Duration: 19 Jul 2011 → 21 Jul 2011
Conference | 7th Annual International Conference of International Institute for Infrastructure, Renewal and Reconstruction |
---|---|
Abbreviated title | IIIRR |
Country/Territory | Sri Lanka |
City | Kandalama |
Period | 19/07/11 → 21/07/11 |
Other | International Conference on Building Resilience |
Research output per year
T1 - Case study as a research strategy
T2 - 7th Annual International Conference of International Institute for Infrastructure, Renewal and Reconstruction
AU - Wedawatta, Gayan
AU - Ingirige, Bingunath
AU - Amaratunga, Dilanthi
N2 - Determining an appropriate research methodology is considered as an important element in a research study; especially in a doctoral research study. It involves approach to the entire process of a research study, starting from theoretical underpinnings and spanning to data collection and analysis, and extending to developing the solutions for the problems investigated. Research methodology in essence is focused around the problems to be investigated in a research study and therefore varies according to the problems investigated. Thus, identifying the research methodology that best suits a research in hand is important, not only as it will benefit achieving the set objectives of a research, but also as it will serve establishing the credibility of the work. Research philosophy, approach, strategy, choice, and techniques are inherent components of the methodology. Research strategy provides the overall direction of the research including the process by which the research is conducted. Case study, experiment, survey, action research, grounded theory and ethnography are examples for such research strategies. Case study is documented as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. Case study was adopted as the overarching research strategy, in a doctoral study developed to investigate the resilience of construction Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in the UK to extreme weather events. The research sought to investigate how construction SMEs are affected by EWEs, respond to the risk of EWEs, and means of enhancing their resilience to future EWEs. It is argued that utilising case study strategy will benefit the research study, in achieving the set objectives of the research and answering the research questions raised, by comparing and contrasting with the alternative strategies available. It is also claimed that the selected strategy will contribute towards addressing the call for improved methodological pluralism in construction management research, enhancing the understanding of complex network of relationships pertinent to the industry and the phenomenon being studied.
AB - Determining an appropriate research methodology is considered as an important element in a research study; especially in a doctoral research study. It involves approach to the entire process of a research study, starting from theoretical underpinnings and spanning to data collection and analysis, and extending to developing the solutions for the problems investigated. Research methodology in essence is focused around the problems to be investigated in a research study and therefore varies according to the problems investigated. Thus, identifying the research methodology that best suits a research in hand is important, not only as it will benefit achieving the set objectives of a research, but also as it will serve establishing the credibility of the work. Research philosophy, approach, strategy, choice, and techniques are inherent components of the methodology. Research strategy provides the overall direction of the research including the process by which the research is conducted. Case study, experiment, survey, action research, grounded theory and ethnography are examples for such research strategies. Case study is documented as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. Case study was adopted as the overarching research strategy, in a doctoral study developed to investigate the resilience of construction Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) in the UK to extreme weather events. The research sought to investigate how construction SMEs are affected by EWEs, respond to the risk of EWEs, and means of enhancing their resilience to future EWEs. It is argued that utilising case study strategy will benefit the research study, in achieving the set objectives of the research and answering the research questions raised, by comparing and contrasting with the alternative strategies available. It is also claimed that the selected strategy will contribute towards addressing the call for improved methodological pluralism in construction management research, enhancing the understanding of complex network of relationships pertinent to the industry and the phenomenon being studied.
KW - case study
KW - research strategy
KW - research methodology
KW - research method
KW - research philosophy
M3 - Unpublished Conference Paper
Y2 - 19 July 2011 through 21 July 2011
This video explores what scientists know about how changes in global climate and increasing temperatures affect different extreme weather events.
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Carsten butsch.
1 University of Bonn, Germany Department of Geography
2 University of Cologne, Germany Institute of Geography
3 Federal Institute of Hydrology Koblenz, Germany
Marieke frassl, nicole brennholt.
4 North Rhine-Westphalia State Office for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection Department of Water Management and Protection Düsseldorf, Germany
5 Federal Office for Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance Department for Risk Management, International Affairs Bonn, Germany
6 Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute Coordination Unit Climate and Soil Braunschweig, Germany
Extreme weather events represent one of the most tangible impacts of anthropogenic climate change. They have increased in number and severity and a further increase is expected. This is accompanied by direct and indirect negative consequences for human health.
Flooding events, storms and droughts are analysed here for Germany from a systemic perspective on the basis of a comprehensive literature review. Cascading risks beyond the initial event are also taken into account in order to depict downstream consequences.
In addition to the immediate health burdens caused by extreme weather events such as injuries, long-term consequences such as stress-related mental disorders occur. These stresses particularly affect certain vulnerable groups, e.g. older persons, children, pregnant women or first responders.
A look at the cascading risks described in the international literature allows us to develop precautionary measures for adaptation to the consequences of climate change. Many adaptation measures protect against different risks at the same time. In addition to planning measures, these include, above all, increasing the population’s ability to protect itself through knowledge and strengthening of social networks.
Extreme weather events are among the most tangible impacts of climate change in public perception. Individual events that trigger disasters are often explained by climate change. This is difficult from a scientific perspective, because while climate change alters the probability of the occurrence of extremes, this may not be a sufficient explanation for the individual event in question ( Info box ). However, there are many indications that at least some types of extreme weather events have increased in frequency and magnitude due to anthropogenic climate change [ 1 ]. This is accompanied by negative consequences for human health – both directly and indirectly.
Extreme weather events can be defined in various ways, with two definitions being established in the field of climate impact research. In the first, rarity and high magnitude is crucial, e.g. a statistically expected reoccurrence after 100 years or more. For the second, the consequences of the event for human society (i.e. health) are important, where these events disrupt social, technical or environmental systems [ 2 , 3 ]. Below, both points of view are linked.
First, the climate change-induced change in frequency of potentially health-threatening events such as floods, storms, droughts, and fires is presented. Heatwaves are excluded here, as they are the subject of a separate article in this status report by Winklmayr et al. [ 4 ]. Based on this, the consequences of these events are analysed along risk cascades and direct and indirect impacts are systematically presented.
Extreme weather events are defined here as a ‘dynamic occurrence within a limited timeframe that impedes the normal functioning of a system’ [ 2 , P. 4]. They trigger disasters when they encounter vulnerable social conditions and damage people, infrastructure, the economy or the environment to such an extent that external assistance becomes necessary (based on [ 5 ]). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) dealt with vulnerability and resilience to extreme weather events in a special report [ 5 ]. Human health is conceptualised there as a vulnerable good and as potentially increasing vulnerability, since people with pre-existing conditions are often more affected by extreme weather events.
The sixth report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) asserts in its central statements that anthropogenic climate change is already having an impact on many weather and climate extremes in all regions of the world and that the evidence for attribution to human influence has strengthened in recent years [ 8 ].
However, not every extreme weather or hydrological phenomenon can be attributed to climate change. According to the conventions of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), this attribution is only possible when system variables (e.g. temperature, precipitation or flood parameters, here: extreme values) shift noticeably in the multi-year mean [ 9 ]. This proof is difficult to provide due to the high natural variability in the climate system, usually quite short observation series and the rarity of extreme weather events. Since the climate fluctuates on multi-decadal time scales even under natural conditions, it is particularly difficult to clearly detect the share of anthropogenically enhanced climate change. For Germany, a change can be detected in relation to the event types heat, drought, storm surge and river flood (past analysis, data mostly since 1950), although the robustness – i.e. the unambiguity with which climate change can be identified as the reason for the changes – of the detected changes decreases in the aforementioned order. Almost all common heat indicators show significant changes with ever new extreme values [ 4 , 10 ], which can partly be attributed to the anthropogenic contribution to climate change [ 11 ]. Established trends for droughts are more or less pronounced depending on the drought indicator. While meteorological indicators such as the climatic water balance or the forest fire index show comparatively clear changes all over Germany [ 12 , 13 ], significant trends in hydrological indicators only emerge regionally [ 14 ]. This is partly due to compensating effects within the hydrological system, e.g. through water management or glacial melt. With regard to river floods, increases in annual maximum discharges can be observed at many gauges. In the case of extreme floods with a 100-year return probability, corresponding evidence is often not available (e.g. [ 15 ]). A similar picture emerges for North Sea gauges with regard to storm surges: while annual storm surges are increasing in magnitude, no trend can be discerned for ‘very severe storm surges’ due to a lack of past events and data [ 16 ].
In general, the more extreme and thus rarer an event under consideration, the more the limited length of observation series influences the possibilities for detecting changes. Therefore, it is difficult to reliably prove changes in the occurrence of extreme and destructive heavy rain or flash flood events and storms [ 17 ]. The required spatiotemporally high-resolution data series are only available for recent decades. However, this does not mean that climate change does not cause changes in these variables. By applying climate models, it could be shown, for example, that precipitation events such as the one that triggered the flood disaster in western Germany and Belgium in July 2021 have become more likely due to anthropogenic climate change [ 18 ].
In view of the current state of knowledge, despite uncertainties, it can be assumed for precautionary reasons that meteorological and hydrological extreme weather events in Germany will continue to increase in magnitude and frequency as climate change progresses ( Info box ) [ 1 , 6 ]. The evidence is more robust for temperature- and sea-level-driven impact chains than for precipitation- and wind-driven impact cascades and greater for spatiotemporally large-scale phenomena such as droughts than for small-scale phenomena such as heavy rain or tornadoes. The greater the anthropogenic contribution to climate change will be, the higher the magnitude of the expected increase. Extreme weather events, however, are possible under all projections, with varying degrees of probability. The introductory article to this status report explains the basics of the different climate projections [ 7 ].
The effects of these events on human health are described below, based on a comprehensive evaluation of scientific literature, which was searched through Web of Knowledge, PubMed and Scopus. In particular, systematic reviews and meta-analyses were included. The text does not reproduce all sources found, but represents a focussed selection, which cannot meet the requirements of a systematic review.
In this section, first the theoretical perspective on cascading risks is outlined. It is then applied to the extreme weather events under consideration – floods, storms, droughts and fires – in order to systematically illustrate the health impacts of these events. Finally, the extent to which vulnerable groups are particularly affected by the consequences of different extreme weather events is considered.
