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Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
- Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
- Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
- Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
- For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
- For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.
Table of contents
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Qualitative vs. quantitative data
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary vs. secondary research
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
Descriptive vs. experimental data
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
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Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis methods
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
- From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
- Using non-probability sampling methods .
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis methods
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
- During an experiment .
- Using probability sampling methods .
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
- Chi square test of independence
- Statistical power
- Descriptive statistics
- Degrees of freedom
- Pearson correlation
- Null hypothesis
- Double-blind study
- Case-control study
- Research ethics
- Data collection
- Hypothesis testing
- Structured interviews
Research bias
- Hawthorne effect
- Unconscious bias
- Recall bias
- Halo effect
- Self-serving bias
- Information bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
- If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
- If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
- If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
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Software upgrades for Hyundai, Kia help cut theft rates, new HLDI research finds
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Anti-theft software upgrades provided for Hyundai and Kia vehicles regularly targeted by thieves has cut theft rates by more than half, according to new research from the Highway Loss Data Institute.
Theft rates of the affected automobiles soared after thieves discovered that certain car models lacked engine immobilizers, an anti-theft technology that has long been standard in other vehicles. Thieves used a technique popularized on TikTok and other social media platforms to take the vehicles.
The software upgrade started in February 2023 after numerous theft claims that began during the Covid-19 pandemic.
For vehicles that have the new software installed, the automobile will only start if the owner’s key or an identical duplicate is in the ignition. Vehicles with the software also receive a window sticker aimed at deterring potential thieves.
Approximately two dozen 2011-22 Hyundai and Kia models are eligible for the software upgrade. Those vehicles that received it as of December 2023 — a total of 30% of the eligible Hyundais and 28% of the eligible Kias in HLDI’s database — had theft claim frequencies that were 53% lower than vehicles that didn’t get the upgrade, according to HLDI.
Those claims aren’t all for thefts of the entire vehicle. They also include claims for damage to vehicles that were stolen and recovered, theft of vehicle parts and items stolen from inside the vehicle. The frequency of whole vehicle theft, which HLDI calculates by matching the cost of the claim to the amount insurers pay for the same model if it’s totaled in a crash, fell by a larger 64% for vehicles with the upgrade.
The HLDI study ended in December. The organization said that Hyundai and Kia have continued to implement software upgrades in vehicles since that time. The automakers have said that about 60% of eligible vehicles had been upgraded as of last month.
The HLDI said that the frequency of theft claims for the Hyundai and Kia vehicles remains high, even for models with the new software. The organization believes one of the reasons for this may be that the software-based immobilizer only activates if the driver remembers to lock the vehicle with a fob, while many people are in the habit of using the switch on the door handle.
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A Blood Test Accurately Diagnosed Alzheimer’s 90% of the Time, Study Finds
It was much more accurate than primary care doctors using cognitive tests and CT scans. The findings could speed the quest for an affordable and accessible way to diagnose patients with memory problems.
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By Pam Belluck
Scientists have made another major stride toward the long-sought goal of diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease with a simple blood test . On Sunday, a team of researchers reported that a blood test was significantly more accurate than doctors’ interpretation of cognitive tests and CT scans in signaling the condition.
The study , published Sunday in the journal JAMA, found that about 90 percent of the time the blood test correctly identified whether patients with memory problems had Alzheimer’s. Dementia specialists using standard methods that did not include expensive PET scans or invasive spinal taps were accurate 73 percent of the time, while primary care doctors using those methods got it right only 61 percent of the time.
“Not too long ago measuring pathology in the brain of a living human was considered just impossible,” said Dr. Jason Karlawish, a co-director of the Penn Memory Center at the University of Pennsylvania who was not involved in the research. “This study adds to the revolution that has occurred in our ability to measure what’s going on in the brain of living humans.”
The results, presented Sunday at the Alzheimer’s Association International Conference in Philadelphia, are the latest milestone in the search for affordable and accessible ways to diagnose Alzheimer’s, a disease that afflicts nearly seven million Americans and over 32 million people worldwide. Medical experts say the findings bring the field closer to a day when people might receive routine blood tests for cognitive impairment as part of primary care checkups, similar to the way they receive cholesterol tests.
“Now, we screen people with mammograms and PSA or prostate exams and other things to look for very early signs of cancer,” said Dr. Adam Boxer, a neurologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who was not involved in the study. “And I think we’re going to be doing the same thing for Alzheimer’s disease and hopefully other forms of neurodegeneration.”
