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All Research Areas

Our faculty work within and beyond the disciplines of engineering and foundational science. Our approach to teaching and research is, by design, highly interdisciplinary. We collaborate across academic areas, within the larger university, and with colleagues in academia, industry, government and public service organizations beyond Harvard.

Prospective Ph.D. students looking for a primary research advisor may consider the Assistant Professors, Associate Professors, and Professors listed on this page. Faculty members listed on this page as “Affiliates” have primary appointments in other departments at Harvard. These affiliated faculty members can serve on advisory committees, and can co-advise a Ph.D. student, but cannot serve as the primary research advisor.

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From laboratory study to archival research to investigations in the field, Harvard students engage in world-class research across all disciplines and make groundbreaking contributions to their fields.

With support from a variety of funding sources, students collaborate with renowned faculty researchers whose work has been featured in top journals and awarded prestigious grants. Whether you assist your professor or lead your own project, you'll receive guidance, support, and the benefit of their expertise.

Research Opportunities

Are there research opportunities for undergraduates.

Yes - available to students as early as their freshman year. You may find research projects through individual inquiries with departments and professors, through the  Harvard College Research Program  (HCRP), or through the  Mellon Mays Undergraduate Fellowship Program  (MMUF). The  Faculty Aide Program , run by the Student Employment Office, links professors to undergraduates interested in becoming research assistants. Read more about HCRP and MMUF on the  Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships website , and find additional opportunities on the  Student Employment Office website . 

Expanding Our Campus

The state-of-the-art Science and Engineering Complex expands Harvard's campus with an additional 500,000 square feet of classrooms, active learning labs, maker space, and common areas.

Term-Time Research

During the academic year, you can conduct research for credit, as determined by the director of undergraduate study in each department.

Students can also receive funding from one of many sources. Additionally, many faculty members across academic departments hire students directly to serve as research assistants.

funding sources

Harvard college research program.

The  Harvard College Research Program  (HCRP) provides term-time and summer grants for students conducting independent research in collaboration with a faculty mentor.

Faculty Aide Program

The  Faculty Aide Program  (FAP) provides half of a student’s total wages when working for an approved faculty member as a research assistant.

Mellon Mays Undergraduate Fellowship Program

The  Mellon Mays Undergraduate Fellowship Program  (MMUF) provides a term-time stipend, as well as the option for summer research funds, to a group of approximately 20 juniors and seniors, selected in the spring of their sophomore years.

Laboratories

Summer Research

Harvard offers many residential research programs for students staying on campus during the summer. In addition, funding is available to support independent research locally, domestically, and internationally.

Building Learning through Inquiry in the Social Sciences

Building Learning through Inquiry in the Social Sciences  (BLISS) is a 10-week program for students working with Harvard faculty on research projects in the social sciences. BLISS provides a stimulating, collegial, and diverse residential community in which students conduct substantive summer research.

Harvard College-Mindich Program in Community-Engaged Research

The  Harvard College-Mindich Program in Community-Engaged Research  (PCER) introduces students to the field of engaged scholarship, which seeks to advance the public purpose of higher education through scholarship that has impact within and beyond the academy.

Program for Research in Markets and Organizations

The  Program for Research in Markets and Organizations  (PRIMO) is a 10-week summer program that allows students to work closely with Harvard Business School faculty on projects covering topics from business strategy to social media, and from innovation management to private equity.

Program for Research in Science and Engineering

The Program for Research in Science and Engineering  (PRISE) is a 10-week summer program that aims to build community and stimulate creativity among Harvard undergraduate researchers in the life, physical/natural, engineering, and applied sciences.

Summer Humanities and Arts Research Program

The  Summer Humanities and Arts Research Program  (SHARP) is a 10-week summer immersion experience in which students engage in substantive humanities- and arts-based research designed by Harvard faculty and museum and library staff.

Summer Undergraduate Research in Global Health Program

The  Summer Undergraduate Research in Global Health Program (SURGH) is a 10-week summer program in which students research critical issues in global health under the direction of a Harvard faculty or affiliate mentor. Participants live in a diverse residential community of researchers, attend weekly multidisciplinary seminars with professionals in the global health field, and make connections beyond the traditional health sphere.