The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990–1999) led to intensive conceptual and theoretical works on risks. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction was established as the leading institution; the Hyogo Framework and the Sendai Framework were adopted as internationally binding policy documents for risk reduction within the United Nations [ 19 ]. In parallel, new theoretical approaches emerged in the scientific discourse. Disasters are conceptualised as complex events in which the exposure of groups and systems and their vulnerability are analysed [ 19 ]. Accordingly, they are not the result of individual events, but arise from the interaction of different processes and circumstances [ 20 ]. Compound risks, which can trigger disasters that go beyond the impact of individual events, arise when (1) several extreme events occur simultaneously, (2) they encounter amplifying factors or (3) they are triggered by the unfavourable combination of several individually non-critical occurrences [ 20 ]. A special form are natural events that trigger technological failures and, as a consequence, disasters (NaTech events), e.g. the reactor disaster in Fukushima triggered by a tsunami.
Most recently, concepts of cascading risks have emerged that address the indirect effects of disasters. Through the interconnectedness of systems at local, regional and global scales, disturbances propagate and can be amplified, creating entirely new risks [ 20 , 21 ]. This concept is based on the assumption of Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS). Complexity means that processes do not necessarily run in a linear fashion. Thus, unpredictable dynamics arise, because the number of connections between subsystems is very large and interactions are difficult to predict. As a result, small changes can have very large effects. When tipping points are crossed, CAS can reach new states of equilibrium. CAS are mostly dynamic and co-evolutions can occur when developments in individual subsystems influence developments in others [ 22 ].
The CAS perspective provides a framework for analysing the circumstances that lead to a disaster. Reducing vulnerability through adaptation measures can ideally prevent disasters or at least reduce their consequences, while active disaster management can prevent or at least limit the emergence of cascading risks.
This shows that to assess the health impact of extreme weather events, one must not only consider the immediate consequences of these events. A comprehensive analysis must also systematically examine the indirect and downstream consequences.
Due to the complex interactions, it is not possible to fully assess the health impact of extreme weather events. Official statistics show causes of death according to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD); more detailed information is not collected. For example, if a person is killed by a falling tree, the cause of death statistics do not distinguish whether the tree fell due to a storm or due to another trigger. An alternative source of information is the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) [ 23 ]. Data from various sources on the health impact of worldwide disaster events since 1900 (including the extreme weather events considered here) have been collected and evaluated in this database. On the cut-off date of November 11, 2022, it contained 89 events for Germany, starting with a flooding event in the Danube region in 1920. A total of 63 storm events with 718 fatalities, 25 floods with 271 fatalities and one forest fire without any fatalities are documented. The database does not explicitly differentiate between storms and storm surges. The advantage of the EM-DAT database is the worldwide overview, but regional databases sometimes come to different results. The European Environment Agency recorded more than 4,700 deaths and damages amounting to 150 billion euros in 1,500 events between 1980 and 2013 [ 24 ]. Floods were the most frequent catastrophic events.
Table 1 shows the ten most serious events in Germany, based on the number of directly affected persons (fatalities and injured persons) registered in EM-DAT. Most injured persons were recorded for the heavy rain event that led to widespread flooding in mid-July 2021, mainly in Rhineland-Palatinate (RP) and North Rhine-Westphalia (NW), and the event claimed the second most lives in Germany with 197 fatalities. Most deaths occurred as a result of the storm surge of 1962 (347).
Compilation of the ten most serious events in Germany (direct health consequences) sorted by the number of affected persons recorded
Source: Own representation based on EM-DAT [ 23 ]
Year | Event | Region/Place | Registered deaths | Registered injured persons | Number of affected persons recorded | Damages | Insured losses | Comment |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flooding | BW, BY, HE, NW, RP, SN, ST, TH | 197 | 1,000 | 1,197 | 40.0 bn | 9.7 bn | ||
Storm | HH, North Sea | 347 | Not specified | 347 | 5.4 bn | Not specified | Storm surge | |
Storm | Munich | 3 | 250 | 253 | 2.5 bn | 1.3 bn | Hailstorm | |
Storm | BW, BY, HE | 10 | 200 | 210 | Not specified | Not specified | ||
Storm | BB, BE, BW, BY, HB, HE, HH, MV, NI, NW, RP, SH, SL, SN, ST, TH | 11 | 130 | 141 | 7.2 bn | 4.1 bn | Cyclone (Kyrill) | |
Flooding | BB, BW, BY, NI, SN, ST, TH | 27 | 108 | 135 | 17.5 bn | 2.7 bn | ||
Storm | BW | 1 | 100 | 101 | Not specified | Not specified | Hail | |
Storm | NI, GDR | 54 | Not specified | 54 | 2.7 bn | Not specified | Cyclone (Quimburga) | |
Storm | Frankfurt, Kiel, Cologne, Paderborn, Saarbrücken | 0 | 33 | 33 | Not specified | Not specified | Cyclone (Sabine) | |
Storm | Altötting, Freyung-Grafenau, Passau | 3 | 24 | 27 | 0.2 bn | Not specified | Hail |
1 in US dollars, 2020 prices
BB=Brandenburg, BE=Berlin, bn=billion, BW=Baden-Württemberg, BY=Bavaria, GDR=German Democratic Republic, HB=Bremen, HE=Hesse, HH=Hamburg, MV=Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, NI=Lower Saxony, NW=North Rhine-Westphalia, RP=Rhineland-Palatinate, SH=Schleswig-Holstein, SL=Saarland, SN=Saxony, ST=Saxony-Anhalt, TH=Thuringia
In a global comparison, Germany’s exposure to natural hazards is relatively low and the risk profile differs, so that some globally relevant event types have not yet triggered any disasters here. Globally, 25,722 loss events with 38.4 million fatalities and 10.8 million injuries have been recorded in the EM-DAT database. The five events that have caused the most deaths globally in the last 122 years are (1) droughts, (2) epidemics and pandemics, with the COVID-19 pandemic not (yet) recorded in the database, (3) floods and inundations, (4) NaTech events and (5) earthquakes. At the same time, a decline in the number of fatalities can be observed from the 1930s onwards ( Figure 1 ). Considering the growing world population and the increasing number of damaging events, this means a decreasing individual mortality risk, which is related to more effective risk management and improved international cooperation.
Global trends of documented loss events (event types considered in this review) since 1900
Figure 1a (left) Persons affected and monetary losses
Figure 1b (right) Fatalities
For the extreme weather events considered below, the database shows 12,341 events worldwide with 20.2 million deaths ( Figure 2 ). The largest single events are famines, which are triggered by floods or droughts. This represents a reduction in complexity that obscures interdependencies. The famine in Bengal in 1943, for example, is primarily recorded here as a drought, although Sen [ 25 ] showed that there was not a lack of food in Bengal, but that the poor population had no access to it. In Germany, storms and floods are the most common extreme weather events with the highest numbers of fatalities and persons affected ( Figure 2 ).
Persons affected by different types of events. Number of different event types worldwide and in Germany, recorded fatalities and injured persons from different types of events worldwide and in Germany.
With regard to extreme weather events, opposing trends can be observed globally: the number of events, persons affected and damage is increasing, while the number of fatalities is decreasing ( Figure 1 ) [ 26 ]. For Germany, these trends are not equally clear. Due to the floods in July 2021, more deaths have already been recorded in the current decade than in the previous five decades. The highest insured losses were recorded in Germany for the decade 2000–2009.
Flood events can be triggered by various phenomena. Storm surges can occur in Germany when strong winds from northerly/north-westerly directions push water towards the coasts (North Sea and Baltic Sea) and this situation coincides with tidal flooding (mainly North Sea). River floods occur as a result of long-lasting and large-scale precipitation and possibly in conjunction with snow melting in the river catchment areas. Flash floods are the result of local heavy precipitation with high magnitudes, often within hours and in connection with a pronounced relief of the terrain (e.g. narrow valleys, large differences in altitude in a small area). Current knowledge suggests that all three event types (storm surges, river floods and flash floods) could increase in frequency and magnitude in the future ( Info box , [ 6 ]). By the end of 2100, 3.7 million people could be affected by coastal flooding in Europe each year [ 27 ].
These events can cause great damage if they hit vulnerable groups or structures. Besides magnitude and duration of the events, local hydrodynamic conditions such as flow velocity in a cross-section or built-up areas in the channel determine the outcome [ 28 ]. The presence of risk management measures [ 27 ] and sources of hazard (e.g. industrial plants, landfills, sewage treatment plants, petrol stations [ 29 , 30 ]) in the potential floodplains determines whether extreme events lead to damage.
Immediate consequences for human health caused by the event may include deaths due to drowning, e.g. due to entrapment in buildings and vehicles, and (fatal) injuries. As a result of large-scale damage or flooding, there may be further deaths and other physical health consequences, e.g. from heart attacks, electrocution, fires, petrol and gas leaks (especially CO, CO 2 ) due to technical defects and collapsing building components [ 28 , 31 , 32 ] ( Figure 3 , which also shows the cascading risks of extreme weather event ‘storms’, considered in Section 2.4 Cascading risks due to storms ).
Cascading risks triggered by floods, heavy rainfall and storms. Arrows indicate possible causal relationships between risks, amplifying factors and health consequences.
Source: Own representation
Indirectly, the disruption of critical infrastructures (including energy supply, water supply and disposal, transport and traffic, healthcare facilities) can lead to bottlenecks in medical care (such as through the cancellation of planned treatments, lack of medicines) and delays in disaster response and provision of essential goods (e.g. water, food, emergency shelters) [ 27 , 31–33 ]. The relevant literature also describes an increase in cardiovascular complaints after flooding events [ 31 , 34 , 35 ]. However, it is not documented whether this is due to psychological distress during the event itself or to the failure of basic medical care. Other indirect health consequences due to increased exposure to heat, cold or damp rooms due to inadequate accommodation are not yet being systematically recorded. The development of mould in flood-damaged buildings can lead to respiratory diseases [ 30 , 36 ]. Damage to drinking water and sewage infrastructure, as well as the failure of refrigerators due to power outages, can lead to an increased incidence of foodborne infections, the connection of which with climate change is considered in more detail by Dietrich et al. [ 37 ]. Vector-borne diseases may increase after floods when, for example, rodents seek shelter indoors [ 38 , 39 ]. Another article in this status report is dedicated in detail to vector- and rodent-borne diseases as a result of climate change [ 40 ]. In addition, the loss of agricultural land due to flooding and erosion can threaten regional food production, and contamination from saltwater intrusion due to storm surges can affect drinking water supplies [ 41 ].
