disadvantages of writing a research paper

Stack Exchange Network

Stack Exchange network consists of 183 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow , the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers.

Q&A for work

Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search.

What are the pros and cons of writing papers alone?

In my field (economics), there are many co-authored papers. People are even writing some chapters of their PhD thesis with other colleagues.

I know that single-authored papers are more appreciated when you are a Ph.D. student and when you are in the job market.

Until now, I always prefered writing my papers alone. This is not because I did not want to interact with people but I did not really want to be dependant on other people during my Ph.D. (I know that some projects take so much time to be accomplished since everybody has its own research agenda.)

I wonder if writing papers (or chapters of a Ph.D. thesis) always alone is a bad sign on a CV? What are the advantages and disadvantages?

collaboration

1 I am in engineering, I was told having 1 sole author paper every 1-2 years is a good thing. I see most of my colleagues following this trend too. – The Guy Commented May 21, 2018 at 14:54
1 Ideally, I think is better for anyone to publish alone. In practice, this isn't always possible. Biology research usually involved a good amount of testing and thus it needs to be performed by several people. I think is rare to see people who work mostly on their ow except in humanities, and sometimes (but nowadays it is also rare) in mathematics. There is also a permanent need to have more and more published papers. I've had many teachers complaint about this publication frenzy, but it is unavoidable when it has so much influence in getting a research position. – M.S Commented May 21, 2018 at 18:27

5 Answers 5

The advantage of writing with someone else, someone more experienced in particular, is that you may end up publishing quicker since you're not doing all of the work. It can also allow you to write papers that you may not be able to write on your own assuming the co-author(s) bring(s) something to the table that you can't offer. For graduate students, it is a good idea to write their first paper with someone more seasoned so that they also get advice on the logistics of publishing a paper (how to pick the right venue, how to write the cover letter when you submit, how to respond to reviewers - some of these an advisor can help with regardless of co-authorship, but a co-author will be more invested). In some fields, it may be frowned upon that you have no co-authored papers as it may signal a bad relationship with an advisor or that you are generally hard to work with. This part is completely field-dependent. The downside of having too many co-authored papers is that people may wonder whether you can work independently.

"end up publishing quicker" This certainly sounds good, but in my experience, the opposite is true. For most publications, the majority of the start-to-finish time is consumed by waiting for collaborators. – Anonymous Physicist Commented Sep 6, 2020 at 6:33

Many types of research simply cannot be done by a single person. Likewise, there are career advantages to being perceived as one who collaborates effectively. Let's set that aside, however, and just consider the sort of projects that might be done either alone or by a team.

My experience has been that writing papers alone is great when you want to focus down on some particular technical point that you kind of understand already and have all the tools in hand to develop and refine. I put one out along those lines on average about once every year or so. Such a paper can be a joy to work on for all the reasons you might guess, and there is never any question of relative contribution.

If you do only that, however, you will likely find yourself becoming intellectually isolated and unproductive. In science, as in every other endeavor, Joy's Law applies: "no matter who you are, most of the smartest people work for someone else."

We humans think better when we work with good partners. Finding those good partners can be challenging, and most of us have lots of frustrating experiences while we figure out which collaborators are both sympatico and reliable. A good collaboration, however, will make you smarter, make your work better, and result in higher impact simply because you are bringing together more knowledge, more resources, more perspectives, and different strengths and weaknesses.

Finally, as you grow in your career, you will likely hit a point where you have more projects you want to pursue than time available for you to pursue them alone. Collaborators interested in helping you pursue those ideas thus become indispensable for their ability to increase the number of "getting things done" hours on your project---especially ones like students, postdocs, and staff who look to you for direction.

Bottom line: mix it up, weighting your single- vs. multi-author blend based on your personality and discipline, shifting to more multi-author papers as your career goes on.

I actually do my papers alone. I do them because I have a problem working with others. I don't want them to be upset with me due to my work, so that's why I do it alone.

Part of the reason is so that I don't depend much on people and can develop the skills needed through struggling through it. I'm a bit stressed thinking I opted to do my papers alone, but hopefully, this decision will help me out in the long run.

1 What field? This is an impossibility in some. – Azor Ahai -him- Commented Sep 4, 2020 at 17:00

I would judge it career-wise as a bigger advantage only if you apply for jobs in industry or permanent positions in academia and your publications are in renowned journals with a tough review. Otherwise it rather points to the inability/abhorrence to work in teams and comply with division of labour, which is of course becoming more and more pronounced the more high-tech industry and science evolves towards higher complexity.

So it can prove that you are someone who can plan, conduct and report/sell new interesting research, that you can solve problems totally alone, this is something seldom even among PhD graduates who mostly have their professor/advisor or collaborators as co-author. But if you have only one sole author paper every 3-5 years and not much more I think you would look rather lazy.

Concerning an academic career it's crucial to publish after your PhD without your advisor and also have important first-author publications. If there are several recurring co-authors, but you are often the first, it also highlights your excellence and that someone is not publishing within a citation cartel.

So the context and timeline within you have sole or first author papers is much more important than sole/co-authors from my point of view. If a field is very broad and deep sole author papers could also suggest then that you have an over average broad and deep knowledge in comparison to many specialists.

I think this question poses the problem correctly as pros vs. cons. There is no "one size fits all" solution to this. I personally work mostly by myself, which is becoming rare these days, so I can write with some experience on this. I think most people are too biased towards group work.

Pros of writing papers alone:

You can work on topics that you find interesting that others don't find interesting. There are essentially no people interested in some of the topics I'm interested in. I'm working on a research project right now and I honestly have only a vague idea who might make a good reviewer , much less a collaborator. I'd love to collaborate on that project but I don't think there's anyone interested.
Some researchers will outright reduce the quality of your work. Collaborating with them is a bad idea. I'm not the only one who thinks this :

When I write a paper, I have to deal with co-authors who push for putting in false or misleading material that makes the paper look good and my ability to push back against this has been fairly limited. On my blog, I don't have to deal with that and I can write up results that are accurate (to the best of my ability) even if it makes the result look less interesting or less likely to win an award.

Papers with many authors can lack a unified vision due to " design by committee ". Papers with one or two authors might typically be more focused and consistent.
You're less likely to deal with unscrupulous people taking credit for your work.

Cons of writing papers alone:

Many people will judge you for working alone. You don't have to look far to see this! Check out user48953094's answer to this very question which speculates that people who tend to work alone are antisocial (no evidence provided). I once received a referee report where the reviewer said that they were suspicious that the paper was written by a single author as if single authorship alone was something to be suspicious about . My guess was that they meant to imply that I'm not giving credit where it's due. But they never explicitly said that. In response I said that I am indeed the sole author and gave the contact information for my supervisor with a recommendation for the reviewer to ask the editor to verify. To my knowledge the reviewer never did. (I try to have a rather copious amount of acknowledgments now to help rebuff this perception.)

What depends on the situation or I don't think is true:

Others have pointed out that with more authors , you're more likely to be aware of more literature. That is true, all else equal. But I think a better strategy in most cases is to do in-depth literature surveys on your own. For me, it's quite rare to hear from someone else of a good paper in a subfield that I'm doing research in because I've done a quite in-depth literature survey. Most of the time, when people recommend papers to me, I've already heard of the paper. Of course, I can understand if the research is interdisciplinary and it's actually very difficult for any one person to know all relevant things. But if that criteria is not satisfied, consider simply doing better literature surveys rather than collaborating.
Turtle mentions that you might publish faster with co-authors because the work is divided up . That's not always true. In my experience the communication overhead and other bottlenecks often slow the process down more than if I worked alone. (You can make analogies with parallel programming.) I think we all have been waiting for someone to finish their part of a project where we could have done that part on our own. The more people involved in a project, the higher the probability of waiting. In the end, it depends strongly on the situation. Related: Brooks's law
There is a negative correlation between the number of authors of a paper and a readability proxy . However, this effect seems to be caused by readability decreasing over time independent of the number of authors.

You must log in to answer this question.

Not the answer you're looking for browse other questions tagged phd authorship collaboration ..

Featured on Meta
Join Stack Overflow’s CEO and me for the first Stack IRL Community Event in...
Bringing clarity to status tag usage on meta sites

Hot Network Questions

sp_blitzlock returns blank data in SQL Managed instance
Why does ATSAM3X8E have two separate registers for setting and clearing bits?
How would the following changes affect this monster's CR?
Is it true that before modern Europe, there were no "nations"?
Can flood basalt eruptions start in historical timescales?
How are you supposed to trust SSO popups in desktop and mobile applications?
Overstaying knowing I have a new Schengen visa
Defining a grid in tikz using setlength vs. explicitly setting a length parameter
Starting with 2014 "+" signs and 2015 "−" signs, you delete signs until one remains. What’s left?
Please help me identify my Dad's bike collection (80's-2000's)
Correct anonymization of submission using Latex
Paying a parking fine when I don't trust the recipient
Why would the GPL be viral, while EUPL isn't, according to the EUPL authors?
Does Poincare recurrence show that Gibbs entropy is not strictly increasing?
How do I go about writing a tragic ending in a story while making it overall satisfying to the reader?
Best memory / storage solution for high read / write throughput application(s)?
Why doesn't SiLU suffer from a worse version of a "dying ReLU" problem?
Inspector tells me that the electrician should have removed green screw from the panel
Did Queen (or Freddie Mercury) really not like Star Wars?
Can I land on the "EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg" with a German National Visa as first destination (NON-EU Citizen)?
Understanding the parabolic state of a quantum particle in the infinite square well
Guesstimate a multiple choice exam
What is the purpose of long plastic sleeve tubes around connections in appliances?
Is this a misstatement of Euclid in Halmos' Naive Set Theory book?

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

Identify reasons to research writing projects.
Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

Medical laboratory technician
Small business owner
Information technology professional
Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

Choose a topic.
Plan and schedule time to research and write.
Conduct research.
Organize research and ideas.
Draft your paper.
Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Skip to primary navigation
Skip to main content
Skip to footer

Tress Academic

#13: Writing journal papers: Pros and cons

June 4, 2019 by Tress Academic

In the age of information technology, should you still be writing papers with the aim of publishing them in journals? Isn’t it a long, complicated and daunting process to write a paper and get it accepted in a journal? Wouldn’t it be far more relevant to publish on the internet, on social media or other modern channels that work much faster? We’ll tell you why we think it’s still worth it to write articles for peer-reviewed journals and give you the real run-down on the pros and cons on the issue below.

With social media at everyone’s fingertips, writing journal papers seems a little old-fashioned. It can feel like something that researchers had to do before they had proper internet channels to self-publish their ideas. It appear to be outdated in this fast-moving world. Shouldn’t we publish our research instead on blogs, preprint-servers, or on websites where readers can easily and quickly access what we have to offer?

Yes, you could easily get the impression that there is no need to write and publish journal papers anymore. We have far more alternatives to communicate with our peers than ever before. Therefore, looking critically at the journal publishing process is absolutely required. There are many cons to be considered, but also many aspects that speak to the benefits of writing and publishing in journals. To fully comprehend this view, let’s first sketch the historical development of publishing journal papers before we dive into the pros and cons.

I. The historical perspective of writing for journals

1. early stages.

Writing research articles that get published in international peer-reviewed journals is not a new phenomenon, but a process that developed over several hundred years. The first journals were founded in the 17th century in France and Britain, to facilitate knowledge exchange among academics. The first peer-reviewed journal followed in the early 18th century, and by the end of this century, almost 500 peer-reviewed journals had been founded.

Prominent journals such as Nature and Science followed in the second half of the 19th century. For a more detailed overview, have a look at the Scholarly Publishing Timeline provided by AJE and the STM report on Scientific and Scholarly Journal Publishing .

2. Mid-20th century

Yet, the journal paper boom first started in the mid-20th century, and in many disciplines and subjects, journals became the standard for publishing research. Since then, the writing and publishing activity has gained at lot of traction. It went from some academic associations that publish the research finding’s of their members and associates in two or three issues per year, to an industry with many professional publishers competing for academics to publish with them.

3. Transition to 21st century journal publishing

Previously, academic journals had been run and subsidised by universities and research institutes, but also now increasingly, they are operated by professional publishers which charge readers subscription fees. The first online-only journals started in the 1990s and the first Mega-Journals (like PLoS One ) in the first decade of the 2000s.

The Open Access movement also took off in the beginning of the 2000s, under which journals operate using online-only papers that are freely available for the readers, but force submission fees on the authors (see the Open Access 101 blog at Harvard University and Suber 2009 .

disadvantages of writing a research paper

4. The current situation

Today, the exact number of journals is hard to determine, as definitions vary as to what constitutes a journal, but there is an estimated number of about 30,000 scholarly peer-reviewed journals in the English language today.

Interestingly, this has led to a situation that feels as though the number of papers being published far exceeds researcher’s and society’s capacity to consume them. In 2010, estimates were that more than 50 million papers had been published since the mid-17th century, with about 2.5 million papers published annually as of 2013 (see Jinha 2010 , Plume & van Weijen 2014 , Ware & Mabe 2015 ).

II. The cons: 10 common critical points on the paper publishing process

The development of publishing as described above raises a lot of criticism from within- and outside of academia. Common points of criticism are:

publishing papers in scientific journals - cons

Writing and publishing papers in journals seems to be an elite activity. Only the best really make it in. Not everybody can access it. It seems to contradict the idea of research being free and open to everybody.

2. Expensive

Publishing papers in journals is expensive, due to the high author fees and the amount of time that goes into preparing papers.

The process from writing the paper until reading it in the journal can take a very long time.

4. Lower quality

It seems that (young) researchers are forced to publish with quantity in mind rather than quality. We see more papers of lower quality due to the high pressures to publish from institutions.

5. Too many papers

With the publishing of so many papers per year, nobody can read them all. Getting papers into journals has become a goal of its own.

The paper selection process can be biased and journals may prefer some people and subjects to others.

7. Lack of transparency

The paper selection process for journal publication does not seem objective or transparent as to which papers getting accepted and which ones are rejected.

8. Old-fashioned

Writing and publishing papers represents an old-fashioned mode of science communication.

9. Non-interactive

Publishing in journals gives poor possibilities for interaction and comments.

10. Commercial

Publishing journal articles has become a business where academics seem to work for free with others gaining the benefits.

No question, these are critical points that need to be discussed and considered by academia. A lot of people play a role in the business of science communication. A good overview on the controversies s on the business and directional side of publishing academic results is available in the Editorial “Publish or Perish?” by Rawat & Meena (2014) or in the report “Untangling Academic Publishing” by Fyfe and colleagues (2017).

However, we don’t want to dive into this discussion here, but instead focus on reasons it is still worth investing time to write papers and get them published in journals for individual researchers who work in the current academic system. If you are a young researcher searching for a job, a prolongation of a contract, or to build a reputation, the situation looks quite different. You might need to deal with the system as it is, otherwise you won’t be able to pursue an academic career.

III. The pros: 10 reasons why you should write and publish journal papers

Let us give you 10 reasons here why writing papers for journals is still worth doing.

publishing papers in scientific journals pros

1. Quality control

Submitting your paper to a peer-reviewed journal means that your manuscript will be scrutinised by experts in your field who can help you to eliminate the paper’s weak points. They will look through your paper and check its quality. Once approved by the reviewers and editor, your paper has passed a relevant threshold and is considered of a certain academic quality. You know now, your work is good enough to be published.

2. Quality label

Once revised and accepted, your work gets an invisible quality stamp. Your paper, your research, and you will benefit from this label saying “good work!” You can take this quality label with you wherever you go and it will testify to your qualifications and excellence. A paper can help you to get your name out in a field of research and the increasing number of papers that you publish will help to build your reputation.

3. Trusted source

Getting your work published in an academic journal tells your peers that your work was good enough to pass the expert’s quality check and therefore it is considered a trustworthy source. It adds a lot to the credibility of your research when it gets published in a journal. Researchers prefer trusted sources.

4. Academic career development

If your personal plan is to aim for a career in academia, as a researcher, lecturer, or any other scientific position at a university, research/higher education institute, then journal papers will be your currency to gain and keep such a job. These institutions face the battle of rankings. Their long-term existence and their reputation is built on performing well in the competition with other academic institutions. If you are a researcher who has published a lot, then you will help them to reach and keep a good ranking. You are an employee that is an asset for the university.

5. Non-academic career development

Even if you are heading towards a career outside academia, a good publication record can be helpful. Every employer is keen on having an employee who is productive. Any paper you have is more than a line on your CV, but signals that you can complete work, get it through a quality control process and out to its users. You show you produce a measurable outcome and can stand out in competition.

6. Funding body requirement

Having a paper put in a journal is not an add-on at the end of your research project, but very often an essential requirement by the agency providing the funds for your research. Research projects are asked to feed back their findings to the academic community and journal papers are considered to be the appropriate medium to do so. If you publish in journals, you tick this box.

7. Attracting grants

As a researcher, you will face the need to write applications and proposals to research councils in order to get the funding for your research. The chances of your bid getting accepted will substantially rise if you can refer to a portfolio of published papers in the subject area of the grant you apply for.

8. Get acknowledged

Getting a paper accepted, having the printed version in hand or seeing your name on the PDF version is a great feeling. It is a – very quiet – shout of ‘’bravo” from your peers. It feels like a clap on your shoulder, when your colleagues tell you that you have done well. It is very satisfying and it boosts your confidence. If you made it once, your way of working is commended and you will likely publish again. A paper is also something that you can show around.