Summer Program for Undergraduates in Data Science

The Summer Program for Undergraduates in Data Science (SPUDS) is a 10-week summer data science research experience that encourages community, creativity, and scholarship through applications across the arts, humanities, sciences and more fields. Students interested in mathematics, statistics, and computer science collaborate on projects with a Harvard faculty host.

Voyage of Discovery

The Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships helps students navigate the research opportunities available here on campus, in the Cambridge area, and around the world.

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The Harvard Department of Physics and its collaborators are leaders in a broad spectrum of physics research, utilizing facilities and technologies that are continually being modified and improved with changing research interests and techniques. This provides students, postdoctoral fellows, and other research sholars with opportunities to work in first-class facilities at Harvard, both on individual investigator-led research projects and in scientific collaboration through a variety of research centers.

To learn more about research at our department, please explore the links at left.

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Current student and faculty research, initiatives, and resources in the department 

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Behavioral Economics

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Economic Development

International Economics

Public economics, econometrics, labor economics, financial economics, macroeconomics, economic history, research initiatives.

Our faculty-led initiatives showcase just some of the department's vast endeavors to further our understanding of the world through the lens of economics.  Our current initiatives are listed below.

Foundations of Human Behavior Initiative

The Foundations of Human Behavior Initiative (FHB) supports research that produces transformative insights about the psychological, social, economic, political, and biological mechanisms that influence human behavior.   

German Administrative Data Project

The Research Data Center (FDZ) of the German Federal Employment Agency (BA) in the Institute for Employment Research (IAB) facilitates access to micro data on the labor market for non-commercial empirical research.

The Lab for Economic Applications and Policy (LEAP) facilitates research related to government policy, with the aim of injecting scientific evidence into policy debates

Opportunity Insights

Opportunity Insights identifies barriers to economic opportunity and develop scalable solutions that will empower people throughout the United States to rise out of poverty and achieve better life outcomes.

The Weiss Fund

The Weiss Fund for Research in Development Economics is funded by the CRI Foundation and aims to sponsor research that will positively affect the lives of poor people in poor countries. 

Faculty Feature

Professor Robin Lee and his co-author, Professor Kate Ho, have just been announced as the winners of the 2020 Frisch Medal of the Econometric Society for their paper “Insurer Competition in Health Care Markets”. 

Student Feature

Elisa Rubbo is awarded the Padma Desai Prize in Economics and Jonathan Roth wins the David A. Well's Prize.

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Science & Technology Studies (STS)

The history of science and STS (science and technology studies) are overlapping fields of academic inquiry joined by an abiding interest in how scientific work proceeds and how knowledge about the world is authorized and adjudicated. As such, historians of science and scholars of contemporary technoscience draw upon a wealth of shared methods and modes of analysis drawn from a range of fields: philosophy, anthropology, sociology, literary studies and rhetoric, cultural and visual studies, women and gender studies, among many others. Harvard’s Department of the History of Science maintains close ties with departments, centers, and programs across Harvard’s campuses in the spirit of boldly interdisciplinary scholarship. Topics and themes we engage with include: X, Y, Z.

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Students in our PhD programs are encouraged from day one to think of this experience as their first job in business academia—a training ground for a challenging and rewarding career generating rigorous, relevant research that influences practice.

Our doctoral students work with faculty and access resources throughout HBS and Harvard University. The PhD program curriculum requires coursework at HBS and other Harvard discipline departments, and with HBS and Harvard faculty on advisory committees. Faculty throughout Harvard guide the programs through their participation on advisory committees.

How do I know which program is right for me?

There are many paths, but we are one HBS. Our PhD students draw on diverse personal and professional backgrounds to pursue an ever-expanding range of research topics. Explore more here about each program’s requirements & curriculum, read student profiles for each discipline as well as student research , and placement information.