Heavy rainfall and flooding can lead to the discharge of pollutants and germs into water bodies via surface runoff, combined sewer overflows [ 42–44 ] and the destruction of wastewater infrastructure [ 41 , 45 ]. In addition, pollutants, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, pesticides, radionuclides and germs can be mobilised from sediments and polluted soils [ 29 , 45 ]. Contact with contaminated water carries an increased risk of infections [ 29 , 32 ], e.g. through the ingestion of antibiotic-resistant bacteria [ 46 ]. In Halle (Saale) in 2013, an increased number of infections with the parasite Cryptosporidium hominis was found in children who spent time in flood-plains and flooded meadows after a flooding event [ 47 ].
Medium-term health damage can be caused by exposure to pollutants via the air, e.g. in contaminated buildings, via water and via food intake. The latter are a consequence of the accumulation of heavy metals and POPs e.g. in arable soils and fish [ 28 , 29 ]. However, directly observed effects after floods, such as headaches, dizziness, nausea, respiratory and skin irritation, could not yet be clearly attributed to a recorded increased exposure to halogenated pesticides (i.e. organic compounds in which at least one hydrogen atom has been replaced by chlorine, fluorine, bromine or iodine), volatile organic compounds, or heavy metals after flooding events [ 45 ]. When estimating the consequences, the limited data available is problematic, especially with regard to exposure before and after the event and the simultaneous recording of symptoms. In addition to the acute health consequences of event-related chemical exposure, it is particularly challenging to relate back to the potential chronic effects that only become noticeable several months after the event [ 45 ]. Many inorganic and organic pollutants are suspected of having carcinogenic, cardiovascular, neurotoxic, hepatotoxic, immunotoxic or reproductive effects [ 29 , 48 ]. Due to the large number of pollutants, however, there are several research deficits.
A significant consequence of flooding events is the impairment of mental health [ 49 , 50 ]. In Europe, increases in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, depression and even suicides have been reported compared to the time before an event [ 32 , 50 ]. These effects can be observed long after the event [ 50 ]. In addition to the direct traumatic experience of the event, the mental health consequences are also due to material losses and the often protracted reconstruction [ 51 ]. In a study on the consequences of the 2013 Elbe and Danube floods, the success of recovery correlated negatively with the length of time until the receipt of compensation payments, health status, financial status and obligations as property owner. Fear and anxiety due to (subjectively perceived) inadequate flood protection and the associated consequences of future events were also negative factors influencing recovery [ 51 ]. In the last 20 years, twelve flooding events in Germany have been registered in the EM-DAT database [ 23 ]. The floods in western Germany in July 2021 and the Elbe floods in 2002 and 2013 were particularly devastating.
On the German North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts, storm surges occur regularly, especially in the winter months. On the North Sea there have been 64 severe storm surges (>2.50 m above mean high water, mhw) since 1967, including 13 very severe storm surges (>3.50 m above mhw) [ 52 ]. However, effective coastal protection has been erected in many places. In particular, the experience of the storm surge in February 1962 (‘Hamburg storm surge’) led to increased coastal protection measures in Germany [ 53 ], so that the damage and health impacts of subsequent, more extreme events (e.g. 1976, 1990, 1994 and 2013 on the North Sea and 1995 and 2006 on the Baltic Sea) were greatly reduced [ 53 ].
Large-scale storm events occur in Germany when large low-pressure vortices – cyclones – coming from the Atlantic pass over Central Europe. They can trigger winds of up to 200 km/h [ 54 ]. Among the most severe events observed in recent decades were cyclones Lothar (1999), Jeanett (2002), Kyrill (2007) and Zeynep (2022). In the EM-DAT database, a total of 63 storm events have been documented for Germany since 1900, 33 of which occurred since the year 2000 [ 23 ]. The greatest damage in the last two decades was caused by cyclone Kyrill in 2007. No clear trend in the development of storm events can be determined from past data. Although no reliable statements can be made, an increase in the frequency and magnitude of storm events must be expected in the future [ 54 , 55 ]. In addition to large-scale storm events, approximately 20 to 60 tornadoes occur annually in Germany, which can cause severe damage on a small scale [ 56 ].
In a global comparison, Germany is less affected by severe storm events than countries in the tropics and sub-tropics, where tropical cyclones regularly trigger severe damage with high wind speeds and precipitation. This is also reflected in the literature on the health consequences of storms. A total of 22 review articles on health consequences of storms were identified, of which 14 were accessible and evaluated for this section. It becomes clear that there are large differences globally in terms of knowledge about the health consequences of extreme weather [ 34 , 57 ]. The storm event whose consequences were analysed most thoroughly is Hurricane Katrina (2005, south-eastern USA).
The effects of storm on human health can be grouped into indirect and direct consequences at different levels ( Figure 3 ). The direct health consequences of storms include injuries, for which comprehensive data are available in numerous studies [ 34 , 58 ]. However, injuries also occur indirectly when first responders are injured during cleanup operations, during which they may also suffer poisoning [ 58 , 59 ]. The stress to which storm victims are exposed during the event, but also the change in living conditions triggered by the event (e.g. homelessness, unemployment) manifest themselves in the medium term in an increase in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) [ 60 ]. The experience of stress also leads to long-term observable developmental delays in children whose mothers experienced a severe storm event during pregnancy. These delays also manifest as direct consequences through postnatal complications and are exacerbated – especially in the developmental context – by temporarily restricted access to food [ 61–63 ].
Indirectly, the failure of critical infrastructure causes negative health consequences, e.g. an increase in carbon monoxide poisoning when cooking indoors with wood, coal or gas during power outages [ 34 , 58 , 64 ]. Failures of water supply and sanitation can promote infections, and there is often an increase in unprotected contact with animals, whose faeces can carry pathogens, but which can also injure people through biting [ 34 , 65 ]. As healthcare facilities are often inaccessible during storm events, critical situations can arise for people with pre-existing conditions, for example patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), who are dependent on permanent oxygen supply, or patients requiring dialysis [ 60 , 64 ]. Acutely insufficient healthcare for chronically ill patients can also manifest itself in a permanent deterioration of health [ 34 , 60 ].
Severe storm events, such as tropical storms, force people to evacuate. Living together in crowded emergency shelters can encourage the spread of infectious diseases [ 62 ]. Flight, but also other traumatic events during the storm, can have long-term consequences for mental health, such as PTSD [ 62 , 64 , 66 ].
The loss of public order affects vulnerable groups in particular; in addition to children and older persons [ 67 ], women are often exposed to particular dangers ( Section 2.6 Vulnerable groups and pathways of impact ). There is evidence in the literature that women experience sexualised violence, which leads to further distress [ 61 ].
For droughts, a distinction is made between three different types according to cause and consequence:
(1) Meteorological drought occurs when there is a combination of low precipitation and high temperatures. A high potential evaporation results in a negative climatic water balance (typical indicator).
(2) Agricultural drought describes the drought stress in agricultural crops due to a lack of water in the rooted soil. In north-western Europe, this only occurs after dry phases lasting several weeks. In extreme cases, this can lead to yield losses or even crop failures.
(3) Hydrological drought is recorded on the basis of water level data and is the result of a strained landscape water balance. Long and large-scale dry periods are the root cause for this type of drought as well.
Apart from the immediate effects of low water levels and water volumes, e.g. on drinking water availability, there are impacts on water quality and the risk of fires. Projections show that droughts in Central Europe could increase in frequency, magnitude and duration during the 21 st century [ 6 ]. Low precipitation, high temperatures and multiple demands could lead to increasing water stress, especially in summer and the transitional seasons.
Cascading risks due to droughts can cause different health impacts ( Figure 4 ). In extreme cases, they lead to malnutrition with increased mortality among vulnerable groups. This is mainly observed in the Global South [ 68 ]. In the Global North, a lack of food and drinking water supply currently poses little risk and the economic consequences dominate.
Cascading risks that can be triggered by droughts and fires. Arrows indicate possible causal relationships between risks, amplifying factors and health consequences.
Droughts are usually accompanied by stable weather conditions and thus a reduced exchange of air masses. This leads to an accumulation of pollutants in the atmosphere and thus a deterioration of air quality with corresponding health consequences [ 69 ]. Elsewhere in this status report, the health impacts of climate change due to increased air pollutant loads are considered in more detail by BreitnerBusch et al. [ 70 ].
People working in agriculture are particularly exposed to the increasing agricultural droughts, often associated with heatwaves and strong sunlight, which is why potential health hazards such as heat stroke, cardiovascular failure and skin cancer especially affect this group of people [ 4 , 71 ]. The economic uncertainties caused by droughts can also affect the mental health of people working in agriculture and forestry and increase the risk of suicide [ 72–75 ] (see also the scoping review by Gebhardt et al. [ 76 ] on the effects of climate change on mental health in this status report).
Low water levels can have a detrimental effect on water quality. Due to the reduced water volume and higher residence times of the water, it gets warmer and pollutants become less diluted [ 77 ]. High water temperatures and lower flow velocities during low water in summer are associated with the mass occurrence of potentially toxic phytoplankton (algal blooms), see also an article on waterborne infections and intoxications in this status report [ 78 ]. Direct contact with contaminated water occurs through occupational activities in and around water or recreational activities, e.g. water sports. For drinking water supplies in Germany, reduced water quality is a potential risk only in special cases. A possible increase in guideline value ex-ceedances may require more intensive drinking water treatment processes, e.g. in bank filtrates where enriched pollutants or toxins may not be sufficiently filtered out of the water. In drinking water reservoirs, toxin-producing cyanobacterial blooms can complicate water treatment. Contact with the contaminated water can lead to gastrointestinal infections and illnesses as well as zoonotic and vector-associated diseases [ 69 , 78 ]. For contact with cyanotoxins, additional skin irritations and respiratory diseases have been reported, but are often not clearly attributable to cyanobacterial exposure [ 79 ].