9. Established infrastructure

A large bonus of published journal papers is that you don’t have to worry about the medium of getting your message out. You don’t need to think about finding the right platform to place your research findings, or about the technical reliability of its system. You don’t need to worry about announcing, advertising or marketing your paper yourself; journals and publishers take this part over for you and do a pretty good job to get your research out to your peers.

10. Established way of communication

Last but not least, a journal publication has the large advantage for you as being the established way of academic communication and exchange of research findings. We all are used to looking for and consuming journal papers. We all know how it works to find papers and which journals are most relevant for us. The dissemination and accessibility of papers published in journals seems to work generally fine, despite all the paywall systems and barriers that are erected by publishers to stop free distribution of papers. Most academics still seem to find a way to get a hold of your paper once it is published if they really want to. Writing and publishing papers is also a main avenue for academics to find and establish communication with their peers.

Conclusion:

The pros and cons of writing and publishing papers might be contentious. There is nothing perfect about the system, and for you, there may be not black and white answer of the right or wrong thing to do. We hope our overview of the 10 pros and cons to publishing in journals gives you a better understanding of the discussion.

Our view is that you should start and keep on writing for journals because the pros definitely outweigh the cons. The reward for your professional life can be tremendous. Clearly, academia needs to critically observe the ongoing development of the publishing circus, and it would be good if clear directions would be developed. Yet, we do not see journal publications as being in competition to other forms of making research results available to the public.

We advise you to also make use of other modern communication channels parallel to publishing in journals such as social media, blogs and others to communicate your research. But, particularly if you are striving for an academic career, journal publications are inevitable and will help you to progress quickly towards the career track of your choice.

Relevant resources:

Smart Academics Blog #62: Twenty things you should know when writing a journal paper
Smart Academics Blog #38: Why you need a publishing strategy
Smart Academics Blog #36: 5 tips to get a paper accepted this year
Smart Academics Blog #5: How to get started with writing papers.
Fyfe, A., Coate, K., Curry, S., Lawson, S., Moxham, N., Røstvik, C.M. 2017. Untangling Academic Publishing: A history of the relationship between commercial interests, academic prestige and the circulation of research. Zenodo.
Harvard University 2006. Open Access 101.
Jinha, A. E. 2010. Article 50 million: An estimate of the number of scholarly articles in existence. Learned Publishing. 23 (3): 258–263. doi :10.1087/20100308.
Plume, A., & van Weijen, D. 2014. Publish or perish? The rise of the fractional author …. Research Trends, (38).
Rawat, S., Meena, S., 2014. Publish or perish: Where are we heading? Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 19(2): 87–89.
Suber, P. 2009. Timeline of the Open Access Movement.
Ware, M., Mabe, M. 2015. The STM Report: An overview of scientific and scholarly journal publishing (PDF) (4th ed.). International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers.

More information:

Do you want to write a journal paper? If so, please sign up to receive our free guides.

Photographs by Tress Academic.

#WritingPapers, #PublishingPapers

Stating the Obvious: Writing Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

During the process of writing your thesis or dissertation, you might suddenly realize that your research has inherent flaws. Don’t worry! Virtually all projects contain restrictions to your research. However, being able to recognize and accurately describe these problems is the difference between a true researcher and a grade-school kid with a science-fair project. Concerns with truthful responding, access to participants, and survey instruments are just a few of examples of restrictions on your research. In the following sections, the differences among delimitations, limitations, and assumptions of a dissertation will be clarified.

Delimitations

Delimitations are the definitions you set as the boundaries of your own thesis or dissertation, so delimitations are in your control. Delimitations are set so that your goals do not become impossibly large to complete. Examples of delimitations include objectives, research questions, variables, theoretical objectives that you have adopted, and populations chosen as targets to study. When you are stating your delimitations, clearly inform readers why you chose this course of study. The answer might simply be that you were curious about the topic and/or wanted to improve standards of a professional field by revealing certain findings. In any case, you should clearly list the other options available and the reasons why you did not choose these options immediately after you list your delimitations. You might have avoided these options for reasons of practicality, interest, or relativity to the study at hand. For example, you might have only studied Hispanic mothers because they have the highest rate of obese babies. Delimitations are often strongly related to your theory and research questions. If you were researching whether there are different parenting styles between unmarried Asian, Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic women, then a delimitation of your study would be the inclusion of only participants with those demographics and the exclusion of participants from other demographics such as men, married women, and all other ethnicities of single women (inclusion and exclusion criteria). A further delimitation might be that you only included closed-ended Likert scale responses in the survey, rather than including additional open-ended responses, which might make some people more willing to take and complete your survey. Remember that delimitations are not good or bad. They are simply a detailed description of the scope of interest for your study as it relates to the research design. Don’t forget to describe the philosophical framework you used throughout your study, which also delimits your study.

Limitations

Limitations of a dissertation are potential weaknesses in your study that are mostly out of your control, given limited funding, choice of research design, statistical model constraints, or other factors. In addition, a limitation is a restriction on your study that cannot be reasonably dismissed and can affect your design and results. Do not worry about limitations because limitations affect virtually all research projects, as well as most things in life. Even when you are going to your favorite restaurant, you are limited by the menu choices. If you went to a restaurant that had a menu that you were craving, you might not receive the service, price, or location that makes you enjoy your favorite restaurant. If you studied participants’ responses to a survey, you might be limited in your abilities to gain the exact type or geographic scope of participants you wanted. The people whom you managed to get to take your survey may not truly be a random sample, which is also a limitation. If you used a common test for data findings, your results are limited by the reliability of the test. If your study was limited to a certain amount of time, your results are affected by the operations of society during that time period (e.g., economy, social trends). It is important for you to remember that limitations of a dissertation are often not something that can be solved by the researcher. Also, remember that whatever limits you also limits other researchers, whether they are the largest medical research companies or consumer habits corporations. Certain kinds of limitations are often associated with the analytical approach you take in your research, too. For example, some qualitative methods like heuristics or phenomenology do not lend themselves well to replicability. Also, most of the commonly used quantitative statistical models can only determine correlation, but not causation.

Assumptions

Assumptions are things that are accepted as true, or at least plausible, by researchers and peers who will read your dissertation or thesis. In other words, any scholar reading your paper will assume that certain aspects of your study is true given your population, statistical test, research design, or other delimitations. For example, if you tell your friend that your favorite restaurant is an Italian place, your friend will assume that you don’t go there for the sushi. It’s assumed that you go there to eat Italian food. Because most assumptions are not discussed in-text, assumptions that are discussed in-text are discussed in the context of the limitations of your study, which is typically in the discussion section. This is important, because both assumptions and limitations affect the inferences you can draw from your study. One of the more common assumptions made in survey research is the assumption of honesty and truthful responses. However, for certain sensitive questions this assumption may be more difficult to accept, in which case it would be described as a limitation of the study. For example, asking people to report their criminal behavior in a survey may not be as reliable as asking people to report their eating habits. It is important to remember that your limitations and assumptions should not contradict one another. For instance, if you state that generalizability is a limitation of your study given that your sample was limited to one city in the United States, then you should not claim generalizability to the United States population as an assumption of your study. Statistical models in quantitative research designs are accompanied with assumptions as well, some more strict than others. These assumptions generally refer to the characteristics of the data, such as distributions, correlational trends, and variable type, just to name a few. Violating these assumptions can lead to drastically invalid results, though this often depends on sample size and other considerations.

Click here to cancel reply.

You must be logged in to post a comment.

GENERAL HUMANITIES PRESS RELEASES
Methodology
Editorial team
Publication guidelines

Theses and dissertations: pros and cons of the traditional and alternative formats

By Lilian Nassi-Calò

Photo: Technische Informationsbibliothek (TIB) .

Scholarly communication undergoes changes and evolves as science itself. The scientific article, its format and publication mode, dissemination and sharing has undergone significant changes since the emergence of the first scientific journals in the seventeenth century. The Internet, in the 1990s, dramatically changed the paradigm of science communication, an event comparable only to the invention of printing by Gutenberg in 1440, which enabled the dissemination of articles and journals to other instances, beyond the academy.

Dissertations and theses are monographs that constitute elements of scientific communication, but their primary role is to demonstrate that the candidate of an academic title is able to drive and communicate independent and original research.

The July 7, 2016 editorial of Nature 1 brings peculiar information, “According to one of those often-quoted statistics that should be true but probably isn’t, the average number of people who read a PhD thesis all the way through is 1.6. And that includes the author”. The text goes on questioning what would be the number of theses that the typical researcher – and reader of Nature – has read in full. According to the same editorial, it possibly would not reach the 1.6 benchmark. The volume of theses, however, will continue to increase, since thousands of masters and PhD candidates in the world will face this rite of passage that is the gateway to the academic world or the professional market. The theses and dissertations database of the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), an agency of the Ministry of Education of Brazil, registers 901,096 documents from 1987 to August 2016.

Given this scenario, all stand to gain if the theses and dissertations are concise and objective. Information from the largest doctoral theses database, ProQuest, located in Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA, indicates that the average number of pages of a thesis increased from about 100 in the 1950s to around 200 currently, a fact mentioned in Julie Gold’s paper in Nature 2 . Obviously, the number of pages is not proportional to the quality and originality of the work, however, despite this, it is difficult to educate students to reduce the theses’ volume, which would make them easier to write, read and appraise.

If the thesis itself has a similar structure in many countries, there is great diversity in the way it is evaluated and the candidate is argued. The thesis defence or viva voce (in Latin) has different forms in the countries. In the Netherlands, the defence has several examiners and includes a brief presentation of the work by the applicant, being open to the public. In Australia, the printed volume of the thesis is sent to the examiners who make comments in writing and return it to the candidate. He or she will make a presentation later, but this will not influence the final result. In Brazil, there are institutions that conduct thesis defences open to the public; others do a private session that includes only the candidate, the supervisor and a panel of examiners.

In order to expedite the writing and assessment of the thesis, institutions and graduate programs in several countries, including Brazil, are opting to allow candidates who have published articles on their masters or doctorate research, to replace some of the thesis chapters by these articles, headed by an introduction, conclusion and a review of the scientific literature. The criteria to judge which articles can replace the wording of the thesis is in charge of the graduate programs coordination. CAPES, the body that assesses graduate courses throughout Brazil, recognizes this modality of theses, as well as FAPESP and Research Foundations from other states, for scholarship and grant purposes. The fact that the candidate has published papers in well evaluated journals, however, does not exempt the dissertation or thesis defence, which must take place in accordance to the criteria established by the higher education institution.

Table 1, which is not exhaustive, includes graduate programs in Brazil that specifically allow the option of alternative thesis format in the norms of graduate programs. Interestingly, major universities leave the discretion of each program the adoption of this thesis format, since there are significant differences between the areas of knowledge with regard to publication in scientific journals. The University of São Paulo, for example, provides the graduate programs to set the format in which the dissertation / thesis shall be presented, through Article 90 of Resolution 6875 of August 6, 2014 of the Graduate Regiment 3 . It is known that the areas of Natural Sciences generate more publications than the Social Sciences and Humanities, where the publication of books and book chapters often exceeds that of journal articles. The areas of Computer Science and Engineering have as an important dissemination channel of research results conference proceedings and technical manuals.

This modality is favorably viewed by researchers and students, as it stimulates the publication of articles, and is less laborious than writing a 200 page thesis. Not that publishing journal articles is an easy task, far from it. The academic community, particularly from developing countries, makes a significant effort to write and publish articles – especially in English – in quality journals. But if the papers are published during the masters or doctorate research, it avoids employing valuable time in writing a traditional style thesis.

The importance of the topic was evidenced by a workshop organized by the Australian Council of Learned Academies (ACOLA) in Melbourne in January 2016. The meeting aimed at the reform of the thesis format as part of the review process of research training, which is the main purpose of the master’s and doctoral programs. Shirley Tilghman, a molecular biologist and former president of Princeton University in New Jersey, USA, however, is not in favor of adopting the alternative format of theses, because “they demonstrate the candidate’s ability to frame the historical context of a problem, describe in detail the purpose and execution and then come to a credible conclusion”.

At the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, most of the theses are a compilation of articles published by students followed by a discussion, in a 50 page volume in total. In the view of the leaders of this institution, the publication should be an important part of master’s and doctorate academic training, since it enables candidates to enter the research career. Others, however, such as Jeremy Farrar, research director of Biomedicine at Wellcome Trust in London, UK, fear that the emphasis on article publishing during postgraduate studies would limit the focus of the doctorate to a mere paper factory. Moreover, the time for writing, submitting and peer reviewing articles may not coincide with the deadlines for presentation and defence of the thesis. In this sense, it is extremely timely the comment by Joy Burrough-Boenisch from Renkum, The Netherlands 4 . He advises to inform editors and peer reviewers, and even language professionals, that this particular article will be evaluated as part of obtaining an academic title, which may influence the time and in the way peer review is conducted.

Anyway, supporters or not of the alternative format agree that articles are most read and cited, and theses that remain only on library shelves and are not read or consulted have no reason to be. However, many researchers state their theses written over 20 years ago are still read and consulted by students and newly entered researchers in their laboratories. The Nature editorial 1 that discusses the thesis format seems to capture the candidates’ feeling by saying that “students in the process of writing a thesis are in a very dark place indeed: lost in information, overwhelmed by literature, stuck for the next sentence, seduced by procrastination and wondering why on earth they signed up to this torture at all”.

Whatever the format of the thesis, the assessment by a panel of examiners is paramount for granting the title. In Israel, for example, defence is optional, and few students choose to go through it. As noted above, in The Netherlands it is a formal and open procedure, while in the UK, it is an event reserved only to the candidate and the examiners. In Australia, mainly for logistical and costs reasons, there is no proper defence, the thesis is only given to the examiners, who return it with comments. Moreover, the supporters of this process claim that oral defence rarely changes the outcome of the doctorate. In fact, institutions prefer not to reduce the number of doctors and masters, which weigh positively on university rankings. Moreover, it is really unlikely that a candidate who has gone through the entire process – assuming that there are effective mechanisms along the way – end up failing the final step – the thesis defence. Anyway, it is worth mentioning that a single model will not serve to different countries, institutions and areas of knowledge.

As for the evaluation of the candidate to an academic title it is worth mentioning Tilghman, who claims to be “only possible to really evaluate a student at the 25 year reunion. In the end, the only way you can assess it whether the graduates of the program became successful scientists. If they do, you’ve done a good job. If they haven’t, you haven’t”.

Table 1. Graduate programs that allow Masters and PhD candidates to gather scientific papers as a substitute of the traditional thesis or dissertation.

1. The past, present and future of the PhD thesis. Nature . 2016, vol. 535, nº 7610, pp. 7-7. DOI: 10.1038/535007a

2. GOLD, J. What’s the point of the PhD thesis? Nature. 2016, vol. 535, nº 7610, pp. 26-28. DOI: 10.1038/535026a

3. Resolução CoPGr 6875, de 06 de Agosto de 2014. Universidade de São Paulo. 2014. Available from: http://www.leginf.usp.br/?resolucao=resolucao-copgr-6875-de-06-de-agosto-de-2014

4. BURROUGH-BOENISCH, J. PhD thesis: Being more open about PhD papers. Nature . 2016, vol. 536, nº 7616, pp. 274-274. DOI: 10.1038/536274b

BURROUGH-BOENISCH, J. PhD thesis: Being more open about PhD papers. Nature . 2016, vol. 536, nº 7616, pp. 274-274. DOI: 10.1038/536274b

GOLD, J. What’s the point of the PhD thesis? Nature. 2016, vol. 535, nº 7610, pp. 26-28. DOI: 10.1038/535026a

Resolução CoPGr 6875, de 06 de Agosto de 2014. Universidade de São Paulo. 2014. Available from: http://www.leginf.usp.br/?resolucao=resolucao-copgr-6875-de-06-de-agosto-de-2014

The past, present and future of the PhD thesis. Nature . 2016, vol. 535, nº 7610, pp. 7-7. DOI: 10.1038/535007a

External links

ACOLA – < http://www.acola.org.au/ >

Banco de Testes – < http://bancodeteses.capes.gov.br/banco-teses >

CAPES – < http://www.capes.gov.br/ >

FAPESP – < http://www.fapesp.br/ >

ProQuest database – < http://www.proquest.com/libraries/academic/databases/ >

About Lilian Nassi-Calò

Lilian Nassi-Calò studied chemistry at Instituto de Química – USP, holds a doctorate in Biochemistry by the same institution and a post-doctorate as an Alexander von Humboldt fellow in Wuerzburg, Germany. After her studies, she was a professor and researcher at IQ-USP. She also worked as an industrial chemist and presently she is Coordinator of Scientific Communication at BIREME/PAHO/WHO and a collaborator of SciELO.

Translated from the original in portuguese by Lilian Nassi-Calò.