The PhD in Business Administration grounds students in the disciplinary theories and research methods that form the foundation of an academic career. Jointly administered by HBS and GSAS, the program has four areas of study: Accounting and Management , Marketing , Strategy , and Technology and Operations Management . All areas of study involve roughly two years of coursework culminating in a field exam. The remaining years of the program are spent conducting independent research, working on co-authored publications, and writing the dissertation. Students join these programs from a wide range of backgrounds, from consulting to engineering. Many applicants possess liberal arts degrees, as there is not a requirement to possess a business degree before joining the program

The PhD in Business Economics provides students the opportunity to study in both Harvard’s world-class Economics Department and Harvard Business School. Throughout the program, coursework includes exploration of microeconomic theory, macroeconomic theory, probability and statistics, and econometrics. While some students join the Business Economics program directly from undergraduate or masters programs, others have worked in economic consulting firms or as research assistants at universities or intergovernmental organizations.

The PhD program in Health Policy (Management) is rooted in data-driven research on the managerial, operational, and strategic issues facing a wide range of organizations. Coursework includes the study of microeconomic theory, management, research methods, and statistics. The backgrounds of students in this program are quite varied, with some coming from public health or the healthcare industry, while others arrive at the program with a background in disciplinary research

The PhD program in Organizational Behavior offers two tracks: either a micro or macro approach. In the micro track, students focus on the study of interpersonal relationships within organizations and the effects that groups have on individuals. Students in the macro track use sociological methods to examine organizations, groups, and markets as a whole, including topics such as the influence of individuals on organizational change, or the relationship between social missions and financial objectives. Jointly administered by HBS and GSAS, the program includes core disciplinary training in sociology or psychology, as well as additional coursework in organizational behavior.

Accounting & Management  

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The Department is organized into four Research Programs:

• Cognition, Brain, & Behavior
• Developmental  
• Clinical Science

Each consists of a group of faculty members who jointly administer graduate admissions and training in some subfield of psychology. Individual faculty and graduate students typically participate in more than one program, which are set up more for administrative convenience, not as a commitment to any boundaries to research, teaching, or graduate training.

The Department of Psychology also provides opportunities for anyone interested in participating in psychology research studies at Harvard  and for Harvard researchers who run those studies.

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Undergraduate Neuroscience Research and Thesis Neuro Research Guide

Neuro research guide, guide to choosing a neuroscience research lab, part 1: what factors to consider when joining a lab..

There are hundreds of Harvard affiliated labs, and all of them are different. Below, we have distilled those differences into several important categories to consider as you make your choice. The overarching goal is to help you choose a lab that will foster your development as a scientist.

Research Topic. Students often feel that the research topic is the decisive factor. For example, you may have a topic that you are already passionate about ( e.g., Alzheimer’s Disease, Traumatic Brain Injury, or Free Will). While this pre-existing interest can be a great motivator, consider the following: over three semesters and one summer, you will spend > 750 hours in the lab! For that much time, we think the priority should be finding a great lab environment with supportive mentors.

• False! A topic isn’t usually exciting until you learn more about it. We find that once students realize what questions are being asked, what the debates are in this area, and what real-world implications the topic has, what methods are being used/developed, they quickly become passionate about their work.
• False! Medical and graduate schools are evaluating your lab experiences in two major ways: First, they want evidence of your scientific development in the lab, including your independence in designing experiments/analyzing data and your understanding of your research topic. Second, they want to see an authentic, personalized, positive letter from your faculty mentor detailing your drive, independence, attention to detail, collegiality, etc .

Size of the lab. The size of the lab is not always, but very often, a predictor of student success. Higher visibility labs tend to be big (>20 people). Although they are publishing great papers, the environment may not be ideal for undergrads. Why? In bigger labs, it is harder to get face time with the faculty mentor. Moreover, each daily supervisor (post doc or grad student) may have several undergraduates working with them or be consumed with their own work. Students can feel lost when they do not get enough mentoring and attention. Another peril of working for ‘rockstar’ faculty is that projects may be aiming for publication in Nature, Science, or Cell, which can take more than 5 years of full-time teamwork … when things go right. As such, students are often a small part of a bigger, longer project (a ‘cog in the machine’). Their role is often more of a technical one with less control, thought, or creativity in the experimental design and therefore less scientific development and growth.

In spite of the drawbacks, some students prefer to work on high visibility projects in big labs. That is fine but be aware that these projects can lead to lower thesis evaluation grades because faculty evaluators look for evidence that the student has put independent thought and individual work into the thesis.

