what is the definition of critical biography

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biography , form of literature , commonly considered nonfictional, the subject of which is the life of an individual. One of the oldest forms of literary expression, it seeks to re-create in words the life of a human being—as understood from the historical or personal perspective of the author—by drawing upon all available evidence, including that retained in memory as well as written, oral, and pictorial material.

Biography is sometimes regarded as a branch of history , and earlier biographical writings—such as the 15th-century Mémoires of the French councellor of state, Philippe de Commynes , or George Cavendish’s 16th-century life of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey —have often been treated as historical material rather than as literary works in their own right. Some entries in ancient Chinese chronicles included biographical sketches; imbedded in the Roman historian Tacitus ’s Annals is the most famous biography of the emperor Tiberius ; conversely , Sir Winston Churchill ’s magnificent life of his ancestor John Churchill, first duke of Marlborough , can be read as a history (written from a special point of view) of Britain and much of Europe during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14). Yet there is general recognition today that history and biography are quite distinct forms of literature. History usually deals in generalizations about a period of time (for example, the Renaissance), about a group of people in time (the English colonies in North America), about an institution (monasticism during the Middle Ages). Biography more typically focuses upon a single human being and deals in the particulars of that person’s life.

Both biography and history, however, are often concerned with the past, and it is in the hunting down, evaluating, and selection of sources that they are akin. In this sense biography can be regarded as a craft rather than an art: techniques of research and general rules for testing evidence can be learned by anyone and thus need involve comparatively little of that personal commitment associated with art.

A biographer in pursuit of an individual long dead is usually hampered by a lack of sources: it is often impossible to check or verify what written evidence there is; there are no witnesses to cross-examine. No method has yet been developed by which to overcome such problems. Each life, however, presents its own opportunities as well as specific difficulties to the biographer: the ingenuity with which the biographer handles gaps in the record—by providing information, for example, about the age that casts light upon the subject—has much to do with the quality of the resulting work. James Boswell knew comparatively little about Samuel Johnson ’s earlier years; it is one of the greatnesses of his Life of Samuel Johnson LL.D. (1791) that he succeeded, without inventing matter or deceiving the reader, in giving the sense of a life progressively unfolding. Another masterpiece of reconstruction in the face of little evidence is A.J.A. Symons ’ biography of the English author and eccentric Frederick William Rolfe , The Quest for Corvo (1934). A further difficulty is the unreliability of most collections of papers, letters, and other memorabilia edited before the 20th century. Not only did editors feel free to omit and transpose materials, but sometimes the authors of documents revised their personal writings for the benefit of posterity , often falsifying the record and presenting their biographers with a difficult situation when the originals were no longer extant .

The biographer writing the life of a person recently dead is often faced with the opposite problem: an abundance of living witnesses and a plethora of materials, which include the subject’s papers and letters, sometimes transcriptions of telephone conversations and conferences, as well as the record of interviews granted to the biographer by the subject’s friends and associates. Frank Friedel, for example, in creating a biography of the U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt , had to wrestle with something like 40 tons of paper. But finally, when writing the life of any person, whether long or recently dead, the biographer’s chief responsibility is vigorously to test the authenticity of the collected materials by whatever rules and techniques are available. When the subject of a biography is still alive and a contributor to the work, the biographer’s task is to examine the subject’s perspective against multiple, even contradictory sources.

Understanding Biographical Criticism: A Comprehensive Guide

What is biographical criticism, history and development of biographical criticism, how to apply biographical criticism, strengths and weaknesses of biographical criticism, notable examples of biographical criticism, why biographical criticism matters, frequently asked questions about biographical criticism, resources and further reading.

Have you ever wondered how the life of an author can shape their stories? If so, then you're already halfway into the fascinating world of biographical criticism. In this guide, we'll explore the exciting subject of biographical criticism, peeling back the layers to understand its history, development, and its role in literary analysis. Whether you're an avid reader, a literature student, or just someone curious about the inner workings of literature, this guide will serve as a handy resource for you. So, let's jump right in and start our journey into the world of biographical criticism!

Biographical criticism is a form of literary criticism where the life, beliefs, and experiences of the author are used to better understand and interpret their work. It's a way of seeing literature through a different lens—one that's got the author's fingerprints all over it.

Now, you might wonder, why do we care so much about the author's life? Couldn't we just enjoy the story for what it is? Well, here's the thing. Authors don't write in a vacuum. Their lives, their experiences, their beliefs—they all seep into their stories, often in ways that we don't even realize. And that's where the definition of biographical criticism comes in.