6 Thoughts on “ Theses and dissertations: pros and cons of the traditional and alternative formats ”

Read the comment in Spanish, by Javier Santovenia Diaz:

http://blog.scielo.org/es/2016/08/24/tesis-y-disertaciones-pros-y-contras-de-los-formatos-tradicionales-y-alternativos/#comment-39713

Read the comment in portuguese, by Milena Polsinelli:

http://blog.scielo.org/blog/2016/08/24/teses-e-dissertacoes-pros-e-contras-dos-formatos-tradicional-e-alternativo/#comment-24357

Read the comment in Portuguese, by Suzana Cavenaghi:

http://blog.scielo.org/blog/2016/08/24/teses-e-dissertacoes-pros-e-contras-dos-formatos-tradicional-e-alternativo/#comment-24426

Read the comment in Portuguese, by Moysés Kuhlmann Jr.:

http://blog.scielo.org/blog/2016/08/24/teses-e-dissertacoes-pros-e-contras-dos-formatos-tradicional-e-alternativo/#comment-24456

Pingback: Akademik değerlendirmede sözlü savunmanın alternatifleri

Pingback: And What Will You Do with That? A Quick, Dirty, and Incomplete Guide to Alternative Dissertations – Fabric Thinking

Press Releases

Performing Arts research highlighted on the blog “SciELO in Perspective” September 2, 2024 Rafaella Uhiara
Tick vaccine could be an effective solution for agriculture and livestock August 30, 2024 Ciência Rural
It is now possible to develop an accessible passenger cabin for people with physical and sensory disabilities August 20, 2024 Rosa Emilia Moraes
An Analysis of the Epistemological Foundations of Machine Learning August 15, 2024 Garibaldi Sarmento
Barnyardgrass resistance to herbicides demands new agricultural strategies August 12, 2024 Ciência Rural

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

How often do you use social media per day?
Less than 30 minutes
30 minutes to 1 hour
1 to 2 hours
2 to 4 hours
More than 4 hours
Which social media platforms do you use?
Others (Please specify)
How often do you experience the following on social media?
Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
Cyberbullying
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
Very positive
Somewhat positive
Somewhat negative
Very negative
In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Social comparison
In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Education on healthy social media use
Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
Social media detox programs
Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

Appendices – Writing Guide, Types and Examples

Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Research Techniques – Methods, Types and Examples

Research Results Section – Writing Guide and...

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing...

Ethical Considerations – Types, Examples and...

USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Limitations of the Study
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or influenced the interpretation of the findings from your research. Study limitations are the constraints placed on the ability to generalize from the results, to further describe applications to practice, and/or related to the utility of findings that are the result of the ways in which you initially chose to design the study or the method used to establish internal and external validity or the result of unanticipated challenges that emerged during the study.

Price, James H. and Judy Murnan. “Research Limitations and the Necessity of Reporting Them.” American Journal of Health Education 35 (2004): 66-67; Theofanidis, Dimitrios and Antigoni Fountouki. "Limitations and Delimitations in the Research Process." Perioperative Nursing 7 (September-December 2018): 155-163. .

Importance of...

Always acknowledge a study's limitations. It is far better that you identify and acknowledge your study’s limitations than to have them pointed out by your professor and have your grade lowered because you appeared to have ignored them or didn't realize they existed.

Keep in mind that acknowledgment of a study's limitations is an opportunity to make suggestions for further research. If you do connect your study's limitations to suggestions for further research, be sure to explain the ways in which these unanswered questions may become more focused because of your study.

Acknowledgment of a study's limitations also provides you with opportunities to demonstrate that you have thought critically about the research problem, understood the relevant literature published about it, and correctly assessed the methods chosen for studying the problem. A key objective of the research process is not only discovering new knowledge but also to confront assumptions and explore what we don't know.

Claiming limitations is a subjective process because you must evaluate the impact of those limitations . Don't just list key weaknesses and the magnitude of a study's limitations. To do so diminishes the validity of your research because it leaves the reader wondering whether, or in what ways, limitation(s) in your study may have impacted the results and conclusions. Limitations require a critical, overall appraisal and interpretation of their impact. You should answer the question: do these problems with errors, methods, validity, etc. eventually matter and, if so, to what extent?

Price, James H. and Judy Murnan. “Research Limitations and the Necessity of Reporting Them.” American Journal of Health Education 35 (2004): 66-67; Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation. Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com.

Descriptions of Possible Limitations

All studies have limitations . However, it is important that you restrict your discussion to limitations related to the research problem under investigation. For example, if a meta-analysis of existing literature is not a stated purpose of your research, it should not be discussed as a limitation. Do not apologize for not addressing issues that you did not promise to investigate in the introduction of your paper.

Here are examples of limitations related to methodology and the research process you may need to describe and discuss how they possibly impacted your results. Note that descriptions of limitations should be stated in the past tense because they were discovered after you completed your research.

Possible Methodological Limitations

Sample size -- the number of the units of analysis you use in your study is dictated by the type of research problem you are investigating. Note that, if your sample size is too small, it will be difficult to find significant relationships from the data, as statistical tests normally require a larger sample size to ensure a representative distribution of the population and to be considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. Note that sample size is generally less relevant in qualitative research if explained in the context of the research problem.
Lack of available and/or reliable data -- a lack of data or of reliable data will likely require you to limit the scope of your analysis, the size of your sample, or it can be a significant obstacle in finding a trend and a meaningful relationship. You need to not only describe these limitations but provide cogent reasons why you believe data is missing or is unreliable. However, don’t just throw up your hands in frustration; use this as an opportunity to describe a need for future research based on designing a different method for gathering data.
Lack of prior research studies on the topic -- citing prior research studies forms the basis of your literature review and helps lay a foundation for understanding the research problem you are investigating. Depending on the currency or scope of your research topic, there may be little, if any, prior research on your topic. Before assuming this to be true, though, consult with a librarian! In cases when a librarian has confirmed that there is little or no prior research, you may be required to develop an entirely new research typology [for example, using an exploratory rather than an explanatory research design ]. Note again that discovering a limitation can serve as an important opportunity to identify new gaps in the literature and to describe the need for further research.
Measure used to collect the data -- sometimes it is the case that, after completing your interpretation of the findings, you discover that the way in which you gathered data inhibited your ability to conduct a thorough analysis of the results. For example, you regret not including a specific question in a survey that, in retrospect, could have helped address a particular issue that emerged later in the study. Acknowledge the deficiency by stating a need for future researchers to revise the specific method for gathering data.
Self-reported data -- whether you are relying on pre-existing data or you are conducting a qualitative research study and gathering the data yourself, self-reported data is limited by the fact that it rarely can be independently verified. In other words, you have to the accuracy of what people say, whether in interviews, focus groups, or on questionnaires, at face value. However, self-reported data can contain several potential sources of bias that you should be alert to and note as limitations. These biases become apparent if they are incongruent with data from other sources. These are: (1) selective memory [remembering or not remembering experiences or events that occurred at some point in the past]; (2) telescoping [recalling events that occurred at one time as if they occurred at another time]; (3) attribution [the act of attributing positive events and outcomes to one's own agency, but attributing negative events and outcomes to external forces]; and, (4) exaggeration [the act of representing outcomes or embellishing events as more significant than is actually suggested from other data].

Possible Limitations of the Researcher

Access -- if your study depends on having access to people, organizations, data, or documents and, for whatever reason, access is denied or limited in some way, the reasons for this needs to be described. Also, include an explanation why being denied or limited access did not prevent you from following through on your study.
Longitudinal effects -- unlike your professor, who can literally devote years [even a lifetime] to studying a single topic, the time available to investigate a research problem and to measure change or stability over time is constrained by the due date of your assignment. Be sure to choose a research problem that does not require an excessive amount of time to complete the literature review, apply the methodology, and gather and interpret the results. If you're unsure whether you can complete your research within the confines of the assignment's due date, talk to your professor.
Cultural and other type of bias -- we all have biases, whether we are conscience of them or not. Bias is when a person, place, event, or thing is viewed or shown in a consistently inaccurate way. Bias is usually negative, though one can have a positive bias as well, especially if that bias reflects your reliance on research that only support your hypothesis. When proof-reading your paper, be especially critical in reviewing how you have stated a problem, selected the data to be studied, what may have been omitted, the manner in which you have ordered events, people, or places, how you have chosen to represent a person, place, or thing, to name a phenomenon, or to use possible words with a positive or negative connotation. NOTE : If you detect bias in prior research, it must be acknowledged and you should explain what measures were taken to avoid perpetuating that bias. For example, if a previous study only used boys to examine how music education supports effective math skills, describe how your research expands the study to include girls.
Fluency in a language -- if your research focuses , for example, on measuring the perceived value of after-school tutoring among Mexican-American ESL [English as a Second Language] students and you are not fluent in Spanish, you are limited in being able to read and interpret Spanish language research studies on the topic or to speak with these students in their primary language. This deficiency should be acknowledged.

Structure and Writing Style

Information about the limitations of your study are generally placed either at the beginning of the discussion section of your paper so the reader knows and understands the limitations before reading the rest of your analysis of the findings, or, the limitations are outlined at the conclusion of the discussion section as an acknowledgement of the need for further study. Statements about a study's limitations should not be buried in the body [middle] of the discussion section unless a limitation is specific to something covered in that part of the paper. If this is the case, though, the limitation should be reiterated at the conclusion of the section.

If you determine that your study is seriously flawed due to important limitations , such as, an inability to acquire critical data, consider reframing it as an exploratory study intended to lay the groundwork for a more complete research study in the future. Be sure, though, to specifically explain the ways that these flaws can be successfully overcome in a new study.

But, do not use this as an excuse for not developing a thorough research paper! Review the tab in this guide for developing a research topic . If serious limitations exist, it generally indicates a likelihood that your research problem is too narrowly defined or that the issue or event under study is too recent and, thus, very little research has been written about it. If serious limitations do emerge, consult with your professor about possible ways to overcome them or how to revise your study.

When discussing the limitations of your research, be sure to:

Describe each limitation in detailed but concise terms;
Explain why each limitation exists;
Provide the reasons why each limitation could not be overcome using the method(s) chosen to acquire or gather the data [cite to other studies that had similar problems when possible];
Assess the impact of each limitation in relation to the overall findings and conclusions of your study; and,
If appropriate, describe how these limitations could point to the need for further research.

Remember that the method you chose may be the source of a significant limitation that has emerged during your interpretation of the results [for example, you didn't interview a group of people that you later wish you had]. If this is the case, don't panic. Acknowledge it, and explain how applying a different or more robust methodology might address the research problem more effectively in a future study. A underlying goal of scholarly research is not only to show what works, but to demonstrate what doesn't work or what needs further clarification.

Aguinis, Hermam and Jeffrey R. Edwards. “Methodological Wishes for the Next Decade and How to Make Wishes Come True.” Journal of Management Studies 51 (January 2014): 143-174; Brutus, Stéphane et al. "Self-Reported Limitations and Future Directions in Scholarly Reports: Analysis and Recommendations." Journal of Management 39 (January 2013): 48-75; Ioannidis, John P.A. "Limitations are not Properly Acknowledged in the Scientific Literature." Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 60 (2007): 324-329; Pasek, Josh. Writing the Empirical Social Science Research Paper: A Guide for the Perplexed. January 24, 2012. Academia.edu; Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation. Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Writing Tip

Don't Inflate the Importance of Your Findings!

After all the hard work and long hours devoted to writing your research paper, it is easy to get carried away with attributing unwarranted importance to what you’ve done. We all want our academic work to be viewed as excellent and worthy of a good grade, but it is important that you understand and openly acknowledge the limitations of your study. Inflating the importance of your study's findings could be perceived by your readers as an attempt hide its flaws or encourage a biased interpretation of the results. A small measure of humility goes a long way!

Another Writing Tip

Negative Results are Not a Limitation!

Negative evidence refers to findings that unexpectedly challenge rather than support your hypothesis. If you didn't get the results you anticipated, it may mean your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be reformulated. Or, perhaps you have stumbled onto something unexpected that warrants further study. Moreover, the absence of an effect may be very telling in many situations, particularly in experimental research designs. In any case, your results may very well be of importance to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not fall into the trap of thinking that results contrary to what you expected is a limitation to your study. If you carried out the research well, they are simply your results and only require additional interpretation.

Lewis, George H. and Jonathan F. Lewis. “The Dog in the Night-Time: Negative Evidence in Social Research.” The British Journal of Sociology 31 (December 1980): 544-558.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Sample Size Limitations in Qualitative Research

Sample sizes are typically smaller in qualitative research because, as the study goes on, acquiring more data does not necessarily lead to more information. This is because one occurrence of a piece of data, or a code, is all that is necessary to ensure that it becomes part of the analysis framework. However, it remains true that sample sizes that are too small cannot adequately support claims of having achieved valid conclusions and sample sizes that are too large do not permit the deep, naturalistic, and inductive analysis that defines qualitative inquiry. Determining adequate sample size in qualitative research is ultimately a matter of judgment and experience in evaluating the quality of the information collected against the uses to which it will be applied and the particular research method and purposeful sampling strategy employed. If the sample size is found to be a limitation, it may reflect your judgment about the methodological technique chosen [e.g., single life history study versus focus group interviews] rather than the number of respondents used.

Boddy, Clive Roland. "Sample Size for Qualitative Research." Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 19 (2016): 426-432; Huberman, A. Michael and Matthew B. Miles. "Data Management and Analysis Methods." In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 428-444; Blaikie, Norman. "Confounding Issues Related to Determining Sample Size in Qualitative Research." International Journal of Social Research Methodology 21 (2018): 635-641; Oppong, Steward Harrison. "The Problem of Sampling in qualitative Research." Asian Journal of Management Sciences and Education 2 (2013): 202-210.

<< Previous: 8. The Discussion
Next: 9. The Conclusion >>
Last Updated: Sep 4, 2024 9:40 AM
URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Disadvantages in preparing and publishing scientific papers caused by the dominance of the English language in science: The case of Colombian researchers in biological sciences

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Catalan Philology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America

Valeria Ramírez-Castañeda

Published: September 16, 2020
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372
Peer Review
Reader Comments

The success of a scientist depends on their production of scientific papers and the impact factor of the journal in which they publish. Because most major scientific journals are published in English, success is related to publishing in this language. Currently, 98% of publications in science are written in English, including researchers from English as a Foreign Language (EFL) countries. Colombia is among the countries with the lowest English proficiency in the world. Thus, understanding the disadvantages that Colombians face in publishing is crucial to reducing global inequality in science. This paper quantifies the disadvantages that result from the language hegemony in scientific publishing by examining the additional costs that communicating in English creates in the production of articles. It was identified that more than 90% of the scientific articles published by Colombian researchers are in English, and that publishing in a second language creates additional financial costs to Colombian doctoral students and results in problems with reading comprehension, writing ease and time, and anxiety. Rejection or revision of their articles because of the English grammar was reported by 43.5% of the doctoral students, and 33% elected not to attend international conferences and meetings due to the mandatory use of English in oral presentations. Finally, among the translation/editing services reviewed, the cost per article is between one-quarter and one-half of a doctoral monthly salary in Colombia. Of particular note, we identified a positive correlation between English proficiency and higher socioeconomic origin of the researcher. Overall, this study exhibits the negative consequences of hegemony of English that preserves the global gap in science. Although having a common language is important for science communication, generating multilinguistic alternatives would promote diversity while conserving a communication channel. Such an effort should come from different actors and should not fall solely on EFL researchers.

Citation: Ramírez-Castañeda V (2020) Disadvantages in preparing and publishing scientific papers caused by the dominance of the English language in science: The case of Colombian researchers in biological sciences. PLoS ONE 15(9): e0238372. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372

Editor: Emmanuel Manalo, Kyoto University, JAPAN

Received: March 11, 2020; Accepted: August 5, 2020; Published: September 16, 2020

Copyright: © 2020 Valeria Ramírez-Castañeda. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files. Including complete survey questions and results.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

At the same time that scientific articles became the measure of scientific productivity, English was imposed as the language of science, culture, and the global economy [ 1 ]. As a consequence, today 98% of publications in science are written in English, especially in the areas of natural and basic sciences, establishing English as the lingua franca of science [ 1 ]. This creates a disadvantage for scientists with English as a Foreign Language (EFL) because they must publish complex texts in a foreign language to advance their careers [ 2 ]. This disadvantage gives rise to global inequalities, especially in countries where the majority of the population receives minimal English training and bilingualism with English is very low [ 3 ]. Thus, English proficiency and socioeconomic level influence scientific success, access to knowledge and expatriation, among others.

One of the most important goals for modern society is to increase scientific production from Africa, Latin America, Middle East, and developing Asia. There is a strong correlation among English proficiency, economic development, and technological innovation in terms of number of articles, number of researchers and research and development expenditure [ 4 ]. Therefore, the prevalence of the English language in the sciences deepens the inequality in knowledge production between countries with high and low English proficiency [ 5 ], maintaining the gap in scientific production between the countries of the global south or peripheral and the countries of the global north (include the G8 countries and Australia), reducing the individual scientific contributions of EFL scientists [ 6 ]. Together these factors limit the advancement of the broad scientific communities within those countries [ 7 ].

Numerous studies have identified the use of English in academia as a source of inequality and segregation in science [ 8 – 12 ]. These inequities affect the scientific community at multiple levels. In local communities of EFL countries, scientific thinking is harmed, particularly in higher education, as learning depends on cultural attitudes derived from the native language spoken by the students, and science becomes alien to their own experiences [ 13 – 15 ]. Diversity in language promotes diversity in thinking, affecting creative process and imagination; thus, the maintenance of multilingualism in science could have an impact on scientific knowledge in itself [ 14 ].

Local journals are a refuge for communication of scientific research in languages other than English, nevertheless they are often perceived as low-quality, since the most important research work is often reserved for international journals. Therefore, readers with language barriers only have access to limited studies that the researchers consider not complete, important or broad enough to be published in an international journal. Local readers often are unaware of the most significant research being conducted in their region, which has resulted in a void in information important for political decision making, environmental policies, and conservation strategies [ 16 – 18 ]. In addition, despite the importance of local knowledge, the professional success of a scientist correlates to a greater extent with their "internationalization". This constant pressure could be influencing academic migration, known as "brain drain". English learning is one of the pressure factors of migration, as it is more difficult to achieve upper English proficiency for scientists who remain in EFL countries [ 15 , 19 , 20 ].