Independence and Project Type. It is daunting to be responsible for your own research project’s success or failure, especially when you are just starting out in science. Yet, this really is the best way to learn how to do science. Having to make decisions about what experiment to do or how to analyze your work requires a deep understanding of your research area. Large, team projects can be fun, but students often grow and learn more from small projects where they can make decisions.

Typically, projects that are small in scope (short term) work best, so you can learn from your mistakes and get feedback on your results within weeks to reconfigure if need be. Working more independently on a project also gives you more control of your data, rather than being handed data from someone else and not having any influence on how or why the experiments were done.

Mentoring. Arguably the most important aspect of your lab experience is your direct mentor. Try to meet your direct mentor before signing up with a lab. You want to make sure that they are invested in your success: meaning, 1) they has time to meet with your regularly, they have reasonable demands on your time (15 hours or less per week during the term), and they can communicate clearly with you.

Whatever lab you’re in, be sure to schedule face time with the faculty mentor (alone or with your daily supervisor) at least once per month. This will help you forge a connection to the lab head and be part of conversations that can influence your study design and color the interpretation of your results. You should also make an effort to attend lab meeting to learn about other projects and develop your critical thinking/questioning skills.

Commute/ Location. It might seem harrowing, but commuting to a lab is very possible. The free M2 shuttle can get you to the Longwood/hospital area in about 30 minutes (outside of rush hour times and extreme weather). The MBTA can get you to MGH, MIT, Broad Institute just as quickly. As long as you can arrange your schedule to have big blocks of consecutive lab time (3 hours), the commute will only be a fraction of your dedicated lab time.

The good news, if you don’t want to commute, is that labs closer to Cambridge typically have more experience working with undergrads. This often translates into a better mentoring culture for students. All things being equal, we recommend you start looking for a lab on campus (Biolabs, NW Building, William James). If you don’t find a good fit there, consider labs at the Medical School that are affiliated with the Program for Neuroscience . If you still aren’t satisfied, you can extend your search to other Harvard-affiliated hospitals or centers (MGH, Children’s Hospital, Beth Israel, Brigham and Women’s, McLean, etc .)

Part 2: Questions to ask before joining a lab.

Here is a list of potential questions to ask the lab director when you meet to talk about joining a lab:

• Typically, students meet with the faculty mentor two or three times per semester. Its great if it is more frequently, but it should not be less.
• Typically, students work with a grad student or a post-doc. They often meet every time the student comes to lab (at least at the beginning) and communicate informally by email. Since they play a big role in mentoring you, it is always a good idea to meet them before joining.
• Student projects are most rewarding when students are involved in experimental design and all aspects of data analysis. It gives the student more ownership and control of the project, which very often creates a better environment to learn to do science.
• Longer term experiments (more than a year) are usually team-projects where students don’t have much influence or control of the project.
• While every student is different, other undergrads in the lab can usually tell you what kind of experience to expect. (Laura and Ryan can give you feedback on labs students have worked in as well in case you want an additional opinion.)
• Lab meetings can be a great way to assess the group dynamics and lab culture to make sure it feels like a comfortable and stimulating environment for you.
• Typically, students should expect to spend 5-10 hrs/week if they are volunteering in the lab during the semester, or 10-15 hrs/week if they are enrolled in research for credit (Neuro 91). Most labs expect students spend one summer working full-time in the lab (often before senior year) if they are serious about a thesis or a career in research after graduation.
• This varies by lab: sometimes students will choose among several options. Sometimes there might only be one project that needs additional help (or has an available mentor). Occasionally, faculty mentors want students to develop their own project idea! You just don’t know until you ask.

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HLS Dissertations, Theses, and JD Papers

S.j.d. dissertations, ll.m. papers, ll.m. theses, j.d. papers, submitting your paper to an online collection, other sources for student papers beyond harvard, getting help, introduction.

This is a guide to finding Harvard Law School (“HLS”) student-authored works held by the Library and in online collections. This guide covers HLS S.J.D Dissertations, LL.M. papers, J.D. third-year papers, seminar papers, and prize papers.

There have been changes in the HLS degree requirements for written work. The library’s collection practices and catalog descriptions for these works has varied. Please note that there are gaps in the library’s collection and for J.D. papers, few of these works are being collected any longer.

