumption and national welfare. Evidence suggests that the benefits of tourism expansion outweigh any export effects caused by an appreciation of the exchange rate and an increase in domestic prices and wages.

Seetanah ( 2011 ) examined the potential contribution of tourism to economic growth and development using panel data of 19 island economies around the world from 1990 to 2007 and revealed that tourism development is an important factor in explaining economic performance in the selected island economies. The results have policy implications for improving economic growth by harnessing the contribution of the tourism sector. Pratt ( 2015 ) modeled the economic impact of tourism for seven small island developing states in the Pacific, the Caribbean, and the Indian Ocean. In most states, the transportation sector was found to have above-average linkages to other sectors of the economy. The results revealed some advantages of economies of scale for maximizing the economic contribution of tourism.

Apergis and Payne ( 2012 ) examined the causal relationship between tourism and economic growth for a panel of nine Caribbean countries. The panel of Caribbean countries includes Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. The authors use a panel error correction model to reveal bidirectional causality between tourism and economic growth in both the short run and the long run. The presence of bidirectional causality reiterates the importance of the tourism sector in the generation of foreign exchange income and in financing the production of goods and services within these countries. Likewise, stable political institutions and adequate government policies to ensure the appropriate investment in physical and human capital will enhance economic growth. In turn, stable economic growth will provide the resources needed to develop the tourism infrastructure for the success of the countries’ tourism sector. Thus, policy makers should be cognizant of the interdependent relationship between tourism and economic growth in the design and implementation of economic policy. The mixed nature of these results suggest that the relationship between tourism and economic growth depends largely on the social and economic context as well as the role of tourism in the economy.

The economic benefits and costs of tourism are frequently distributed unevenly. An analysis of the impact of wildlife conservation policies in Zambia on household welfare found that households located near national parks earn higher levels of income from wage employment and self-employment than other rural households in the country, but they were also more likely to suffer crop losses related to wildlife conflicts (Richardson et al., 2012 ). The findings suggest that tourism development and wildlife conservation can contribute to pro-poor development, but they may be sustainable only if human–wildlife conflicts are minimized or compensated.

Environmental Impacts of Tourism

The environmental impacts of tourism are significant, ranging from local effects to contributions to global environmental change (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). Tourism is both dependent on water resources and a factor in global and local freshwater use. Tourists consume water for drinking, when showering and using the toilet, when participating in activities such as winter ski tourism (i.e., snowmaking), and when using swimming pools and spas. Fresh water is also needed to maintain hotel gardens and golf courses, and water use is embedded in tourism infrastructure development (e.g., accommodations, laundry, dining) and in food and fuel production. Direct water consumption in tourism is estimated to be approximately 350 liters (L) per guest night for accommodation; when indirect water use from food, energy, and transport are considered, total water use in tourism is estimated to be approximately 6,575 L per guest night, or 27,800 L per person per trip (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). In addition, tourism contributes to the pollution of oceans as well as lakes, rivers, and other freshwater systems (Gössling, 2002 ; Gössling et al., 2011 ).

The clearing and conversion of land is central for tourism development, and in many cases, the land used for tourism includes roads, airports, railways, accommodations, trails, pedestrian walks, shopping areas, parking areas, campgrounds, vacation homes, golf courses, marinas, ski resorts, and indirect land use for food production, disposal of solid wastes, and the treatment of wastewater (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). Global land use for accommodation is estimated to be approximately 42 m 2 per bed. Total global land use for tourism is estimated to be nearly 62,000 km 2 , or 11.7 m 2 per tourist; more than half of this estimate is represented by land use for traffic infrastructure.

Tourism and hospitality have direct and indirect links to nearly all aspects of food production, preparation, and consumption because of the quantities of food consumed in tourism contexts (Gössling et al., 2011 ). Food production has significant implications for sustainable development, given the growing global demand for food. The implications include land conversion, losses to biodiversity, changes in nutrient cycling, and contributions to greenhouse emissions that are associated with global climate change (Vitousek et al., 1997 ). Global food use for tourism is estimated to be approximately 39.4 megatons 1 (Mt), about 38% than the amount of food consumed at home. This equates to approximately 1,800 grams (g) of food consumed per tourist per day.

Although tourism has been promoted as a low-impact, nonextractive option for economic development, (Gössling, 2000 ), assessments reveal that such pursuits have a significant carbon footprint, as tourism is significantly more carbon intensive than other potential areas of economic development (Lenzen et al., 2018 ). Tourism is dependent on energy, and virtually all energy use in the tourism sector is derived from fossil fuels, which contribute to global greenhouse emissions that are associated with global climate change. Energy use for tourism has been estimated to be approximately 3,575 megajoules 2 (MJ) per trip, including energy for travel and accommodations (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). A previous estimate of global carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from tourism provided values of 1.12 gigatons 3 (Gt) of CO 2 , amounting to about 3% of global CO 2 -equivalent (CO 2 e) emissions (Gössling & Peeters, 2015 ). However, these analyses do not cover the supply chains underpinning tourism and do not therefore represent true carbon footprints. A more complete analysis of the emissions from energy consumption necessary to sustain the tourism sector would include food and beverages, infrastructure construction and maintenance, retail, and financial services. Between 2009 and 2013 , tourism’s global carbon footprint is estimated to have increased from 3.9 to 4.5 GtCO 2 e, four times more than previously estimated, accounting for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions (Lenzen et al., 2018 ). The majority of this footprint is exerted by and within high-income countries. The rising global demand for tourism is outstripping efforts at decarbonization of tourism operations and as a result is accelerating global carbon emissions.

Social Impacts of Tourism

The social impacts of tourism have been widely studied, with an emphasis on residents’ perceptions in the host community (Sharpley, 2014 ). Case studies include research conducted in Australia (Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997 ; Gursoy et al., 2010 ; Tovar & Lockwood, 2008 ), Belize (Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2008 ), China (Gu & Ryan, 2008 ), Fiji (King et al., 1993 ), Greece (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996 ; Tsartas, 1992 ), Hungary (Rátz, 2000 ), Thailand (Huttasin, 2008 ), Turkey (Kuvan & Akan, 2005 ), the United Kingdom (Brunt & Courtney, 1999 ; Haley et al., 2005 ), and the United States (Andereck et al., 2005 ; Milman & Pizam, 1988 ), among others. The social impacts of tourism are difficult to measure, and most published studies are mainly concerned with the social impacts on the host communities rather than the impacts on the tourists themselves.

Studies of residents’ perceptions of tourism are typically conducted using household surveys. In most cases, residents recognize the economic dependence on tourism for income, and there is substantial evidence to suggest that working in or owning a business in tourism or a related industry is associated with more positive perceptions of tourism (Andereck et al., 2007 ). The perceived nature of negative effects is complex and often conveys a dislike of crowding, traffic congestion, and higher prices for basic needs (Deery et al., 2012 ). When the number of tourists far exceeds that of the resident population, negative attitudes toward tourism may manifest (Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2008 ). However, residents who recognize negative impacts may not necessarily oppose tourism development (King et al., 1993 ).

In some regions, little is known about the social and cultural impacts of tourism despite its dominance as an economic sector. Tourism is a rapidly growing sector in Cuba, and it is projected to grow at rates that exceed the average projected growth rates for the Caribbean and the world overall (Salinas et al., 2018 ). Still, even though there has been rapid tourism development in Cuba, there has been little research related to the environmental and sociocultural impacts of this tourism growth (Rutty & Richardson, 2019 ).

In some international tourism contexts, studies have found that residents are generally resentful toward tourism because it fuels inequality and exacerbates racist attitudes and discrimination (Cabezas, 2004 ; Jamal & Camargo, 2014 ; Mbaiwa, 2005 ). Other studies revealed similar narratives and recorded statements of exclusion and socioeconomic stratification (Sanchez & Adams, 2008 ). Local residents often must navigate the gaps in the racialized, gendered, and sexualized structures imposed by the global tourism industry and host-country governments (Cabezas, 2004 ).

However, during times of economic crisis, residents may develop a more permissive view as their perceptions of the costs of tourism development decrease (Garau-Vadell et al., 2018 ). This increased positive attitude is not based on an increase in the perception of positive impacts of tourism, but rather on a decrease in the perception of the negative impacts.

There is a growing body of research on Indigenous and Aboriginal tourism that emphasizes justice issues such as human rights and self-empowerment, control, and participation of traditional owners in comanagement of destinations (Jamal & Camargo, 2014 ; Ryan & Huyton, 2000 ; Whyte, 2010 ).

Sustainability of Tourism

A process or system is said to be sustainable to the extent that it is robust, resilient, and adaptive (Anderies et al., 2013 ). By most measures, the global tourism system does not meet these criteria for sustainability. Tourism is not robust in that it cannot resist threats and perturbations, such as economic shocks, public health pandemics, war, and other disruptions. Tourism is not resilient in that it does not easily recover from failures, such as natural disasters or civil unrest. Furthermore, tourism is not adaptive in that it is often unable to change in response to external conditions. One example that underscores the failure to meet all three criteria is the dependence of tourism on fossil fuels for transportation and energy, which are key inputs for tourism development. This dependence itself is not sustainable (Wheeller, 2007 ), and thus the sustainability of tourism is questionable.

Liu ( 2003 ) notes that research related to the role of tourism in sustainable development has emphasized supply-side concepts such as sustaining tourism resources and ignored the demand side, which is particularly vulnerable to social and economic shocks. Tourism is vulnerable to both localized and global shocks. Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to localized shocks include disaster vulnerability in coastal Thailand (Calgaro & Lloyd, 2008 ), bushfires in northeast Victoria in Australia (Cioccio & Michael, 2007 ), forest fires in British Columbia, Canada (Hystad & Keller, 2008 ); and outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom (Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ).

Like most other economic sectors, tourism is vulnerable to the impacts of earthquakes, particularly in areas where tourism infrastructure may not be resilient to such shocks. Numerous studies have examined the impacts of earthquake events on tourism, including studies of the aftermath of the 1997 earthquake in central Italy (Mazzocchi & Montini, 2001 ), the 1999 earthquake in Taiwan (Huan et al., 2004 ; Huang & Min, 2002 ), and the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in western Sichuan, China (Yang et al., 2011 ), among others.

Tourism is vulnerable to extreme weather events. Regional economic strength has been found to be associated with lower vulnerability to natural disasters. Kim and Marcoullier ( 2015 ) examined the vulnerability and resilience of 10 tourism-based regional economies that included U.S. national parks or protected seashores situated on the Gulf of Mexico or Atlantic Ocean coastline that were affected by several hurricanes over a 26-year period. Regions with stronger economic characteristics prior to natural disasters were found to have lower disaster losses than regions with weaker economies.

Tourism is extremely sensitive to oil spills, whatever their origin, and the volume of oil released need not be large to generate significant economic losses (Cirer-Costa, 2015 ). Studies of the vulnerability of tourism to the localized shock of an oil spill include research on the impacts of oil spills in Alaska (Coddington, 2015 ), Brazil (Ribeiro et al., 2020 ), Spain (Castanedo et al., 2009 ), affected regions in the United States along the Gulf of Mexico (Pennington-Gray et al., 2011 ; Ritchie et al., 2013 ), and the Republic of Korea (Cheong, 2012 ), among others. Future research on the vulnerability of tourist destinations to oil spills should also incorporate freshwater environments, such as lakes, rivers, and streams, where the rupture of oil pipelines is more frequent.

Significant attention has been paid to assessing the vulnerability of tourist destinations to acts of terrorism and the impacts of terrorist attacks on regional tourist economies (Liu & Pratt, 2017 ). Such studies include analyses of the impacts of terrorist attacks on three European countries, Greece, Italy, and Austria (Enders et al., 1992 ); the impact of the 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States (Goodrich, 2002 ); terrorism and tourism in Nepal (Bhattarai et al., 2005 ); vulnerability of tourism livelihoods in Bali (Baker & Coulter, 2007 ); the impact of terrorism on tourist preferences for destinations in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands (Arana & León, 2008 ); the 2011 massacres in Olso and Utøya, Norway (Wolff & Larsen, 2014 ); terrorism and political violence in Tunisia (Lanouar & Goaied, 2019 ); and the impact of terrorism on European tourism (Corbet et al., 2019 ), among others. Pizam and Fleischer ( 2002 ) studied the impact of acts of terrorism on tourism demand in Israel between May 1991 and May 2001 , and they confirmed that the frequency of acts of terrorism had caused a larger decline in international tourist arrivals than the severity of these acts. Most of these are ex post studies, and future assessments of the underlying conditions of destinations could reveal a deeper understanding of the vulnerability of tourism to terrorism.

Tourism is vulnerable to economic crisis, both local economic shocks (Okumus & Karamustafa, 2005 ; Stylidis & Terzidou, 2014 ) and global economic crisis (Papatheodorou et al., 2010 ; Smeral, 2010 ). Okumus and Karamustafa ( 2005 ) evaluated the impact of the February 2001 economic crisis in Turkey on tourism, and they found that the tourism industry was poorly prepared for the economic crisis despite having suffered previous impacts related to the Gulf War in the early 1990s, terrorism in Turkey in the 1990s, the civil war in former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, an internal economic crisis in 1994 , and two earthquakes in the northwest region of Turkey in 1999 . In a study of the attitudes and perceptions of citizens of Greece, Stylidis and Terzidou ( 2014 ) found that economic crisis is associated with increased support for tourism development, particularly out of self-interest. Economic crisis diminishes residents’ concern for environmental issues. In a study of the behavior of European tourists amid an economic crisis, Eugenio-Martin and Campos-Soria ( 2014 ) found that the probability of households cutting back on travel expenditures depends largely on the climate and economic conditions of tourists’ home countries, and households that do reduce travel spending engage in tourism closer to home.