In periphery countries there is a strong relationship between English proficiency and socioeconomic origin, thus it is important to understand the publishing costs associated with the socioeconomic origin of researchers. Among Latin America, Colombia is the second most unequal territory: in 2018 it invested only 0.24% of its GDP (Sweden investment was 2.74% of its GDP) in science, technology and innovation [ 21 ], and it has one of the lowest levels of English proficiency among the world rankings [ 4 ]. In addition, for 2019, Colombia had only 58 researchers per million inhabitants [ 22 , 23 ]. This study aims to determine if Colombian doctoral students of natural sciences face disadvantages when publishing scientific articles in English, compared to publications in their first language, and to quantify the extra work that these scientists put into writing, reading, and presenting their work in English. In addition, this study examines the impact of socioeconomic background on English proficiency and the costs it generates when publishing.

Materials and methods

In order to determine the costs of publishing in English experienced by Colombian researchers in biological sciences, 49 to academics were surveyed. These researchers completed their PhDs or are enrolled in doctoral studies and are attempting to publish. They participated in the “Implications of language in scientific publications” survey containing 44 questions in Spanish language ( S3 and S4 Files). This survey was available for two months and shared directly to researchers and on Twitter under the hashtag “#CienciaCriolla” (used between Colombian researchers). Responses were anonymous. It must be mention that the researcher’s demography in Colombia is gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic biased. Only 30.21% of natural science researchers are women [ 24 ], researchers come primarily from big cities [ 25 ], and undergrad students come mainly from middle and high socioeconomic classes [ 26 ]. Therefore, it would not have been possible to completely control for bias in who took the survey. It must be also recognized that without specific numbers for total Colombian researchers in biological sciences, 49 may not be a representative sample size from which to draw accurate statistical inferences.

Additionally, the prices offered by prestigious scientific publishers for translation (Spanish to English) and editing of scientific texts were searched to measure the economic impact in relation to a Ph.D. student salary in Colombia [ 27 – 31 ].

Survey construction

The main survey of this work, entitled “Implications of language in scientific publications,” has 44 questions divided into three sections: basic data, writing articles in English, and learning English ( S3 and S4 Files). This survey sought for the most quantitative approach as possible, however, each question is inevitably under some degree subjectivity due to human interpretation. The responses obtained were grouped for statistical analysis ( Table 1 ).

PPT PowerPoint slide
PNG larger image
TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.t001

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed in R v.3.6.1 [ 35 ] and data were plotted with the ggplot package [ 36 ]. To compare reading and writing between English and Spanish, time investment and the level of anxiety in conferences participation, an ANOVA was performed ( aov in package ‘stats’ v3.5.3). The margin of error was calculated with 95% confidence. An Analysis of Principal Components (PCA) was performed using the variables contained in the “English proficiency” and “Socioeconomic data” groups for reducing redundancy in the variables ( PCA in package FactorMiner v2.2). The proportion of variance explained by each principal component was reviewed, and only the first principal component was retained for each dataset, as it described 51% and 62% correspondingly of the total variation. Subsequently, a linear regression was executed with the intention of comparing these two variables, English proficiency PC1 vs socioeconomic status PC1 (using lm in package ‘stats’ v3.5.3).

Editing and translation service costs

In order to visualize the prices of English editing and translation services for scientific texts, information was sought in five of the most relevant scientific publishers [ 27 – 31 ]. The information and costs of these services are public and can be obtained through the web pages of publishers. All data were taken with respect to prices for a text of 3000 words, as that is the average length of a scientific article; searches were performed in October 2018.

These publishers offer two types of editing services, a three-day service (premium) and a one-week service (standard); both prices were used for the analysis. Only the prices for Spanish—English translations were used. Finally, these prices were compared with an average doctoral salary in Colombia [ 25 ], 947 US dollars or 3 million Colombian pesos (1 US dollar = 3.166 Colombian pesos, exchange price on January 31, 2019).

A total of 49 responses were obtained from Colombian doctoral students or doctorates in biological sciences whose first language is Spanish. From Colombians’ surveyed 92% (sd = 0.272) of their published scientific articles are in English and only 4% (sd = 0.2) of their publications were in Spanish or Portuguese. In addition, 43.5% of the doctoral students stated at least one rejection or revision of their articles because of the English grammar.

With regards to time investment, there was a significant increase in the time invested writing a scientific article in English in comparison to Spanish for survey participants ( Fig 1 ). The process of writing in Spanish takes on average 114.57 (sd = 87.77) labor hours, while in English, 211.4 (sd = 182.6) labor hours. On average, these scientists spend 96.86 labor hours more writing in English. However, 81.2% of the doctoral students stated that they prefer to write directly in English in comparison to writing in Spanish and then translating into English.

An ANOVA analysis was performed to compare the variables obtaining an F-value = 7.095 and p-value = 0.00951 **. The dotted line represents labor hours per month.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g001

The need for editing or translation of scientific texts is widespread among Colombian doctoral students. Among the respondents, 93.9% have asked for favors to edit their English and 32.7% have asked for translation favors. Regarding the use of paid services, 59.2% have paid for editing their articles and 28.6% have paid for a translation.

The Premium editing total cost and the standard translation cost represent almost a half of an average doctoral monthly salary in Colombia ( Fig 2 ).

The Y axis is the price of the service in US dollars, the X axis represents the type of service, the standard or premium service corresponds to the delivery days. The dotted line represents an average Ph.D salary in Colombia ($ 947).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g002

Reading comprehension is also affected by the language of the text ( Fig 3 ). However, only 18% of respondents prefer to read scientific articles in Spanish than in English. On the other hand, neither the interpretation of figures nor the understanding of scientific terminology is affected by the reading language.

A Poisson regression was used to analyze these discrete ordinal variants (Qualification from 1 to 5). A Chi-squared test was performed between languages for each category: interpretation of figures (Z-value = 0.756, Pr (Chi) = 0.09754), understanding of scientific terminology (z-value = 0.143, Pr (Chi) = 0.4619) and reading comprehension (z-value = 1.427, Pr (Chi) = 0.01209 *).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g003

To analyze the difficulty of writing scientific articles in two languages, survey participants were also asked how they found it difficult to write different sections of articles: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions. In all cases, survey participants found the discussion was the most difficult section to write, while the methods were perceived as "easier" ( Fig 4 ). Overall, all sections except methods are perceived as significantly "more difficult" to write in English than in the participant’s first language.

A Poisson regression and Chi-square test was carried out: Introduction (z-value = 9.325, Pr (Chi) = 0.0158 *), methods (z-value = 3.046, Pr (Chi) = 0.07057), results (z-value = 4.899, Pr (Chi) = 0.04397 *), discussion (z-value = 11.732, Pr (Chi) = 0.02384 *), and conclusion (z-value = 7.688, Pr (Chi) = 0.03956 *).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g004

With regard to the use of English in oral presentations at international events and conferences, 33% of respondents stated that they have stopped attending due to the mandatory use of English in oral presentations. Additionally, greater anxiety was perceived when presenting papers orally in English than in Spanish ( Fig 5 ).

A Poisson regression was used to analyze discrete ordinal variants (Anxiety level from 1 to 5). A Chi-square test was carried out (z-value = 8,882, Pr (Chi) = 0.005419 **).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g005

In order to determine whether or not the socioeconomic origin of doctoral students affects their proficiency in English and in turn increases the costs of publishing in English, an analysis of principal components was used reduce survey data related to socioeconomic background or English proficiency into single variables because both represent more than the 50% of the whole variance. For the following analyzes: 1) English proficiency is represented by PC1_English_proficiency, which explains 51% of the variance of the survey variables that are related to this subject (see methods ), 2) the socioeconomic status is represented by PC1_Socioeconomic_status, which represents 62% of the variance of the variables of the survey that were related to this denomination (see methods ). The socioeconomic status explains 15% of the English proficiency of researchers ( Fig 6 ), which means that family and economic resources are partly translated into more proficient English.

Principle components representing socioeconomic status and English proficiency are significantly correlated (R2 = 0.1548, adjusted R2 = 0.1368, F = 8.605, p-value = 0.005168 **).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g006

Many of the factors relating to publishing in English assessed in our study represent substantial costs in time, finances, productivity, and anxiety to Colombian researchers. Interestingly, the researchers appear to prefer to read and write articles in English and the scientific terminology do not represent an additional cost for Colombian researchers. In addition, a correlation between the socioeconomic status and English proficiency was found, suggesting an intersectional effect of language in science. These results can be extrapolated to understand costs of the English hegemony to all South American researchers, that in part contributes to a global gap between native English-speaking scientists (NES) and EFL scientists. This gap makes apparent the necessity of recognizing and protecting multilingualism in science. Although having common language is important for science communication, this effort should involve different actors in the research community and not only EFL researchers’ effort.

Our results show that several factors could lead to disadvantages of EFL researchers. The time investment in writing an article in English, for example, increases on average by 96.86 labor hours. This variable was not directly measured; it is based on the subjective perception of time of each person. However, as Guardiano and collaborators [ 37 ] suggest, this extra cost affects the time spent on scientific tasks, decreasing the scientific productivity of researchers. Regarding the economic costs, between 50% and 30% of respondents have hired services to correct or translate scientific texts. To contextualize the cost of these services, a doctoral student should invest one-quarter to one-half doctoral monthly salary per article. It should be taken into account that scholarships and financing opportunities for doctoral students in the country are scarce [ 38 ], and not all of them have access to the forgivable loans provided by governmental institutions. More than 90% of researchers have asked for English-editing favors, but favors are unpaid labor that may have subsequent costs. The cost of this favor particularly leans on the weakest in the relationship, in this case, the EFL researchers because their career depends on publishing in a second language. Therefore, ensuring a permanent source of “favors” is essential for an EFL researcher that is willing to negotiate for “help” by reinforcing dependence with research groups or scientists in NES countries [ 8 ]. Romero-Olivares [ 39 ] exemplified this point by showing a reviewer comment “The authors need a native English-speaking co-author to thoroughly revise the grammar of this manuscript.”, or as Ordoñez-Matamoros et al [ 40 ] mention for Colombian researchers “co-authoring with partners located in foreign countries tend to publish their work in journals of higher impact factor and receive more citations per article than those not co-authoring with partners located overseas”.

Around 80% of the respondents prefer to read and write scientific content directly in English. However, this result could be interpretable as “obligation” rather than as "preference" because of the monolingualism of scientific readings and the pressure to publish in international journals, and therefore in English [ 37 ]. A scientist’s preference for reading and writing in English could also be due to the prevalence of English as the source for scientific words and phrases, as well as the scientist’s need to improve their own English in order to overcome these other barriers [ 41 ]. The preference of writing directly in English and not translating may be related to the higher cost of translation in comparison with the revision service ( Fig 2 ). Additionally, scientists are more likely to request a favor for English editing than for a translation [ 37 ]. Strong feelings of insecurity or an "inferiority complex" generated by scientific writing in English is one of the most important segregation factors mentioned by EFL speaking researchers and increase the need of constant editing or correction [ 8 , 10 , 42 ]. This difficulty or insecurity is augmented in the introduction and discussion sections of an article [ 12 , 43 – 46 ]. However, the “materials and methods” section in an article and understanding scientific terminology are equally understood and used in both languages by the respondents, possibly because most words and expressions in modern science are coined in English [ 47 ].

In this study, 43.5% of surveyed researchers reported suffering from rejection or revisions because of aspects related to grammar or style in English writing. Coates [ 48 ] shows that there is a greater probability of manuscript rejection by a journal if there are grammatical errors, but Lindsey and Crusan [ 49 ] found that seems to be the ethnicity of the EFL researchers but not the grammar that is influencing the text evaluation. Some critical voices disagree with the reviewers’ bias hypothesis [ 50 ]. This subject is still under controversy, and in this paper, without comparing this trend with native speakers, it is not possible to conclude that rejection because of English writing is worse for EFL researchers. To start to unravel this bias hypothesis, it will be necessary to gather primary data about correlations between the quality of the article and impressions from reviewers on the writing of EFL researchers (with and without ethnicity information). Nevertheless, understanding reviewer comments is more difficult for a EFL speaking author, since these frequently contain expressions, euphemisms, or colloquialisms that are not easily interpreted by EFL speakers [ 51 , 52 ]. For this reason, several authors call on reviewers to write comments that contribute and guide the use of English, and that does not discourage or criticize EFL authors for the lack of mastery of the language [ 39 , 42 , 53 ]. On the other hand, “not every native English speaker is competent to solve peculiarities in the grammar and style of the “good” use of academic English”, therefore, all scientists have been pressured to use editing services [ 54 ]. In other words, it is questionable to judge or reject innovations or scientific research by linguistic factors or with the excuse of linguistic factors. If a particular research is important for the scientific community, the journal or other resources must assume the cost and effort of translation or editing services, shifting the costs from individual scientists to the publishers or the community.

It was expected that additional costs for Colombian researchers would be found, since similar findings have been reported from other EFL speaking countries in the world [ 11 , 12 , 37 , 43 , 55 , 56 ]. Despite the lack of specific studies on this subject across Latin America, a few exceptions showed similar results: “Regression analysis established that variables of science writing burden contribute to a sense that English is a barrier to scientific writing” [ 11 , 12 ]. Additionally, opinion pieces from Latin-American researchers also agree about the linguistic barrier in science [ 39 , 57 ]. It is possible to assume that these results can be extrapolated to other countries bordering Colombia, given the similarity in proficiency and access to English, shared first language, low state investment in science and technology, and parallel political history with the US and Europe [ 11 , 58 , 59 ]. The results could even be extrapolated to other peripheral countries of the world, as Hanauer et al. [ 12 ] found similar disadvantages over doctoral students from two countries on different continents, Mexico, and Taiwan.

In this study we not only explore the impact that English proficiency has on doctoral students or post-doctoral researchers, but how those impacts are influenced by the researcher's socioeconomic origin. A positive relationship (R 2 = 0.14) was found between English proficiency and socioeconomic status, which is supported by previous studies [ 60 ], hence maintaining in science the patterns of social segregation at national and global levels. This low correlation could be explained by a pre-existing socioeconomic bias in Colombia where most undergrad students come from middle and high socioeconomic classes [ 25 , 26 ]. Another fact that could affect this percentage is the PCA analysis because English proficiency was calculated taking into account years living in English-speaking countries and the percentage of English spoken every day. Therefore, if the researcher lives outside Colombia and speaks English every day the score is higher.

This low correlation, could be explained by the pre-existing socioeconomically biased in Colombia where most undergrad students come from middle and high socioeconomic classes [ 25 , 26 ]. Another fact that could affect this percentage is the PCA analysis because the English proficiency was calculated taking into account years living in English-speaking countries and the percentage of English spoke every day. Therefore, if the researcher lives outside Colombia and speaks English every day the score is higher.

This study finds that the system within science that denotes English as the lingua franca reinforces inequities between scientists from NES and EFL speaking countries, as well as socioeconomic inequities within countries that primarily speak a language other than English. Globalizing science, so far, has meant offering greater advantages to English speakers at the expense of another scientists’ prosperity in the world. Science at present, due to different pressures, opts for English as the only language acceptable for scientific communication, however, some researchers still value the protection of multilingualism in science [ 44 , 61 ]. Defending multilingualism as an alternative in science would promote the reduction of international and social inequities, which would ultimately boost what Segatto [ 62 ] has called "a radically plural world". The homogenization of language in science with the excuse of “integration” is an expression of the elimination of diversity, and this can have consequences not only on the human diversity that makes science but on the diversity of scientific questions that arise [ 17 ].

The convenience of a common language in science must be recognized; however, it is essential that solutions to this problem involve scientists from a variety of backgrounds through a bilateral effort (EFL speaking scientists and NES speaking scientists) [ 10 , 16 ]. Although research is a collective process, the proposed solutions so far have leaned on individual investment, which creates barriers to performing science that more greatly affect researchers of lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Universities, publishers, translation technology, conferences, among others, must also commit to generate ideas for change [ 17 , 37 ]. One potential approach would be to increase the perceived value of publishing in regional or smaller journals regardless of impact factors (IFs), in order to reduce the pressure to publish in the most prestigious and monolingual journals [ 6 , 63 ]. Publishing in high IFs journals is a symbolic capital that delineates what should be “desired” as the maximum “goal” of any scientist. In terms of self-identification, not being able to publish in these journals increases the feeling of incompetence and insignificancy [ 64 ]. The value given to these IFs journals is supported by the idea that the most important and novel studies in academia are published there, however, an increasing number of voices have highlighted the relative value of scientific advances. For example, differential importance between countries or local communities [ 18 ], the influence of trends and use of novel technologies in determining research value (e.g. genetic or genomic data) [ 65 ], and devaluation of important but not modern topics in biology, such as natural history and taxonomy [ 66 – 68 ]. Implementing changes in this regard must be a collective effort as we need to rethink the value of scientific publishing. Elife journal is one example of reevaluating standards in a scientific journal [ 64 ]. Other ideas such as encouraging researchers either from the global south or global north who work in the global south to publish in local journals, could be also implemented.

Other alternatives include supporting journals that accept papers in several languages, promoting the inclusion of other languages in journals at the international level, incorporating revision or translation services in all fees paid to publish an article and providing these services to all scientists at no additional charge to them, establishing multilingual annual or periodic editions in renowned journals, among others [ 37 , 57 ]. Proposals for universities and conferences include aids such as English tutoring for academic purposes [ 69 ], retaining in international conferences a space for presenting in local languages [ 17 ], using methodologies such as simultaneous translation in conferences, and generating exchange spaces in other languages, among others. Finally, it would be helpful to strengthen public available technologies such as Google Translate that allow simultaneous written translation [ 17 ]. In the future, more alternatives will arise, and it will be essential to analyze and monitor them to investigate their reception at the editorial and scientific level.