If we have an S.J.D. dissertation or LL.M. thesis, we have two copies. One is kept in the general collection and one in the Red Set, an archival collection of works authored by HLS affiliates. If we have a J.D. paper, we have only one copy, kept in the Red Set. Red Set copies are last resort copies available only by advance appointment in Historical and Special Collections .

Some papers have not been processed by library staff. If HOLLIS indicates a paper is “ordered-received” please use this form to have library processing completed.

The HLS Doctor of Juridical Science (“S.J.D.”) program began in 1910.  The library collection of these works is not comprehensive. Exceptions are usually due to scholars’ requests to withhold Library deposit. 

• HLS S.J.D. Dissertations in HOLLIS To refine these search results by topic or faculty advisor, or limit by date, click Add a New Line.
• Hein’s Legal Theses and Dissertations Microfiche Mic K556.H45x Drawers 947-949 This microfiche set includes legal theses and dissertations from HLS and other premier law schools. It currently includes about 300 HLS dissertations and theses.
• Hein's Legal Theses and Dissertations Contents List This content list is in order by school only, not by date, subject or author. It references microfiche numbers within the set housed in the Microforms room on the entry level of the library, drawers 947-949. The fiche are a different color for each institution.
• ProQuest Dissertations and Theses @ Harvard University (Harvard login) Copy this search syntax: dg(S.J.D.) You will find about 130 SJD Dissertations dated from 1972 to 2004. They are not available in full text.
• DASH Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard Sponsored by Harvard University’s Office for Scholarly Communication, DASH is an open repository for research papers by members of the Harvard community. There are currently about 600 HLS student papers included. Unfortunately it is not possible to search by type of paper or degree awarded.

The Master of Laws (“LL.M.”) degree has been awarded since 1923. Originally, the degree required completion of a major research paper, akin to a thesis. Since 1993, most students have the option of writing the LL.M. "short paper."  This is a 25-page (or longer) paper advised by a faculty supervisor or completed in conjunction with a seminar.  Fewer LL.M. candidates continue to write the more extensive "long-paper." LL.M. candidates holding J.D.s from the U.S. must write the long paper.

• HLS Written Work Requirements for LL.M. Degree The current explanation of the LL.M. written work requirement for the master of laws.

The library generally holds HLS LL.M. long papers and short papers. In recent years, we require author release in order to do so. In HOLLIS, no distinction is made between types of written work created in satisfaction of the LL.M. degree; all are described as LL.M. thesis. Though we describe them as thesis, the law school refers to them solely as papers or in earlier years, essays. HOLLIS records indicate the number of pages, so at the record level, it is possible to distinguish long papers.

• HLS LL.M. Papers in HOLLIS To refine these search results by topic, faculty advisor, seminar or date, click Add a New Line.

Note that beginning with papers from the 2023-24 academic year, papers will be available in digital format only. The workflow for this new process is underway.

HLS LL.M. Papers are sometimes available in DASH and Hein's Legal Dissertations and Theses. See descriptions above .

The HLS J.D. written work requirement has changed over time. The degree formerly required a substantial research paper comparable in scope to a law review article written under faculty supervision, the "third year paper." Since 2008, J.D. students have the option of using two shorter works instead.

Of all those written, the library holds relatively few third-year papers. They were not actively collected but accepted by submission from faculty advisors who deemed a paper worthy of institutional retention. The papers are described in HOLLIS as third year papers, seminar papers, and student papers. Sometimes this distinction was valid, but not always. The faculty deposit tradition more or less ended in 2006, though the possibility of deposit still exists. 

• J.D. Written Work Requirement
• Faculty Deposit of Student Papers with the Library

HLS Third Year Papers in HOLLIS

To refine these search results by topic, faculty advisor, seminar or date, click Add a New Line.

• HLS Student Papers Some third-year papers and LL.M. papers were described in HOLLIS simply as student papers. To refine these search results, click "Add a New Line" and add topic, faculty advisor, or course title.
• HLS Seminar Papers Note that these include legal research pathfinders produced for the Advanced Legal Research course when taught by Virginia Wise.

Prize Papers

HLS has many endowed prizes for student papers and essays. There are currently 16 different writing prizes. See this complete descriptive list with links to lists of winners from 2009 to present. Note that there is not always a winner each year for each award. Prize winners are announced each year in the commencement pamphlet.