The definition of biographical criticism emphasizes the importance of understanding an author's life in interpreting their work. It's like having a secret decoder ring that lets you delve deeper into the story and unearth hidden meanings. Consider the following points:

• Authors often draw from their own life experiences when writing.
• Their personal beliefs and values can shape the themes and messages in their work.
• Understanding the author's background can help you appreciate the context and setting of the story.
• It can provide insights into the author's motivations and intentions, adding a new layer of depth to your reading experience.

By now, you can see that the definition of biographical criticism is more than just a literary term. It's a tool, a way of thinking, that allows you to explore literature on a deeper and more personal level. But remember—it's just one of many lenses you can use to view and interpret literature. It's not the only way, but it's certainly an interesting one!

Now that we've covered the definition of biographical criticism, let's take a trip back in time to see how this approach has evolved over the years. It's a bit like detective work, piecing together clues to form a bigger picture.

Believe it or not, biographical criticism has been around for centuries. In fact, it was quite popular during the Renaissance period, when scholars often studied authors' lives to understand their work. They believed that an author's experiences and beliefs were reflected in their writing, a concept that's still central to biographical criticism today.

However, in the 20th century, things started to change. A group of critics known as the New Critics argued that an author's life should not influence the interpretation of their work. They believed in focusing solely on the text itself, a method known as 'close reading'. This led to the decline of biographical criticism for a while.

But as the saying goes, old habits die hard. In the late 20th century, biographical criticism made a comeback. Scholars began to recognize the value in examining an author's life to gain insights into their work. Today, it's considered a valuable tool in literary analysis, providing a unique perspective that can enhance our understanding of literature.

So, as you can see, the practice of biographical criticism has had its ups and downs over the years. But through it all, the core idea remains the same: the life of an author can offer valuable insights into their work. And that's the beauty of this approach—it allows us to see literature not just as stories, but as reflections of real human experiences.

So, you're wondering how to apply biographical criticism to a piece of literature? It's as easy as pie—if you know where to start, that is. Here's a simple step-by-step guide to help you get the ball rolling.

Step 1: Research the Author's Life

The first step in biographical criticism is to dig into the author's life. Find out where they were born, what their childhood was like, what they studied, their career, relationships, beliefs, and any significant events that occurred during their lifetime. It's a bit like being a detective, isn't it?

Step 2: Read the Work Carefully

Next, read the literary work you're analyzing with care. Pay attention to the themes, characters, and plot. While reading, keep the author's life in mind and see if you can spot any connections. Can you see any reflections of the author's life in the story?

Step 3: Draw Connections

Now comes the fun part—drawing connections between the author's life and their work. For example, maybe the author wrote a lot about poverty and you discovered they grew up in a poor neighborhood. Or perhaps the main character shares similar experiences with the author. These links are the key to biographical criticism.

Step 4: Write Your Analysis

Lastly, it's time to write your analysis. Discuss the connections you've found and explain how they enhance the understanding of the work. Remember, the goal of biographical criticism is to provide a deeper insight into the literary work by viewing it through the lens of the author's life.

And there you have it! You've now learned not just the definition of biographical criticism, but also how to apply it. So, the next time you read a book, why not give it a try? You might be surprised by what you discover.

Just like a superhero, biographical criticism has its strengths and weaknesses. Let's take a closer look at what they are.

Strengths of Biographical Criticism

First, let's talk about the strengths. One major advantage of biographical criticism is that it can add depth and richness to a literary work. By understanding the author's life, you can gain a deeper insight into their mindset, beliefs, and experiences. This can help you understand the themes, characters, and plot on a much deeper level.

Another strength is it makes literature more relatable and real. By linking the author's life to their work, it makes the story feel more personal and human. This can make the reading experience more meaningful and engaging.

Weaknesses of Biographical Criticism

Now, let's shift our focus to the weaknesses. While biographical criticism can be enlightening, it's not without its flaws. One significant drawback is that it can lead to assumptions and misinterpretations. Just because an author has certain experiences, it doesn't mean they're always reflected in their work. Making such assumptions can lead to faulty interpretations.

Another weakness is that it can overshadow the literary work itself. Sometimes, focusing too much on the author's life can divert attention from the literary work's inherent qualities. After all, isn't the story itself the reason we picked up the book in the first place?