In recent years, several blood tests have been developed for Alzheimer’s. They are currently used mostly to screen participants in clinical trials and by some specialists like Dr. Boxer to help pinpoint if a patient’s dementia is caused by Alzheimer’s or another condition.
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Hindenburg alleges India market regulator chief held stake in offshore funds used by Adani Group
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People flee wildfire near Athens as it spreads 'like lightning'
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FIP indicates International Pharmaceutical Federation.
eAppendix. Description of Methods
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Ashraf AR , Mackey TK , Schmidt J, et al. Safety and Risk Assessment of No-Prescription Online Semaglutide Purchases. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2428280. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.28280
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Safety and Risk Assessment of No-Prescription Online Semaglutide Purchases
- 1 Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- 2 Global Health Program, Department of Anthropology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla
- 3 Global Health Policy and Data Institute, San Diego, California
- 4 S-3 Research, San Diego, California
- 5 Institute of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- 6 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
The popularity of branded semaglutide is surging, with widespread media coverage, viral social media exposure, and celebrity endorsements. 1 Although Wegovy (Novo Nordisk) is approved for long-term weight management, Ozempic (Novo Nordisk) (only approved for type 2 diabetes) is often used off-label for this purpose. Global regulatory agencies, including the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), European Medicines Agency, and World Health Organization (WHO), have warned about fake versions driven by patient demand, high cost, and shortages. Illegal online pharmacies, which operate without valid licenses and sell medicines like semaglutide without prescription, represent a consumer risk for ineffective and dangerous products.
In this qualitative study, we conducted risk assessment of semaglutide online sourcing ( Figure and eAppendix in Supplement 1 ). We followed the SRQR reporting guideline.
First, we conducted structured searches on Google and Bing to catalog websites advertising semaglutide without a prescription in July 2023. Websites meeting inclusion criteria were selected for a product test buy protocol. 2 Two 0.25-mg per dose prefilled pens or equivalent semaglutide injection vials were ordered from each website. Upon product receipt, authors (A.R.A., and A.F.) used the International Pharmaceutical Federation’s (FIP) checklist for visual inspection to assess potential counterfeiting or falsification risks, compared with genuine Ozempic brand 1-mg semaglutide solution for injection in a prefilled pen. 3 Products were then tested for quality, including sterility and microbiological contamination, according to European Pharmacopoeia and US Pharmacopeia guidelines. Quantification of active ingredients was performed using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Test purchases and analytical testing were performed August from 2023 to March 2024.
Search engine monitoring generated 1080 hyperlinks, with 317 (29.35%) for online pharmacies. Nearly one-half (134 sites [42.27%]) belonged to illegal pharmacy operations; 763 links were websites not offering products for sale, including 615 news and informational websites and 148 telemedicine websites requiring consultation to obtain prescription before purchase.
Six online vendors classified as not recommended or rogue by LegitScript and/or National Association of Boards of Pharmacy and offering parenteral semaglutide products were included in test buys. Three websites offered prefilled 0.25-mg per dose semaglutide injection pens, and 3 sold vials of lyophilized semaglutide to be reconstituted to solution for injection (1-3 mg). All vendors referred to weight loss and obesity on their product page. Prices for the smallest dose and quantity ranged from US $113 to $360 (mean [SD], US $218.5 [$93.6]) ( Table ).
Test purchases were confirmed via email and WhatsApp. Of 6 products purchased, only 3 were received. Three vendors selling Ozempic injections engaged in nondelivery scams requesting extra payments (range, US $650-$1200) to purportedly clear customs, confirmed as fraudulent by customs agencies. Although genuine Ozempic scored the full 22 points on the FIP checklist, test purchased products scored 8 or 9 with clear discrepancies in regulatory registration information, accurate labeling, and evidence products were likely unregistered or unlicensed.
Upon quality testing, one sample had elevated presence of endotoxin (8.95 EU/mg) indicating possible contamination, although no viable microorganisms were detected. LC-MS revealed the presence of semaglutide in all samples, but with considerably lower purity levels (7%-14% vs advertised 99%). The measured semaglutide content substantially exceeded the labeled amount in each sample by 29% to 39%, meaning that users could receive up to 39% more semaglutide per injection. These risk factors indicate likely falsification that does not meet legitimate product quality standards.
This qualitative study found that semaglutide products are actively being sold without prescription by illegal online pharmacies, with vendors shipping unregistered and falsified products. Two websites evaluated were sent FDA warning letters for unlawful sale of unapproved and misbranded semaglutide. 4 , 5 US poison centers have reported a 1500% increase in calls related to semaglutide, highlighting the need for enhanced pharmacovigilance including for online sourcing harms. 6 Study limitations include limited sample of products tested due to nondelivery scams. Furthermore, although tested products represent some accessible semaglutide products sold online, higher priced offerings were excluded, limiting generalizability of the findings.