Indirectly, droughts can lead to the spread of vector-associated diseases if, for example, in the absence of predators, mosquitoes multiply heavily in pools of water or in vessels for water storage [ 40 , 80 ].
Droughts can also trigger health impacts as part of compound risks, e.g. when heavy rainfall events occur during a drought. On the one hand, infiltration of dry soils is inhibited, so there may be increased surface runoff and an increase in flash flood hazards and associated health impacts ( Section 2.3 Cascading risks due to floods, heavy rainfall and storm surges ). On the other hand, entry of pollutants or germs can lead to a deterioration of water quality.
Summer droughts are often accompanied by heatwaves. This provides ideal conditions for the occurrence of fires, which can be triggered by the slightest influences (e.g. by lightning or careless behaviour), thus increasing the risk of forest fires [ 81 , 82 ]. In addition to climatic changes, other factors such as tree species composition (e.g. a high proportion of conifers) also play a role [ 6 ]. Forest and bush fires endanger the physical health of those affected as well as rescue workers directly through burns, through smoke development and the associated consequences for the respiratory tract, but also through effects on mental health or indirectly through disruption of infrastructure [ 83–85 ].
After 1959, which was an extremely dry year, the years 2003, 2018, 2019, 2022 had a particularly high precipitation deficit and drought periods, with additional regionally effective drought events [ 12 , 14 , 86 ]. The multi-year drought of 2018 to 2020 represents the most severe drought in Europe in the last 250 years [ 87 ].
No drought event is listed for Germany in the EM-DAT database [ 23 ] and in the recent past there have been no direct health effects of droughts in Germany documented in the literature. However, the hydrological droughts of recent years have led to pronounced low-water situations with observable deteriorations in water quality, e.g. due to massive phytoplankton blooms such as those observed recurrently in the Moselle since 2017 and in the Oder in 2022.
In the period between 1991 and 2021, the years 1991, 1992 and 2003 are those with the greatest number of forest fires [ 88 ]. The largest area was affected in 1992 (4,900 hectares), followed by 2019 (2,700 hectares) and 2018 (2,300 hectares) [ 88 ]. The European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS) even assumes 3,600 hectares for 2018 and 4,300 hectares for 2022 [ 89 ]. In those regions in eastern Germany and in the Upper Rhine region, which are particularly affected by rising temperatures and droughts, more than 40 days with a high or very high forest fire risk are possible on average by the middle of the century [ 6 ].
The impact of extreme weather events differs regionally and for different population groups. Natural circumstances predispose a region for the occurrence of individual event types. Storm surges are a phenomenon of coasts and estuaries. Particularly strong winds can also occur there, as well as in exposed inland mountainous areas. Storm damage can also occur on a small scale where vulnerability is increased (e.g. forests, cities, vulnerable transport infrastructures such as overhead railway lines). River floods affect areas along waterways, flash floods can cause particular damage in areas with high relief. Extreme heavy rainfall events, however, can affect any place in Germany.
An increased risk of droughts and their potential consequences cannot be directly located, but there are different levels of impact depending on the type of drought (agricultural, hydrological). In regions and seasons with an already strained water balance, the consequences are more pronounced (e.g. eastern Germany) than in regions with some reserves in the system (e.g. Rhineland).
Four population groups are particularly affected by the health consequences of extreme weather events for different reasons:
(1) children, older people and people with physical limitations – they may not be able to care for themselves or get to safety and the physical stresses that occur may push them to their limits;
(2) people with low socioeconomic status – they are often directly exposed to extreme weather events and may have lower coping capacity;
(3) men are more often affected by the immediate consequences (e.g. higher risk tolerance);
(4) specific long-term consequences can occur for women (e.g. pregnancy complications).
The numbers of victims of the floods in western Germany and Belgium in July 2021 illustrate these overlapping vulnerabilities: among the immediate fatalities (184) in RP and NW, 138 persons (75%) were older than 60 years (population share in NW: 27%) and 3 (1.6%) were children under 14 years (population share in NW: 13%) [ 32 , 90 ]. The ratio of men (65) to women (70) among fatalities was balanced in RP, while in NW about twice as many men (31) as women (18) died [ 32 ]. This is consistent with sources suggesting that men are less likely to take protective measures, such as evacuations [ 91 ]. The gender ratio in RP is consistent with patterns in storm surges (1953, 1962). The ratio in NW corresponds to the pattern of flood victims in Europe, the United States, and Australia [ 32 ]. People with physical or mental disabilities were particularly affected: twelve residents of a care facility died in their flooded living quarters [ 32 ].
Another vulnerable group are first responders. They are exposed to great physical dangers – through injuries, poisoning and great psychological strain. Disaster preparedness and post-disaster care can reduce the vulnerability of this group. An American study on the health risks associated with clean-up work after extreme events found that occupational fatalities occurred a median of 36.5 days after a storm (surge) event and were most common in clean-up (44%), restorative construction (26%), public utility restoration (8%) and preservation of law and order (6%) [ 92 ]. Animal bites are also described among rescue workers and animal owners [ 65 ].
In order to increase resilience to extreme weather events, preventive precautionary and adaptation measures can be taken. These include measures that address different types of events as well as event-specific measures.
Self-protection is an important element of security provision for society as a whole. Since rescue forces cannot be everywhere at once during large-scale catastrophic events and may also be affected themselves, it may take some time until state assistance arrives. A population that has prepared for emergency situations in advance makes a significant contribution to coping with emergency situations collectively [ 93–95 ]. Social networks are an important asset for the emergence of spontaneous civil disaster relief, which is often of high importance in the first hours after a disaster [ 96 ]. Strengthening social networks in associations, faith-based institutions and through various forms of voluntary work is an abstract and difficult goal to achieve, but nevertheless an important building block of social resilience. As a first step, politics and society must recognise the importance of such networks for societal resilience in order to promote these institutions.
The Federal Office of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance (Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe, BBK) offers various pages with recommendations for action responding to different types of hazards (e.g. heavy rain, storms, heatwaves) on its website [ 94 , 97 ]. Likewise, timely risk communication and warning of the population is essential to minimise health impacts of extreme weather events. For this purpose, a mix of warning systems (e.g. sirens, mobile phone apps, cell broadcast – messages to all mobile phone users of selected radio cells) is used in Germany and is being further developed. The earlier the population is warned, the sooner they can prepare for the event and take precautionary measures or evacuate from an affected area [ 95 , 98 , 99 ].
Securing the water supply during and after extreme weather events is particularly important. Three areas of responsibility can be named for this: Water supply companies draw up action plans to maintain the supply. If the supply can no longer be maintained in the event of an incident, municipalities, through local disaster relief authorities among others, can (with the support of the district or the federal state) help with replacement supply measures (e.g. temporary laying of connecting pipes). If the extent of a supply failure increases, the Federal Government can contribute to the replacement supply (e.g. through self-sufficient wells, transport containers, mobile treatment plants) in accordance with §12 of the German Civil Protection and Disaster Relief Act. After flooding or during drought events, municipalities can issue orders to boil all drinking water to kill germs and thus ensure a safe drinking water quality [ 100 ].
In order to describe flood risks and damage potentials in Germany and Europe and to focus related measures, the EU directive on the assessment and management of flood risks [ 101 ] came into force on November 26, 2007 and was transposed into national law on March 01, 2010. Furthermore, a national spatial development plan for flood protection came into force on September 01, 2021 [ 102 ]. Likewise, heavy rain hazard maps can help to raise awareness among the population or help those responsible to take necessary structural measures [ 103 ].
In order to protect the particularly vulnerable group of emergency personnel in forest fires and to prepare them for operations, the German fire brigade association has published a recommendation on safety and tactics during vegetation fires [ 104 ]. The population can be informed about forest fire hazards and correct behaviour by means of information boards, flyers [ 81 , 105 ] and other services such as the forest fire hazard index [ 106 ] and grassland fire index [ 107 ] of the German Meteorological Service (both currently available from March to October each year). In addition, silvicultural measures can be implemented to prevent forest fires, such as creating firebreaks or increasing the proportion of hardwoods in coniferous forests and reforesting with deciduous trees instead of conifers [ 105 ]. For early detection and suppression of forest fires, an automated early wildfire detection system is used in Lower Saxony, Brandenburg, Berlin, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt [ 105 , 108 ].
A political framework for strengthening Germany’s resilience to extreme weather events is provided by strategies that can be used to define and implement measures, e.g. the German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change, the German Strategy for Strengthening Resilience to Disasters and the National Water Strategy for Germany [ 109–111 ].
Extreme weather events, which already posed substantial health risks for Germany in the past, are expected to occur more frequently in the future due to climate change. The evidence is clearest for heatwaves, but hydrological events (heavy rain, floods, droughts) are also likely to increase. For storms, however, the evidence is less clear.
A key message at this point is that extreme weather events can only trigger disasters if they hit a vulnerable population and/or a vulnerable infrastructure. Although the complexity of human-environment systems makes it impossible to predict all interactions, adaptation measures can significantly reduce the risk. Many adaptation measures protect against different risks at the same time. In addition to planning measures, these include increasing the population’s ability to protect itself through knowledge and strengthening of social networks.
The healthcare system must be able to respond to extreme weather events on different time scales. In disaster situations, injuries and poisonings must be treated on site and it is necessary to ensure continuous care for those pregnant or with pre-existing conditions in order to minimise long-term consequences. When organising relief efforts, it is important to consider vulnerable groups and their needs. For this purpose, it would be important, for example, to know the residence of those people who cannot independently evacuate in the event of a disaster. In the medium and long term, the restoration of mental health is important, and healthcare resources must be earmarked for this. This also means that capacity building to respond to the challenges outlined here in the short, medium and long term must be part of climate change adaptation. In addition to disaster management, this also applies to the healthcare system, where necessary backup capacities must be created and permanently maintained.