So, there you have it—the strengths and weaknesses of biographical criticism. As with any approach, it's important to use it wisely and remember that it's just one way to interpret a literary work.

Let's take a step into the world of literature with some noteworthy examples of biographical criticism. These examples will bring to life the definition of biographical criticism and show you how it works in practice.

First up, let's talk about 'To Kill a Mockingbird' by Harper Lee. This classic novel is often examined through a biographical criticism lens. Lee's childhood experiences in Alabama, especially her observations of racial injustice, played a significant role in shaping the story and characters. By understanding Lee's background, readers can gain a richer understanding of the novel's themes.

Another fascinating example is 'The Bell Jar' by Sylvia Plath. This novel is a semi-autobiographical exploration of Plath's struggles with mental health. By knowing Plath's personal history, we can appreciate the authenticity and depth of the protagonist's experiences.

Finally, let's look at 'The Catcher in the Rye' by J.D. Salinger. Salinger's experiences in World War II and his struggles with fame and privacy heavily influenced the novel's themes and the character of Holden Caulfield. A biographical criticism approach can illuminate these influences and offer a deeper understanding of the novel.

These examples show how biographical criticism can reveal new layers of meaning in a literary work. By considering the author's experiences, you can uncover insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Now that we've explored the definition of biographical criticism and seen it in action, you might be wondering, why does it matter? Well, imagine reading a book without thinking about the author at all. It's like watching a movie without knowing who directed it or listening to a song without knowing who the artist is. Sure, you can enjoy it, but there's a whole other layer of understanding that you're missing out on.

Biographical criticism matters because it allows us to see that extra layer. It's like getting a special pair of glasses that let us see the invisible threads connecting the author's life to their work. It's a reminder that literature isn't created in a vacuum—it's the product of a real person's experiences, thoughts, and emotions.

For instance, knowing that Emily Dickinson spent most of her life in seclusion allows us to better understand the themes of isolation and mortality in her poetry. Similarly, understanding F. Scott Fitzgerald's experiences of the Roaring Twenties helps us appreciate the critique of excess and materialism in 'The Great Gatsby'.

By embracing biographical criticism, we can deepen our understanding of literature and forge a more meaningful connection with the works we read. So the next time you pick up a book, spare a thought for the author's life—you never know what secrets it might reveal about the story you're about to read.

Now that we've gone through the definition of biographical criticism, let's answer some common questions you might have.

Do I always need to know an author's life to enjoy their work?

Absolutely not! While biographical criticism can give us a deeper understanding, it's not a requirement for enjoying a piece of literature. Sometimes, you might just want to lose yourself in a good story—that's perfectly fine too!

Isn't it an invasion of the author's privacy?

A valid concern! However, biographical criticism doesn't mean prying into an author's personal life. It's about understanding the broad strokes of their experiences and how they might have influenced their work. We're not detectives, just curious readers!

Can I use biographical criticism for any piece of literature?

While it's more commonly used for novels, poems, and plays, you can apply biographical criticism to any form of writing. Even a cookbook can reveal interesting things about its author!

What if I get it wrong?

Remember, biographical criticism isn't an exact science. It's more of an informed guess. Even experts disagree on interpretations sometimes. The important thing is to keep an open mind and enjoy the process of discovery.

There you have it, a quick rundown of some common questions about biographical criticism. It's a fascinating approach that can truly change the way you read!

If our exploration into the world of biographical criticism has sparked your interest, there are many resources available for further reading. Getting a firm grasp on the definition of biographical criticism is just the beginning!

Here are a few books that delve deeper into this fascinating method of literary analysis:

"Biography: A Very Short Introduction" by Hermione Lee

This book provides a concise yet informative look at biography as a literary genre. It can be a great starting point for understanding the connection between an author's life and their work.

"Literary Biography: An Introduction" by Michael Benton

Benton's book is an in-depth study of literary biography. It's a slightly heavier read, but well worth it for the keenly interested.

"The Art of Literary Biography" edited by John Batchelor

This collection of essays by various authors explores the challenges and rewards of literary biography. It's an insightful read for those ready to dive deeper.

Reading these books can enhance your understanding and appreciation of biographical criticism. Remember, the journey to knowledge is always more fulfilling when you enjoy the ride. So, grab a cup of your favorite beverage, find a cozy corner, and let the world of biographical criticism unfold before your eyes.

Happy reading!