Becken and Lennox ( 2012 ) studied the implications of a long-term increase in oil prices for tourism in New Zealand, and they estimate that a doubling of oil prices is associated with a 1.7% decrease in real gross national disposable income and a 9% reduction in the real value of tourism exports. Chatziantoniou et al. ( 2013 ) investigated the relationship among oil price shocks, tourism variables, and economic indicators in four European Mediterranean countries and found that aggregate demand oil price shocks generated a lagged effect on tourism-generated income and economic growth. Kisswani et al. ( 2020 ) examined the asymmetric effect of oil prices on tourism receipts and the sensitive susceptibility of tourism to oil price changes using nonlinear analysis. The findings document a long-run asymmetrical effect for most countries, after incorporating the structural breaks, suggesting that governments and tourism businesses and organizations should interpret oil price fluctuations cautiously.

Finally, the sustainability of tourism has been shown to be vulnerable to the outbreak of infectious diseases, including the impact of the Ebola virus on tourism in sub-Saharan Africa (Maphanga & Henama, 2019 ; Novelli et al., 2018 ) and in the United States (Cahyanto et al., 2016 ). The literature also includes studies of the impact of swine flu on tourism demand in Brunei (Haque & Haque, 2018 ), Mexico (Monterrubio, 2010 ), and the United Kingdom (Page et al., 2012 ), among others. In addition, rapid assessments of the impacts of the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 have documented severe disruptions and cessations of tourism because of unprecedented global travel restrictions and widespread restrictions on public gatherings (Gössling et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020 ; Sharma & Nicolau, 2020 ). Hotels, airlines, cruise lines, and car rentals have all experienced a significant decrease globally because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the shock to the industry is significant enough to warrant concerns about the long-term outlook (Sharma & Nicolau, 2020 ). Qiu et al. ( 2020 ) estimated the social costs of the pandemic to tourism in three cities in China (Hong Kong, Guangzhou, and Wuhan), and they found that most respondents were willing to pay for risk reduction and action in responding to the pandemic crisis; there was no significant difference between residents’ willingness to pay in the three cities. Some research has emphasized how lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic can prepare global tourism for an economic transformation that is needed to mitigate the impacts of climate change (Brouder, 2020 ; Prideaux et al., 2020 ).

It is clear that tourism has contributed significantly to economic development globally, but its role in sustainable development is uncertain, contested, and potentially paradoxical. This is due, in part, to the contested nature of sustainable development itself. Tourism has been promoted as a low-impact, nonextractive option for economic development, particularly for developing countries (Gössling, 2000 ), and many countries have managed to increase their participation in the global economy through development of international tourism. Tourism development has been viewed as an important sector for investment to enhance economic growth, poverty alleviation, and food security, and the sector provides an alternative opportunity to large-scale development projects and extractive industries that contribute to emissions of pollutants and threaten biodiversity and cultural values. However, global evidence from research on the economic impacts of tourism has shown that this potential has rarely been realized (Liu, 2003 ).

The role of tourism in sustainable development has been studied extensively and with a variety of perspectives, including the conceptualization of alternative or responsible forms of tourism and the examination of economic, environmental, and social impacts of tourism development. The research has generally concluded that tourism development has contributed to sustainable development in some cases where it is demonstrated to have provided support for biodiversity conservation initiatives and livelihood development strategies. As an economic sector, tourism is considered to be labor intensive, providing opportunities for poor households to enhance their livelihood through the sale of goods and services to foreign tourists.

Nature-based tourism approaches such as ecotourism and community-based tourism have been successful at attracting tourists to parks and protected areas, and their spending provides financial support for biodiversity conservation, livelihoods, and economic growth in developing countries. Nevertheless, studies of the impacts of tourism development have documented negative environmental impacts locally in terms of land use, food and water consumption, and congestion, and globally in terms of the contribution of tourism to climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases related to transportation and other tourist activities. Studies of the social impacts of tourism have documented experiences of discrimination based on ethnicity, gender, race, sex, and national identity.

The sustainability of tourism as an economic sector has been examined in terms of its vulnerability to civil conflict, economic shocks, natural disasters, and public health pandemics. Most studies conclude that tourism may have positive impacts for regional development and environmental conservation, but there is evidence that tourism inherently generates negative environmental impacts, primarily through pollutions stemming from transportation. The regional benefits of tourism development must be considered alongside the global impacts of increased transportation and tourism participation. Global tourism has also been shown to be vulnerable to economic crises, oil price shocks, and global outbreaks of infectious diseases. Given that tourism is dependent on energy, the movement of people, and the consumption of resources, virtually all tourism activities have significant economic, environmental, and sustainable impacts. As such, the role of tourism in sustainable development is highly questionable. Future research on the role of tourism in sustainable development should focus on reducing the negative impacts of tourism development, both regionally and globally.

Achieving destination sustainability: How tourist-to-tourist interaction quality affects tourist loyalty?

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft

Affiliation School of Tourism, Wuyi University, Nanping, China

Roles Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, College of Hospitality, Retail and Sport Management, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America

Roles Funding acquisition, Investigation

* E-mail: [email protected]

Roles Formal analysis, Software

Affiliation College of Tourism, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China

Junli Gao,
Fang Meng,
Weifeng Guo,

Published: August 22, 2024
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944
Peer Review
Reader Comments

Although tourist-to-tourist interaction (TTI) has been identified as an essential element in tourist experiences, the effect of TTI quality on tourist loyalty, and the mechanism underlying this effect is scarcely discussed in the literature. Based on the self-determination theory, this study aims to examine whether and how TTI quality influences tourist loyalty, representing a significant means to achieve destination sustainability. More specifically, this study tested a moderated mediation model in which basic psychological needs satisfaction mediated the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty, while sociability moderated the link between TTI quality and basic psychological needs satisfaction. A survey research approach was used, and 746 complete, usable responses were collected in multiple cities in China. The results revealed that the direct impact of TTI quality on tourist loyalty is mediated by basic psychological needs satisfaction. Furthermore, sociability positively moderates the influence of TTI quality on tourist loyalty. This study extends the TTI literature by demonstrating the mechanism of basic psychological needs satisfaction and tourists’ sociability in the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty. Managerial suggestions are provided for industry practitioners to improve tourist relationship management and the sustainability of destinations.

Citation: Gao J, Meng F, Guo W, Lin B (2024) Achieving destination sustainability: How tourist-to-tourist interaction quality affects tourist loyalty? PLoS ONE 19(8): e0296944. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944

Editor: Bo Pu, Sichuan Agricultural University, CHINA

Received: August 1, 2023; Accepted: June 29, 2024; Published: August 22, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Gao et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data files are available from the figshare repository ( https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.23706654 ).

Funding: This study is funded by China National Social Science Foundation (19XGL010). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. No author received a salary from the funder.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Social interaction, the act or practice of mutual contact and influence [ 1 ] is shown to effectively improve interpersonal relations, produce positive individual emotions, and reduce sadness, fatigue, pain, and other negative psycho-social states [ 2 ]. Tourism provides a platform for individuals from different cultural backgrounds to participate in various forms of interpersonal interactions [ 3 ]. Three main types of tourist interaction have been identified: tourists and local communities, tourists and service providers, and tourists and other tourists [ 4 ]. Tourist-to-tourist interaction (TTI) is a core element that shapes tourists’ evaluation of their travel experience and satisfaction [ 5 – 8 ]. More importantly, in the circumstance of fierce competition in destinations [ 9 , 10 ], TTI itself creates a tourist experience beyond the enjoyment of scenic spots or the types of destinations [ 8 , 11 , 12 ]. Therefore, it is critical for both academics and industry practitioners to examine TTI and its impact on tourist experience and behaviors.

Extant studies have mainly focused on exploring the outcome variables of TTI in different tourism contexts. For example, TTI is reported to be conducive to a better overall tourist experience and more satisfaction in a group tour [ 12 , 13 ]. Research also suggested that backpackers’ interactions with fellow travelers are important in forming internal identity, destination choice, and the overall travel experience [ 14 , 15 ]. More importantly, prior literature revealed that TTI positively affects tourist satisfaction [ 6 , 16 , 17 ]; which is an essential factor in inducing tourist loyalty [ 18 – 20 ]. Accordingly, TTI quality may potentially trigger tourist loyalty toward destinations and eventually achieve destination sustainability. Sustainable development of a destination refers to a balanced development in the economic, social, cultural, and environ-mental dimensions of the destination. Tourist loyalty is crucial for maintaining tourist relations, reducing the costs associated with acquiring tourists [ 21 ], and ensuring stable tourist arrivals and revenue [ 22 ]. These factors are vital for the sustainable development of destinations in economic, social and cultural aspects [ 23 ]. Therefore, it is essential to expound the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty for tourist relationship management and long-term sustainability of destinations.

Despite its importance, the extant literature has neglected the effect of TTI quality on tourist loyalty, and the mechanism underlying this effect is scarcely discussed. TTI is originated from customer–customer interaction (CCI), which is found to trigger customers’ emotional attachment and subsequently influences loyalty [ 24 , 25 ]. In the tourism context, individuals are away from their home environment and have the need to interact with new people during their travel [ 26 ]. The hedonic nature of travel and interactions are associated with psychological needs of making friends, expressing themselves, exchanging tourism information, and obtaining a sense of identity [ 12 , 14 , 15 ]. However, the relationship between TTI quality and tourists’ basic psycho-logical needs satisfaction and tourist loyalty has been scarcely discussed [ 27 – 29 ], which is not conducive to promoting the sustainable development of destinations.

In response, this study employs the self-determination theory to explore the in-fluence of TTI quality on tourist loyalty from the perspective of tourists’ basic psycho-logical needs satisfaction. Under the framework of self-determination theory [ 30 – 32 ], the present study examines the connection between three constructs: TTI quality, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and tourist loyalty. In this study, we highlight the importance of relationships based on the self-determination theory, and posit that high quality relationships provide bond among individuals (i.e., relatedness) and reinforce people’s needs for autonomy and competence. In this study, TTI quality represents an antecedent variable that affects the satisfaction of tourists’ basic psychological needs. Tourist loyalty is a behavioral reaction after tourists’ satisfaction of their basic psychological needs is achieved. Considering the importance of interpersonal interaction [ 7 , 12 , 28 ], this study proposes that TTI quality promotes tourist loyalty through the impact of basic psychological needs satisfaction. In other words, the fulfilment of basic psychological needs plays a critical mediating role between TTI quality and tourist loyalty. In addition, as interpersonal interaction is closely related to individuals’ personality traits of sociability, this study proposes that the process in which TTI quality influence basic psychological needs satisfaction is moderated by sociability [ 33 – 35 ].

Based on the variables discussed above, this study constructs a conceptual model that includes TTI quality, sociability, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and tourist loyalty ( Fig 1 ). Three research aim are to be achieved in this study: (1) to examine whether and how TTI quality influences tourist loyalty; (2) to examine the mediating effect of basic psychological needs satisfaction on the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty; (3) to examine the moderating effect of sociability on the relationship between TTI quality on tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction. This study contributes to the existing research in three ways. First, unlike previous literature on the antecedents of tourists’ loyalty from the individual and destination level [ 27 , 36 – 38 ], this study investigates the driving factor of tourists’ loyalty from a perspective of tourist-tourist relationship. Second, this study enriches the TTI literature by clarifying the psychological mechanism of TTI quality stimulating tourist loyalty through basic psychological needs satisfaction. Third, the research model constructed in this study offers a analytical framework for future study to test others similar variables.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944.g001

Literature review and hypotheses development

Tourist-to-tourist interaction quality..

TTI reflects the exchange of information, emotions, and feelings among tourists [ 11 ], such as providing assistance or advice, creating fun, embracing, and so on [ 7 ]. TTI is considered a multidimensional construct [ 7 ] but there has been no consensus on the measurement of TTI. For example, TTI was measured by related variable such as self-disclosure [ 12 ], or based on the valence of the interaction experience (positive or negative) [ 8 , 39 ], tourist contact mode (verbal or non-verbal) [ 28 ], or quantity and quality [ 16 , 40 ]. Comparatively, the quantity and quality of interaction have been widely applied in tourism settings [ 16 , 41 – 43 ], indicating that this measurement has certain applicability and stability. More importantly, previous studies have shown that the effect of interaction quality on individual behavior or perception is often disturbed by interaction quantity [ 16 , 44 , 45 ]. Thus, the current study solely focuses on the effect of interaction quality but excludes interaction quantity. Specifically, TTI quality in this study refers to tourists’ subjective perception of interactions that reflects their travel experiences related to other tourists [ 16 ].

Tourist-to-tourist interaction quality and tourist loyalty.

Tourist loyalty, also often referred to “destination loyalty,” is defined as the degree of tourist willingness to recommend and revisit specific destinations [ 46 , 47 ], which is a means to eventually achieve destination sustainability. Previous research on the definition and measurement of tourist loyalty focused on three aspects: attitudinal, behavioral, and composite loyalty [ 48 , 49 ]. Among them, attitudinal loyalty refers to the degree of tourist willingness to recommend a destination [ 50 ]. Behavioral loyalty involves tourist consumption behavior at the destination, such as the frequency of repeated visitation [ 7 , 49 ]. Composite loyalty, which is the integration of attitudinal and behavioral loyalty, refers to the dual intention to both revisit and recommend [ 48 ]. Given its crucial role in the success of destinations, tourist loyalty has received considerable attention [ 51 , 52 ]. Research on the antecedents of tourist loyalty can be summarized as follows: (1) tourist-related factors, such as motivation [ 27 , 29 ], involvement [ 53 ], and previous experience [ 23 , 36 , 54 , 55 ]; (2) destination-related factors, such as destination image [ 37 , 49 ], authenticity [ 56 , 57 ], service quality [ 38 , 58 ], e-service quality and e-recovery [ 59 ], residents’ attitude and behavior [ 36 , 37 , 47 – 55 ]; and (3) post-travel factors, such as tourist experience and tourist satisfaction [ 22 , 60 , 61 ]. However, few scholars have investigated the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty. In fact, TTI quality is an essential part of tourism experiences [ 7 , 28 ] that is likely to promote the generation of tourist loyalty.