One difficulty in recording the health impacts of extreme weather events is often inadequate data – both with regard to the events themselves and the health consequences. Especially the indirect consequences that unfold via cascading risks are not systematically recorded. For improved risk management, the creation of a database with comparable case studies would be an important knowledge base. This should integrate the different types of data and knowledge mentioned – from meteorological observations to descriptions of the event by the population – and thus enable the measuring of cascading effects.
In view of the available knowledge on future developments, it is advisable for all actors to review existing levels of protection. Authorities, the healthcare system, civil society and citizens must be aware of the shift in risks and actively adapt within their scope of action. Particular attention must be paid to vulnerable groups who cannot help themselves. How society deals with changing risks will pose major challenges in the coming decades. This includes negotiating responsibilities for preparedness and loss management. One important key to promoting social resilience in this context is empowering people to protect themselves – individually and in social networks.
Liza-Marie Beckers works in the BMDV Expert Network, which is funded by the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport.
The publication was coordinated through the project KlimGesundAkt, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Health (chapter 1504; title 54401 HJ2021; duration 07/2021–06/2024).
The German version of the article is available at: www.rki.de/jhealthmonit
Conflicts of interest
The authors declared no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgement
The KlimGesundAkt coordination team at Robert Koch Institute would like to thank the following persons for their work on the project’s advisory board: Sophie Gepp, Elke Hertig, Claudia Hornberg, Tanja-Maria Kessel, Andreas Matzarakis, Odile Mekel, Susanne Moebus, Jonas Schmidt-Chanasit, Alexandra Schneider, Klaus Stark, Wolfgang Straff and Maike Voss.
Note: External contributions do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Robert Koch Institute
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Phoenix, Arizona, can regularly experience temperatures above 40°C during its hottest months. Credit: Justin Sullivan/Getty
This story is part of special report on science and extreme heat. Read about the scientists studying how scorching temperatures affect the body , how climate change is intensifying health problems and the record-breaking warming at the Great Barrier Reef .
George Luber was warming up to compete in his third tennis match on a hot summer’s day in Connecticut. Suddenly, in a daze, he started to drift in circles around the end of the court. Then he began vomiting. The next thing Luber remembers is waking up in hospital, where he was treated for heat stroke for three days. He was a healthy 12-year-old, and it was 1982.
What is the hottest temperature humans can survive? These labs are redefining the limit
Luber, now a medical anthropologist at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, knows that those most at risk from extreme heat include older people, pregnant women and outdoor workers. But his experience shows that hot weather can affect you even “if you’re a healthy young person with no pre-existing conditions”.
Extreme heat is a serious public-health threat: on average, it kills more people in the United States than any other weather event, including hurricanes, floods and extreme cold. The effects of scorching temperatures are exacerbated in cities, where buildings and roads soak up warmth. As Earth’s warming climate intensifies the problem , scientists are investigating evidence-based measures to make cities safer during hot periods. Researchers say that although progress has been made to address the threat, there are still obstacles to cities’ efforts to track mortality rates and implement solutions.
Luber has seen first hand the devastating effect that scorching temperatures can have in cities. In 2003, when he was studying extreme heat at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, more than 70,000 people died in one of Europe’s worst heatwaves. Luber flew to Paris, which was particularly hard hit, to study the event. “The morgues were overflowing,” he says. “They had to get refrigerated trucks to put the bodies in and it was a massive panic.”
Extreme heat harms health — what is the human body’s limit?
Cities are hotspots because of the urban ‘heat island’ effect: buildings, roads and other impervious surfaces absorb the Sun’s heat during the day and radiate warmth into the night, raising air temperatures. High night-time temperatures amplify the problem, Luber says, because the body can only withstand searing heat for short periods . Illnesses related to heat can develop slowly, when people cannot find respite for several days. That’s why the highest mortality rates occur a few days into a heatwave, he says.
The stagnant air that accompanies a heatwave also magnifies air pollution, because ground-level ozone and particulate matter become more concentrated when the air does not circulate. Cities with high levels of air pollution, such as Los Angeles in California and Beijing face dismal air quality when the heat rises. This can compound the effects of heat on health.
Cooling stations with water can help people to lower their core body temperatures when conditions are scorching. Credit: Vishal Bhatnagar/NurPhoto via Getty
As the climate changes , places already burdened with extreme heat are now projected to have more dangerous heat days per year. But heatwaves will be deadliest in places that have historically not suffered from extreme high temperatures, Luber says, “because dealing with the heat is not only a physical thing, it’s a cultural and behavioural thing”.
Small shifts in behaviour alone will not protect people from heat. Eleni Myrivili is global chief heat officer at the United Nations Human Settlements Programme and is based in Athens, where summer temperatures can exceed 40°C. A 16-day heatwave in the city this July was “absolutely unbearable”, Myrivili says. “It’s almost like the whole city is in a state of depression. Nobody wants to do anything, everybody’s feeling kind of nauseated and kind of weird.”
Cities should approach the problem by raising awareness, providing resources and redesigning the built environment, Myrivili says.
Vulnerable populations, including people living in poverty, need to know that they are at risk and where they can access services when temperatures rise. Myrivili suggests that cities set up cooling stations — with air conditioners, fans and water — in areas that have the least relief from the heat, so that people can lower their core body temperatures for a recommended 2–3 hours per day. She also says that insurance should be available to people who work outdoors to cover lost wages when weather conditions make working unsafe.
Such a scheme was trialled in India in May, which has been experiencing periods of deadly heat. A non-profit organization called Climate Resilience for All partnered with the insurance company Swiss Re to help cover the lost wages of 46,000 women when temperatures became dangerous.
Dileep Mavalankar, former director of the Indian Institute of Public Health in Gandhinagar, helped to create India’s first ‘heat action plan’ in the city of Ahmedabad in 2013 after a 2010 heatwave killed 1,344 people there. The plan includes making public announcements in the days before high temperatures, providing cooling stations and preparing the emergency services for the event.
Cities must protect people from extreme heat
Mavalankar says that although these measures are probably helping, he cannot assess by how much, because death-registration data are not systematically made public.
Even in places where national data are available, gaps in local information can make understanding and addressing the problem difficult. Greece, for instance, does not collect hospital data linking mortality and morbidity to extreme heat. Instead, after a heatwave, the national death toll is estimated by comparing how many people normally die with how many people died during the hot period. Myrivili doesn’t know how many died during the latest heatwave in Athens, or which areas were hit the hardest.
Redesigning cities to have more green, natural features that provide shade and release moisture is the next step. Growing trees and increasing access to cool outdoor spaces “can make a difference between life and death”, Myrivili says. But “even though we know, generally, what the solutions are, they need to be custom made and adapted to the specifics of very localized challenges”.
A study published on 12 August in Nature Medicine 1 shows that some strategies might be working. Elisa Gallo, an epidemiologist at the Barcelona Institute for Global Health in Spain, and her colleagues estimated that 47,690 people in Europe died from heat in 2023. Using statistical modelling, the team calculated that if the record-breaking heat of 2023 had occurred at the start of the century, the death toll would have been 80% higher than if it had happened between 2015 and 2019.
The city of Fort Collins in Colorado is working with scientists to introduce effective cooling features such as trees. Credit: Marek Uliasz/Alamy
Although it’s not clear which policies work best, Gallo says that European countries are now better able to protect people than they were in 2003. Her next step is to assess the strategies key to achieving this. “Climate change needs to be considered as a health issue,” Gallo says, adding that extreme-weather events might be the easiest way for people to understand that.
Improved data collection is one thing that would help scientists to assess strategies’ effectiveness. For instance, many studies analysing the urban heat-island effect use satellite data, which tend to measure surface temperatures. Melissa McHale, an urban ecologist at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, says that can lead to misguided policies.
She offers the example of painting roads and buildings white. “We realized when we were standing in those white places that it was really uncomfortable, but from the satellite it looked cooler,” she says. Instead of absorbing the Sun’s heat, white roads reflect it onto people — who experience radiant and ambient air temperatures rather than the surface temperature, she says. Although studies show that making roofs white can reduce temperatures in cities by a couple of degrees, painting roads white — as has been done in Phoenix, Arizona, and Los Angeles — could worsen the problem for pedestrians.
McHale is working with the city of Fort Collins in Colorado on which solutions to implement and where — such as the addition of trees to bus stops. Her team is measuring air temperatures around homes and analysing water and energy consumption — a hyper-local approach that she says will help the city to budget resources to improve people’s comfort.
She also suggests that cities dedicate more space to parks, but notes that this is difficult when balancing needs such as affordable housing and keeping water use low in arid places.
The idea of ‘depaving’ — tearing out roads and car parks and replacing them with green space — is growing in popularity in cities such as Portland, Oregon, and Amsterdam. “We’re addicted to the car, and it’s going to be hard to build liveable cities when we’re building cities for cars,” McHale says.
There is promise in the fact that cities are constantly being rebuilt, Luber says — the average construction turnover is 30–50 years. “Every single heat death can be prevented, we just need to have the resources and willingness to do it.”
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-02705-x
Gallo, E. et al. Nature Medicine https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03186-1 (2024).