Supporting information

S1 file. complete article in spanish..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s001

S2 File. Survey questions in Spanish.

Questions in Spanish (original language) of the survey “Implications of language in scientific publications”.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s002

S3 File. Survey questions in English.

Questions in English of the survey “Implications of language in scientific publications”.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s003

S4 File. Raw data.

Raw data obtained from the Survey in Spanish (original language).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s004

S5 File. Theorical framework.

Short explanation of English as lingua franca in Science, English as a foreign language in Colombia and Implication of English in Science (in English and Spanish).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s005

Acknowledgments

Thanks to the researchers who completed the surveys or helped to share the survey. To Maria Carme Junyent Figueras for being the master thesis director that leads to this paper. To Pere Francesch Rom, Henry Arenas, Prof. Francesc Bernat, Prof. David Bueno and Prof. Avel·lí for editing and making suggestions on the original manuscript in Spanish. To the developers of Google Translate for creating a free powerful tool to translate in the first place the manuscript. To Rebecca Tarvin, Danny Jackson and Tyler Douglas and for editing and commenting on the manuscript in English.

View Article
Google Scholar
4. EF Education. EF EPI 2018—EF English Proficiency Index—Europe. In: EF Education First [Internet]. 2018 [cited 9 Jan 2019]. Available: https://www.ef.com.es/epi/
5. Dei GJS, Kempf A. Anti-colonialism and education: the politics of resistance. Sense Publishers; 2006.
PubMed/NCBI
20. Ferguson G. The global spread of English, scientific communication and ESP: questions of equity, access and domain loss. Ibérica Rev la Asoc Eur Lenguas para Fines Específicos (AELFE), ISSN 1139-7241, N o 13, 2007, págs 7–38. 1999;13: 7–38.
21. Portafolio. El reto de invertir en ciencia, tecnología e innovación en Colombia. Portafolio. 2019.
22. UNESCO. “How much does your county invest in RnD?” [Internet]. 2016 [cited 26 Aug 2019]. Available: http://uis.unesco.org/apps/visualisations/research-and-development-spending/
23. La República. Investigadores con doctorado asociados a Colciencias aumentaron 21% desde 2013. 9 Jan 2019.
25. COLCIENCIAS. La Ciencia en Cifras | COLCIENCIAS [Internet]. 2019 [cited 12 May 2019]. Available: https://www.colciencias.gov.co/la-ciencia-en-cifras
27. Wiley Editing Services. Wiley editing services: Home [Internet]. [cited 22 Nov 2018]. Available: https://wileyeditingservices.com/en/
28. Elservier Author Services. Solutions for Scientific Research and Publishing Process—Webshop | Elsevier [Internet]. [cited 22 Nov 2018]. Available: https://webshop.elsevier.com/
29. SpringerNature. Author services from Springer Nature [Internet]. [cited 22 Nov 2018]. Available: https://authorservices.springernature.com/#
30. SAGE language services. English Editing and Translation | SAGE Language Services [Internet]. [cited 22 Nov 2018]. Available: https://languageservices.sagepub.com/en/
31. Cambridge University Press Author Services. Editing Services for scientific researchers by academic experts [Internet]. [cited 22 Nov 2018]. Available: http://www.cambridge.org/academic/author-services/
33. Requena M, Radl J, Salazar L. Estratificación y Clases Sociales. Informe España 2011 Una interpretación de su realidad social. Fundación. Madrid; 2011. pp. 300–366.
34. El Congreso de Colombia. Ley 142 de 1994. Ley 142 de 1994. Diario Oficial, 41.433 Diario Oficial; 1994 p. 597.
35. R Development Core Team R. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Team RDC, editor. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2011. p. 409. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74686-7
38. Fajardo de la Espriella E. Entrevista Moisés Wasserman “El nivel de inversión en ciencia en Colombia es bajísimo”: Moisés Wasserman | El Heraldo. In: El heraldo [Internet]. 2019 [cited 16 May 2019]. Available: https://www.elheraldo.co/ciencia/el-nivel-de-inversion-en-ciencia-en-colombia-es-bajisimo-moises-wasserman-625700
40. Ordóñez-Matamoros G, Cozzens SE, García-Luque M. North-South and South-South research collaboration: What differences does it make for developing countries?—The case of Colombia. 2011 Atlanta Conference on Science and Innovation Policy: Building Capacity for Scientific Innovation and Outcomes, ACSIP 2011, Proceedings. 2011. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACSIP.2011.6064479
47. Ammon U. The dominance of English as a language of science: effects on other languages and language communities. Mouton de Gruyter; 2001.
55. McConnell GD. A macro-sociolinguistic analysis of language vitality: geolinguistic profiles and scenarios of language contact in India. Presses de l’Université Laval; 1991.
62. Segato R. Discurso inaugural de Rita Segato—YouTube. Feria Internacional del Libro de Buenos Aires; 2019.
64. Schekman R. Progress and promise. eLife. NLM (Medline); 2019. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.44799

Organizing Academic Research Papers: Limitations of the Study

Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Glossary of Research Terms
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Executive Summary
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary Sources
What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Annotated Bibliography
Dealing with Nervousness
Using Visual Aids
Grading Someone Else's Paper
How to Manage Group Projects
Multiple Book Review Essay
Reviewing Collected Essays
About Informed Consent
Writing Field Notes
Writing a Policy Memo
Writing a Research Proposal
Acknowledgements

The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or influenced the application or interpretation of the results of your study. They are the constraints on generalizability and utility of findings that are the result of the ways in which you chose to design the study and/or the method used to establish internal and external validity.

Importance of...

Always acknowledge a study's limitations. It is far better for you to identify and acknowledge your study’s limitations than to have them pointed out by your professor and be graded down because you appear to have ignored them.

Keep in mind that acknowledgement of a study's limitations is an opportunity to make suggestions for further research. If you do connect your study's limitations to suggestions for further research, be sure to explain the ways in which these unanswered questions may become more focused because of your study.

Acknowledgement of a study's limitations also provides you with an opportunity to demonstrate to your professor that you have thought critically about the research problem, understood the relevant literature published about it, and correctly assessed the methods chosen for studying the problem. A key objective of the research process is not only discovering new knowledge but also to confront assumptions and explore what we don't know.

Claiming limitiations is a subjective process because you must evaluate the impact of those limitations . Don't just list key weaknesses and the magnitude of a study's limitations. To do so diminishes the validity of your research because it leaves the reader wondering whether, or in what ways, limitation(s) in your study may have impacted the findings and conclusions. Limitations require a critical, overall appraisal and interpretation of their impact. You should answer the question: do these problems with errors, methods, validity, etc. eventually matter and, if so, to what extent?

Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation . Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com.

Descriptions of Possible Limitations

Here are examples of limitations you may need to describe and to discuss how they possibly impacted your findings. Descriptions of limitations should be stated in the past tense.

Possible Methodological Limitations

Sample size -- the number of the units of analysis you use in your study is dictated by the type of research problem you are investigating. Note that, if your sample size is too small, it will be difficult to find significant relationships from the data, as statistical tests normally require a larger sample size to ensure a representative distribution of the population and to be considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred.
Lack of available and/or reliable data -- a lack of data or of reliable data will likely require you to limit the scope of your analysis, the size of your sample, or it can be a significant obstacle in finding a trend and a meaningful relationship. You need to not only describe these limitations but to offer reasons why you believe data is missing or is unreliable. However, don’t just throw up your hands in frustration; use this as an opportunity to describe the need for future research.
Lack of prior research studies on the topic -- citing prior research studies forms the basis of your literature review and helps lay a foundation for understanding the research problem you are investigating. Depending on the currency or scope of your research topic, there may be little, if any, prior research on your topic. Before assuming this to be true, consult with a librarian! In cases when a librarian has confirmed that there is a lack of prior research, you may be required to develop an entirely new research typology [for example, using an exploratory rather than an explanatory research design]. Note that this limitation can serve as an important opportunity to describe the need for further research.
Measure used to collect the data -- sometimes it is the case that, after completing your interpretation of the findings, you discover that the way in which you gathered data inhibited your ability to conduct a thorough analysis of the results. For example, you regret not including a specific question in a survey that, in retrospect, could have helped address a particular issue that emerged later in the study. Acknowledge the deficiency by stating a need in future research to revise the specific method for gathering data.
Self-reported data -- whether you are relying on pre-existing self-reported data or you are conducting a qualitative research study and gathering the data yourself, self-reported data is limited by the fact that it rarely can be independently verified. In other words, you have to take what people say, whether in interviews, focus groups, or on questionnaires, at face value. However, self-reported data contain several potential sources of bias that should be noted as limitations: (1) selective memory (remembering or not remembering experiences or events that occurred at some point in the past); (2) telescoping [recalling events that occurred at one time as if they occurred at another time]; (3) attribution [the act of attributing positive events and outcomes to one's own agency but attributing negative events and outcomes to external forces]; and, (4) exaggeration [the act of representing outcomes or embellishing events as more significant than is actually suggested from other data].

Possible Limitations of the Researcher

Access -- if your study depends on having access to people, organizations, or documents and, for whatever reason, access is denied or otherwise limited, the reasons for this need to be described.
Longitudinal effects -- unlike your professor, who can literally devote years [even a lifetime] to studying a single research problem, the time available to investigate a research problem and to measure change or stability within a sample is constrained by the due date of your assignment. Be sure to choose a topic that does not require an excessive amount of time to complete the literature review, apply the methodology, and gather and interpret the results. If you're unsure, talk to your professor.
Cultural and other type of bias -- we all have biases, whether we are conscience of them or not. Bias is when a person, place, or thing is viewed or shown in a consistently inaccurate way. It is usually negative, though one can have a positive bias as well. When proof-reading your paper, be especially critical in reviewing how you have stated a problem, selected the data to be studied, what may have been omitted, the manner in which you have ordered events, people, or places and how you have chosen to represent a person, place, or thing, to name a phenomenon, or to use possible words with a positive or negative connotation. Note that if you detect bias in prior research, it must be acknowledged and you should explain what measures were taken to avoid perpetuating bias.
Fluency in a language -- if your research focuses on measuring the perceived value of after-school tutoring among Mexican-American ESL [English as a Second Language] students, for example, and you are not fluent in Spanish, you are limited in being able to read and interpret Spanish language research studies on the topic. This deficiency should be acknowledged.

Structure and Writing Style

If you determine that your study is seriously flawed due to important limitations , such as, an inability to acquire critical data, consider reframing it as a pilot study intended to lay the groundwork for a more complete research study in the future. Be sure, though, to specifically explain the ways that these flaws can be successfully overcome in later studies.

When discussing the limitations of your research, be sure to:

Describe each limitation in detailed but concise terms;
Explain why each limitation exists;
Provide the reasons why each limitation could not be overcome using the method(s) chosen to gather the data [cite to other studies that had similar problems when possible];
Assess the impact of each limitation in relation to the overall findings and conclusions of your study; and,
If appropriate, describe how these limitations could point to the need for further research.

Remember that the method you chose may be the source of a significant limitation that has emerged during your interpretation of the results [for example, you didn't ask a particular question in a survey that you later wish you had]. If this is the case, don't panic. Acknowledge it, and explain how applying a different or more robust methodology might address the research problem more effectively in any future study. A underlying goal of scholarly research is not only to prove what works, but to demonstrate what doesn't work or what needs further clarification.

Brutus, Stéphane et al. Self-Reported Limitations and Future Directions in Scholarly Reports: Analysis and Recommendations. Journal of Management 39 (January 2013): 48-75; Ioannidis, John P.A. Limitations are not Properly Acknowledged in the Scientific Literature. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 60 (2007): 324-329; Pasek, Josh. Writing the Empirical Social Science Research Paper: A Guide for the Perplexed . January 24, 2012. Academia.edu; Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation . Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Writing Tip

Don't Inflate the Importance of Your Findings! After all the hard work and long hours devoted to writing your research paper, it is easy to get carried away with attributing unwarranted importance to what you’ve done. We all want our academic work to be viewed as excellent and worthy of a good grade, but it is important that you understand and openly acknowledge the limitiations of your study. Inflating of the importance of your study's findings in an attempt hide its flaws is a big turn off to your readers. A measure of humility goes a long way!

Another Writing Tip

Negative Results are Not a Limitation!

Negative evidence refers to findings that unexpectedly challenge rather than support your hypothesis. If you didn't get the results you anticipated, it may mean your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be reformulated, or, perhaps you have stumbled onto something unexpected that warrants further study. Moreover, the absence of an effect may be very telling in many situations, particularly in experimental research designs. In any case, your results may be of importance to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not fall into the trap of thinking that results contrary to what you expected is a limitation to your study. If you carried out the research well, they are simply your results and only require additional interpretation.

Yet Another Writing Tip

A Note about Sample Size Limitations in Qualitative Research

Sample sizes are typically smaller in qualitative research because, as the study goes on, acquiring more data does not necessarily lead to more information. This is because one occurrence of a piece of data, or a code, is all that is necessary to ensure that it becomes part of the analysis framework. However, it remains true that sample sizes that are too small cannot adequately support claims of having achieved valid conclusions and sample sizes that are too large do not permit the deep, naturalistic, and inductive analysis that defines qualitative inquiry. Determining adequate sample size in qualitative research is ultimately a matter of judgment and experience in evaluating the quality of the information collected against the uses to which it will be applied and the particular research method and purposeful sampling strategy employed. If the sample size is found to be a limitation, it may reflect your judgement about the methodological technique chosen [e.g., single life history study versus focus group interviews] rather than the number of respondents used.

Huberman, A. Michael and Matthew B. Miles. Data Management and Analysis Methods. In Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 428-444.

<< Previous: 8. The Discussion
Next: 9. The Conclusion >>
Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
URL: https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803
QuickSearch
Library Catalog
Databases A-Z
Publication Finder
Course Reserves
Citation Linker
Digital Commons
Our Website

Research Support

Ask a Librarian
Appointments
Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
Research Guides
Databases by Subject
Citation Help

Using the Library

Reserve a Group Study Room
Renew Books
Honors Study Rooms
Off-Campus Access
Library Policies
Library Technology

User Information

Grad Students
Online Students
COVID-19 Updates
Staff Directory
News & Announcements
Library Newsletter

My Accounts

Interlibrary Loan
Staff Site Login

FIND US ON

Writing a Research Paper

This page lists some of the stages involved in writing a library-based research paper.

Although this list suggests that there is a simple, linear process to writing such a paper, the actual process of writing a research paper is often a messy and recursive one, so please use this outline as a flexible guide.

Discovering, Narrowing, and Focusing a Researchable Topic

Try to find a topic that truly interests you
Try writing your way to a topic
Talk with your course instructor and classmates about your topic
Pose your topic as a question to be answered or a problem to be solved

Finding, Selecting, and Reading Sources

You will need to look at the following types of sources:

library catalog, periodical indexes, bibliographies, suggestions from your instructor
primary vs. secondary sources
journals, books, other documents

Grouping, Sequencing, and Documenting Information

The following systems will help keep you organized:

a system for noting sources on bibliography cards
a system for organizing material according to its relative importance
a system for taking notes

Writing an Outline and a Prospectus for Yourself

Consider the following questions:

What is the topic?
Why is it significant?
What background material is relevant?
What is my thesis or purpose statement?
What organizational plan will best support my purpose?

Writing the Introduction

In the introduction you will need to do the following things:

present relevant background or contextual material
define terms or concepts when necessary
explain the focus of the paper and your specific purpose
reveal your plan of organization

Writing the Body

Use your outline and prospectus as flexible guides
Build your essay around points you want to make (i.e., don’t let your sources organize your paper)
Integrate your sources into your discussion
Summarize, analyze, explain, and evaluate published work rather than merely reporting it
Move up and down the “ladder of abstraction” from generalization to varying levels of detail back to generalization

Writing the Conclusion

If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
If prior to your conclusion you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to add your points up, to explain their significance.
Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction.
Perhaps suggest what about this topic needs further research.

Revising the Final Draft

Check overall organization : logical flow of introduction, coherence and depth of discussion in body, effectiveness of conclusion.
Paragraph level concerns : topic sentences, sequence of ideas within paragraphs, use of details to support generalizations, summary sentences where necessary, use of transitions within and between paragraphs.
Sentence level concerns: sentence structure, word choices, punctuation, spelling.
Documentation: consistent use of one system, citation of all material not considered common knowledge, appropriate use of endnotes or footnotes, accuracy of list of works cited.