This study proposes that TTI quality is an important variable in the formation of tourist loyalty. First, TTI is an essential element of tourist experiences [ 7 , 8 ]. The higher the quality of TTI, the more likely tourists have a satisfactory and pleasant experience [ 16 , 62 , 63 ], which further promotes tourists’ recommendations and repeat visitation [ 22 , 50 ]. Moreover, high TTI quality enhances tourist engagement by strengthening tourists’ relations and identity [ 12 ], and tourists who have high involvement tend to achieve self-satisfaction from tourism activities and develop a stronger behavior intention [ 64 , 65 ]. Thus, TTI quality is likely to positively influence tourist loyalty. Second, specific behaviors that generate TTI quality are of great value to tourists. For example, sharing information and experience [ 5 , 7 ], providing effective countermeasures [ 66 ], and offering practical as-assistance help tourists better understand destinations and solve various problems during travel. Consequently, TTI quality may effectively promote tourist loyalty. Lastly, previous studies have indicated that tourists who experienced meaningful interactions are more inclined to show stronger behavioral intention [ 67 ]. Hence, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H1: TTI quality positively affects tourist loyalty.

The mediating effect of basic psychological needs satisfaction.

Basic psychological needs satisfaction refers to the degree to which an individual ex-ternal environment satisfies one’s basic psychological needs [ 68 ]. According to the self-determination theory, basic psychological needs satisfaction provides an analytical framework for understanding the generation mechanism of individual behavior [ 69 , 70 ], which helps explain the mechanism of TTI quality affecting tourist loyalty.

This study proposes that TTI quality affects the satisfaction of tourists’ basic psycho-logical needs. According to the self-determination theory, social environment factors (e.g., social support and interpersonal support) influence the satisfaction of the basic psycho-logical needs [ 71 , 72 ]. Hence, in representing interpersonal interactions between tourists [ 28 , 73 ], TTI quality contributes to tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction. First, to some extent, tourist experience is interpersonal-oriented beyond destination-oriented [ 74 ]. TTI quality satisfies the motivation and needs of tourists through making friends and interacting with other tourists [ 18 , 27 ]. Meanwhile, in a memorable tourism experience, tourists typically seek meaningful interactions such as exchanging their personal travel experience with other tourists, sharing tourism information, seeking help from others, and so on [ 7 , 75 ]. These motivations and needs, which reflect tourists’ free will, could be driven by their internal self-determination needs and satisfied by TTI quality. Second, achieving self-improvement and seeking a sense of identity are important determinants of TTI quality [ 76 ]. Studies have shown that strangers will respond to help-seekers’ requests in specific situations to prevent the help-seeker from making a wrong decision [ 5 ]. Individuals who are knowledgeable about products are willing to help (e.g., giving advice and im-parting knowledge) even before help-seekers ask for assistance, which in turn satisfies their own internal needs [ 77 ]. During the interaction, tourists enhance their reputation and gain social identity by displaying their talent and knowledge [ 76 , 78 ]. There is no doubt that TTI quality supports and satisfies the individual’s competency needs. Finally, hu-mans are essentially social [ 79 ] and have the need to pursue relationships, communication, and relatedness [ 80 ]. It is substantial for tourists to establish relatedness and social connection through frequent contact and shared experiences in travel to form self-identity [ 63 , 81 , 82 ]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H2: TTI quality has a positive effect on basic psychological needs satisfaction.

In addition, the satisfaction of tourists’ basic psychological needs may also induce tourist loyalty. First, basic psychological needs satisfaction is often associated with individual mental state and vitality [ 83 ]. Tourists whose basic psychological needs are fulfilled have optimal psychological state [ 70 ] and more vigor to participate in tourism activities, and they are more likely to obtain an unforgettable tourism experience [ 65 ]. They also tend to develop recommendation behavior and future revisit behavior after the tour. Second, basic psychological needs satisfaction is significantly positively correlated with lei-sure satisfaction in tourism [ 84 ]. Tourists with high satisfaction are more willing to recommend and promote the destination to others [ 85 , 86 ]. During travel, tourists achieve autonomy and competence, and consequently immerse themselves in the tourism environment more easily [ 87 ]. Additionally, for those who have satisfied the need for related-ness, friendship with other tourists undoubtedly adds value to the tourist experience [ 71 ]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3: Tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction has a positive impact on tourist loyalty.

Based on the above discussion, this study infers that the impact of TTI quality on tourist loyalty is mediated by the tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction. From the perspective of self-determination theory, this study constructs an analysis path of “inter-action-needs satisfaction behavior.” TTI quality promotes tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction, and tourists show loyalty after the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. Hence, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H4: Basic psychological needs satisfaction mediates the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty.

The moderating effect of sociability.

According to the self-determination theory, the process of environmental factors triggering basic psychological needs satisfaction is moderated by personality [ 33 – 35 ]. In other words, the extent to which TTI quality affects tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction would rely heavily on individual characteristics. Sociability, which reflects individual differences in interpersonal relationship involvement [ 88 ], is proposed to influence tourists’ interpersonal interaction. In this study, we investigate whether sociability moderates the link between TTI quality and tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction.

Sociability refers to a tendency to affiliate with and prefer to be around others [ 89 ]. As a personality trait characteristic, sociability affects the personal evaluation of satisfaction and experience [ 90 , 91 ]. Particularly, it plays a crucial role in moderating interpersonal interactions [ 88 , 92 ]. Individuals with higher levels of sociability are similar to extroverts, not only in their tendency to seek friendships but also in their levels of engagement in various social interactions [ 88 , 93 ]. Conversely, people who demonstrate low sociability are less responsive to external stimulation and prefer to focus on their inner worlds rather than socialize with others [ 88 , 93 ].

In this study, we propose that sociability strengthens the link between TTI quality and tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction. Highly sociable individuals tend to actively establish connections with others and enjoy social interaction [ 94 , 95 ]. Moreover, they are prone to have a satisfying experience and receive positive feedback (e.g., affirmation, social integration) in the process of interaction [ 28 , 96 ]. Accordingly, tourists with high sociability are inclined to actively interact with others [ 94 ], which would improve TTI quality and better meet individuals’ basic psychological needs. Thus, TTI quality evokes basic psychological needs satisfaction of tourists with high sociability, whereas individuals with low sociability prefer to be alone and avoid social interaction [ 95 ]. It means that their interaction with other tourists is transient and superficial and further weakens the positive effect of TTI quality on basic psychological needs satisfaction. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:

H5: Sociability moderates the relationship between TTI quality and tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction, such that the effect is stronger for tourists with high sociability.

We propose that tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction mediates the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty, and sociability moderates the influence of TTI quality on tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction. According to the self-determination theory, basic psychological needs satisfaction is affected by individual characteristics in transmitting external environment-driven behavior [ 33 ]. Therefore, sociability is likely to affect the mediating effect of tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction, which may involve a moderated mediating phenomenon [ 97 ]. Thus, we speculate that sociability also moderates the mediation of tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction between TTI quality and tourist loyalty. Consequently, we propose that the indirect effect of the TTI quality on tourist loyalty through their basic psychological needs satisfaction should be stronger among tourists with high sociability. Based on the above analysis, we propose the following hypothesis:

H6: Sociability moderates the indirect effect of TTI quality on tourist loyalty mediated by basic psychological needs satisfaction such that the indirect effect is stronger for tourists with high sociability.

Data collection and sample

This study proposal was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee for Human Research Subject from the first authors’ academic institution in Fujian, China. All the data collection procedures involving human subjects were conducted in accordance with the Ethics Committee’s guidelines of the institution.

Participants were drawn from tourists who visited different destinations located in Fujian, China. To ensure representativeness of the samples, we took the following measures. Data were collected from tourists who had interacted with other tourists, particularly those participating in group tours. Specifically, through the authors’ contacts in various travel agencies, we successfully obtained the cooperation of 12 professional tour guides who provide guided group tours in Fujian. Tourists who participated in their group tours were approached at the end of the trip regarding this study survey. They were informed that the questionnaire was to understand their tourism experiences, and that their participation was entirely voluntary. They were ensured that all their answers would be completely anonymous and confidential. Verbal consent was obtained from each participant. Only after the participant verbally agreed to fill in the survey and confirmed that they are above 18 years old, they were given the questionnaire. Upon completing the survey, each participant was given a local token as the incentive and appreciation for their time and input. Based on the procedure mentioned above, we randomly investigated tourists’ interaction experience with other tourists according to the schedule of 12 tour guides from July 15th to December 23 rd , 2022. Data indicated that participants have visited the different types of destinations in Fujian, such as urban tourism (e.g., Xia Men, Fu Zhou), mountain tourism (e.g., Nan Ping), coastal tourism (e.g., Zhang Zhou, Pin Tan), and Red tourism (e.g., Long Yan, San Ming).

We distributed 860 questionnaires in total during the data collection period and obtained 746 complete and usable responses after eliminating 114 invalid, incomplete responses, indicating a response rate of 86.74%. As shown in Table 1 , of the 746 respondents, 55.8% were female, 36.5% were between the ages of 30 and 39, and 30% were between the ages of 40 and 49. Concerning the education, 75.3% of the respondents had received higher education. Regarding the income, 32.7% of the respondents had a monthly income of between ¥4,001 and ¥6,000, and 28.2% earned between ¥6,001 and ¥8,000 monthly.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944.t001

As this study was conducted in China, we followed Brislin’s (1970) back-translation procedure to translate all the items into Chinese [ 98 ]. To guarantee the quality of the questionnaire, we invited two English tourism experts to revise the items to ensure the consistency of semantics and content. The variables in this study were scored on a 5-point Likert scale (from 1 = “disagree completely” to 5 = “agree completely”). The specific methods of measurement were as follows.

Tourist-to-tourist (TTI) interaction quality.

We assessed TTI quality with Huang & Hsu’s five-item scale (2010) [ 16 ]. Tourists reported their perception of interactions between tourists. Sample items included “I experienced an interesting interaction with other tourists during this trip” and “I experienced an equal interaction with other tourists during this trip.” The scale’s reliability was 0.88.

Basic psychological needs satisfaction.

Basic psychological needs satisfaction was measured using Jiseon’s (2019) scale that comprises three items: perceived autonomy [ 99 ], perceived competence, and perceived relatedness. Each of the three subscales contained three items. Tourists reported the extent to which they felt basic psychological needs satisfaction. Sample items included “This interaction makes me feel free to do things my way,” “This interaction makes me feel competent,” and “This interaction makes me feel a lot closer with others.” The scale’s reliability was 0.93.

Sociability.

We adopted Cheek & Buss’s (1981) five-item scale to measure sociability [ 89 ]. Sample items included “I like to be with people” and “I prefer working with others rather than alone.” The scale’s reliability was 0.88.

Tourist loyalty.

We assessed tourist loyalty with Akhoondnejad’s (2016) three-item scale [ 22 ]. Sample items included, “If I have a chance, I will revisit this destination,” “I will recommend this destination to other people,” and “I have a willingness to pay more in this destination.” The scale’s reliability was 0.87.

Control variables.

Gender, age, education, monthly income, and other demographic characteristics were considered to impact tourist loyalty [ 29 , 54 ]. Therefore, to avoid the influence of these irrelevant variables on the logical relationship between the variables in this study, we used gender, age, education, and monthly income as control variables.

Analytic strategy

We employed SPSS PROCESS and Mplus 7.4 to verify and test the moderated mediation model constructed in this study. First, we used Mplus 7.4 for confirmatory factor analysis. Through analyzing the values of composite reliability and average variance extracted [ 100 , 101 ], we examined the reliability and validity of the model constructed in this study. Meanwhile, we checked the influence of common method variance drawing support from preliminary statistical verification [ 102 ]. Furthermore, with the aid of SPSS PROCESS macro models 7 [ 103 ], we investigated the direct effect in the proposed model and examined whether sociability moderated the indirect link between TTI quality and tourist loyalty mediated by basic psychological needs satisfaction. Additionally, we performed a simple slope analysis to illustrate the moderating effect of sociability [ 104 ].

Confirmatory factor analysis

To investigate the discriminant validity of TTI quality, basic psychological needs satisfaction, sociability, and tourist loyalty, we utilized Mplus 7.4 to conduct confirmatory factor analysis on the data obtained. As shown in Table 2 , the four-factor model including TTI quality, sociability, basic psychological needs satisfaction, and tourist loyalty [χ2(203) = 748.52, comparative fit index [(CFI) = 0.95, Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) = 0.94, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) = 0.04] demonstrated higher goodness of fit than any other alternative model including the single-factor model [χ2(209) = 4394.23, CFI = 0.59, TLI = 0.54, RMSEA = 0.16, and SRMR = 0.15]. As shown in Table 3 , factor loadings of all variables ranged from 0.71 to 0.86, which indicated good internal consistency. The composite reliability value for each construct was higher than 0.7, indicating that the four-factor model had satisfactory reliability [ 101 ]. All constructs’ average variance extracted (AVE) values were greater than 0.5, indicating adequate convergent validity [ 100 ]. Additionally, the square roots of AVE scores for each factor were greater than their corresponding inter-construct correlation (see Table 4 ), suggesting adequate discriminant validity [ 100 ]. The above results indicated that the four latent variables conducted in this study had sufficient discriminant validity and distinctly represented four different constructs.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944.t002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944.t003

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944.t004

Given that the measurements of TTI quality, basic psychological needs satisfaction, sociability, and tourist loyalty were completed by tourists using a questionnaire, there may be a risk of common method variance when investigating the relationship among variables. Thus, we examined the influence of common method variance (CMV) by controlling for unmeasured latent method factors [ 102 , 105 ]. We introduced a latent variable, CMV, into the four-factor model and allowed all items of the four latent variables (TTI quality, basic psychological needs satisfaction, sociability, and tourist loyalty) to load on it. Compared with the four-factor model, all the fitting index values in the five-factor model were not significantly improved (less than 0.02), indicating that CMV slightly affected subsequent analyses.