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Exiting nps.govStormy weather, nor'easters in new england. cold fronts in texas. orange streams in alaska. in this issue, we see how park and partner scientists are working to understand extreme weather impacts. and how other kinds of extremes can affect our practice of science.. By Marie Lawrence Image credit: NPS If I had to pick one theme running through this issue, it would be extremes. Extreme weather for one. Because as author Catherine Schmitt tells us , that’s how we each personally experience climate change. I was in New York City in 2012 when Hurricane Sandy hit. I spent much of that experience in a stairwell. That’s because the supposedly fortified glass windows in my apartment were shaking alarmingly from the storm raging outside. The next morning, the cars in front of my building were in water up to the door handles. As Schmitt points out, many of us have stories like that, and sharing them is a good way to start talking about climate science. Sometimes, parks don’t know as much as they need to about threats accelerated by climate change, like landslides, until someone takes the time to study them, as Jonathan Malzone’s article relates. With knowledge comes the power to take actions that work. Whether they’re to protect songbirds from dying needlessly because we love our picture windows , as Reimer and coauthors tell us. To foster healthy pollinator populations like fledgling scientists Grace Kowalski and Nina Crawford did. To improve safety for those who study radioactive fossils, as in Karina Rapp’s story. Or, as Nicole Frey and Chad Wildermuth point out, to protect wildlife from well-meaning but misguided attention. Parks are intimately connected to the landscapes around them and to the broader global climate. For some, the impacts of this are as vivid and unnerving as the Alaskan orange streams in Nina Chambers’ article . How healthy a park wetland is could affect flood water levels and the safety of nearby communities, as the lead feature article by Jason Flynn and Lauren Gibson illustrates. Extreme cold weather from the north has had a devastating impact on an ancient and globally imperiled species in the south, the green sea turtles talked about in Donna Shaver and J. Shelby Walker’s story. The article by Jeb Wofford and Even Childress tells us that some eastern rivers are losing valuable native fish because the water is too warm . People from different jurisdictions are coming together to save species essential to our nation’s character. But hope, as Emily Dickinson said, is the thing with feathers. It prevails. In some cases, it manifests when scientists and land managers cooperate to protect resources pushed to the extreme. People from different jurisdictions are coming together to save species essential to our nation’s character. Like the long-lived whitebark pine in the story by the Five Needle Pines Team . Or the immense sagebrush habitat described by Tom Rodhouse and colleagues . Both of these stories and the lead feature show how recent federal funding through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and the Inflation Reduction Act has energized critical work like this. Other stories in this issue are about work with a different kind of national or global impact. One is Avani Skye Fachon’s delightful tale of restoring eelgrass on the Pacific coast and the otters who appreciate it. Another is Catherine Cooper and Janine da Silva’s animated yarn about sharing a beloved sailing ship with the entire world through 3D imaging. A third is Sara Melena and Eva DiDonato’s description of a key behavioral science study on conveying information about environmentally friendly sunscreen . You may feel the urge to check the ingredient list on your own bottle. As dramatic as the physical impacts of climate change can be, it’s the mental, emotional, and social consequences that stay with us. That’s the message in the article by Julianne Reas and colleagues , who point out the wisdom of finding scientifically sound tools to prepare for the personal toll of a disaster before it hits. One of these may be finding a quiet place, something Jessica Weinberg McClosky says parks can actually map in three dimensions . But, as Michael Whiteman-Jones reveals , our life experiences and historical legacy may convince us to adopt extreme views, influencing how we and others look at science in the first place. Our biases can blind us to other ways of knowing and destroy trust. Yet being open to change and listening to what others have to say, Lina Fink reassures us , can go a long way to restoring it. About the author Marie Lawrence is the editor of Park Science magazine . You Might Also Like
Last updated: August 31, 2024 To revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories .
Your Guide to Surviving Extreme WeatherThis story originally appeared on Grist and is part of the Climate Desk collaboration. No matter where you live, extreme weather can hit your area, causing damage to homes, power outages, and dangerous or deadly conditions. If you’re on the coast, it may be a hurricane ; in the Midwest or South, a tornado ; in the West, wildfires ; and as we’ve seen in recent years, anywhere can experience heat waves or flash flooding . Living through a disaster and its aftermath can be both traumatic and chaotic, from the immediate losses of life and belongings to conflicting information around where to access aid. The weeks and months after may be even more difficult, as the attention on your community is gone but civic services and events have stalled or changed drastically. Grist compiled this resource guide to help you stay prepared and informed. It looks at everything from how to find the most accurate forecasts to signing up for emergency alerts to the roles that different agencies play in disaster aid. Flooding in Merced, California, following a “bomb cyclone” in January 2023. Where to Find the Facts on DisastersThese days, many people find out about disasters in their area via social media. But it’s important to make sure the information you’re receiving is accurate. Here’s where to find the facts on extreme weather and the most reliable places to check for emergency alerts and updates. Your local emergency manager: Your city or county will have an emergency management department, which is part of the local government. In larger cities, it’s often a separate agency; in smaller communities, fire chiefs or sheriff’s offices may manage emergency response and alerts. Emergency managers are responsible for communicating with the public about disasters, managing rescue and response efforts, and coordinating between different agencies. They usually have an SMS-based emergency alert system, so sign up for those via your local website. (Note: Some cities have multiple languages available, but most emergency alerts are only in English.) Many emergency management agencies are active on Facebook, so check there for updates as well. Local news: The local television news and social media accounts from verified news sources will have live updates during and after a storm. Follow your local newspaper and television station on Facebook or other social media, or check their websites regularly. Weather stations and apps: The Weather Channel, Apple Weather, and Google will have information on major storms, but that may not be the case for smaller-scale weather events, and you shouldn’t rely on these apps to tell you if you need to evacuate or move to higher ground. National Weather Service: This agency, also known as NWS, is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and offers information and updates on everything from wildfires to hurricanes to air quality. You can enter your zip code on weather.gov and customize your homepage. The NWS also has regional and local branches where you can sign up for SMS alerts. If you’re in a rural area or somewhere that isn’t highlighted on its maps, keep an eye out for local alerts and evacuation orders, as NWS may not have as much information ahead of time. Cal Fire firefighters livestream images and data from efforts to contain the Park Fire near Chico, California, on July 29. How to Pack an Emergency KitAs you prepare for a storm, it’s important to have an emergency kit ready in case you lose power or need to leave your home. Review this checklist from the Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA , for what to pack so you can stay safe, hydrated, and healthy. These can often be expensive to create, so contact your local disaster aid organizations, houses of worship, or charities to see if there are free or affordable kits available. Try to gather as much as you can ahead of time in case shelves are empty when a storm is on the way. Some of the most important things to have:
Don’t Forget: Documents One of the most important things to have in your emergency kit is documents you may need to prove your residence, demonstrate extent of damage, and vote. FEMA often requires you to provide these documents in order to receive financial assistance after a disaster.
You can find more details about why you may need these documents here . A volunteer assesses the remains of a charred apartment complex after a wildfire swept Lahaina, Hawaii, in 2023. Disaster Aid 101It can be hard to know who to lean on or trust when it comes to natural disasters. Where do official evacuation orders come from, for example, or whom do you call if you need to be rescued? And where can you get money to help pay for emergency housing or to rebuild your home or community? Here’s a breakdown of the government officials and agencies in charge of delivering aid before, during, and after a disaster: Emergency management agencies: Almost all cities and counties have local emergency management departments, which are part of the local government. Sometimes they’re agencies all their own, but in smaller communities, fire chiefs or sheriff’s offices may manage emergency response and alerts. These departments are the first line of defense during a weather disaster. They’re responsible for communicating with the public about incoming disasters, managing rescue and response efforts during an extreme weather event, and coordinating between different agencies. Many emergency management agencies, however, have a small staff and are underresourced. Much of the work that emergency managers do happens before a disaster: They develop response plans that lay out evacuation routes and communication procedures, and they also delegate responsibility to different government agencies like the police, fire, and public health departments. Most counties and cities publish these plans online. In most cases, they are the most trustworthy resource in the days just before and just after a hurricane or other big weather event. They’ll send out alerts and warnings, coordinate evacuation efforts, and direct survivors and victims to resources and shelter. You can find your state emergency management agency here . There isn’t a comprehensive list by county or city, but if you search your location online you’ll likely find a website, a page on the county or city website, or a Facebook page that posts updates. Law enforcement: County sheriffs and city police departments are often the largest and best-staffed agencies in a given community, so they play a key role during disasters. Sheriff’s departments often enforce mandatory evacuation orders, going door-to-door to ensure that people vacate an area. They manage traffic flow during evacuations and help conduct search and rescue operations. Law enforcement agencies may restrict access to disaster areas for the first few days after a flood or fire. In most states, city and county governments also have the power to issue curfew orders, and law enforcement officers can enforce these curfews with fines or even arrests. In some rural counties, the sheriff’s department may serve as the emergency management department. Lexington firefighters’ swift water teams rescue people stranded by extreme rain in Lost Creek, Kentucky, in 2022. Governor: State governors control several key aspects of disaster response. They have the power to declare a state of emergency, which allows them to deploy rescue and repair workers, distribute financial assistance to local governments, and activate the state National Guard. The governor has a key role in the immediate response to a disaster, but a smaller role in distributing aid and assistance to individual disaster victims. In almost all US states, and all hurricane-prone states along the Gulf of Mexico, the governor also has the power to announce mandatory evacuation orders. The penalty for not following these orders differs, but it is most often a cash fine. (Though states seldom enforce these penalties.) The state government also decides whether to implement other transportation procedures such as contraflow, where officials reverse traffic flow on one side of a highway to allow larger amounts of people to evacuate. HUD: The Department of Housing and Urban Development, or HUD, also spends billions of dollars to help communities recover after disasters, building new housing and public buildings such as schools—but this money takes much longer to arrive. Unlike FEMA, HUD must wait for Congress to approve its post-disaster work, and then it must dole out grants to states for specific projects. In some cases, such as the aftermaths of Hurricane Laura in Louisiana or Hurricane Florence in North Carolina, it took years for projects to get off the ground. States and local governments, not individual people, apply for money from HUD, but the agency can direct you to FEMA or housing counselors. A sign reading, “FEMA please help make Mexico Beach great again,” on a house damaged by Hurricane Michael in Florida in 2018. The Federal Emergency Management Agency is the federal government’s main disaster response agency. It provides assistance to states and local governments during large events like hurricanes, wildfires, and floods. FEMA is part of the Department of Homeland Security. FEMA is almost never the first resource on the ground after a disaster strikes. In order for the agency to send resources to a disaster area, the state’s governor must first request a disaster declaration from the president, and the president must approve it. For large disasters such as Category 4 or 5 hurricanes, this typically happens fast. For smaller disasters, like severe rain or flooding events, it can take weeks or even months for the president to grant a declaration and activate the agency. FEMA has historically not responded to heat waves. FEMA is broken into regional offices and offers specific contacts and information for each of those, as well as for tribal nations . You can find your FEMA region here . FEMA has two primary roles after a federally declared disaster: Contributing to community rebuilding costs: The agency helps states and local governments pay for the cost of removing debris and rebuilding public infrastructure. During the most extreme events, the agency also deploys its own teams of firefighters and rescue workers to help locate missing people, clear roadways, and restore public services. For the most part, states and local law enforcement conduct on-the-ground recovery work. ( Read more about FEMA’s responsibilities and programs here .) Individual financial assistance: FEMA provides financial assistance to people who have lost their homes and belongings. This assistance can take several forms. FEMA gives out preloaded debit cards to help people buy food and fuel in the first days after a disaster, and it may also provide cash payments for home repairs that your insurance doesn’t cover. The agency also provides up to 18 months of housing assistance for people who lose their homes in a disaster, and it sometimes houses disaster survivors in its own manufactured housing units or “FEMA trailers.” FEMA also sometimes covers funeral and grieving expenses as well as medical and dental treatment. In the aftermath of a disaster, FEMA offers survivors:
If you are a US citizen or meet certain qualifications as a noncitizen and live in a federal disaster declaration area, you are eligible for financial assistance . Regardless of citizenship or immigration status, if you are affected by a disaster you may be eligible for crisis counseling, disaster legal services, disaster case management, medical care, shelter, food, and water. FEMA representatives take information from people displaced by Hurricane Ian in Estero, Florida, in 2022. FEMA also runs the National Flood Insurance Program , which provides insurance coverage of up to $350,000 for home flood damage. The agency recommends that everyone who lives in a flood zone purchase this coverage—and most mortgage lenders require it for borrowers in flood zones—though many homes outside the zones are also vulnerable. You must begin paying for flood insurance at least 30 days before a disaster in order to be eligible for a payout. You can check if your home is in a flood zone by using this FEMA website . How to get FEMA aid: The easiest way to apply for individual assistance from FEMA is to fill out the application form on disasterassistance.gov . This is easiest to do from a personal computer over Wi-Fi, but you can do it from a smartphone with cellular data if necessary. This website does not become active until the president issues a disaster declaration. Some important things to know:
Visiting a FEMA site in your area after a disaster: FEMA disaster recovery centers are facilities and mobile units where you can find information about the agency’s programs as well as other state and local resources. FEMA representatives can help you navigate the aid application process or direct you to nonprofits, shelters, or state and local resources. Visit this website to locate a recovery center in your area or text “DRC” and a zip code to 43362. Example: DRC 01234. A woman looks over her apartment in Fort Myers, Florida, after Hurricane Ian inundated it with floodwaters in 2022. What to Expect After a DisasterDisasters affect people in many different ways, and it’s normal to grieve your losses—personal, professional, community—in your own time. Here are a few resources if you need mental health support after experiencing an extreme weather event.