If you found our comprehensive guide on understanding biographical criticism helpful, we highly recommend checking out the workshop ' Researching your Craft & Sharpening your Skills ' by Celina Rodriguez. This workshop will equip you with the necessary tools and techniques to further your understanding of literary criticism and help you excel in your craft. Don't miss this opportunity to deepen your knowledge and sharpen your skills!

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Definition of Biography

Common examples of biographical subjects, famous examples of biographical works, difference between biography, autobiography, and memoir, examples of biography in literature, example 1:  savage beauty: the life of edna st. vincent millay  (nancy milford).

One of the first things Vincent explained to Norma was that there was a certain freedom of language in the Village that mustn’t shock her. It wasn’t vulgar. ‘So we sat darning socks on Waverly Place and practiced the use of profanity as we stitched. Needle in, . Needle out, piss. Needle in, . Needle out, c. Until we were easy with the words.’

Example 2:  The Invisible Woman: The Story of Nelly Ternan and Charles Dickens  (Claire Tomalin)

The season of domestic goodwill and festivity must have posed a problem to all good Victorian family men with more than one family to take care of, particularly when there were two lots of children to receive the demonstrations of paternal love.

Example 3:  Virginia Woolf  (Hermione Lee)

‘A self that goes on changing is a self that goes on living’: so too with the biography of that self. And just as lives don’t stay still, so life-writing can’t be fixed and finalised. Our ideas are shifting about what can be said, our knowledge of human character is changing. The biographer has to pioneer, going ‘ahead of the rest of us, like the miner’s canary, testing the atmosphere , detecting falsity, unreality, and the presence of obsolete conventions’. So, ‘There are some stories which have to be retold by each generation’. She is talking about the story of Shelley, but she could be talking about her own life-story.

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3 What Is Biographical Criticism?

This chapter will demonstrate how subsequent chapters will be organized throughout the book. 

At some point in your educational journey, you’ve probably been asked to write a book report. As part of that report, you probably did some brief research about the author’s life to better understand what factors influenced his/her/their work.

Critical Lens: Biographical Criticism

When we look at biographical or historical information to help us interpret the author’s intent in a text, we are practicing historical or biographical criticism . With this type of criticism, popular throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the author—and the author’s intent—are the targets of our analysis. We read the text in tandem with the author’s life, searching for clues about what the author meant within the words of the text and life events. Throughout most of literary history, this is what we meant when we talked about literary criticism or literary analysis.

Learning Objectives

• Using a literary theory, choose appropriate elements of literature (formal, content, or context) to focus on in support of an interpretation (CLO 2.3)
• Emphasize what the work does and how it does it with respect to form, content, and context (CLO 2.4)
• Provide a thoughtful, thorough, and convincing interpretation of a text in support of a well-crafted thesis statement (CLO 5.1)

Applying Biographical Criticism to a Text

As a refresher on how this type of criticism works, let’s look at a poem by African American poet Phyllis Wheatley written in 1772 and published in 1773.

To the Right Honorable William, Earl of Dartmouth

Hail, happy day, when, smiling like the morn, Fair Freedom rose New-England to adorn: The northern clime beneath her genial ray, Dartmouth, congratulates thy blissful sway: Elate with hope her race no longer mourns, Each soul expands, each grateful bosom burns, While in thine hand with pleasure we behold The silken reins, and Freedom’s charms unfold. Long lost to realms beneath the northern skies

She shines supreme, while hated faction dies: Soon as appear’d the Goddess long desir’d, Sick at the view, she languish’d and expir’d; Thus from the splendors of the morning light The owl in sadness seeks the caves of night. No more, America, in mournful strain Of wrongs, and grievance unredress’d complain, No longer shalt thou dread the iron chain, Which wanton Tyranny with lawless hand Had made, and with it meant t’ enslave the land.

Should you, my lord, while you peruse my song, Wonder from whence my love of Freedom sprung, Whence flow these wishes for the common good, By feeling hearts alone best understood, I, young in life, by seeming cruel fate Was snatch’d from Afric’s fancy’d happy seat: What pangs excruciating must molest, What sorrows labour in my parent’s breast? Steel’d was that soul and by no misery mov’d That from a father seiz’d his babe belov’d: Such, such my case. And can I then but pray Others may never feel tyrannic sway?