Descriptive statistics

Table 4 presents the results of descriptive statistics, including standard deviations, means, and correlations of all variables in this research. The results showed that TTI quality correlated positively with basic psychological needs satisfaction (γ = 0.59, P<0.01), sociability (γ = 0.16, P<0.01), and tourist loyalty (γ = 0.47, P<0.01). Basic psychological needs satisfaction was positively related to tourist loyalty (γ = 0.44, P<0.01). In addition, sociability was positively related to tourist loyalty (γ = 0.22, P<0.01) and was insignificantly correlated with basic psychological needs satisfaction (γ = -0.03, ns). The insignificant relation-ship between sociability and basic psychological needs satisfaction did not affect the sub-sequent regression analysis.

Hypotheses testing

Table 5 displays the results of the moderated mediation analysis. Taking the control variables (gender, age, education, monthly income) and mediator variable (basic psychological needs satisfaction) into account, the main effect of TTI quality on tourist loyalty was statistically significant (β = 0.37, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.28, 0.45]). Thus, H1 was supported.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944.t005

As shown in Table 5 , TTI quality was positively related to basic psychological needs satisfaction (β = 0.61, P < 0.01), and the 95% CI did not include zero (0.56, 0.67), thus supporting H2. Meanwhile, basic psychological needs satisfaction significantly impacted tourist loyalty (β = 0.28, 95% CI = [0.19, 0.36]), as displayed in Table 5 , which supported H3. In addition, we introduce bootstrapping (5,000) to test the indirect effect of TTI quality on tourist loyalty. The result of bootstrapping (5,000) revealed that the indirect effect was significant (β = 0.17, P < 0.01), and the 95% CI excluded zero (0.11, 0.24), thus supporting H4.

Table 5 shows that the interaction term between TTI quality and sociability had a significant and positive impact on basic psychological needs satisfaction (β = 0.14, P < 0.01), with the 95% CI excluding zero (0.08, 0.20). According to West & Aiken (1991), we used a simple slope analysis by plotting the pattern of moderating effects at one standard deviation above and below the mean. As displayed in Fig 2 , the influence of TTI quality on basic psychological needs satisfaction among tourists with high sociability is stronger than those with low sociability. Therefore, H5 was supported.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944.g002

Table 5 demonstrates that the mediated effect of basic psychological needs satisfaction increased for tourists with high sociability (β = 0.20, 95% CI = [0.13, 0.28]). However, for tourists with low sociability, the influence of TTI quality on tourist loyalty via basic psychological needs satisfaction was weaker (β = 0.14, 95% CI = [0.08, 0.21]). More importantly, the moderated mediation at high and low levels of sociability showed a significant difference (β = 0.04, P < 0.05), and the 95% CIs did not include zero (0.02, 0.06), which supported H6.

Conclusions

Discussion of the results.

According to the findings of this study, one can surmise that TTI quality is a crucial predictor of tourist loyalty. Previous research on the antecedents of tourist loyalty mainly focused on individual and destination levels [ 23 , 37 , 38 ], neglecting the impact of TTI quality. Specially, previous studies have found that consumers’ e-exchange, e-service quality, and e-recovery are determining factor of consumer loyalty [ 53 , 59 ]. This enlightens us on whether offline individual’s engagement could evoke their loyalty. This study revealed that TTI quality indeed is a key influence factor promoting tourist loyalty, which enriches the literature on tourist loyalty. In addition, prior studies on the effect of TTI on tourist behavior mainly concentrated on interaction mode [ 28 ], interaction valence [ 39 ], and interaction content [ 7 ], but they rarely discussed the impact of TTI from the perspective of interaction quality. Based on the existing literature on the quality of tourist-tourist interaction [ 17 ], this study further investigated the transmission mechanism of TTI quality triggering tourist loyalty, thereby extending the research on TTI.

This study also revealed that basic psychological needs satisfaction is a critical path connecting TTI quality and tourist loyalty. The existing research on TTI mostly inherits the paradigm and framework of CCI [ 106 ]. Tracking back the research on the relationship between CCI and consumer loyalty, it seemed that there are two equally practical path: cognitive evaluation and emotional response [ 5 , 24 ]. However, both cognitive and emotional perspective primarily focused on individual response under interactive situation, ignoring the influence of interactive experience on basic psychological needs satisfaction. The result provides support for statement that TTI arouses tourist behavior [ 28 ] and expands the knowledge about how such a relation works from the perspective of self-determination theory.

Self-determination theory posits that conditions supporting the individual’s experience of autonomy, competence, and relatedness would foster individuals’ motivations and engagement for activities, including enhanced performance and persistence [ 30 – 32 ]. Particularly, based on the self-determination theory, individuals’ interactions among each other are desirable and essential, as the relationships provide satisfaction of the need for relatedness. Furthermore, the high-quality relationships not only satisfy the relatedness need but also fulfill the autonomy need and competence need. Specifically, findings of this study are consistent with the self-determination theory and strongly support the following conclusions: (1) TTI quality promotes tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction; (2) tourist loyalty is a behavioral response to basic psychological needs satisfaction; and (3) a psychological needs satisfaction perspective provides a reliable explanation for understanding the influence process of TTI quality. These findings are in line with the statement reported in tourism that basic psychological needs satisfaction can be induced by individual experience and promote behavioral intention [ 107 ]. In addition, previous studies on the mediating effect of basic psychological needs satisfaction mostly focused on the fields of psychology, management, and pedagogy [ 33 , 108 , 109 ], paying less attention to tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction. This study extends prior findings by empirically analyzing the transmission mechanism of tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction from the perspective of tourist-tourist interaction.

This study also examines the role of sociability in the process of tourists’ interactive experience on their basic psychological needs satisfaction. Although studies have pointed that sociability is a moderating variable worthy of attention in tourism [ 92 ], researchers have not examined its impact on tourist-tourist relationship. Moreover, previous research primarily concentrated on the main effect of sociability, paying less attention to its moderating effect. For instance, Li et al. (2021) revealed that social personality trait can significantly stimulate consumers’ purchase behavior [ 91 ]. Different from existing literature, the current study confirmed that sociability also acts as moderating role in the link between TTI quality and basic psychological needs satisfaction.

Theoretical implications

The theoretical implications of this study are as follows. First, this study provides insights into the process of how tourists’ interactions trigger their post-travel behavior. Previous research has acknowledged that TTI is an integral part of the tourist experience and affects tourists’ on-site behavior [ 28 ], but it largely ignored the effect of TTI quality on tourists’ post-travel behavior. Responding to the call for investigation of TTI using empirical research [ 12 ], this study explored the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty. Findings of this study confirmed that TTI quality stimulates tourist loyalty, which suggests that TTI has an impact on tourists’ on-site and post-travel behavior. In addition, previous literature on tourist loyalty mainly focused on its antecedent at the individual and destination level [ 27 , 36 , 53 , 59 ]. This study analyzes the impact of TTI quality on tourist loyalty from the tourist-tourist relationship perspective, thus enriching the literature on tourist loyalty, which is a means to the sustainability of tourism destinations.

Second, this study advances the TTI literature by revealing the mediating mechanism underlying the relationship between TTI quality and tourist loyalty. Previous research discussed the effect of TTI from different dimensions [ 12 , 28 ], but little research concerns the direct impact of TTI quality on tourist loyalty. Meanwhile, previous literature on the mechanism of CCI stimulating consumer loyalty mostly concentrated on individual response in the interactive situation [ 5 , 24 , 25 ], neglecting the satisfaction effect of interactive behavior on individuals’ basic psychological needs. Hence, through introducing basic psychological needs satisfaction as the mediator, our study clarifies the psychological mechanism of TTI quality in arousing tourist loyalty. Furthermore, considering the lack of research on basic psychological needs satisfaction in tourism studies [ 107 , 110 ], the investigation of its mediating mechanism in TTI literature widens the scope of basic psycho-logical needs satisfaction. In addition, given the insufficient research on the moderating role of tourist sociability, the current study addressed this gap by investigating the moderating effect of tourist sociability on the relationship between TTI quality and tourist basic psychological needs satisfaction, which complements the existing research.

Finally, we constructed a moderated mediation model based on self-determination theory, offering a theoretical framework for exploring and testing similar variable in the field of TTI. This study’s research model comprises four constructs (TTI quality, individual-al basic psychological needs satisfaction, behavioral reaction after basic psychological needs satisfaction, and individual characteristic). The theoretical framework of this study can also be used to explore other similar variables in future studies. For example, TTI may not always be beneficial. Negative TTI reflects tourists’ negative evaluation of experience related to other tourists [ 41 , 111 ] and may be regarded as a negative environmental variable. Likewise, given that basic psychological needs can also be frustrated by external environment [ 112 ], basic psychological needs frustration represent a strong and direct threat to the needs [ 113 ], which can be further verified in future studies.

Managerial implications

This study presents practical implications for the management of group tours. First, previous studies indicated that TTI plays an essential role in shaping the tourism experience [ 8 , 12 , 28 ]. Thus, necessary intervention measures that enhance TTI quality should be taken, such as designing high-quality group interaction activities, providing interactive games that require collaboration among tourists, and encouraging self-introductions among tourists to deepen mutual understanding. More importantly, compared with interaction quantity, tourism service providers should pay more attention to the formation of high-quality TTI rather than interaction frequency. To this end, they can focus on some key indicators of interaction quality (e.g., harmonious; friendly; equal; cooperative; and intense interactions) to roughly evaluate TTI quality.

Second, this study finds that basic psychological needs satisfaction plays a mediating role between TTI quality and tourist loyalty. Hence, taking intervention measures that can increase tourists’ basic psychological needs satisfaction is beneficial to service providers. For example, service providers can improve tourist basic psychological needs satisfaction by guiding high-quality TTI. Additionally, tourists’ basic psychological needs may be challenged in an unfamiliar tourism destination [ 28 ]. Thus, tourism practitioners should take action to increase tourists’ autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs satisfaction by paying attention to the physical and psychological state of tourists. Specifically, they should respect and satisfy tourists’ autonomy and competence needs without interfering with the regular schedule, and design tourism activities involving more inter-actions to satisfy tourists’ needs for relatedness and strengthen their bond to the destination.

In addition, this study revealed that sociability positively moderates the impact of TTI quality on tourist loyalty. As tourists who demonstrate low sociability prefer to engage in solitary activities rather than seeking interactions, tourism enterprises and destination managers should emphasize activities for those with low sociability. To avoid the resistance of low sociability tourists, destination managers and tourism practitioners should ascertain and respect their willingness (or unwillingness) to be around others when arranging interactive activities. They need to ensure non-force participation and make alternative arrangements for tourists who wish not to engage in such activities. Moreover, Ruan (2020) indicated that groups with similar sociability contribute to satisfaction [ 92 ]. Therefore, matching tourists’ sociability when designing interactive games or tourism activities would be effective to improve tourist satisfaction.

Limitations and future research

Although this study enriches the existing knowledge about TTI, there are some limitations to be addressed in future research. First, we assessed TTI through the quality of interaction, which has been applied in prior studies [ 15 , 41 , 114 ]. However, TTI is considered a multidimensional construct, with different dimensions leading to different outcomes [ 7 , 41 ]. Future research should investigate the influence mechanism of other types of TTI on tourist loyalty and explore the differences in various types of TTI on tourist loyalty. Second, through exploring the link between TTI quality and basic psychological needs satisfaction, the present study finds that TTI quality is an antecedent of basic psychological needs satisfaction, but it ignores the motivation that drives TTI; that is, tourists may seek TTI to fulfil basic psychological needs. Thus, it would be meaningful to clarify the relationship among basic psychological needs, TTI quality, and basic psychological needs satisfaction in the future. Third, influenced by collective values in China [ 115 ], the conclusions are in line with self-determination theory and our hypotheses. However, previous studies implied that individual behavior would be different due to the national culture [ 116 ], which may be reflected in TTI. Hence, it is a new direction worth exploring that uses a cross-cultural analysis to investigate the effect of TTI quality to get more generalizable results. Fourth, the COVID-19 pandemic may have altered tourists’ interactions and how the TTI quality is evaluated [ 117 , 118 ]. Therefore, future studies should assess tourists’ interaction changes and the impact on destination management in the post-pandemic era, which would further influences the long-term sustainable development of tourism destinations.

Supporting information

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Frontiers in Sustainable Tourism
Social Impact of Tourism
Research Topics

Tourism Development, Sustainability, and Inclusion

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The tourism field of study covers multiple perspectives like the tourism experience, tourism forms (e.g., mass tourism, heritage tourism, ecotourism), tourism’s history, driving forces of tourism demand, and the effects of tourism on the economy, social fabric, cultural and environmental spheres of the ...

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Machine learning and artificial intelligence for a sustainable tourism: a case study on saudi arabia.

1. Introduction

2. related work, 2.1. conceptual framework for tourism data space, 2.2. social media and travel planning, 2.3. evolution of tourism forecasting, 2.4. personalized recommendation systems, 2.5. deep reinforcement learning for tourism, 2.6. comprehensive information support in tourism, 2.7. search engine data for tourism demand prediction, 3. contributions, 3.1. scientific contributions.

Advanced data analysis and modeling: - We utilized comprehensive Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) techniques to prepare and understand the dataset, enhancing the reliability of the models. - We applied and optimized a diverse array of machine learning algorithms (e.g., Decision Tree, Random Forest, K Neighbors Classifier, Gaussian Naive Bayes, Support Vector Classification) tailored to the tourism domain.
Novel use of ARIMA for time series forecasting: - We introduced ARIMA models to capture temporal fluctuations in tourist spending, providing accurate future spending predictions, particularly valuable in the context of disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic.
Rigorous model evaluation: - We conducted detailed performance evaluations using metrics such as Mean Absolute Error, Mean Squared Error, and Median Squared Error, contributing to the methodological rigor in tourism forecasting research.