The Library has not specifically collected prize papers over the years but has added copies when possible. The HOLLIS record for the paper will usually indicate its status as a prize paper. The most recent prize paper was added to the collection in 2006.

Addison Brown Prize Animal Law & Policy Program Writing Prize Victor Brudney Prize Davis Polk Legal Profession Paper Prize Roger Fisher and Frank E.A. Sander Prize Yong K. Kim ’95 Memorial Prize Islamic Legal Studies Program Prize on Islamic Law Laylin Prize LGBTQ Writing Prize Mancini Prize Irving Oberman Memorial Awards John M. Olin Prize in Law and Economics Project on the Foundations of Private Law Prize Sidney I. Roberts Prize Fund Klemens von Klemperer Prize Stephen L. Werner Prize

• Harvard Law School Prize Essays (1850-1868) A historical collection of handwritten prize essays covering the range of topics covered at that time. See this finding aid for a collection description.

The following information about online repositories is not a recommendation or endorsement to participate.

• ProQuest Dissertations and Theses HLS is not an institutional participant to this collection. If you are interested in submitting your work, refer to these instructions and note that there is a fee required, which varies depending on the format of submission.
• EBSCO Open Dissertations Relatively new, this is an open repository of metadata for dissertations. It is an outgrowth of the index American Doctoral Dissertations. The aim is to cover 1933 to present and, for modern works, to link to full text available in institutional repositories. Harvard is not one of the institutional participants.
• DASH Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard

Sponsored by Harvard University’s Office for Scholarly Communication, this is an open repository for research papers by members of the Harvard community. See more information about the project. 

Some HLS students have submitted their degree paper to DASH.  If you would like to submit your paper, you may use this authorization form  or contact June Casey , Librarian for Open Access Initiatives and Scholarly Communication at Harvard Law School.

• ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (Harvard Login) Covers dissertations and masters' theses from North American graduate schools and many worldwide. Provides full text for many since the 1990s and has descriptive data for older works.
• NDLTD Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations Union Catalog Worldwide in scope, NDLTD contains millions of records of electronic theses and dissertations from the early 1900s to the present.
• Law Commons of the Digital Commons Network The Law Commons has dissertations and theses, as well as many other types of scholarly research such as book chapters and conference proceedings. They aim to collect free, full-text scholarly work from hundreds of academic institutions worldwide.
• EBSCO Open Dissertations Doctoral dissertations from many institutions. Free, open repository.
• Dissertations from Center for Research Libraries Dissertations found in this resource are available to the Harvard University Community through Interlibrary Loan.
• British Library EThOS Dissertation source from the British Library listing doctoral theses awarded in the UK. Some available for immediate download and some others may be requested for scanning.
• BASE from Bielefeld University Library Index of the open repositoris of most academic institutions. Includes many types of documents including doctoral and masters theses.

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How did life begin on earth a lightning strike of an idea..

Yahya Chaudhry

Harvard Correspondent

Researchers mimic early conditions on barren planet to test hypothesis of ancient electrochemistry

About four billion years ago, Earth resembled the set of a summer sci-fi blockbuster. The planet’s surface was a harsh and barren landscape, recovering from hellish asteroid strikes, teeming with volcanic eruptions, and lacking enough nutrients to sustain even the simplest forms of life.

The atmosphere was composed predominantly of inert gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide, meaning they did not easily engage in chemical reactions necessary to form the complex organic molecules that are the building blocks of life. Scientists have long sought to discover the key factors that enabled the planet’s chemistry to change enough to form and sustain life.

Now, new research zeroes in on how lightning strikes may have served as a vital spark, transforming the atmosphere of early Earth into a hotbed of chemical activity. In the study, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , a team of Harvard scientists identified lightning-induced plasma electrochemistry as a potential source of reactive carbon and nitrogen compounds necessary for the emergence and survival of early life.

“The origin of life is one of the great unanswered questions facing chemistry,” said George M. Whitesides, senior author and the Woodford L. and Ann A. Flowers University Research Professor in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. How the fundamental building blocks of “nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites emerged spontaneously remains unanswered.”