Academic and Professional Writing

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Analysis Papers

Reading Poetry

A Short Guide to Close Reading for Literary Analysis

Using Literary Quotations

Play Reviews

Writing a Rhetorical Précis to Analyze Nonfiction Texts

Incorporating Interview Data

Grant Proposals

Planning and Writing a Grant Proposal: The Basics

Additional Resources for Grants and Proposal Writing

Job Materials and Application Essays

Writing Personal Statements for Ph.D. Programs

Before you begin: useful tips for writing your essay
Guided brainstorming exercises
Get more help with your essay
Frequently Asked Questions

Resume Writing Tips

CV Writing Tips

Cover Letters

Business Letters

Proposals and Dissertations

Resources for Proposal Writers

Resources for Dissertators

Research Papers

Planning and Writing Research Papers

Quoting and Paraphrasing

Writing Annotated Bibliographies

Creating Poster Presentations

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Thank-You Notes

Advice for Students Writing Thank-You Notes to Donors

Reading for a Review

Critical Reviews

Writing a Review of Literature

Scientific Reports

Scientific Report Format

Sample Lab Assignment

Writing for the Web

Writing an Effective Blog Post

Writing for Social Media: A Guide for Academics

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

Advanced Search
Journal List
J Korean Med Sci
v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Quantitative research questions	Quantitative research hypotheses
Descriptive research questions	Simple hypothesis
Comparative research questions	Complex hypothesis
Relationship research questions	Directional hypothesis
	Non-directional hypothesis
	Associative hypothesis
	Causal hypothesis
	Null hypothesis
	Alternative hypothesis
	Working hypothesis
	Statistical hypothesis
	Logical hypothesis
	Hypothesis-testing
Qualitative research questions	Qualitative research hypotheses
Contextual research questions	Hypothesis-generating
Descriptive research questions
Evaluation research questions
Explanatory research questions
Exploratory research questions
Generative research questions
Ideological research questions
Ethnographic research questions
Phenomenological research questions
Grounded theory questions
Qualitative case study questions

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Quantitative research questions
Descriptive research question
	- Measures responses of subjects to variables
	- Presents variables to measure, analyze, or assess
	What is the proportion of resident doctors in the hospital who have mastered ultrasonography (response of subjects to a variable) as a diagnostic technique in their clinical training?
Comparative research question
	- Clarifies difference between one group with outcome variable and another group without outcome variable
	Is there a difference in the reduction of lung metastasis in osteosarcoma patients who received the vitamin D adjunctive therapy (group with outcome variable) compared with osteosarcoma patients who did not receive the vitamin D adjunctive therapy (group without outcome variable)?
	- Compares the effects of variables
	How does the vitamin D analogue 22-Oxacalcitriol (variable 1) mimic the antiproliferative activity of 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (variable 2) in osteosarcoma cells?
Relationship research question
	- Defines trends, association, relationships, or interactions between dependent variable and independent variable
	Is there a relationship between the number of medical student suicide (dependent variable) and the level of medical student stress (independent variable) in Japan during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic?

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Quantitative research hypotheses
Simple hypothesis
	- Predicts relationship between single dependent variable and single independent variable
	If the dose of the new medication (single independent variable) is high, blood pressure (single dependent variable) is lowered.
Complex hypothesis
	- Foretells relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables
	The higher the use of anticancer drugs, radiation therapy, and adjunctive agents (3 independent variables), the higher would be the survival rate (1 dependent variable).
Directional hypothesis
	- Identifies study direction based on theory towards particular outcome to clarify relationship between variables
	Privately funded research projects will have a larger international scope (study direction) than publicly funded research projects.
Non-directional hypothesis
	- Nature of relationship between two variables or exact study direction is not identified
	- Does not involve a theory
	Women and men are different in terms of helpfulness. (Exact study direction is not identified)
Associative hypothesis
	- Describes variable interdependency
	- Change in one variable causes change in another variable
	A larger number of people vaccinated against COVID-19 in the region (change in independent variable) will reduce the region’s incidence of COVID-19 infection (change in dependent variable).
Causal hypothesis
	- An effect on dependent variable is predicted from manipulation of independent variable
	A change into a high-fiber diet (independent variable) will reduce the blood sugar level (dependent variable) of the patient.
Null hypothesis
	- A negative statement indicating no relationship or difference between 2 variables
	There is no significant difference in the severity of pulmonary metastases between the new drug (variable 1) and the current drug (variable 2).
Alternative hypothesis
	- Following a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis predicts a relationship between 2 study variables
	The new drug (variable 1) is better on average in reducing the level of pain from pulmonary metastasis than the current drug (variable 2).
Working hypothesis
	- A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
	Dairy cows fed with concentrates of different formulations will produce different amounts of milk.
Statistical hypothesis
	- Assumption about the value of population parameter or relationship among several population characteristics
	- Validity tested by a statistical experiment or analysis
	The mean recovery rate from COVID-19 infection (value of population parameter) is not significantly different between population 1 and population 2.
	There is a positive correlation between the level of stress at the workplace and the number of suicides (population characteristics) among working people in Japan.
Logical hypothesis
	- Offers or proposes an explanation with limited or no extensive evidence
	If healthcare workers provide more educational programs about contraception methods, the number of adolescent pregnancies will be less.
Hypothesis-testing (Quantitative hypothesis-testing research)
	- Quantitative research uses deductive reasoning.
	- This involves the formation of a hypothesis, collection of data in the investigation of the problem, analysis and use of the data from the investigation, and drawing of conclusions to validate or nullify the hypotheses.

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative research questions
Contextual research question
	- Ask the nature of what already exists
	- Individuals or groups function to further clarify and understand the natural context of real-world problems
	What are the experiences of nurses working night shifts in healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic? (natural context of real-world problems)
Descriptive research question
	- Aims to describe a phenomenon
	What are the different forms of disrespect and abuse (phenomenon) experienced by Tanzanian women when giving birth in healthcare facilities?
Evaluation research question
	- Examines the effectiveness of existing practice or accepted frameworks
	How effective are decision aids (effectiveness of existing practice) in helping decide whether to give birth at home or in a healthcare facility?
Explanatory research question
	- Clarifies a previously studied phenomenon and explains why it occurs
	Why is there an increase in teenage pregnancy (phenomenon) in Tanzania?
Exploratory research question
	- Explores areas that have not been fully investigated to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
	What factors affect the mental health of medical students (areas that have not yet been fully investigated) during the COVID-19 pandemic?
Generative research question
	- Develops an in-depth understanding of people’s behavior by asking ‘how would’ or ‘what if’ to identify problems and find solutions
	How would the extensive research experience of the behavior of new staff impact the success of the novel drug initiative?
Ideological research question
	- Aims to advance specific ideas or ideologies of a position
	Are Japanese nurses who volunteer in remote African hospitals able to promote humanized care of patients (specific ideas or ideologies) in the areas of safe patient environment, respect of patient privacy, and provision of accurate information related to health and care?
Ethnographic research question
	- Clarifies peoples’ nature, activities, their interactions, and the outcomes of their actions in specific settings
	What are the demographic characteristics, rehabilitative treatments, community interactions, and disease outcomes (nature, activities, their interactions, and the outcomes) of people in China who are suffering from pneumoconiosis?
Phenomenological research question
	- Knows more about the phenomena that have impacted an individual
	What are the lived experiences of parents who have been living with and caring for children with a diagnosis of autism? (phenomena that have impacted an individual)
Grounded theory question
	- Focuses on social processes asking about what happens and how people interact, or uncovering social relationships and behaviors of groups
	What are the problems that pregnant adolescents face in terms of social and cultural norms (social processes), and how can these be addressed?
Qualitative case study question
	- Assesses a phenomenon using different sources of data to answer “why” and “how” questions
	- Considers how the phenomenon is influenced by its contextual situation.
	How does quitting work and assuming the role of a full-time mother (phenomenon assessed) change the lives of women in Japan?

Qualitative research hypotheses
Hypothesis-generating (Qualitative hypothesis-generating research)
	- Qualitative research uses inductive reasoning.
	- This involves data collection from study participants or the literature regarding a phenomenon of interest, using the collected data to develop a formal hypothesis, and using the formal hypothesis as a framework for testing the hypothesis.
	- Qualitative exploratory studies explore areas deeper, clarifying subjective experience and allowing formulation of a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach.

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

Variables	Unclear and weak statement (Statement 1)	Clear and good statement (Statement 2)	Points to avoid
Research question	Which is more effective between smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion?	“Moreover, regarding smoke moxibustion versus smokeless moxibustion, it remains unclear which is more effective, safe, and acceptable to pregnant women, and whether there is any difference in the amount of heat generated.”	1) Vague and unfocused questions
			2) Closed questions simply answerable by yes or no
			3) Questions requiring a simple choice
Hypothesis	The smoke moxibustion group will have higher cephalic presentation.	“Hypothesis 1. The smoke moxibustion stick group (SM group) and smokeless moxibustion stick group (-SLM group) will have higher rates of cephalic presentation after treatment than the control group.	1) Unverifiable hypotheses
		Hypothesis 2. The SM group and SLM group will have higher rates of cephalic presentation at birth than the control group.	2) Incompletely stated groups of comparison
		Hypothesis 3. There will be no significant differences in the well-being of the mother and child among the three groups in terms of the following outcomes: premature birth, premature rupture of membranes (PROM) at < 37 weeks, Apgar score < 7 at 5 min, umbilical cord blood pH < 7.1, admission to neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and intrauterine fetal death.”	3) Insufficiently described variables or outcomes
Research objective	To determine which is more effective between smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion.	“The specific aims of this pilot study were (a) to compare the effects of smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion treatments with the control group as a possible supplement to ECV for converting breech presentation to cephalic presentation and increasing adherence to the newly obtained cephalic position, and (b) to assess the effects of these treatments on the well-being of the mother and child.”	1) Poor understanding of the research question and hypotheses
Research objective			2) Insufficient description of population, variables, or study outcomes

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

Variables	Unclear and weak statement (Statement 1)	Clear and good statement (Statement 2)	Points to avoid
Research question	Does disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur in childbirth in Tanzania?	How does disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur and what are the types of physical and psychological abuses observed in midwives’ actual care during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania?	1) Ambiguous or oversimplistic questions
Research question			2) Questions unverifiable by data collection and analysis
Hypothesis	Disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur in childbirth in Tanzania.	Hypothesis 1: Several types of physical and psychological abuse by midwives in actual care occur during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania.	1) Statements simply expressing facts
Hypothesis	Disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur in childbirth in Tanzania.	Hypothesis 2: Weak nursing and midwifery management contribute to the D&A of women during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania.	2) Insufficiently described concepts or variables
Research objective	To describe disrespect and abuse (D&A) in childbirth in Tanzania.	“This study aimed to describe from actual observations the respectful and disrespectful care received by women from midwives during their labor period in two hospitals in urban Tanzania.”	1) Statements unrelated to the research question and hypotheses
Research objective			2) Unattainable or unexplorable objectives

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is jkms-37-e121-g001.jpg

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is jkms-37-e121-g002.jpg

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
- Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
“BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
“Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
- Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
“BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
- Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
“Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
“Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
- A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
“As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
“In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
- Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
“We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
“Conclusion
Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
“We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
- An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
“Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
“Statistical Analysis
( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
“Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
“ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
“This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
“We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
“ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
“In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
“This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
“ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Research Process
Manuscript Preparation
Manuscript Review
Publication Process
Publication Recognition
Language Editing Services
Translation Services

To Err is Not Human: The Dangers of AI-assisted Academic Writing

4 minute read
18.9K views

Table of Contents

Artificial intelligence (AI)-powered writing tools are becoming increasingly popular among researchers. AI tools can improve several important aspects of writing, such as readability, grammar, spelling, and tone, providing authors with a competitive edge when drafting grant proposals and academic articles. In recent years, there has also been an increase in the use of “Generative AI,” which can produce write-ups that appear to have been drafted by humans. However, despite AI’s enormous potential in academic writing, there are several significant pitfalls in its use.

Inauthentic Sources

AI tools are built on rapidly evolving deep learning algorithms that fetch answers to your queries or “prompts”. Owing to advances in computation, and the rapid growth in the amount of data that algorithms can access, these tools are often accurate in their answers. However, at times AI can make mistakes and give you inaccurate data. What is worrying is, this data may look authentic at a first glance and increase the risk of getting incorporated in research articles. Failing to scrutinise information and data sources provided by AI can therefore impair scientific credibility and trigger a chain of falsification in the research community.

Why Human Supervision Is Advisable

AI-generated output is frequently generic, matched with synonyms, and may not be able to critically analyse the scientific context when writing manuscripts.

Consider the following example, where the AI ‘ChatGPT’ was used to generate a one-line summary of the following sentences:

The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has an organelle，the apicoplast, which contains its own genome.

This organelle is significant in the Plasmodium’s lifecycle, but we are yet to thoroughly understand the regulation of apicoplast gene expression.

The following is a human-generated one-line summary:

The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has an organelle that is significant in its lifecycle called an apicoplast, which contains its own genome —but the regulation of apicoplast gene expression is poorly understood.

On the other hand, the AI-generated summary is as follows:

The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has an apicoplast, an organelle with its own genome , significant in its life cycle , yet its gene expression regulation remains poorly understood.

In the AI-generated text, it is not clear what ‘its’ refers to in each instance of because it could either refer to Plasmodium falciparum or it could refer to the apicoplast. Moreover, while the expression ‘gene expression regulation’ is technically correct, the sentence structure and writing style is superior if you write ‘regulation of gene expression’.

This is why we need humans to supervise AI bots and verify the accuracy of all information submitted for publication. We request that authors who have used AI or AI-assisted tools include a declaration statement at the end of their manuscript where they specify the tool and the reason for using it.

An example of AI-generated text using the software ChatGPT

Data Leakage

AI is now an integral part of scientific research. From data collection to manuscript preparation, AI provides ways to improve and expedite every step of the research process. However, to function, AI needs access to data and adequate computing power to process them efficiently. One way in which many AI applications meet these requirements is by having large, distributed databases and dividing the labour among several individual computers. These AI applications need to stay connected to the internet to work. Therefore, researchers who upload academic content from unpublished papers to platforms like ChatGPT are at a higher risk of data leakage and privacy violations.

To address this issue, governments in various countries have decided to implement policies. Italy, for example, banned ChatGPT in April 2023 due to privacy concerns, but later reinstated the AI app with a new privacy policy that verifies users’ ages. The European Union is also developing a new policy that will regulate AI platforms such as ChatGPT and Google Bard. The US Congress and India’s IT department have also hinted at developing new frameworks for AI compliance with safety standards.

Elsevier also strives to minimize the risk of data leakage. Our policy on the use of AI and AI-assisted technologies in scientific writing aims to provide authors, readers, reviewers, editors, and contributors with more transparency and guidance.

Legal and Ethical Restrictions on Use

Most publishers allow the use of AI writing tools during manuscript preparation as long as it is used to improve, and not wholly generate, sentences. Elsevier’s policy also allows authors to use AI tools to improve the readability and language of their submissions but emphasises that the generated output is ultimately reviewed by the author(s) to avoid mistakes. Moreover, we require authors to keep us informed and acknowledge the use of AI-assisted writing during the submission process. Information regarding this is included in the published article in the interest of transparency. Visit this resource for more details.

We must know that AI programs are not considered authors of a manuscript, and since they do not receive the credit, they also do not bear responsibility. Authors are solely responsible for any mistakes in AI-assisted writing that find their way into manuscripts.

AI-assisted writing is here to stay. While it is advisable to familiarise oneself with AI writing technology, it is equally advisable to be aware of its risks and limitations.

Need safe and reliable writing assistance? Experts at Elsevier Author Services can assist you in every step of the manuscript preparation process. Contact us for a full list of services and any additional information.

Publishing Biomedical Research: What Rules Should You Follow?

Path to An Impactful Paper: Common Manuscript Writing Patterns and Structure

Descriptive Research Design and Its Myriad Uses

Doctor doing a Biomedical Research Paper

Five Common Mistakes to Avoid When Writing a Biomedical Research Paper

Making Technical Writing in Environmental Engineering Accessible

When Data Speak, Listen: Importance of Data Collection and Analysis Methods

Choosing the Right Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers

Why is data validation important in research?

Writing a good review article

Scholarly Sources: What are They and Where can You Find Them?

Input your search keywords and press Enter.

Online Students

For All Online Programs

International Students

On Campus, need or have Visa

Campus Students

For All Campus Programs

What a Thesis Paper is and How to Write One

A student sitting at her laptop working on her college thesis paper.

From choosing a topic and conducting research to crafting a strong argument, writing a thesis paper can be a rewarding experience.

It can also be a challenging experience. If you've never written a thesis paper before, you may not know where to start. You may not even be sure exactly what a thesis paper is. But don't worry; the right support and resources can help you navigate this writing process.

What is a Thesis Paper?

A thesis paper is a type of academic essay that you might write as a graduation requirement for certain bachelor's, master's or honors programs. Thesis papers present your own original research or analysis on a specific topic related to your field.

“In some ways, a thesis paper can look a lot like a novella,” said Shana Chartier , director of information literacy at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU). “It’s too short to be a full-length novel, but with the standard size of 40-60 pages (for a bachelor’s) and 60-100 pages (for a master’s), it is a robust exploration of a topic, explaining one’s understanding of a topic based on personal research.”

Chartier has worked in academia for over 13 years and at SNHU for nearly eight. In her role as an instructor and director, Chartier has helped to guide students through the writing process, like editing and providing resources.

Chartier has written and published academic papers such as "Augmented Reality Gamifies the Library: A Ride Through the Technological Frontier" and "Going Beyond the One-Shot: Spiraling Information Literacy Across Four Years." Both of these academic papers required Chartier to have hands-on experience with the subject matter. Like a thesis paper, they also involved hypothesizing and doing original research to come to a conclusion.

“When writing a thesis paper, the importance of staying organized cannot be overstated,” said Chartier. “Mapping out each step of the way, making firm and soft deadlines... and having other pairs of eyes on your work to ensure academic accuracy and clean editing are crucial to writing a successful paper.”

How Do I Choose a Topic For My Thesis Paper?

What your thesis paper is for will determine some of the specific requirements and steps you might take, but the first step is usually the same: Choosing a topic.