3.2. Practical Contributions

Informed decision-making for policymakers: - We provided tools for anticipating and responding to changes in tourist behavior and spending patterns, aiding policymakers in optimizing resource allocation and strategic planning, especially during disruptions.
Enhanced marketing strategies: - We offered insights that enable tourism businesses to tailor marketing strategies, personalize offers, and optimize pricing based on predicted spending patterns, improving customer targeting and engagement.
Support for sustainable tourism development: - We promoted the development of sustainable tourism models by forecasting spending and identifying trends, helping stakeholders plan for balanced economic, environmental, and social growth.
Inbound Tourism: Shows the number of tourist visits and overnights spent, expenditure, and the average length and expenditure per trip and per night for tourists coming into the country. The data spans from 2015 to 2021, and there is a noticeable decrease in tourist visits and overnights in 2020 and 2021, likely due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The expenditure in SAR millions and the average expenditure per trip and per night also reflect changes over these years.
Domestic Tourism: Details similar indicators but for tourism within the country. Again, there is a decrease in visits and overnights in 2020, with a slight rebound in 2021. The expenditure patterns and average expenditures per trip and night also fluctuate over the years.
Internal Tourism: This category tracks tourism data for residents within the country and shows similar trends to domestic tourism. The numbers for visits, overnights, and expenditure in SAR millions generally increase from 2015 to 2019 before falling in 2020, with some recovery in 2021. We draw the attention that domestic tourism refers to residents traveling within their own country, while internal tourism encompasses both domestic tourism and inbound tourism (international visitors traveling within the country).
Outbound Tourism: Contains data for residents traveling out of the country. This section shows a sharp decrease in tourist visits and overnights from 2019 to 2020, with a slight increase in 2021. Expenditure and average expenditure per trip and per night exhibit significant drops in 2020 but show increases in 2021.

4.1. Challenges Faced

Access to data: Access to reliable data on the economic impact of tourism in Saudi Arabia has been challenging due to the limited availability of publicly accessible data. The data were obtained from the Tourism Authority of Saudi Arabia.
Reliable data sources: obtaining reliable sources of data has been a challenge, with limited sources available for the study.
Data quality: The data were initially collected in Arabic and contained missing values, which posed a challenge during data analysis. To overcome this challenge, the data were translated into English and missing values were removed.
Data privacy: data privacy is a crucial issue in the tourism industry, as the collected data may contain sensitive information that needs to be protected.

4.2. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

4.3. data cleaning and processing.

Data characteristics: The key attributes of the dataset are “Inbound Region”, “Date”, “Destination”, and “Spending”. Any additional attributes were removed.
Translation: the original dataset was in Arabic, so it was translated into English for ease of analysis.
Missing value handling: A missing value issue was detected in the “Inbound Region” attribute. To resolve this, we used the Series.bool() function to identify missing values and replaced 65 missing values with “other countries”.
Definition of spending: the “Spending” attribute represents the average spending per year and month for each arrival.
Definition of inbound region: to simplify the analysis, anyone who was not from a specific continent (America, Asia, Africa, Middle East, or GCC) was considered to be from “other countries”.

5. Hyper-Parameter Tuning

5.1. grid search for decision tree and random forest.

Splitting the dataset into an 80/20 training and testing partition.
Creating a pipeline incorporating Decision Trees, Random Forest, and Linear Regression algorithms.
Compiling a list of hyperparameter values for exploration.
Conducting the Grid Search to find the optimal hyperparameter combination.
Training the models using the selected hyperparameters and evaluating their performance.

5.2. Gradient Descent for Linear Regression

Initializing model parameters ( m and c ) and the learning rate ( L ).
Iteratively adjusting m and c based on the gradient of the cost function to find the minimum. The adjustment is performed based on Equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ).

5.3. K Neighbors Classifier

5.4. gaussian naive bayes, 5.5. support vector classification, 5.6. regularization in svc, 5.7. enhanced table of hyperparameter tuning results, 6. machine learning techniques: implementation and results, 6.1. decision tree.

Decision tree classifier

Decision Tree Regressor Train Score is: 0.7711744010593006.
Decision Tree Regressor Test Score is: 0.7656243281246076.

6.2. Random Forest

Random Forest classifier

Random Forest Regressor Train Score is: 0.7719526966127606.
Random Forest Regressor Test Score is: 0.7636511565432864.

6.3. K Neighbors Classifier

K Neighbors Classifier

K-Neighbors Classifier Train Score is: 0.9953419502113089.
K-Neighbors Classifier Test Score is: 0.9903552020729118.

6.4. Gaussian Naive Bayes

Gaussian Naive Bayes classifier

Gaussian Naive Bayes Train Score is: 1.0.
Gaussian Naive Bayes Test Score is: 0.9999280238960665.

6.5. Support Vector Classification

Support Vector Machine Classifier

Support Vector Classification Train Score is: 0.8737390875158096.
Support Vector Classification Test Score is: 0.8745096627919531.

6.6. Autonomous Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA)

ARIMA forecasting

Mean Absolute Error (MAE) value : a measure of the difference between variables, as it measures the average size of errors in a set of predictions, without considering their direction. The regression analysis is used to assess the performance of machine learning models. We note in Figure 14 that Gaussian Naive Bayes did not give any error value (0.0) compared to the rest of the values. We note that our highest value is Decision Tree, so that the approximate value of the error is 5879.
Mean Square Error (MSE) : represents the average quadratic differences between actual values in regression analysis. It is used to evaluate the performance of machine learning models in predicting the target variable. The lower the value of MSE, the better the model’s performance (see Figure 15 ).
K Neighbors Classifier.
Gaussian Naive Bayes.
Support Vector Machine.

7. Impact on Sustainable Tourism

8. innovations in sustainable tourism: shaping the future of destinations.

Predictive analytics for resource management: By accurately forecasting tourist flows and expenditures, destinations can better manage resources. This includes optimal staffing, efficient use of energy and water, and reduced waste production. For instance, predictive models help anticipate periods of high demand, allowing for proactive resource allocation that curtails excessive consumption and minimizes environmental impact [ 60 ].
Dynamic pricing models: AI-driven dynamic pricing can be employed to balance tourist numbers with sustainability goals. By adjusting prices based on demand forecasts, destinations can manage visitor numbers during peak times, reducing over-tourism and its detrimental effects on local communities and the environment [ 61 ].
Enhanced customer segmentation: AI algorithms analyze vast amounts of data to segment tourists more effectively according to their behavior and preferences. This segmentation allows for tailored marketing and the development of specialized, sustainable tourism products that encourage responsible tourist behavior [ 62 ].
Optimized transportation networks: ML models can optimize routes and schedules for transportation based on real-time data and forecasts of tourist movements. This optimization not only improves the tourist experience, but also reduces congestion and the carbon footprint of transportation services [ 64 ].
Smart energy management: Integrating AI with smart grid technologies can drastically improve energy management in tourist destinations. AI algorithms predict energy demand peaks and troughs, enabling energy systems to adjust outputs, incorporate renewable energy sources efficiently, and reduce overall energy consumption [ 65 ].
Waste reduction initiatives: AI can enhance waste management by predicting waste generation rates from tourist activities and facilitating the effective scheduling of waste collection, thus preventing overflows and reducing littering in key tourist areas [ 66 ].
Cultural preservation: AI tools can help document and preserve cultural heritage through digital archiving and virtual reality recreations, making tourism less invasive and supporting the conservation of heritage sites [ 68 ].
Community-based tourism platforms: Leveraging AI to promote community-based tourism initiatives can ensure that the economic benefits of tourism are shared widely across local populations. These platforms can connect tourists directly with local services, crafts, and experiences, fostering a more inclusive economic benefit [ 69 ].
Education and awareness programs: ML-driven tools can analyze educational needs and gaps, guiding the creation of programs that educate tourists and locals about sustainability practices, cultural sensitivity, and environmental conservation [ 70 ].

9. Discussion

10. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments.

This study is supported via funding from Prince sattam bin Abdulaziz University project number (PSAU/2024/R/1445).
The authors extend their sincere appreciation to the Saudi Tourism Authority for their support in providing the data necessary for this research. The invaluable insights and information contributed significantly to the depth and breadth of this study, enabling a comprehensive analysis of tourism patterns in Saudi Arabia. This research would not have been possible without their collaboration and the valuable contributions of their dedicated staff.
The authors would like to acknowledge that this research work was partially financed by Kingdom University, Bahrain from the research grant number 2024-3-011.

Conflicts of Interest

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Click here to enlarge figure

Period	Issues	Consumer Behaviors
Pre-pandemic	Stable growth, infrastructure development	High tourist inflow, diverse spending patterns [ , ]
Pandemic	Travel restrictions, economic downturn	Reduced travel, shift to domestic tourism [ , ]
Post-pandemic	Recovery phase, new health protocols	Gradual return, preference for safety and sustainability [ , ]

Indicators	Unit	From 2015 until 2021
Tourist Visits	(’000)	965,073
Tourist Overnights	(’000)	7,335,538
Tourist Expenditure	(SAR Mn)	2,246,491
Average Length of Stay	(Night)	7
Average Expenditure per Visit	(SAR)	89,443
Average Expenditure per Night	(SAR)	9198

Variable	Description	Unit
Number of Tourist Visits (Trips in )	Total number of tourist visits made	Visits (’000)
Number of Tourist Overnights	Total number of nights spent by tourists	Nights (’000)
Tourist Expenditure	Total expenditure by tourists	SAR Mn
Average Expenditure per Visit	Average expenditure per tourist Visits	SAR
Average Expenditure per Night	Average expenditure per night spent	SAR

Hyperparameter	Decision Tree	Random Forest	Linear Regression	K Neighbors Classifier	GNB	SVC
max_depth	15	26	-	-	-	-
max_features	‘sqrt’	‘sqrt’	-	-	-	-
min_samples_leaf	2	2	-	-	-	-
min_samples_split	2	8	-	-	-	-
n_estimators	-	200	-	-	-	-
m (slope)	-	-	1.2696	-	-	-
c (intercept)	-	-	0.1104	-	-	-
Learning_rate	-	-	0.05	-	-	-
n_neighbors	-	-	-	5	-	-
weights	-	-	-	‘distance’	-	-
kernel	-	-	-	-	-	‘rbf’
C	-	-	-	-	-	1.0
gamma	-	-	-	-	-	‘auto’

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Louati, A.; Louati, H.; Alharbi, M.; Kariri, E.; Khawaji, T.; Almubaddil, Y.; Aldwsary, S. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence for a Sustainable Tourism: A Case Study on Saudi Arabia. Information 2024 , 15 , 516. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090516

Louati A, Louati H, Alharbi M, Kariri E, Khawaji T, Almubaddil Y, Aldwsary S. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence for a Sustainable Tourism: A Case Study on Saudi Arabia. Information . 2024; 15(9):516. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090516

Louati, Ali, Hassen Louati, Meshal Alharbi, Elham Kariri, Turki Khawaji, Yasser Almubaddil, and Sultan Aldwsary. 2024. "Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence for a Sustainable Tourism: A Case Study on Saudi Arabia" Information 15, no. 9: 516. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090516

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Exploring tourism competitiveness in developing economies: residents’ perspective

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Published: 17 August 2024
Volume 5 , article number 201 , ( 2024 )

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Understanding the factors that contribute to tourism competitiveness in developing economies is essential for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers, as these countries still struggle to fully capitalize on their tourism potential. The residents’ perspective, often overlooked in Tourism Destination Competitiveness (TDC) models, is crucial because they are the primary stakeholders who directly experience the consequences of tourism activities in their daily lives. Their positive attitudes can contribute to a welcoming and friendly environment, enhancing the competitiveness of the destination in the global tourism market. Up to now, there have been a few studies that relate residents’ attitudes to tourism destination competitiveness. However, none have focused on developing a tailor-made model for measuring residents’ perspectives on TDC. To develop such a specific model and contribute to the existing theory in this area, our research applied a multi-step approach, including a literature review of existing models, pilot testing for indicator selection, and model validation through CFA. The data were collected through a survey of residents in Serbia, chosen as an example of a developing country. The final model of the study consists of five factors: Natural and Cultural Resources, Quality of Tourist Offer and Infrastructure, Situational Framework of Tourism Development and Management, Destination Perception and Experience, and Pollution, containing 32 indicators. Practical applicability of the model and theoretical contributions are discussed in the paper, as well as the TDC evaluation for Serbia.

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1 Introduction

Tourism plays a crucial role in the economic development of many nations, particularly in developing economies, where it can be a significant driver of growth and employment. Formerly marginalized in the tourism sector, the developing world has now evolved into a key driver of its expansion [ 1 ]. However, advanced nations consistently hold top positions in the World Economic Forum (WEF) Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index. Meanwhile, developing economies express concerns regarding environmental sustainability, human resources, job prospects in tourism, and the prioritization of tourism [ 2 ]. According to Sanches-Pereira and associates [ 3 ], developing countries have yet to fully capitalize on their tourism potential. Therefore, understanding the factors that contribute to tourism competitiveness in developing economies is essential for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers alike.

Numerous studies have explored tourism competitiveness, aiming to comprehend the diverse factors influencing a country’s capacity to attract and retain tourists [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The evaluation of a country’s tourism competitiveness encompasses an analysis of various dimensions, including natural and cultural resources, infrastructure, policy environment, and overall appeal to tourists. The majority of these studies were carried out in well-established destinations and emphasize the viewpoints of tourism experts and industry practitioners, who are deemed to possess the highest level of knowledge regarding management and competitiveness [ 11 ]. Unfortunately, the perspective of residents has been largely overlooked.