After a disaster is an especially vulnerable time. Beware of scams and make sure to know your rights.
Residents of Paradise, California, visit the town’s planning department to file permitting applications to rebuild homes and other structures after the devastating 2018 Camp Fire. What to Keep in Mind Before, During, and After a DisasterThe most important thing to consider during a disaster is your own, your family’s, and your community’s safety. The National Weather Service has a guide for hurricanes and floods ; FEMA has a guide for wildfires ; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has a guide for extreme heat safety . A few potentially lifesaving things to remember:
You Might Also Like …In your inbox: Our biggest stories , handpicked for you each day How one bad CrowdStrike update crashed the world’s computers The Big Story: How soon might the Atlantic Ocean break ? Welcome to the internet's hyper-consumption era Extreme weather 101: Your guide to staying prepared and informedHow to pack a go-bag, get emergency alerts, and find disaster aid.. No matter where you live, extreme weather can hit your area, causing damage to homes, power outages, and dangerous or deadly conditions. If you’re on the coast, it may be a hurricane ; in the Midwest or South, a tornado ; in the West, wildfires ; and as we’ve seen in recent years, anywhere can experience heat waves or flash flooding . Living through a disaster and its aftermath can be both traumatic and chaotic, from the immediate losses of life and belongings to conflicting information around where to access aid. The weeks and months after may be even more difficult, as the attention on your community is gone but civic services and events have stalled or changed drastically. Grist compiled this resource guide to help you stay prepared and informed. It looks at everything from how to find the most accurate forecasts to signing up for emergency alerts to the roles that different agencies play in disaster aid. Where to find the facts on disastersThese days, many people find out about disasters in their area via social media. But it’s important to make sure the information you’re receiving is accurate. Here’s where to find the facts on extreme weather and the most reliable places to check for emergency alerts and updates. Grist thanks its sponsors. Become one . To support our nonprofit environmental journalism, please consider disabling your ad-blocker to allow ads on Grist. Here's How Your local emergency manager: Your city or county will have an emergency management department, which is part of the local government. In larger cities, it’s often a separate agency; in smaller communities, fire chiefs or sheriff’s offices may manage emergency response and alerts. Emergency managers are responsible for communicating with the public about disasters, managing rescue and response efforts, and coordinating between different agencies. They usually have an SMS-based emergency alert system, so sign up for those via your local website (Note: Some cities have multiple languages available, but most emergency alerts are only in English.) Many emergency management agencies are active on Facebook, so check there for updates as well. Local news: The local television news and social media accounts from verified news sources will have live updates during and after a storm. Follow your local newspaper and television station on Facebook or other social media, or check their websites regularly. Weather stations and apps: The Weather Channel, Apple Weather, and Google will have information on major storms, but that may not be the case for smaller-scale weather events, and you shouldn’t rely on these apps to tell you if you need to evacuate or move to higher ground. National Weather Service: This agency, also known as NWS, is part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and offers information and updates on everything from wildfires to hurricanes to air quality. You can enter your zip code on weather.gov and customize your homepage. The NWS also has regional and local branches where you can sign up for SMS alerts. If you’re in a rural area or somewhere that isn’t highlighted on its maps, keep an eye out for local alerts and evacuation orders, as NWS may not have as much information ahead of time. How to pack an emergency kitAs you prepare for a storm, it’s important to have an emergency kit ready in case you lose power or need to leave your home. Review this checklist from the Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA , for what to pack so you can stay safe, hydrated, and healthy. These can often be expensive to create, so contact your local disaster aid organizations, houses of worship, or charities to see if there are free or affordable kits available. Try to gather as much as you can ahead of time in case shelves are empty when a storm is on the way. Some of the most important things to have:
Don’t forget: Documents One of the most important things to have in your emergency kit is documents you may need to prove your residence, demonstrate extent of damage, and vote. FEMA often requires you to provide these documents in order to receive financial assistance after a disaster.
You can find more details about why you may need these documents here . Disaster aid 101It can be hard to know who to lean on or trust when it comes to natural disasters. Where do official evacuation orders come from, for example, or who do you call if you need to be rescued? And where can you get money to help pay for emergency housing or to rebuild your home or community. Here’s a breakdown of the government officials and agencies in charge of delivering aid before, during, and after a disaster: Emergency management agencies: Almost all cities and counties have local emergency management departments, which are part of the local government. Sometimes they’re agencies all their own, but in smaller communities, fire chiefs or sheriff’s offices may manage emergency response and alerts. These departments are the first line of defense during a weather disaster. They’re responsible for communicating with the public about incoming disasters, managing rescue and response efforts during an extreme weather event, and coordinating between different agencies. Many emergency management agencies, however, have a small staff and are under-resourced. Much of the work that emergency managers do happens before a disaster: They develop response plans that lay out evacuation routes and communication procedures, and they also delegate responsibility to different government agencies like the police, fire, and public health departments. Most counties and cities publish these plans online. In most cases, they are the most trustworthy resource in the days just before and just after a hurricane or other big weather event. They’ll send out alerts and warnings, coordinate evacuation efforts, and direct survivors and victims to resources and shelter. You can find your state emergency management agency here . There isn’t a comprehensive list by county or city, but if you search your location online you’ll likely find a website, a page on the county or city website, or a Facebook page that posts updates. Law enforcement: County sheriffs and city police departments are often the largest and best-staffed agencies in a given community, so they play a key role during disasters. Sheriff’s departments often enforce mandatory evacuation orders, going door-to-door to ensure that people vacate an area. They manage traffic flow during evacuations and help conduct search and rescue operations. Law enforcement agencies may restrict access to disaster areas for the first few days after a flood or fire. In most states, city and county governments also have the power to issue curfew orders, and law enforcement officers can enforce these curfews with fines or even arrests. In some rural counties, the sheriff’s department may serve as the emergency management department. Governor: State governors control several key aspects of disaster response. They have the power to declare a state of emergency, which allows them to deploy rescue and repair workers, distribute financial assistance to local governments, and activate the state National Guard. The governor has a key role in the immediate response to a disaster, but a smaller role in distributing aid and assistance to individual disaster victims. In almost all U.S. states, and all hurricane-prone states along the Gulf of Mexico, the governor also has the power to announce mandatory evacuation orders. The penalty for not following these orders differs, but is most often a cash fine. (Though states seldom enforce these penalties.) The state government also decides whether to implement other transportation procedures such as contraflow, where officials reverse traffic flow on one side of a highway to allow larger amounts of people to evacuate. HUD: The Department of Housing and Urban Development, or HUD, also spends billions of dollars to help communities recover after disasters, building new housing and public buildings such as schools — but this money takes much longer to arrive. Unlike FEMA, HUD must wait for Congress to approve its post-disaster work, and then it must dole out grants to states for specific projects. In some cases, such as the aftermaths of Hurricane Laura in Louisiana or Hurricane Florence in North Carolina, it took years for projects to get off the ground. States and local governments, not individual people, apply for money from HUD, but the agency can direct you to FEMA or housing counselors. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA , is the federal government’s main disaster response agency. It provides assistance to states and local governments during large events like hurricanes, wildfires, and floods. FEMA is part of the Department of Homeland Security. FEMA is almost never the first resource on the ground after a disaster strikes. In order for the agency to send resources to a disaster area, the state’s governor must first request a disaster declaration from the president, and the president must approve it. For large disasters such as Category 4 or 5 hurricanes, this typically happens fast. For smaller disasters, like severe rain or flooding events, it can take weeks or even months for the president to grant a declaration and activate the agency. FEMA has historically not responded to heat waves. FEMA is broken into regional offices and offers specific contacts and information for each of those, as well as for tribal nations . You can find your FEMA region here . FEMA has two primary roles after a federally declared disaster: Contributing to community rebuilding costs: The agency helps states and local governments pay for the cost of removing debris and rebuilding public infrastructure. During only the most extreme events, the agency also deploys its own teams of firefighters and rescue workers to help locate missing people, clear roadways, and restore public services. For the most part, states and local law enforcement conduct on-the-ground recovery work. ( Read more about FEMA’s responsibilities and programs here .) Individual financial assistance : FEMA gives out financial assistance to individual people who have lost their homes and belongings. This assistance can take several forms. FEMA gives out pre-loaded debit cards to help people buy food and fuel in the first days after a disaster, and may also provide cash payments for home repairs that your insurance doesn’t cover. The agency also provides up to 18 months of housing assistance for people who lose their homes in a disaster, and sometimes houses disaster survivors in its own manufactured housing units or “FEMA trailers.” FEMA also sometimes covers funeral and grieving expenses as well as medical and dental treatment. In the aftermath of a disaster, FEMA offers survivors:
If you are a U.S. citizen or meet certain qualifications as a non-citizen and live in a federal disaster declaration area, you are eligible for financial assistance . Regardless of citizenship or immigration status, if you are affected by a disaster you may be eligible for crisis counseling, disaster legal services, disaster case management, medical care, shelter, food, and water. FEMA also runs the National Flood Insurance Program , which provides insurance coverage of up to $350,000 for home flood damage. The agency recommends that everyone who lives in a flood zone purchase this coverage — and most mortgage lenders require it for borrowers in flood zones — though many homes outside the zones are also vulnerable. You must begin paying for flood insurance at least 30 days before a disaster in order to be eligible for a payout. You can check if your home is in a flood zone by using this FEMA website . How to get FEMA aid: The easiest way to apply for individual assistance from FEMA is to fill out the application form on disasterassistance.gov . This is easiest to do from a personal computer over Wi-Fi, but you can do it from a smartphone with cellular data if necessary. This website does not become active until the president issues a disaster declaration. Some important things to know:
Visiting a FEMA site in your area after a disaster: FEMA disaster recovery centers are facilities and mobile units where you can find information about the agency’s programs as well as other state and local resources. FEMA representatives can help you navigate the aid application process or direct you to nonprofits, shelters, or state and local resources. Visit this website to locate a recovery center in your area or text DRC and a ZIP Code to 43362. Example: DRC 01234. What to expect after a disasterDisasters affect people in many different ways, and it’s normal to grieve your losses — personal, professional, community — in your own time. Here are a few resources if you need mental health support after experiencing an extreme weather event.