Accepted for Publication: June 21, 2024.
Published: August 2, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.28280
Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Ashraf AR et al. JAMA Network Open .
Corresponding Author: Tim K. Mackey, MAS, PhD, Global Health Program, Department of Anthropology, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr, MC 0505, La Jolla, CA 92093 ( [email protected] ).
Author Contributions: Dr Ashraf had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Concept and design: Ashraf, Mackey, Vida, Li, Fittler.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Ashraf, Mackey, Kulcsár, Vida, Fittler.
Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Ashraf, Mackey, Schmidt, Kulcsár, Li, Fittler.
Statistical analysis: Ashraf, Kulcsár, Li.
Obtained funding: Mackey, Fittler.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Ashraf, Mackey, Vida, Li.
Supervision: Mackey, Fittler.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Mr Schmidt reported receiving grant TKP2021-EGA-17 from the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Office outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.
Funding/Support: The research was supported by the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (grant NKFI-ID 143684).
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funder had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .
Additional Contributions: The research was performed in collaboration with Mass Spectrometry Core Facility at the Szentágothai Research Centre of the University of Pécs.
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Iran is targeting the U.S. election with fake news sites and cyber operations, research says
Iran is stepping up its influence campaign aimed at the U.S., researchers at Microsoft said in a new report , adding to the ongoing efforts by Russia and China to sway American public opinion before the presidential election.
Researchers identified websites that they attributed to the Iranian operation, aimed at voters on the political left and right. One website, Nio Thinker, bills itself as “your go-to destination for insightful, progressive news and analysis that challenges the status quo” and hosts articles that bash former President Donald Trump and hail Vice President Kamala Harris as “our unexpected, awkward savior.”
Another site identified by researchers, Savannah Time, poses as a voicey conservative local alt-weekly. “We’re opinionated, we’re noisy, and we’re having a good time,” the about section of the site says. It hosts articles claiming to be written by “the spokeswoman for the International League for Women’s Rights,” arguing for more modest Olympics beach volleyball bathing suits, next to articles lauding Iran’s military might.
The Microsoft Threat Analysis Center noted the sites were likely using artificial intelligence tools to lift content from legitimate U.S. news publications and repackage articles in a way that hides the content’s source.
The group behind the sites, according to Microsoft, is part of a larger Iranian operation, active since 2020, that operates more than a dozen other fake news sites targeting English-, French-, Spanish- and Arabic-speaking audiences. The campaign has not found significant success with a U.S. audience, and the sites’ content has not been shared widely on social media, according to the researchers. But researchers say the sites could be used closer to the election.
Beyond the effort to sow controversy and divide Americans before the vote, researchers said another group linked to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps targeted a “high-ranking official on a presidential campaign” in June with a spear-phishing email from a compromised email account of a former senior adviser and attempted to access an account belonging to “a former presidential candidate.” The report did not name the people who had been targeted.
Iran’s United Nations mission did not immediately respond to a request for comment but denied the reports of meddling in a statement to The Associated Press : “Iran has been the victim of numerous offensive cyber operations targeting its infrastructure, public service centers, and industries. Iran’s cyber capabilities are defensive and proportionate to the threats it faces. Iran has neither the intention nor plans to launch cyber attacks. The U.S. presidential election is an internal matter in which Iran does not interfere.”
Microsoft’s report also noted continued activity by Russia, including an operation by a group researchers call Storm-1516 , which produces propaganda videos in support of Trump and Russian interests and distributes them through a network of fake news websites connected to a former U.S. police officer. China-linked actors, the report said, had also pivoted increasingly to spreading propaganda via video and had leveraged a network of online accounts to stoke outrage around pro-Palestinian university protests.
The researchers reported an expectation that Iran, along with China and Russia, would intensify cyberattacks against candidates and institutions and increase efforts to divide Americans with propaganda and disinformation in the run-up to the election.
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Brandy Zadrozny is a senior reporter for NBC News. She covers misinformation, extremism and the internet.
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The popularity of branded semaglutide is surging, with widespread media coverage, viral social media exposure, and celebrity endorsements. 1 Although Wegovy (Novo Nordisk) is approved for long-term weight management, Ozempic (Novo Nordisk) (only approved for type 2 diabetes) is often used off-label for this purpose. Global regulatory agencies, including the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA ...
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