Residents, as integral stakeholders, contribute to the co-creation of the destination’s identity, influencing its attractiveness and sustainability. They play a crucial role in shaping the destination’s image and influencing the overall visitor experience. To achieve sustainable and inclusive tourism development in any country, particularly a developing one, and to ensure the overall well-being of local communities, residents’ attitudes towards tourism development should be acknowledged [ 12 ]. Positive attitudes can contribute to a welcoming and friendly environment, enhancing the competitiveness of the destination in the global tourism market. The residents’ perspective is crucial because they are the primary stakeholders who directly experience the consequences of tourism activities in their daily lives. Residents of different destinations may have a different view of what characterizes a good stay and well-being in a destination compared to experts or tourists [ 13 , 14 ]. Unlike tourists, residents tend to have a more complex interpretation of a destination, as it holds greater significance for them beyond being just a vacation spot. For residents, a tourist destination is a social place where they earn their livelihood, interact with community members, utilize resources that influence their living and working conditions, and enjoy natural resources and cultural offerings for their personal well-being. When they have the opportunity to leverage these resources, they actively engage in tourism-related activities by providing services to tourists [ 15 ]. Additionally, these residents possess local knowledge that can enhance the tourist experience by recommending attractions or facilities to visit [ 16 ]. Thus, their role in evaluating destination attributes is significant, as they serve as prosumers—both consumers of local services and co-creators of the tourist experience. Moreover, the evaluation of destination attributes is complex for this group of stakeholders, as their perspectives can significantly impact the residents' quality of life [ 17 ]. Therefore, the aim of this study is to assess the key determinants of tourism competitiveness in a developing country from the residents’ viewpoint.

In this context, Serbia was chosen as the research area because it is an emerging tourism destination and a developing economy actively seeking a stronger presence in the global tourism arena. Strategically located in Southeast Europe, Serbia boasts a diverse cultural and historical heritage, abundant tourism attractions, and faces notable developmental challenges, sustainability efforts, and deliberate market positioning. This makes Serbia an interesting area for studying tourism destination competitiveness (TDC). The country holds a relatively modest competitive position globally, ranking 83rd among 140 countries listed in the WEF Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019 [ 2 ]. The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) reported that in 2021, the total contribution of travel and tourism to Serbia’s GDP was 3.6%, and it accounted for 5.4% of employment [ 18 ]. Recognizing tourism as a priority sector, Serbia aims to leverage it for overall economic and social growth [ 19 ]. However, academic studies on TDC in Serbia are scarce and primarily focus on the perspectives of tourism experts and industry practitioners [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no attempt has been made so far to investigate residents’ opinions towards TDC in Serbia. Therefore, this study is significant as it aims to address this gap by developing a tailored competitiveness model that considers Serbian residents’ attitudes toward competitiveness indicators.

Through a comprehensive analysis, the study aims to shed light on the key factors influencing the tourism competitiveness of a developing economy, thereby offering valuable policy recommendations for fostering sustainable tourism development in developing economies. The paper is structured as follows: Sect. 2 sets the theoretical framework, Sect. 3 describes the methodology, Sect. 4 presents the main results, Sect. 5 provides a discussion, and Sect. 6 outlines the main conclusions.

2 Literature review

2.1 the role of residents in assessing the competitiveness of a tourist destination.

Tourist destinations that demonstrate the ability to foster economic prosperity or environmental well-being, while also prioritizing environmental conservation and enhancing residents’ quality of life, are likely to positively influence residents’ perceptions of tourism and increase the overall destination’s competitiveness [ 24 , 25 ]. Numerous empirical studies have been conducted to date, applying various TDC models. These studies utilize data on specific destinations to assess the significance of attributes relevant to tourism competitiveness [ 11 , 26 ]. It is unlikely that all these factors have the same impact and significance in shaping the level of competitiveness for different stakeholders within the tourism industry. Nonetheless, it is crucial to establish a comprehensive list of relevant variables and promote research conducted from the perspective of various stakeholders for a thorough understanding of a destination’s competitiveness. The role of residents in assessing destination competitiveness can be approached from different aspects. When managing the competitiveness and development of a destination, it is important to take into account local perspectives, as residents are inherent and deeply engaged stakeholders. Furthermore, the residents’ perspectives become increasingly significant, particularly in organizational aspects, as residents will assume a foundational role in presenting the destination's image, preserving its heritage, and enhancing its attractiveness [ 9 , 27 ].

Research focusing on destination image states that residents’ positive perceptions of the destination image may positively influence their views on the impacts and changes imposed by tourism in the community [ 28 ]. Since destination image serves as a reliable measure of destination attractiveness, it naturally contributes to the destination's competitiveness [ 29 ]. As a result, residents play a crucial role in strengthening the destination image, which is vital for setting the place apart from other destinations [ 9 ]. This, in turn, can increase their intention to support the development of tourism and enhance the destination’s competitiveness. When considering the contribution of communities to promoting tourism development, residents are recognized as both carriers and actors in destination marketing and competitiveness efforts. The competitiveness of a destination encompasses not only its natural landmarks but also its unique cultural and heritage aspects inherent to the locality. Strzelecka and associates [ 30 ] discovered that residents with deeper knowledge and comprehension of natural and cultural resources manifest a stronger sense of place attachment. This indicates that residents perceive various aspects of destination competitiveness that are closely related to the distinctive local environments and accessible resources at destinations. Initially, residents tend to perceive certain characteristics of TDC at a high level, including natural and cultural competitiveness. Ahn and Bessiere [ 15 ] examine that distinctive regional characteristics like contextual and natural competitiveness are valued as crucial tourism assets by residents. Additionally, technological advancements such as mobile applications, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and online information are recognized as significant elements of destination competitiveness. Consequently, practitioners and governments should aim to maximize the utilization of these competitive resources, foster the development of innovative travel products and activities, and create strategies for successful and sustainable destination management. Success for a tourist destination is often measured by various indicators such as the number of tourists, tourism revenue, length of stay, visitor satisfaction, and the destination’s image. However, true success goes beyond these quantitative measures to include qualitative aspects like resident satisfaction, environmental sustainability, and the overall quality of life for those living in the destination.

The connection between competitiveness and success lies in a destination’s ability to balance the needs and expectations of tourists with the well-being of its residents and the sustainability of its resources. A highly competitive destination that attracts many visitors might not be truly successful if it neglects the quality of life of its residents or the preservation of its natural and cultural assets [ 14 ]. Conversely, a destination that prioritizes resident satisfaction and sustainability is likely to achieve long-term success, fostering a supportive community and preserving its appeal for future visitors. Research by Dwyer [ 14 , 31 ] emphasizes the importance of incorporating broader measures of success into the evaluation of destination competitiveness. This includes considering factors such as resident well-being, environmental impact, and socio-cultural benefits.

Bu and associates [ 9 ] analyzed residents’ attitudes toward tourism development, focusing on perceived advantages, experienced effects, and willingness to support tourism initiatives. Their research highlighted residents’ belief in the government’s pivotal role in enhancing a destination’s image and competitiveness. This underscores the need to prioritize enhancing residents’ quality of life and well-being through tourism. Effective destination governance stresses the involvement of residents in the development process [ 32 ] acknowledging their direct experience of tourism's impacts [ 33 ]. Prioritizing residents’ interests is crucial for maximizing benefits from tourism development and fostering sustainable destination growth [ 30 , 34 ]. Detailed insights into residents' perspectives can validate planning processes and promote community-based sustainable development approaches [ 35 ]. Studies indicate that residents may perceive environmental impacts of tourism negatively. Gajdosik and associates [ 33 ] highlighted concerns such as noise pollution, water and air pollution, and issues with parking and construction. On the other hand, Vodeb [ 36 ] emphasized the importance of early engagement with residents in destination development to secure their participation and manage expectations effectively. This collaborative approach ensures that actions align with community interests and receive local support.

The role of residents in shaping the competitiveness of a destination is often underestimated but becomes apparent through their attitudes toward tourists and their impact on enhancing visitor experiences and the overall destination atmosphere. Previous studies have explored residents’ emotional responses and attitudes toward tourists [ 37 ], their behavioral interactions with tourists [ 25 ], and their cognitive assessments of tourism [ 38 ]. Local residents play a crucial role in shaping the visitor experience by actively participating in and contributing to tourism products and services. Positive interactions between residents and tourists contribute to a favorable destination image, thereby increasing competitiveness [ 9 , 27 ]. Tse & Wing Sun Tung [ 25 ] highlight various strategies for policymakers in the tourism sector to foster positive resident-tourist interactions, thereby enhancing destination attractiveness and competitiveness.

Studies also examine how residents act as ambassadors for their destinations, influencing others, including family and friends, to visit their hometowns [ 39 , 40 ]. As reliable informants, residents actively contribute to the uniqueness and attractiveness of their city when recommending it [ 41 ]. Thus, destination management organizations (DMOs) could benefit from involving residents more actively in destination promotion, potentially boosting both competitiveness and effective promotion [ 25 ].

Several studies have examined the economic impact of tourism from residents’ perspectives, revealing that residents typically view these impacts positively [ 42 ]. The competitive attributes of a destination can enhance its economic benefits, particularly when residents effectively utilize local resources [ 43 ]. This perspective suggests that increasing household income can confer a competitive advantage. Residents achieve this through various tourism-related business activities, such as selling handmade goods, running restaurants, and providing services as local travel agencies and guides [ 31 , 44 ].

Research on residents’ perceptions of tourism development and competitiveness primarily focuses on identifying, quantifying, and comparing different attributes that potentially shape perceptions of tourism and its effects [ 33 ]. Bu and colleagues [ 9 ] argue that tourism planners should actively seek input and recommendations from local residents regarding destination management and promotion, thereby evaluating resources as critical factors contributing to competitiveness. Additionally, tourism planning initiatives should offer opportunities for residents to engage in various activities and foster effective coordination among stakeholders.

While it is crucial for destinations to establish long-term competitive strategies aimed at enhancing their ability to offer diverse tourism experiences, it is equally important to understand how local residents perceive the competitiveness of their destination. Most significantly, local residents play an active role in contributing to tourism planning [ 45 ]. Despite this pivotal role, there remains a noticeable gap in the tourism literature regarding the analysis of residents' perceptions of destination competitiveness and their influential role in shaping this process. To address this gap, the present study aims to evaluate the developed model of competitiveness specifically with the local population as the target group. Developing and refining a measurement model tailored to assess residents' perspectives on tourism destination competitiveness involves creating comprehensive frameworks that capture their perceptions across different dimensions such as natural and cultural resources, quality of tourism offerings, infrastructure, management frameworks, and environmental concerns. While literature on residents’ perspectives regarding tourism destination competitiveness is currently limited, this research may prove valuable in conducting studies across developing economies to understand variations in resident attitudes and factors influencing tourism competitiveness.

The paper also outlines key points and highlights the gaps in research regarding the role of residents in evaluating TDC (see Table 1 ). Such research enables tourism planners and policymakers to assess the strengths and weaknesses of destinations [ 23 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ], drawing insights from local residents. The objective is to create a model that is tailored to the preferences and perspectives of this target group, thereby promoting the significance of local involvement and participation. Given the dynamic nature of destinations, which evolve over time and undergo continuous change, the primary contribution of the present study is to identify the key determinants and planning factors that residents perceive as crucial for enhancing the competitiveness of their destination.

3 Methodology

The creation of the model is performed in three stages: In-depth literature review, Pilot testing and Model set and validation.

3.1 In-depth literature review

In order to generate a pool of indicators for measuring TDC, a detailed literature review has been done, taking into account the Scopus database in the period of from 2000 to March 2022. A total of 558 papers with the main keywords “destination competitiveness” and “sustainable tourism indicators” were selected for the analysis, while after initial screening, 232 papers were selected as relevant for further analysis. Most of these studies utilized established models for TDC evaluation, particularly relying on well-known models such as the Integrated Destination Competitiveness model [ 50 ] or the Ritchie and Crouch [ 51 ] model, emphasizing the perspectives of tourism experts and industry stakeholders, while overlooking the viewpoint of residents. In the second round of analysis, 12 tourism experts from Serbia reviewed the indicators extracted from relevant papers and removed repetitive and irrelevant items for the analysis of TDC. After a long process of purifying the relevant indicators, a list of 165 indicators was extracted and included in the pilot questionnaire for local communities.

3.2 Pilot testing

Pilot testing was conducted from June to August 2022 via email and standard paper-pen surveys with representatives of local communities in Serbia. Participants were randomly selected from major cities and tourism destinations such as Subotica, Novi Sad, Belgrade, Niš, Leskovac, Zlatibor, and Kopaonik. The pilot research aimed to eliminate any misunderstandings related to the questions and to remove indicators that community members lacked sufficient knowledge to evaluate. Respondents were asked to estimate the relevance of each of the 165 indicators for measuring the tourism destination competitiveness (TDC) of Serbia on a Likert scale from 1 to 5 (1—not relevant at all, 5—very relevant). They were also given options to mark 6 if a question was “not well formulated” and 0 if they felt they “didn’t have enough knowledge.”

Indicators were divided into logical groups to facilitate the elimination and evaluation process. Pilot testing was conducted on a sample of 30 representatives of local communities. Typically, preliminary pilot tests are administered to a small set of respondents, with a sample size of about 30 to 50 individuals [ 52 ]. Afterwards, the responses were analyzed, and indicators were ranked based on the mean values of the answers and standard deviations. Indicators with a mean value below 4 and high standard deviations were marked for exclusion from the study. Additionally, any indicators that were unclear or beyond the scope of local knowledge were eliminated. From the initial 165 indicators, 60 relevant indicators were identified for the final stage of the research.

3.3 Model set and validation

3.3.1 participants.

A total of 456 representatives from local communities across Serbia participated in the final stage of the research. For model validation, the sample was divided into two parts: Sample 1 (N = 153 respondents) was used for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), while Sample 2 (N = 303 respondents) was used for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). In both samples, there were slightly more female respondents. The age range was from 18 to 73 in Sample 1 and up to 75 in Sample 2. The highest number had completed secondary school, followed by those with higher education. Additionally, the majority of the sample were not employed in tourism.