After a disaster is an especially vulnerable time. Beware of scams and make sure to know your rights.
What to keep in mind before, during, and after a disasterThe most important thing to consider during a disaster is your own, your family’s, and your community’s safety. The National Weather Service has a guide for hurricanes and floods ; FEMA has a guide for wildfires ; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has a guide for extreme heat safety . A few potentially life-saving things to remember:
Did we miss something? Please let us know by emailing [email protected]. A message from All donations matched for a limited time!Grist is the only award-winning newsroom focused on exploring equitable solutions to climate change. It’s vital reporting made entirely possible by loyal readers like you. At Grist, we don’t believe in paywalls. Instead, we rely on our readers to pitch in what they can so that we can continue bringing you our solution-based climate news. Donate now, and your gift has twice the impact. All donations matched for a limited time. Grist is the only award-winning newsroom focused on exploring equitable solutions to climate change. It’s vital reporting made entirely possible by loyal readers like you. At Grist, we don’t believe in paywalls. Instead, we rely on our readers to pitch in what they can so that we can continue bringing you our solution-based climate news. All donations matched for a limited time. How the Marshall Fire sparked a political transformation in ColoradoState of emergency, they settled in houston after katrina — and then faced a political storm, your guide to voting after a disaster, can chief heat officers protect us cities from extreme heat, gop-run districts get 85% of the benefit of climate law. some still hate it., how climate change is expanding the reach of eee, a rare and deadly mosquito-borne illness, nyc’s food delivery workers are sweltering in the heat — and demanding more protection, states are falling behind in using ira funding to advance climate action, modal gallery.
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IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Scientists use a combination of climate models (simulations) and land, air, sea, and space-based observations to research how extreme weather events change over time. First, scientists examine historical records to determine the frequency and intensity of past events. Many of these long-term records date back to the 1950s, though some start in ...
Case studies, methodological approaches, impact studies, but also studies on the natural and anthropogenic drivers of weather and climate extremes will be considered.
In this chapter, case studies are used as examples of how to gain a better understanding of the risks posed by extreme weather and climate-related events while identifying lessons and best practices from past responses to such occurrences.
About this book This edited book assesses the impacts of various extreme weather events on human health and development from a global perspective, and includes several case studies in various geographical regions around the globe. Covering all continents, it describes the impact of extreme weather conditions such as flash floods, heatwaves, cold waves, droughts, forest fires, strong winds and ...
Using the map The map above shows 504 extreme weather events and trends across the globe for which scientists have carried out attribution studies. The different symbols show the type of extreme weather; for example, a heatwave, flood or drought. The colours indicate whether the attribution study found a link to human-caused climate change (red), no link (blue) or was inconclusive (grey).
This page explains how we study extreme weather events, to see if climate change was a cause. These attribution studies help shape our understanding of climate change and its impacts.
A case study of impacts of an extreme weather system on the Mediterranean Sea circulation features: Medicane Apollo (2021) Milena Menna, Riccardo Martellucci, Marco Reale, Gianpiero Cossarini,
Global warming is making some extreme weather events worse. As Earth's climate has warmed, a new pattern of more frequent and more intense weather events has unfolded around the world. Scientists identify these extreme weather events based on the historical record of weather in a particular region.
Extreme weather is becoming more frequent and more intense in many places because of climate change.
Defining thresholds for extreme weather events is important for adaptation but often ignores impacts on climate-vulnerable communities. This research finds current practices do not capture ...
Climate Case Studies. In North Carolina's Outer Banks, the coastal Town of Nags Head is vulnerable to flooding from heavy rain events, hurricanes, tropical storms, nor'easters, and storm surge. To add insult to injury, vulnerability is increasing with sea level rise. Town managers and residents recognized the need to build the town's ...
Climate change affects global temperature and precipitation patterns. These effects, in turn, influence the intensity and, in some cases, the frequency of extreme environmental events, such as forest fires, hurricanes, heat waves, floods, droughts, and storms.
The video can also be connected to a real-world example of an extreme weather event that is attributed to climate change. Educators can ask students to reflect on the causation and correlation between global climate change and the frequency of extreme weather.
For example, inventories provide case studies of adaptation being to some degree unsuccessful, thus contributing to the 'experiences and lessons learned' element that is core to international cooperation.
For example, a mitigation project that improves energy security and access by providing power from renewable energy sources to remote rural communities can at the same time reduce vulnerability to extreme weather and climate events through use of refrigeration to store foods and medication.
Expert meteorologists at AccuWeather say advancements in long-range forecasting, rapid alerts providing people with more time to prepare, and ongoing collaborations helped to save lives and ...
A selection of case studies of different types of severe weather.
In the wake of the destructive Hurricane Otis, we find ourselves at a pivotal moment in the history of weather forecasting. The hurricane roared ashore with 165mph winds and torrential rainfall ...
Case study, experiment, survey, action research, grounded theory and ethnography are examples for such research strategies. Case study is documented as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.
The video could be used to begin a larger discussion about the relationship between weather and climate, potentially using the main points to create further questions. Could be a good introduction to any unit of instruction dealing with the effects of climate change on Earth systems. Be aware that some concepts may need elaboration for younger ...
Health impacts of selected extreme weather events. In this section, first the theoretical perspective on cascading risks is outlined. It is then applied to the extreme weather events under consideration - floods, storms, droughts and fires - in order to systematically illustrate the health impacts of these events.
To ensure the widest use of this research, the ESRI platform will hold interactive datasets convening current weather research, modeled forecasts in shifts for each extreme weather event trigger, thresholds for potential impact, and the case studies to focus data pertinent to each region, sector, and national security implication key concept of their concern. The platform allows for display ...
Extreme heat is a serious public-health threat: on average, it kills more people in the United States than any other weather event, including hurricanes, floods and extreme cold.
Event Summaries and Case Studies Weather.gov Newport/Morehead City, NC 2024 January 9th-10th, 2024 --- Tornadoes and Damaging Winds 2023 December 17th-18th, 2023 --- Strong Nor'easter September 22-23, 2023 --- Tropical Storm Ophelia August 30-31, 2023 --- Tropical Cyclone Idalia May 9, 2023 Large Hail and Damaging Wind 2022
If I had to pick one theme running through this issue, it would be extremes. Extreme weather for one. Because as author Catherine Schmitt tells us, that's how we each personally experience climate change. I was in New York City in 2012 when Hurricane Sandy hit. I spent much of that experience in a stairwell.
Weather stations and apps: The Weather Channel, Apple Weather, and Google will have information on major storms, but that may not be the case for smaller-scale weather events, and you shouldn't ...
Weather stations and apps: The Weather Channel, Apple Weather, and Google will have information on major storms, but that may not be the case for smaller-scale weather events, and you shouldn't ...
Explore the consequences of extreme heat on businesses, from decreased productivity to heightened health threats, and learn how to reduce risks with AccuWeather.
The rapid sinking of such a large, modern and well-equipped yacht due to bad weather, rather than as a result of a collision, has raised concerns over marine safety as extreme weather events occur ...
Extreme Weather Around the World. Across the 17 studied countries, most respondents (roughly six in 10) said they experienced extreme weather in 2022, 2023, and the first half of 2024—particularly extreme summer heat. ... For example, the percentage of respondents who believe climate change is an emergency is relatively low in Germany (51% ...