One of the most popular answers to this question is summarized in the so-called RNA World hypothesis, Whitesides said. That is the idea that available forms of the elements, such as water, soluble electrolytes, and common gases, formed the first biomolecules. In their study, the researchers found that lightning could provide accessible forms of nitrogen and carbon that led to the emergence and survival of biomolecules.

A plasma vessel used to mimic cloud-to-ground lightning and its resulting electrochemical reactions. The setup uses two electrodes, with one in the gas phase and the other submerged in water enriched with inorganic salts.

Credit: Haihui Joy Jiang

Researchers designed a plasma electrochemical setup that allowed them to mimic conditions of the early Earth and study the role lightning strikes might have had on its chemistry. They were able to generate high-energy sparks between gas and liquid phases — akin to the cloud-to-ground lightning strikes that would have been common billions of years ago.

The scientists discovered that their simulated lightning strikes could transform stable gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen into highly reactive compounds. They found that carbon dioxide could be reduced to carbon monoxide and formic acid, while nitrogen could be converted into nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium ions.

These reactions occurred most efficiently at the interfaces between gas, liquid, and solid phases — regions where lightning strikes would naturally concentrate these products. This suggests that lightning strikes could have locally generated high concentrations of these vital molecules, providing diverse raw materials for the earliest forms of life to develop and thrive.

“Given what we’ve shown about interfacial lightning strikes, we are introducing different subsets of molecules, different concentrations, and different plausible pathways to life in the origin of life community,” said Thomas C. Underwood, co-lead author and Whitesides Lab postdoctoral fellow. “As opposed to saying that there’s one mechanism to create chemically reactive molecules and one key intermediate, we suggest that there is likely more than one reactive molecule that might have contributed to the pathway to life.”

The findings align with previous research suggesting that other energy sources, such as ultraviolet radiation, deep-sea vents, volcanoes, and asteroid impacts, could have also contributed to the formation of biologically relevant molecules. However, the unique advantage of cloud-to-ground lightning is its ability to drive high-voltage electrochemistry across different interfaces, connecting the atmosphere, oceans, and land.

The research adds a significant piece to the puzzle of life’s origins. By demonstrating how lightning could have contributed to the availability of essential nutrients, the study opens new avenues for understanding the chemical pathways that led to the emergence of life on Earth. As the research team continues to explore these reactions, they hope to uncover more about the early conditions that made life possible and to improve modern applications.

“Building on our work, we are now experimentally looking at how plasma electrochemical reactions may influence nitrogen isotopes in products, which has a potential geological relevance,” said co-lead author Haihui Joy Jiang, a former Whitesides lab postdoctoral fellow. “We are also interested in this research from an energy-efficiency and environmentally friendly perspective on chemical production. We are studying plasma as a tool to develop new methods of making chemicals and to drive green chemical processes, such as producing fertilizer used today.”

Harvard co-authors included Professor Dimitar D. Sasselov in the Department of Astronomy and Professor James G. Anderson in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, and the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences.

The study not only sheds light on the past but also has implications for the search for life on other planets. Processes the researchers described could potentially contribute to the emergence of life beyond Earth.

“Lightning has been observed on Jupiter and Saturn; plasmas and plasma-induced chemistry can exist beyond our solar system,” Jiang said. “Moving forward, our setup is useful for mimicking environmental conditions of different planets, as well as exploring reaction pathways triggered by lightning and its analogs.”

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Samantha Batel Kane

In this section.

Samantha Batel Kane is a PhD Candidate in education policy at Harvard University. She works on topics in the economics of education, including human capital decisions in K-12 and higher education. Her current research examines the impact of state reproductive rights laws on women's college choices in the United States.

HKS Affiliations

Women and Public Policy Program

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The DMSc Degree in Oral Biology Research offers an unparalleled three-year (minimum) structured Doctor of Medical Sciences (DMSc-only) research-intensive degree in oral biology. Under the mentorship of world-renowned scientists, participants undertake an intensive research training experience. The goal of the program is to train academic researchers in oral and craniofacial biology and skeletogenesis in the best possible scientific environment, and thus provide superior research leadership to institutions and countries around the globe. The program includes required coursework, laboratory rotations, a qualifying examination, and a thesis proposal and will culminate in a rigorous DMSc dissertation.