3.3.2 Procedure and research instrument

The field research with the local population of Serbia was carried out from June until December in 2023. A total of 456 respondents from all over Serbia participated in the survey. The largest number of respondents are from Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Subotica, Leskovac, Užice, Kopaonik and Zlatibor, but the sample also includes subjects from the rest of Serbia. One of the primary criteria for conducting the research was selecting cities and tourist regions that play a significant role in Serbia’s tourism industry, offer diverse tourist attractions, and have the potential to provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing TDC. The sample selection was random, with the condition that respondents reside in the given city/destination and are above 18 years old.

The survey instrument consisted of 60 items measuring TDC of Serbia, which were extracted in the previous phases of model building, as well as socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. The participants were asked to evaluate their agreement with the statements referring to TDC of Serbia on a 5-point Likert scale (1-I totally disagree, 5-I totally agree). The research was conducted using standard paper-and-pen surveys by 10 trained researchers who collected data in the field. Additionally, respondents were offered the option to complete the survey via tablet or mobile phones to accommodate different preferences and ensure maximum reach. Researchers conducted on-site intercept surveys at key locations such as parks, shopping centres, public transportation hubs, tourist attractions, as well as during some local events and gatherings. This involved directly approaching individuals in these areas and inviting them to participate in the survey. In some cases, local tourism organizations helped to distribute the survey and encouraged participation. Small incentives, such as faculty promotional gifts (e.g. pencils, folders, notepads) were offered to encourage participation. Clear and concise information about the purpose of the survey, its importance, and how the data would be used was provided to potential respondents. The survey was anonymous and voluntary, but respondents were asked to provide some basic information such as age, gender and education (Table 2 ). Statistical software IBM SPSS 23 and AMOS were used for data analysis.

4.1 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA)

In order to identify the latent dimensions of Serbia's TDC, EFA was conducted on sample 1 (N = 153 respondents). Item analysis showed a high KMO = 0.923, and the statistically significant value of Bartlett’s sphericity test was confirmed (χ2 = 9896.90, df = 2485, p < 0,000). The analysis of item correlations revealed a significant number of correlations with values above 0.3, which led to the conclusion that the data are suitable for EFA. Items that had factor loadings lower than 0.3 (a total of 10 items) were excluded from the further analysis [ 53 ]. The method of principal components with Promax rotation (due to established correlations between factors) and Kaiser normalization was used to extract factors. As a result, considering only factors whose eigenvalues were equal to or greater than one, five factors were extracted with total of 50 items, which explain 50,56% of the variance. The five identified factors are: F1 Natural and cultural resources, F2 Quality of Tourist offer and infrastructure, F3 Situational conditions for tourism development and management, F4 Destination perception and experience, and F5 Pollution. The results of EFA are presented in Table 3 .

4.2 Confirmatory factory analysis

CFA is used on sample 2 (N = 303 respondents) to validate and confirm the factor structure obtained by EFA. The AMOS program for the Windows operating system was used for CFA. The Mardia index of multivariate kurtosis was above 3 for all tested models, indicating significant multivariate kurtosis. Therefore, it was justified to use robust methods and indices based on this method [ 54 ]. The fit or appropriateness of the model was assessed using the following indices: Sattora-Bentler χ 2 (S-B χ 2 )—if it is insignificant, then the model has a good fit, but since it is sensitive to the number of respondents, it is mostly significant in a greater number of cases, Standardized Root Mean-Square Residual (SRMR), Root Mean-Square Error Of Approximation (RMSEA)—SRMR and RMSEA should be less than 0.08 [ 55 ], Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI)—if the CFI, NFI and NNFI are over 0.90, the model has a good fit [ 56 ]. In order to achieve adequate fit indices, modification indices were used with which AMOS suggests and proposes changes to the model.

When the first model obtained by exploratory factor analysis was tested, satisfactory fit indices were not achieved. First, it was suggested that several items should be excluded because they achieved saturation on several factors simultaneously (8 items in total). Moreover, the items that initially were part of the factor Situational conditions for tourism development and management (The positioning of the country as a tourist destination on the international market is effective, Social networks are effectively used to support the marketing activities) are suggested to be a part of the factor Destination perception and experience.

After these changes, the model was run again, and although the fit indices were visibly improved, a satisfactory fit index was still not achieved. The modification indices now suggested the exclusion of 10 more items. The final modifications related to the addition of correlations between individual items that belonged to the same factors. After these changes, a satisfactory fit model and the final structure of the competitiveness model were achieved. The final model consists of five factors: 1. Natural and cultural resources, 2. Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, 3. Situational framework of tourism development and management, 4. Destination perception and experience and 5. Pollution.

The final fit indices are shown in Table 4 .

The final model is shown in Table 5 , it consists of the five mentioned factors and a total of 32 indicators.

Factor 1: Natural and cultural resources is a factor referring to natural and cultural resources (tangible and intangible) of Serbia. Factor 2: Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure—refers to the quality of tourist infrastructure, signalization and accessibility of destination, including the quality of tourist offer and activities. Factor 3: Situational framework of tourism development and management—refers to the extent to which the conditions in Serbia are favourable for tourism development. This factor also contains items related to sustainability and ethics in tourism, i.e., local community support for tourism development, tourism companies operate in accordance with ethical principles etc. Factor 4: Destination perception and experience—refers to the perception of the brand, the image of Serbia as a tourist destination, destination positioning, but also quality of the overall experience at the destination. This factor also includes an assessment of the possibility of booking services, and the willingness to recommend Serbia as a destination to others. Finally, the last extracted factor is Factor 5: Pollution, referring to the assessment of the noise level, water and air pollution. This factor is of immense importance, as it indicates that local population consider pollution as important element of TDC.

4.3 Descriptive statistics and measurement model validity

Descriptive statistics for all variables are presented in Table 6 . It can be seen that Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for all variables/dimensions is above 0.7. This means that the instruments used in the study are reliable and that they measure the given constructs. The results show that Natural and cultural resources are the best-rated factor in Serbia's competitiveness as a tourist destination, which means that Serbia has rich cultural and natural resources and great potential for tourism development. The lowest rated factor is the Factor 3: Situational framework of tourism development and management, especially the item Political values, the overall political situation and stability in Serbia are favourable for the development of tourism. Only one item in this group exceeds 3.5, which is the residents support the development of tourism. This is followed by factor Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, where the items related to the transport infrastructure and signalization Local tourist and traffic signalization is in line with the needs of tourists, a high-quality air traffic infrastructure and A high quality bicycle and pedestrian paths are the lowest rated together with the item Quality offer of amusement and theme parks. On the other hand, the highest rated item in this group is Diverse and high-quality restaurant offer. The concerning fact is also that Pollution is rated above 3.5 which could negatively influence competitive position of Serbia on travel market.

The data obtained from the research pointed to the basic shortcomings that affect the competitiveness of Serbia as a tourist destination, and they should be the focus of further tourism strategies and initiatives.

Before conducting CFA, convergent and divergent validity of the constructs was calculated to check the measurement model validity. The convergent validity of each dimension was examined by calculating the score of the average variance extracted (AVE, [ 57 ]). A substantial convergent validity is achieved when all item-to-factor loadings are significant and the AVE score is higher than 0.50 within each dimension, but AVE of 0.40 is still acceptable if the composite reliability (CR) is higher than 0.60 [ 58 ]. Results showed that all dimensions had AVE higher than 0.40 and CR higher than 0.60 (Table 6 ) which indicates good convergent validity. Discriminant validity was then checked by comparing the average variances extracted (AVEs) for each latent factor with the squared correlation estimates between latent constructs. Fornell and Larcker [ 57 ] noted that the discriminant validity is guaranteed when the AVEs are greater than the squared correlation estimates (Table 7 ).

5 Discussion

The primary aim of this study was to address significant gaps identified in previous TDC research. These gaps primarily include the lack of consideration for residents’ attitudes towards TDC indicators and the absence of specifically tailored models to assess destination competitiveness in developing countries from the residents' perspective. Existing literature has predominantly focused on residents' perceptions of destination image [ 9 , 28 , 29 ] or place attachment [ 30 , 59 ], but lacked comprehensive models for measuring destination competitiveness. It is evident that residents possess specific knowledge, information, and emotional attachment to their living destinations [ 60 ]. Therefore, assessing competitiveness from their viewpoint requires specific indicators, which may differ in some aspects from traditional TDC models where assessments are typically conducted by tourism stakeholders or tourists. To address these gaps and contribute to theory in this area, our research employed a multi-step approach. This approach included a literature review of existing models, pilot testing for indicator selection, and model validation through CFA. Through this rigorous scientific process, we selected indicators and validated a model structure tailored for assessing residents’ perceptions in developing economies. This model represents the first of its kind in the existing literature on this topic, marking a significant theoretical contribution. The final model of the study comprises five factors: Natural and cultural resources, Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, Situational framework of tourism development and management, Destination perception and experience and Pollution, encompassing 32 indicators. The model is tailor-made through pilot testing, where residents themselves identified indicators, they could assess based on their knowledge, experiences and information levels. Those indicators were further validated through survey research involving another sample of residents, and tested through EFA and CFA.

The application of this model to Serbia, a developing economy, has yielded insightful findings. Previous research has highlighted residents’ significant role in assessing natural and cultural resources [ 30 ] and shaping destination image [ 9 , 28 , 29 ], given their extensive knowledge and role as destination promoters and ambassadors. This aligns with two factors in our model: Natural and cultural resources, and Destination perception and experience. Additionally, our model underscores residents’ crucial role in evaluating the Quality of tourist offerings and infrastructure. Residents often utilize tourism infrastructure extensively [ 61 ], granting them firsthand insights into its quality. Moreover, some residents are directly involved in tourism-related businesses, providing further expertise in this area [ 15 , 44 ]. A novel aspect of our model is the recognition of residents’ capability to assess the Situational framework of tourism development and management. This factor evaluates the conditions favoring tourism development at a destination, a role traditionally fulfilled by tourism stakeholders without residents’ input [ 32 , 45 ]. Furthermore, sustainability factors, crucial for competitiveness in developing countries, receive attention through the Pollution factor, which reflects residents’ concerns about environmental conditions at their destination. This tailor-made model for residents’ assessment of TDC serves as a new tool for enhancing local involvement and participation in TDC assessment, particularly beneficial for developing economies in their early stages of tourism development [ 3 ]. Engaging residents in understanding factors influencing TDC is essential for effective tourism decision-making and planning processes.

Additionally, this study contributes to the limited understanding of residents' attitudes toward TDC in Serbia, marking the first inclusion of their perspectives in the competitiveness assessment. It offers long-term recommendations for integrating residents into the assessment process. The model indicates that Serbia's primary competitive advantage lies in its natural and cultural resources, while significant opportunities for improvement exist in the other four factors. Residents express concerns about the Situational framework of tourism development and management, particularly noting political stability as a factor negatively impacting destination competitiveness. They also highlight areas needing improvement in the Quality of tourist offerings and infrastructure. Pollution emerges as another concern, with residents indicating room for enhancing environmental sustainability to bolster Serbia's competitive position. A detailed analysis of each factor's components provides valuable insights for destination managers regarding residents' perceptions of the current state of TDC, identifying major gaps and advantages.

6 Conclusion

Numerous empirical studies have utilized various models to assess TDC predominantly from the perspectives of tourism experts and industry practitioners, often overlooking the viewpoint of residents. Establishing a comprehensive list of TDC variables and promoting research that incorporates perspectives from diverse stakeholders are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of TDC. Notably, destinations that successfully foster economic prosperity and environmental conservation while enhancing residents' quality of life tend to positively influence residents’ perceptions and overall TDC. This study focuses specifically on developing economies, which face unique challenges and opportunities in tourism development. The model developed is tailored to these contexts, providing insights that are more relevant and applicable to similar countries, thereby enhancing the theoretical framework of TDC in these regions.

To date, several studies have highlighted the significant role of residents, among other stakeholders, in comprehending and enhancing destination competitiveness. Their active involvement contributes to enhancing the destination's image, preserving its heritage, and increasing its overall attractiveness. Moreover, positive resident perceptions of the destination’s image can improve their attitudes towards tourism impacts and changes, thereby enhancing overall competitiveness. Success in tourism goes beyond mere quantitative metrics such as tourist numbers and revenue; it encompasses qualitative factors like resident satisfaction, environmental sustainability, and overall quality of life. Hence, achieving a balance between the needs of tourists, the well-being of residents, and the sustainability of resources is critical for long-term success. Integrating residents’ attitudes provides a more holistic view of TDC and acknowledges the pivotal role of the local population in shaping a welcoming and hospitable environment.

Finally, by understanding residents' perceptions across various dimensions such as natural and cultural resources, tourism offerings, infrastructure, management frameworks, and environmental aspects, tourism planners and policymakers can better assess the strengths and weaknesses of destinations. Encouraging local involvement and participation in tourism planning is vital, given the dynamic nature of destinations. This research helps identify the key determinants and planning factors that residents perceive as important for the competitiveness of their destination, highlighting the significance of local involvement in shaping successful and sustainable tourism development. The final model in this study consists of five distinct factors: Natural and cultural resources, Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, Situational framework of tourism development and management, Destination perception and experience, and Pollution. These factors provide a comprehensive framework for assessing TDC from a residents' perspective, which can be used as a benchmark for future studies.