“Choosing a topic can be daunting," said Rochelle Attari , a peer tutor at SNHU. "But if (you) stick with a subject (you're) interested in... choosing a topic is much more manageable.”

Similar to a thesis, Attari recently finished the capstone for her bachelor’s in psychology . Her bachelor’s concentration is in forensics, and her capstone focused on the topic of using a combined therapy model for inmates who experience substance abuse issues to reduce recidivism.

“The hardest part was deciding what I wanted to focus on,” Attari said. “But once I nailed down my topic, each milestone was more straightforward.”

In her own writing experience, Attari said brainstorming was an important step when choosing her topic. She recommends writing down different ideas on a piece of paper and doing some preliminary research on what’s already been written on your topic.

By doing this exercise, you can narrow or broaden your ideas until you’ve found a topic you’re excited about. " Brainstorming is essential when writing a paper and is not a last-minute activity,” Attari said.

How Do I Structure My Thesis Paper?

Thesis papers tend to have a standard format with common sections as the building blocks.

While the structure Attari describes below will work for many theses, it’s important to double-check with your program to see if there are any specific requirements. Writing a thesis for a Master of Fine Arts, for example, might actually look more like a fiction novel.

According to Attari, a thesis paper is often structured with the following major sections:

Introduction

Literature review
Methods, results

Now, let’s take a closer look at what each different section should include.

Your introduction is your opportunity to present the topic of your thesis paper. In this section, you can explain why that topic is important. The introduction is also the place to include your thesis statement, which shows your stance in the paper.

Attari said that writing an introduction can be tricky, especially when you're trying to capture your reader’s attention and state your argument.

“I have found that starting with a statement of truth about a topic that pertains to an issue I am writing about typically does the trick,” Attari said. She demonstrated this advice in an example introduction she wrote for a paper on the effects of daylight in Alaska:

In the continental United States, we can always count on the sun rising and setting around the same time each day, but in Alaska, during certain times of the year, the sun rises and does not set for weeks. Research has shown that the sun provides vitamin D and is an essential part of our health, but little is known about how daylight twenty-four hours a day affects the circadian rhythm and sleep.

In the example Attari wrote, she introduces the topic and informs the reader what the paper will cover. Somewhere in her intro, she said she would also include her thesis statement, which might be:

Twenty-four hours of daylight over an extended period does not affect sleep patterns in humans and is not the cause of daytime fatigue in northern Alaska .

Literature Review

In the literature review, you'll look at what information is already out there about your topic. “This is where scholarly articles about your topic are essential,” said Attari. “These articles will help you find the gap in research that you have identified and will also support your thesis statement."

Telling your reader what research has already been done will help them see how your research fits into the larger conversation. Most university libraries offer databases of scholarly/peer-reviewed articles that can be helpful in your search.

In the methods section of your thesis paper, you get to explain how you learned what you learned. This might include what experiment you conducted as a part of your independent research.

“For instance,” Attari said, “if you are a psychology major and have identified a gap in research on which therapies are effective for anxiety, your methods section would consist of the number of participants, the type of experiment and any other particulars you would use for that experiment.”

In this section, you'll explain the results of your study. For example, building on the psychology example Attari outlined, you might share self-reported anxiety levels for participants trying different kinds of therapies. To help you communicate your results clearly, you might include data, charts, tables or other visualizations.

The discussion section of your thesis paper is where you will analyze and interpret the results you presented in the previous section. This is where you can discuss what your findings really mean or compare them to the research you found in your literature review.

The discussion section is your chance to show why the data you collected matters and how it fits into bigger conversations in your field.

The conclusion of your thesis paper is your opportunity to sum up your argument and leave your reader thinking about why your research matters.

Attari breaks the conclusion down into simple parts. “You restate the original issue and thesis statement, explain the experiment's results and discuss possible next steps for further research,” she said.

Find Your Program

Resources to help write your thesis paper.

While your thesis paper may be based on your independent research, writing it doesn’t have to be a solitary process. Asking for help and using the resources that are available to you can make the process easier.

If you're writing a thesis paper, some resources Chartier encourages you to use are:

Citation Handbooks: An online citation guide or handbook can help you ensure your citations are correct. APA , MLA and Chicago styles have all published their own guides.
Citation Generators: There are many citation generator tools that help you to create citations. Some — like RefWorks — even let you directly import citations from library databases as you research.
Your Library's Website: Many academic and public libraries allow patrons to access resources like databases or FAQs. Some FAQs at the SNHU library that might be helpful in your thesis writing process include “ How do I read a scholarly article? ” or “ What is a research question and how do I develop one? ”

It can also be helpful to check out what coaching or tutoring options are available through your school. At SNHU, for example, the Academic Support Center offers writing and grammar workshops , and students can access 24/7 tutoring and 1:1 sessions with peer tutors, like Attari.

"Students can even submit their papers and receive written feedback... like revisions and editing suggestions," she said.

If you are writing a thesis paper, there are many resources available to you. It's a long paper, but with the right mindset and support, you can successfully navigate the process.

“Pace yourself,” said Chartier. “This is a marathon, not a sprint. Setting smaller goals to get to the big finish line can make the process seem less daunting, and remember to be proud of yourself and celebrate your accomplishment once you’re done. Writing a thesis is no small task, and it’s important work for the scholarly community.”

A degree can change your life. Choose your program from 200+ SNHU degrees that can take you where you want to go.

Meg Palmer ’18 is a writer and scholar by trade who loves reading, riding her bike and singing in a barbershop quartet. She earned her bachelor’s degree in English, language and literature at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU) and her master’s degree in writing, rhetoric and discourse at DePaul University (’20). While attending SNHU, she served as the editor-in-chief of the campus student newspaper, The Penmen Press, where she deepened her passion for writing. Meg is an adjunct professor at Johnson and Wales University, where she teaches first year writing, honors composition, and public speaking. Connect with her on LinkedIn .

Explore more content like this article

An icon of a college diploma wrapped in blue and yellow ribbon.

Dual Degree vs. Double Major: What's the Difference?

A person with a laptop and notebook, considering the difference between a bachelor's degree and a master's degree.

What is the Difference Between Bachelor’s and Master’s Degrees?

A student holding a stack of books in a library working on academic referencing for their research paper.

Academic Referencing: How to Cite a Research Paper

About southern new hampshire university.

Two students walking in front of Monadnock Hall

SNHU is a nonprofit, accredited university with a mission to make high-quality education more accessible and affordable for everyone.

Founded in 1932, and online since 1995, we’ve helped countless students reach their goals with flexible, career-focused programs . Our 300-acre campus in Manchester, NH is home to over 3,000 students, and we serve over 135,000 students online. Visit our about SNHU page to learn more about our mission, accreditations, leadership team, national recognitions and awards.

Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages Essay

To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
As a template for you assignment

Even though some educators see researching as a compulsory task to obtain certain status in academia, it is important for the development of the entire society. Researchers identify issues to be addressed and provide effective solutions to the problems outlined. Conducting research is a certain kind of participation in the ongoing debate on important issues. Admittedly, debate and discussion lead to solutions and ideas which improve practice. Nonetheless, conducting research is also associated with certain limitations. It is possible to focus on three major advantages and three disadvantages of researching to reveal its importance for the development of any area of human activity, especially when it comes to education.

One of the major advantages of conducting research is the chance to participate in a broader discussion of particular issues. With the help of research, people accumulate knowledge and each researcher adds to his/her knowledge (Creswell, 2008). Every educator researches specific issues he/she encounters. It is necessary to note that research is based on data. Therefore, educators do not only share their opinions, but they provide specific data which justify their conclusions or refute some theories. Accumulation of knowledge is of paramount importance for educators as it helps them develop efficient tools to address existing issues and even foresee upcoming problems.

Another advantage of conducting research is that it provides practitioners with particular tools to address their issues. Creswell (2008, p. 4) stresses that research “suggests improvements for practice”. Therefore, educators (as well as practitioners in other fields) may find many effective solutions to their problems or develop new tools to address issues. Admittedly, this positively affects the development of every field as sharing particular tools helps practitioners develop their strategies to address a variety of issues (McKay, 2007). Thus, Koshy (2005) notes that the use of action research enables practitioners (especially novice educators) to outline an issue and develop specific strategies to address it. In other words, educators outline problems and solutions applicable in particular situations.

Another important advantage of conducting research is that it can be generalized and transformed into policies that can be applicable and beneficial in a variety of situations. Creswell (2008) claims that the ongoing debate and several tools provided by practitioners enable policymakers to come up with appropriate policies which will positively affect the entire system. Therefore, it is possible to note that conducting research helps a practitioner be aware of the ongoing debate on issues. It also helps educators develop particular tools to address every issue. Finally, it helps practitioners bring the issue to the fore and help policymakers work out effective strategies which may make a difference.

As has been mentioned above, conducting research is also associated with disadvantages. It is necessary to note that the disadvantages do not belittle the importance of conducting research. However, it is necessary to understand these disadvantages to be able to diminish the negative effects of these limitations on particular research. One of the major disadvantages is the amount of time necessary for conducting research. Creswell (2008) claims that accumulating knowledge often takes a lot of time. Some research requires years to obtain the necessary amount of information to come up with a plausible solution. This is a significant disadvantage as the contemporary world is rapidly changing and it is important to react quickly to the changing circumstances. Data analyzed and generalized may become outdated and inapplicable.

Another disadvantage is that any research is associated with certain limitations. Thus, the number of participants and amount of information gathered may be insufficient. This may lead to implausible conclusions and erroneous findings (McKay, 2007). Admittedly, it is almost impossible to obtain comprehensive data within a single survey. It is necessary to conduct several surveys to acquire the necessary amount of data. It is necessary to note that some researchers do not understand the importance of thorough analysis and comprehensive data and tend to obtain quite an insufficient amount of information. This explains the number of surveys that provide contradictory data. This adds controversy to the research. Admittedly, this negatively affects the accumulation and sharing of knowledge.

Apart from the analysis of insufficient data, conducting research is also associated with certain biases. Creswell (2008) states that some researchers may put inadequate or vague questions. This distorts data as participants tend to understand such questions differently. Some researchers may also reveal their findings inarticulately which also leads to a lot of controversies (Creswell, 2008). Researchers may use inappropriate statistical tools which also results in distorted data and controversial conclusions (Opdenakker, 2006). Besides, it is impossible to ensure unbiased research as researchers have a certain background that affects the way they perceive information. More so, some researchers do not focus on the unbiased presentation of data, which also adds controversy to the research.

In conclusion, I would like to add that all these advantages and disadvantages are manifested in every educator’s life as well as on a global scale. Being a practitioner, I understand that research will help me gain knowledge on a variety of topics. It will also help me find new ways to handle problems. I will be able to learn more about solutions found by others. This will enable me to adjust these solutions to particular situations. Admittedly, this will positively affect my development as a practitioner. However, I also understand that I will face certain difficulties as conducting research has several disadvantages. I will have to invest a lot of time as conducting research is a very time-consuming activity. I will need to collect a sufficient amount of data to be able to analyze information and come to some conclusions. I will also be attentive when using data revealed by other researchers as I will need to evaluate each survey. I will have to be attentive when implementing my research and analyzing data as I must remain unbiased. Thus, understanding the importance of conducting research and its limitations, I will be able to develop as a practitioner and contribute to the development of certain areas.

Reference List

Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Koshy, V. (2005). Action research for improving practice: A practical guide. Upper Thousand Oaks, CA: Paul Chapman Publishing.

McKay, C.E. (2007). Evidence based practices in mental health: Advantages, disadvantages, and research considerations. CMHSR, 4 (5). Web.

Opdenakker, R. (2006). Advantages and disadvantages of four interview techniques in qualitative research. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 7 (4). Web.

Individual Differences in Learning and Memory
Bias and Innate Capabilities in Children Learning
Grounded Theory
Retention of Youth by Indian Church of God
An explication of the Character "Hester"
Charles Prosser and Charles Allen’s “Wearing the Mask” Theory
Assessments for ELLs: Pros and Cons
Learning Communities and Student Success
Acquiring External and Internal Support for the Vision
Philosophy of Literacy Instruction
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2022, February 3). Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages. https://ivypanda.com/essays/conducting-research-advantages-and-disadvantages/

"Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages." IvyPanda , 3 Feb. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/conducting-research-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages'. 3 February.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages." February 3, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/conducting-research-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

1. IvyPanda . "Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages." February 3, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/conducting-research-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages." February 3, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/conducting-research-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

Knowledge Base
Comparing and contrasting in an essay | Tips & examples

Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay | Tips & Examples

Published on August 6, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

Comparing and contrasting is an important skill in academic writing . It involves taking two or more subjects and analyzing the differences and similarities between them.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

When should i compare and contrast, making effective comparisons, comparing and contrasting as a brainstorming tool, structuring your comparisons, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about comparing and contrasting.

Many assignments will invite you to make comparisons quite explicitly, as in these prompts.

Compare the treatment of the theme of beauty in the poetry of William Wordsworth and John Keats.
Compare and contrast in-class and distance learning. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?

Some other prompts may not directly ask you to compare and contrast, but present you with a topic where comparing and contrasting could be a good approach.

One way to approach this essay might be to contrast the situation before the Great Depression with the situation during it, to highlight how large a difference it made.

Comparing and contrasting is also used in all kinds of academic contexts where it’s not explicitly prompted. For example, a literature review involves comparing and contrasting different studies on your topic, and an argumentative essay may involve weighing up the pros and cons of different arguments.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

Academic style
Vague sentences
Style consistency

See an example

As the name suggests, comparing and contrasting is about identifying both similarities and differences. You might focus on contrasting quite different subjects or comparing subjects with a lot in common—but there must be some grounds for comparison in the first place.

For example, you might contrast French society before and after the French Revolution; you’d likely find many differences, but there would be a valid basis for comparison. However, if you contrasted pre-revolutionary France with Han-dynasty China, your reader might wonder why you chose to compare these two societies.

This is why it’s important to clarify the point of your comparisons by writing a focused thesis statement . Every element of an essay should serve your central argument in some way. Consider what you’re trying to accomplish with any comparisons you make, and be sure to make this clear to the reader.

Comparing and contrasting can be a useful tool to help organize your thoughts before you begin writing any type of academic text. You might use it to compare different theories and approaches you’ve encountered in your preliminary research, for example.

Let’s say your research involves the competing psychological approaches of behaviorism and cognitive psychology. You might make a table to summarize the key differences between them.

Behaviorism	Cognitive psychology
Dominant from the 1920s to the 1950s	Rose to prominence in the 1960s
Mental processes cannot be empirically studied	Mental processes as focus of study
Focuses on how thinking is affected by conditioning and environment	Focuses on the cognitive processes themselves

Or say you’re writing about the major global conflicts of the twentieth century. You might visualize the key similarities and differences in a Venn diagram.

A Venn diagram showing the similarities and differences between World War I, World War II, and the Cold War.

These visualizations wouldn’t make it into your actual writing, so they don’t have to be very formal in terms of phrasing or presentation. The point of comparing and contrasting at this stage is to help you organize and shape your ideas to aid you in structuring your arguments.

When comparing and contrasting in an essay, there are two main ways to structure your comparisons: the alternating method and the block method.

The alternating method

In the alternating method, you structure your text according to what aspect you’re comparing. You cover both your subjects side by side in terms of a specific point of comparison. Your text is structured like this:

Mouse over the example paragraph below to see how this approach works.

One challenge teachers face is identifying and assisting students who are struggling without disrupting the rest of the class. In a traditional classroom environment, the teacher can easily identify when a student is struggling based on their demeanor in class or simply by regularly checking on students during exercises. They can then offer assistance quietly during the exercise or discuss it further after class. Meanwhile, in a Zoom-based class, the lack of physical presence makes it more difficult to pay attention to individual students’ responses and notice frustrations, and there is less flexibility to speak with students privately to offer assistance. In this case, therefore, the traditional classroom environment holds the advantage, although it appears likely that aiding students in a virtual classroom environment will become easier as the technology, and teachers’ familiarity with it, improves.

The block method

In the block method, you cover each of the overall subjects you’re comparing in a block. You say everything you have to say about your first subject, then discuss your second subject, making comparisons and contrasts back to the things you’ve already said about the first. Your text is structured like this:

Point of comparison A
Point of comparison B

The most commonly cited advantage of distance learning is the flexibility and accessibility it offers. Rather than being required to travel to a specific location every week (and to live near enough to feasibly do so), students can participate from anywhere with an internet connection. This allows not only for a wider geographical spread of students but for the possibility of studying while travelling. However, distance learning presents its own accessibility challenges; not all students have a stable internet connection and a computer or other device with which to participate in online classes, and less technologically literate students and teachers may struggle with the technical aspects of class participation. Furthermore, discomfort and distractions can hinder an individual student’s ability to engage with the class from home, creating divergent learning experiences for different students. Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while representing a step backwards in others.

Note that these two methods can be combined; these two example paragraphs could both be part of the same essay, but it’s wise to use an essay outline to plan out which approach you’re taking in each paragraph.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Ad hominem fallacy
Post hoc fallacy
Appeal to authority fallacy
False cause fallacy
Sunk cost fallacy

College essays

Choosing Essay Topic
Write a College Essay
Write a Diversity Essay
College Essay Format & Structure
Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

(AI) Tools

Grammar Checker
Paraphrasing Tool
Text Summarizer
AI Detector
Plagiarism Checker
Citation Generator

Some essay prompts include the keywords “compare” and/or “contrast.” In these cases, an essay structured around comparing and contrasting is the appropriate response.