7 Practical implication

The practical application of the model lies in the fact that it is made to be used for the continuous evaluation of destination competitiveness by residents in developing economies. This could be performed as a regular research procedure of local or regional tourism organisations that could include residents in assessing destination competitiveness together with other important target groups such as tourism stakeholders and tourists. The model highlights the importance of community engagement in tourism development. By fostering positive attitudes among residents, destinations can enhance their attractiveness and competitiveness in the global market. The model provides a structured framework for evaluating TDC, which can be used by researchers and practitioners to benchmark performance and identify areas for improvement. Policymakers can use the model to understand residents' attitudes towards tourism, enabling them to create policies that align with local needs and preferences. This can lead to more sustainable and accepted tourism development strategies. Industry stakeholders can utilize the insights from the model to enhance the quality of tourist offerings and infrastructure, ensuring they meet both resident and tourist expectations. This can improve overall satisfaction and competitiveness. By considering factors such as pollution and the situational framework of tourism development, the model encourages sustainable practices that benefit, the environment, the local community, and visitors. It should be also emphasized that TDC is a multi-faced concept and its assessment requires the involvement of all important stakeholders at the destination in order to get a concrete pathway to increasing tourism competitive position on the market. The involvement of the local population in evaluating competitiveness may necessitate significant shifts in attitudes toward tourism planning, development, management, and destination marketing. Anticipated outcomes include a broader understanding of the factors contributing to destination competitiveness and clearer insights into the population’s role in this process. Developing a model to measure residents’ perspectives on tourism competitiveness ensures greater relevance to the diverse realities of various destinations, considering that the validation and adaptation of existing models might be less effective across different cultural and geographical contexts. The practical benefits of the application of the model are numerous. However, the most important is the fact that measuring residents’ attitudes about destination competitiveness is essential for creating a balance between the economic benefits of tourism and the well-being of the local community. It allows for sustainable development, positive destination branding, and the creation of an overall positive experience for both residents and visitors.

Based on the research findings, we propose several recommendations for policymakers to enhance Serbia’s TDC:

Engage residents: Involve residents in tourism planning and decision-making processes, as well as in TDC assessment, to foster more sustainable and accepted tourism development strategies.

Utilize the new model: Apply the newly developed model tailored to capture residents’ TDC assessments in developing economies, gaining comprehensive insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the destination from a local perspective.

Regular monitoring: Implement a regular monitoring system using this model to track changes in TDC over time, helping to identify trends, policy impacts, and areas needing improvement.

Focus on quality improvement: Address residents' concerns regarding the quality of tourism infrastructure and services. Improvements in these areas can enhance both resident and tourist satisfaction, boosting overall competitiveness.

Address environmental concerns and promote sustainability: Recognize environmental sustainability as a key competitiveness factor. Implement measures to reduce pollution and improve environmental conditions, responding to residents’ concerns and enhancing the destination’s appeal. Encourage sustainable tourism practices that benefit both the environment and the local community.

Improve tourism development conditions: Address residents’ concerns about the situational framework of tourism development, particularly regarding political stability and favourable conditions for tourism growth, to significantly enhance the destination’s competitiveness.

Strive for sustainable development: Ensure that tourism development strategies balance economic benefits with the well-being of the local community. This includes considering residents’ satisfaction, environmental sustainability, and overall quality of life in tourism planning and development

8 Limitation and further research

The current study also has certain limitations. Firstly, the model has been tested in one developing economy (Serbia) chosen as a case study to conduct initial research. The model should be applied and replicated in other developing economies to confirm and validate the structure and prove the comparability of results obtained in various developing economies. Secondly, since this was an initial study aimed at creating a new model, the research was conducted only once. Continuous monitoring and longitudinal studies are necessary to track progress and draw conclusions about changes in destination competitiveness. Longitudinal studies play a crucial role in evaluating TDC by offering insights into trends, policy impacts, and causal relationships over time. Such information is vital for making informed decisions, especially in developing economies where understanding the long-term effects of tourism policies and interventions is critical.

Future research should also examine the impact of certain independent variables (such as their active engagement in tourism, tourism and pro-environmental attitudes etc.) and sociodemographic characteristics on residents’ perceptions of TDC. It would be also beneficial to reshape, modify and test the model for different target groups such as tourists or tourism stakeholders to enable a holistic approach to TDC research in developing countries.

Data availability

Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files Ethics approval: The consent of the Ethics Commission of the University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Science, is not required for the collection of data for the purpose of scientific research through survey research, in accordance with Article 7 paragraph 2 of the Code of Academic Integrity of the Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad number: 0601-351/5. All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this article.

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Not applicable.

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia, GRANT No. 7739076, Tourism Destination Competitiveness—Evaluation Model for Serbia—TOURCOMSERBIA. Also, the authors acknowledge financial support of the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia (Grant No. 451-03-66/2024-03/ 200125 & 451-03-65/2024-03/200125).‬‬‬‬‬

This research was supported by The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia, GRANT No. 7739076, Tourism Destination Competitiveness—Evaluation Model for Serbia—TOURCOMSERBIA. Also, the authors acknowledge financial support of the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia (Grant No. 451-03-66/2024-03/200125 & 451-03-65/2024-03/200125).‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

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Kovačić, S., Cimbaljević, M., Pavluković, V. et al. Exploring tourism competitiveness in developing economies: residents’ perspective. Discov Sustain 5 , 201 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00416-x

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Home / Distance Education Blogs / What is Regenerative and Sustainable Tourism?

What is Regenerative and Sustainable Tourism?

I get asked what regenerative tourism is a lot. I’m not surprised given how newly popular the idea is to the world of tourism. In my previous blog , I summed up regenerative tourism as follows:

sustainable tourism + corporate social responsibility (CSR) = regenerative tourism

Sustainable Tourism: Doing Less Harm

The United Nations World Tourism Organization defines sustainable tourism as “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities.” Despite this, I often see “sustainability” referenced only in the context of conserving the environment. Social sustainability is often completely forgotten or framed as a positive visitor experience, rather than focusing on the health of host communities. For a regenerative approach to tourism, host communities and their needs are centered alongside the need for environmental protection.

Rethinking How We Travel

Next question about definitions: How does ecotourism fit into regenerative tourism? Adventure tourism? Mass tourism? Cultural tourism? What about Dark Tourist on Netflix –how does that fit in? There is a type of tourism for everything under the sun these days. Among the more niche are medical tourism (traveling for medical procedures), slum tourism (visiting slums), and space tourism (yes, going into space). And while you might not recognize the following words, you will likely recognize the activities around which they revolve: avitourism (birding), architourism (architecture), voluntourism (volunteering), and agritourism (agriculture). How does regenerative tourism fit into all this vocabulary?

Regenerative Tourism: Healing the Planet Through Travel

I think of tourism as having two levels: a type of approach and a type of tourism experience. Here’s what I mean:

Think of a spectrum of sustainability. On one end of the spectrum, you have minimal consideration of sustainability principles. Think lots of people, lots of infrastructure, no climate change offsetting, no green design, little or no renewable energy, lots of long-haul travel to visit the destination, lots of waste produced, angry locals resentful of visitors, little money being invested back into the host communities. This is a typical approach to mass tourism with little thought for environmental and social impacts and a lot of emphasis placed on economic returns and the visitor experience above all else.

Now consider a more sustainable approach to tourism that balances environmental, social, and economic benefits to the destination. This is where things get a little confusing in my mind. It’s easy to conjure images of mass tourism with thousands of people visiting well-known places, like Disney World, the Louvre, or the Great Wall of China. It can be a little more challenging to think of tourism experiences that embody more sustainable practices. Often, safaris or rustic campgrounds or backpacking come to mind because they involve animals, nature, and little infrastructure.

If you think back to your spectrum of sustainability, regenerative approaches encompass sustainability but have the added element of CSR. Tourism can be sustainable without being regenerative, but tourism that’s regenerative is also inherently sustainable. Including CSR in the definition of regenerative tourism centers the question: What can tourism do for the destination? This includes how tourism can help boost the economy, support social development projects, and provide resources to protect the environment. The idea that tourism can have a net positive impact is harder to imagine when mass tourism images are what immediately come to mind. One of the reasons why mass tourism sites exist is because they are well advertised and well known, and therefore come more easily to your mind when you think about tourism.

The Future of Travel: A Shift Towards Regeneration

The truth is, most types of tourism experiences can be regenerative, sustainable, or unsustainable depending on their approach. Here’s an example: Nature-based tourism relies on natural attractions to bring visitors to the area. Activities commonly include hiking, walking, birdwatching, sightseeing in nature areas, photography, and visiting places like national or state parks. My first mental image is me, alone on a trail, observing wildlife and taking in the scenic vistas in a nearby protected area. Then I reflect on the reality of some of my more recent experiences: trouble finding parking, loud groups of hikers ahead of and behind me on the trail, overflowing trash cans, people trampling vegetation to get off trail for that perfect photograph, dog excrement in bags left trailside, and milling about with a huge crowd of people when you reach the mountain summit. These are all common overcrowding issues being faced by national parks in the US and illustrate that, while we may think of visiting “nature” as sustainable, that is not always the case.

And “rustic” doesn’t necessarily equate with sustainable, just like “luxury” doesn’t equate with unsustainable. Sure, a backcountry camping site is rustic and probably fairly sustainable. That might in part be because there’s no infrastructure and fewer people are willing to haul their camping equipment to the site than stay in a hotel. Low numbers often help with being sustainable, just like the numbers associated with mass tourism require much more planning for and investment in sustainability and CSR to offset the impacts. But some luxury hotels also have impressive sustainability and regenerative initiatives. These facilities invest in renewable energy, sustainable supply chains, water conservation technology, and local initiatives to benefit the environment and host communities.

At the end of the day, the approach to tourism determines if the experience is regenerative, sustainable, or unsustainable. These three approaches can be found in almost any type of tourism experience whether it’s luxury or rustic, nature-based or not. Some of the shared criteria that can define regenerative capacity relate to the number of visitors (and where they’re traveling from), the size and location of the destination, the amount of infrastructure needed to support visitation, and the willpower to adopt sustainable, ethical, and socially responsible principles.

Lead the Future of Tourism: Join Unity Environmental University’s Tourism and Destination Management Program

Ready to shape the future of tourism? Enroll in Unity Distance Education’s Tourism and Destination Management program! Our innovative curriculum prepares you to lead tourism and sustainability initiatives, manage unique destinations, and create unforgettable experiences. Whether you’re passionate about boosting local economies or preserving natural wonders, our program equips you with the skills to make a meaningful impact. Join us and transform your passion for travel into a rewarding career. Apply today and be at the forefront of the tourism industry’s evolution!

Written by Lydia Horne, Associate Director of Sustainable Ecotourism and Recreation

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From sustainable homes to queer community spaces, Indigenous cultural tours to an online garden support platform, a diverse range of businesses were on show addressing pressing issues in the circularity, high quality food and tourism sectors.

The iAccelerate RISE program provides regional entrepreneurs with the knowledge and tools to pursue new innovations in their current business, or start-up, to develop the necessary skills to bring their ideas to life. The Pitch Days are the culmination of the eight-week RISE program for each cohort.

This program was delivered in partnership with the NSW government’s Accelerating Regional Innovation Fund (ARIF).

“It has been a dynamic group of business owners, dedicating themselves to learning a new approach to their business ideas including our brand-new circular economy module” Tamantha Stutchbury , Director of iAccelerate said.

Prizes were awarded for the Judge’s Choice, People’s Choice, and Highly Commended at both pitch events.

The winners of the Judge’s Choice in Bega were Jason Yip and Jem Green with their business Wurly, a sustainable housing solution that will serve landowners’ needs from agritourism to emergency accommodation for communities impacted by natural disasters to housing for FIFO workers.

“Throughout RISE we were able to start developing a website and start developing our mission statements. Every time we uncovered a new customer segment, it became clearer what we wanted to do with the business. We really know where we want to take this, who we want to take it to and what our goals are now,” Jason Yip said.

Event photos from the iAccelerate RISE Pitch Day including participants pitching, the panel of judges, program booklet and group photo for participants with certificates. Photo: Bodhi Todd

RISE offers practical workshops, online learning and a network of regional and international experts to help businesses grow and scale.

Pip Treloar of Far South Coast Queer Collective received the People’s Choice award for her pitch and Paul Brown of Djiringanj Gunjerung was awarded Highly Commended for his tourism business pitch.

Southern Highlands’ Judge’s Choice winner, Melanie Ison of The Brickworks Farm said that the RISE program “helped us develop a better understanding of who our primary customer base was and how best to communicate with them”. Melanie participated in the program alongside cofounders April Love and Maria Sakellariadis.

Helen Lynch of Wylen House Artisan Village Farm received the People’s Choice award for their pitch on a specialist cold climate gardening community and mentoring program.

RISE will be running again in the second half of the year with another cohort of regional entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs and businesses interested in the program are encouraged to reach out to iAccelerate to discuss the opportunities available.

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Research in tourism sustainability: A comprehensive bibliometric analysis from 1990 to 2022

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Introduction

Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development

Community-Based Tourism

Pro-Poor Tourism

Slow Tourism

Impacts of Tourism Development

Economic Impacts of Tourism

Environmental Impacts of Tourism

Social Impacts of Tourism

Sustainability of Tourism

Further Reading

Achieving destination sustainability: How tourist-to-tourist interaction quality affects tourist loyalty?

Introduction

Literature review and hypotheses development

Tourist-to-tourist interaction quality and tourist loyalty.

The mediating effect of basic psychological needs satisfaction.

The moderating effect of sociability.

Data collection and sample

Tourist-to-tourist (TTI) interaction quality.

Basic psychological needs satisfaction.

Sociability.

Tourist loyalty.

Control variables.

Analytic strategy

Confirmatory factor analysis

Descriptive statistics

Hypotheses testing

Conclusions

Theoretical implications

Managerial implications

Limitations and future research

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Tourism Development, Sustainability, and Inclusion

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1. Introduction

3.2. Practical Contributions

4.1. Challenges Faced

4.2. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)

5. Hyper-Parameter Tuning

5.2. Gradient Descent for Linear Regression

5.3. K Neighbors Classifier

6.2. Random Forest

6.3. K Neighbors Classifier

6.4. Gaussian Naive Bayes

6.5. Support Vector Classification

6.6. Autonomous Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA)

7. Impact on Sustainable Tourism

9. Discussion

Conflicts of Interest

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