Comparing and contrasting is also a useful approach in all kinds of academic writing : You might compare different studies in a literature review , weigh up different arguments in an argumentative essay , or consider different theoretical approaches in a theoretical framework .

Your subjects might be very different or quite similar, but it’s important that there be meaningful grounds for comparison . You can probably describe many differences between a cat and a bicycle, but there isn’t really any connection between them to justify the comparison.

You’ll have to write a thesis statement explaining the central point you want to make in your essay , so be sure to know in advance what connects your subjects and makes them worth comparing.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, July 23). Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay | Tips & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/compare-and-contrast/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, how to write an expository essay, how to write an argumentative essay | examples & tips, academic paragraph structure | step-by-step guide & examples, get unlimited documents corrected.

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

Apply for Graduation
Register for Fall II 2024

Benefits of Writing a Quality Research Paper

April 2, 2021

Contributed by ACHS alumni Melissa Abbott, MS, CPT, NC

Why It’s Important?

You have just been informed that you’re going to write a research paper, and you have no idea how you are going to start the writing process and develop a quality research paper. You may even doubt that you can take on such a challenge. I’m here today to say YES you absolutely can do this! The following writing tips and support strategies offered below are important incentives and motivations involved in the writing process, for your career, and future goals. The writing process involves your body, mind, and spirit. It is all included because you put all your energy and immerse your whole being into it.

Here’s the exciting part, can you imagine having your paper being read by several hundred maybe even thousands of other academic professionals, researchers, and scientists from around the world? It is one of the most incredible feelings to achieve a status of recognition from your hard work in research and the passion(s) you have in holistic health from your peers. Scientists, doctors, holistic professionals in every domain, researchers, collaborators looking for you, your knowledge, and expertise. Sound too good to be true, nope, it happened to me and I hope that it can happen for you too!

The significant impact and support that I received in my first class at ACHS, RES501 : Assessment and Integration of Research Online, with Professor Dr. Nicole Betschman, was empowering. Dr. Betschman armed and mentored us with the best skills and writing techniques, coping strategies for our anxiety and doubts, and outlines to produce quality research and writing. However, she said one thing that stuck out in my mind throughout my studies at ACHS, register with an online platform where you can post your papers for others to read and get yourself noticed in your chosen field of interest. I did just that and since posting my very first paper to ResearchGate (researchgate.com), it has garnered over 1,000+ reads from others in my area of concentration who have emailed me to ask me questions, inquire about my future projects, and offers of potential future collaborations. [ View current Faculty supporting students in research studies. ]

Listed below are just a few of the many benefits to writing a quality research paper:

Recognition from peers in your field of work for all your hard work and showing pride for your academic institution.
Collaboration with others in your field of expertise from around the world and the potential for research jobs or job recruitment offers.
Opportunities for growing your business and career while contributing and supporting your field of interest.
A showcase of your accomplishments and research papers on your resume or curriculum vitae that highlights your chosen area of expertise to potential employers, clinical trials, and research collaborations.

How to start the writing process?

You may be asking yourself … where do I begin, how do I pick a topic, what do I research? Let me help by offering a few strategies or “tools” for your writing “toolbox” to get you in the headspace to explore these brainstorming questions.

1. Sit comfortably with a notebook, make a cup of tea, turn on a diffuser with a blend that promotes increased focus and cognitive awareness, put on some background music, create a space for exploration with little to no distraction, and remember to take several deep breaths during your research sessions. We tend to hold our breath when we’re deep in the research and writing process. This always helps refocus the brainstorming process as well as reduce your stress and anxiety accumulating in your body, mind, and spirit. I do understand these feelings and they can distract you from your best intentions.

2. I highly recommend that you pick a topic and formulate your hypothesis on something you already know well, or an area of interest that supports your future career goals, or on a health condition a friend, family, or that you are challenged with; this is a great place to start. My first paper that received all the recognition came from years of personal experience which made the writing process so much easier. This takes so much of the anxiety away from picking a topic at random. If you are invested in the subject you will want to produce a quality paper with integrity that resulted from years of your experiences and knowledge. You are worth it!

3. Time management is key to staying on task and your module assignments in class. I recommend blocking out two-hour intervals on your research then take a break, walk away, go outside, stretch, go for a walk, get a snack. This also permits you to do other things without getting anxious that you haven’t finished other tasks or responsibilities. These intermissions create more space to return with fresh eyes, mindset, and less tension in your body from sitting. Or even better yet, use a standing desk!

4. Creating a few folders; one on your desktop and one in your bookmarks, where you will collect and manage the content for each component of your research paper helps with the organization of each of the sections involved in a scholarly research paper. Then you can add multiple subfolders for each part of the paper. For example, I had a folder entitled, RES501 Thesis, then subfolders entitled Introduction, Methods, Discussion, Results, and Conclusions. I had one folder titled Notes so that I could cut and paste notes from the highlights taken from research articles and journals that help me to formulate my findings, data interpretations, and key points. One last thing that helped was keeping a file titled Books/Citations so they are all in one place and you don’t have to go looking for them afterward. Another way to decrease your anxiety and stress!

5. I also recommend creating two bookmarks to collect all the supportive websites, journals, and resource materials so you don’t have to look for them each time you need them. For example, I had one bookmark entitled, Research Platforms, where I had links to PubMed, Elsevier, Google Scholar, LIRN, Oxford, and BMC. Then I had a second one entitled, Writing Tools, where I had American Psychological Association (APA) publication manual, Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL), and citation checkers such as Citation Machine and Cite This For Me.

Keep all your supportive tools at your fingertips. Use highlights of different colors to capture the key points within the articles and journals you collect so you are less likely to forget where you read specific data to support your hypothesis. More importantly, it is my hope these tools and tips from personal experiences help support you on your writing adventure and the journey your academic career takes you. It is a very exciting time and it brings great opportunities for success, increased confidence, and empowers you to continue working hard at what you love.

When you find yourself in a writing slump, feel your anxiety increasing or you’re just having a bad day, it is okay to ask for help and support from your fellow peers, your professors, your home support team, they all want you to succeed. I want you to succeed and if you would like to discuss some strategies or need help from a fellow researcher please don’t hesitate to reach out and email me. I would be thrilled to help you produce the best paper you can while being true to yourself and your vision. Be well and happy writing!

Melissa Abbott

References: [1] American Psychological Association (APA), (2021). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Retrieved from https:// apastyle.apa.org/ products/publication-manual-7th-edition [2] Citation Machine® – write smarter. (n.d.). Retrieved April 02, 2021, from https://www.citationmachine.net/ [3] Save time and improve your marks With CITETHISFORME, the No. 1 citation tool. (n.d.). Retrieved April 02, 2021, from https://www.citethisforme.com/ [4] Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.). Purdue owl // Purdue Writing lab. Retrieved April 02, 2021, from https://owl.purdue.edu/ owl/purdue_owl.html

Contact info: Resilient RootZ Wellness, LLC. [email protected] [email protected] @resilient.rootz

Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only. It is not intended to treat, diagnose, cure, or prevent disease. This article has not been reviewed by the FDA. Always consult with your primary care physician or naturopathic doctor before making any significant changes to your health and wellness routine.

Disclosure of Material Connection: I am an alumni American College of Healthcare Sciences, the Institution that publishes this blog. However, all opinions are my own. This blog may contain affiliate links. I am disclosing this in accordance with the Federal Trade Commission’s 16 CFR, Part 255: “Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising.”

About American College of Healthcare Sciences

This commitment to our students and graduates reflects in our current survey results that reflect 98% of our students would recommend ACHS to a friend or family member.

We believe education is the most powerful tool for changing an individual and the world around us.

When a person enrolls as ACHS, it is vitally important that they graduate with tools they need to forge their own holistic and sustainable missions, build up their communities confidently and changing the face of healthcare with knowledge.

Campus & Apothecary Shoppe

5005 S. Macadam Ave. Portland, OR 97239

Campus & Shoppe Hours

Monday through Friday 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. PST

800-487-8839 503-244-0726

Business Hours

Monday through Friday 8:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. PST

Top 10 Disadvantages of Using Paper Writing Services

by Daniel Raymond · September 6, 2024

Students and professionals alike seek convenient ways to complete their writing tasks. Paper writing services have become popular as a quick fix for essays, research papers, and other academic assignments. While these services can provide relief from tight deadlines, they also come with significant drawbacks. Many users are often unaware of the risks associated with outsourcing their academic work, leading to long-term negative consequences.

Table of Contents

The appeal of paper writing services lies in their promise of quality work in a short time. However, the disadvantages are substantial and can affect academic performance and personal growth. It’s essential to critically assess the potential harm before opting for such services. By understanding these risks, users can make more informed decisions. This article highlights the top ten disadvantages of using paper writing services and how to navigate them.

10 Cons or Disadvantages of Using Paper Writing Services

For multiple reasons, relying on paper writing services may do more harm than good. The following are the top ten disadvantages, each shedding light on the hidden costs of these services and offering practical solutions.

Disadvantage #1: Plagiarism Concerns

Using paper writing services can result in plagiarism issues that severely damage a student’s academic standing. Many services guarantee original work but fail to deliver. Unintentional or deliberate plagiarism can have serious academic consequences.

Papers might be recycled or resold, leading to duplicate content.
Some services outsource the work to non-professional writers who may not be familiar with citation rules.
Universities often use advanced plagiarism detection tools, which can easily flag copied content.

Real-life example: A university student once used paper writing services for an important paper. The submission was flagged for plagiarism, leading to a failing grade and disciplinary action.

Solution: Always request plagiarism reports from writing services or, better yet, write your work to ensure complete originality and compliance with academic standards.

Disadvantage #2: Poor Quality of Writing

Many paper writing services employ writers with limited expertise, resulting in substandard content. Poor writing quality affects the overall grade and can reflect poorly on the student’s knowledge.

Writers may not be fluent in the language, leading to awkward phrasing.
Complex topics may be oversimplified, missing key analysis and critical thinking.
Grammatical errors and structural issues can diminish the quality of the paper.

Real-life example: A student paid a service to write a biology paper but received a document filled with errors and lacking proper citations. The paper failed to meet the professor’s expectations.

Solution: Conduct thorough research before choosing a service, read reviews, and ask for writing samples to gauge the quality before placing an order.

Disadvantage #3: Lack of Personalization

Academic papers require a personalized approach tailored to the professor’s or the assignment’s specific guidelines and preferences. Paper writing services often fail to capture this individuality.

Many services use a template approach, missing out on nuanced details.
The writer might not fully understand the assignment prompt, leading to a generic submission.
Professors can often identify when a student hasn’t written the paper due to a mismatched writing style.

Real-life example: A student submitted a paper that looked nothing like their previous submissions. The professor suspected the work wasn’t theirs, making it uncomfortable.

Solution: Avoid relying on external services for personalized assignments. Instead, work on improving your writing skills to meet the specific demands of each task.

Disadvantage #4: Ethical Concerns

Using paper writing services can raise ethical questions, especially in academic contexts where integrity is critical. Outsourcing academic work conflicts with principles of honesty and academic responsibility.

Students are expected to showcase their understanding and analytical abilities.
Some schools consider the use of such services as academic dishonesty, leading to severe penalties.
It undermines the value of the education process and personal learning.

Real-life example: A college caught several students using writing services for major assignments. These students faced academic probation and risked expulsion.

Solution: Focus on personal development and work on assignments independently. If you struggle, seek help from tutors or academic resources instead of relying on third-party services.

Disadvantage #5: Financial Costs

While some paper writing services are cheap, others are expensive, especially for high-quality work or urgent deadlines. Over time, the financial burden can become significant.

Many students end up spending hundreds of dollars on these services.
The pricing can vary widely depending on complexity, length, and deadline.
High-quality services charge a premium, which might be unaffordable for many students.

Real-life example: A student who frequently used a paper writing service ended up spending over $1,000 throughout a semester, with little improvement in their grades.

Solution: Instead of investing in these services, allocate time to develop your writing abilities. Seek free or affordable tutoring services to improve academic performance.

Disadvantage #6: Missed Learning Opportunities

One of the most significant drawbacks of using paper writing services is the missed opportunity to learn and grow. Writing assignments are designed to enhance critical thinking, research skills, and subject mastery.

Relying on others to complete your work stifles intellectual growth.
You may miss out on valuable feedback that can improve your future performance.
Important concepts may be overlooked, leading to a lack of understanding in key areas.

Real-life example: A student who consistently used writing services struggled during final exams because they hadn’t engaged with the course material enough to understand it.

Solution: Prioritize your learning by completing assignments independently and actively participating in the writing process. This will lead to better long-term academic success.

Disadvantage #7: Lack of Accountability

Using paper writing services encourages a lack of personal responsibility for academic performance. Students may become too reliant on external help, hurting their work ethic.

Students may neglect their academic duties, assuming someone else will handle them.
Over time, this can foster a habit of procrastination and avoidance.
It can lead to poor time management and an inability to meet deadlines independently.

Real-life example: A student who regularly used these services found it hard to manage their workload when the service was unavailable, resulting in missed deadlines.

Solution: Develop personal accountability by setting clear goals and deadlines for yourself. Avoid the temptation of quick fixes and focus on long-term personal growth.

Disadvantage #8: Confidentiality Issues

Using a paper writing service could compromise your data. Many services require users to provide sensitive information that may not always be securely handled.

Some services sell customer data to third parties, risking privacy breaches.
Writers may have access to personal or academic information.
In worst-case scenarios, the service could misuse or leak your data.

Real-life example: A student received spam emails after using a paper writing service, realizing their contact details had been sold to marketing agencies.

Solution: Before using a service, ensure that its privacy policies are clear. Better yet, avoid sharing personal information by completing assignments independently.

Disadvantage #9: Missed Deadlines

Despite fast delivery promises, some paper writing services fail to meet deadlines. This can be especially problematic for students with tight submission schedules.

Writers may take on more work than they can handle, leading to delays.
Last-minute submissions can negatively impact the quality of the work.
Missing a deadline can lead to grade penalties or even assignment rejection.

Real-life example: A student paid for an urgent essay, but the service failed to deliver on time, resulting in a grade deduction for late submission.

Solution: Avoid becoming dependent on a third party for timely submissions. Start assignments early and manage your time effectively.

Disadvantage #10: Questionable Qualifications of Writers

Many paper writing services employ writers without the necessary academic or professional qualifications, which often results in poorly researched or incoherent papers.

Writers may not have expertise in the specific field of study.
Lack of proper research skills can result in inaccurate or incomplete content.
Some services are outsourced to freelancers who may not even have a college degree.

Real-life example: A student paid for a legal analysis paper but received an essay demonstrating a poor understanding of basic legal concepts.

Solution: Always verify the writers’ qualifications, or better yet, take the time to develop your expertise by doing the work yourself.

While paper writing services may seem like a quick solution to academic pressure, they have numerous disadvantages that outweigh their benefits. These services can have long-term negative consequences, from plagiarism risks and poor-quality writing to ethical concerns and financial costs. They also rob students of valuable learning opportunities, promote a lack of accountability, and may even lead to personal data breaches. Ultimately, the best approach is to take ownership of your academic journey, engage with the material, and seek legitimate help when needed. By doing so, you can ensure better academic performance and personal and intellectual growth.

Suggested article: Top 10 Pros & Cons of Using Essay Writing Services :

Daniel Raymond

Daniel Raymond, a project manager with over 20 years of experience, is the former CEO of a successful software company called Websystems. With a strong background in managing complex projects, he applied his expertise to develop AceProject.com and Bridge24.com , innovative project management tools designed to streamline processes and improve productivity. Throughout his career, Daniel has consistently demonstrated a commitment to excellence and a passion for empowering teams to achieve their goals.

Next story Top 25 Best Project Management Software in 2024
Previous story Top 10 Cons & Disadvantages of Pinterest

Stack Exchange Network

What are the pros and cons of writing papers alone?

5 Answers 5

You must log in to answer this question.

Hot Network Questions

11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Reasons for Research

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

Research Writing at Work

Writing at Work

Steps of the Research Writing Process

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Step 3: Conducting Research

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

Key Takeaways

#13: Writing journal papers: Pros and cons

I. The historical perspective of writing for journals

2. Mid-20th century

3. Transition to 21st century journal publishing

4. The current situation

II. The cons: 10 common critical points on the paper publishing process

2. Expensive

4. Lower quality

5. Too many papers

7. Lack of transparency

8. Old-fashioned

9. Non-interactive

10. Commercial

III. The pros: 10 reasons why you should write and publish journal papers

1. Quality control

2. Quality label

3. Trusted source

4. Academic career development

5. Non-academic career development

6. Funding body requirement

7. Attracting grants

8. Get acknowledged

9. Established infrastructure

10. Established way of communication

Conclusion:

Relevant resources:

More information:

Stating the Obvious: Writing Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Delimitations

Limitations

Assumptions

Theses and dissertations: pros and cons of the traditional and alternative formats

External links

About Lilian Nassi-Calò

6 Thoughts on “ Theses and dissertations: pros and cons of the traditional and alternative formats ”

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Post Navigation

Press Releases

Recent Posts

Recent Comments

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper

Structure of Research Paper

Introduction

Literature Review

How to Write Research Paper

Research Paper Example

Applications of Research Paper

When to Write Research Paper

Purpose of Research Paper

Characteristics of Research Paper

Advantages of Research Paper

Limitations of Research Paper

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

You may also like

Appendices – Writing Guide, Types and Examples

Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Research Techniques – Methods, Types and Examples

Research Results Section – Writing Guide and...

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing...

Ethical Considerations – Types, Examples and...