For favours past, great Sir, our thanks are due, And thee we ask thy favours to renew, Since in thy pow’r, as in thy will before, To sooth the griefs, which thou did’st once deplore. May heav’nly grace the sacred sanction give To all thy works, and thou for ever live Not only on the wings of fleeting Fame, Though praise immortal crowns the patriot’s name, But to conduct to heav’ns refulgent fane, May fiery coursers sweep th’ ethereal plain, And bear thee upwards to that blest abode, Where, like the prophet, thou shalt find thy God.

Wheatley’s literary talent was recognized and celebrated by her contemporaries. Here’s a brief biographical sketch written nearly 60 years after her death from Biographical Sketches and Interesting Anecdotes of Persons of Color   by A. Mott (1839):

A Short Account of Phillis Wheatley

1. Although the state of Massachusetts never was so deeply involved in the African slave trade as most of the other states, yet before the war which separated the United States of America from Great Britain, and gave us the title of a free and independent nation, there were many of the poor Africans brought into their ports and sold for slaves.

2. In the year 1761, a little girl about 7 or 8 years old was stolen from her parents in Africa, and being put on board a ship was brought to Boston, where she was sold for a slave to John Wheatley, a respectable inhabitant of that town. Her master giving her the name of Phillis, and she assuming that of her master, she was of course called Phillis Wheatley.

3. Being of an active disposition, and very attentive and industrious, she soon learned the English language, and in about sixteen months so perfectly, that she could read any of the most difficult parts of the Scriptures, to the great astonishment of those who heard her. And this she learned without any school instruction except what was taught her in the family.

4. The art of writing she obtained by her own industry and curiosity, and in so short a time that in the year 1765, when she was not more than twelve years of  age,she was capable of writing letters to her friends on various subjects. She also wrote to several persons in high stations. In one of her communications to the Earl of Dartmouth, on the subject of Freedom,  she has the following lines:

“Should you, my lord, while you pursue my song, Wonder from whence my love of  Freedom  sprung, Whence flow these wishes for the common good, By feeling hearts alone best understood— I, young in life, by seeming cruel fate, Was snatch’d from Afric’s fancy’d happy seat: What pangs excruciating must molest, What sorrows labour in my parent’s breast? Steel’d was that soul, and by no misery mov’d, That from a father seized the babe belov’d. Such, such my case—and can I then but pray, Others may never feel tyrannic sway?”

5. In her leisure moments she often indulged herself in writing poetry, and a small volume of her composition was published in 1773, when she was about nineteen years of age, attested by the Governor of Massachusetts, and a number of the most respectable inhabitants of Boston, in the following language:

6. “We, whose names are under-written, do assure the world that the Poems specified in the following pages were, (as we verily believe,) written by Phillis, a young negro girl, who was but a few years since, brought an uncultivated barbarian from Africa; and has ever since been, and now is, under the disadvantage of serving as a slave in a family in this town. She has been examined by some of the best judges, and is thought qualified to write them.”*

7. Her master says—”Having a great inclination to learn the Latin language, she has made some progress in it.”

8. After the publication of the little volume mentioned, and about the 21st year of her age, she was liberated; but she continued in her master’s family, where she was much respected for her good conduct. Many of the most respectable inhabitants of Boston and its vicinity, visiting at the house, were pleased with an opportunity of conversing with Phillis, and observing her modest deportment, and the cultivation of her mind.

9. When about 23, she was married to a person of her own colour, who having also obtained considerable learning, kept a grocery, and officiated as a lawyer, under the title of Doctor Peters, pleading the cause of his brethren the Africans, before the tribunals of the state.

10. The reputation he enjoyed, with his industry, procured him a fortune; but Phillis being much indulged, had not acquired sufficient knowledge of domestic concerns; and her friends continuing their particular attention to her, gave him uneasiness, which operating on a disposition that was not willing to have her more respected than himself—which first manifested itself by reproaches; which were followed by harsh treatment. The continuance thereof affecting her susceptible mind, and delicate constitution, she soon went into a decline, and died in 1780, about the 26th year of her age, much lamented by those who knew her worth. She had one child, which died very young; and her husband survived her only three years.

*Most of her poetical productions have a religious or moral cast; all breathe a soft and sentimental feeling. Twelve related to the death of friends. Others on the works of Providence; on virtue, humanity and freedom; with one to a young painter of her own colour. On seeing his works, she vented her grief for the sorrows of her country men, in a pathetic strain.

Biographical Criticism Applied

You read the poem by Phyllis Wheatley before you learned more about the poet’s life. Now that we have both the text and the biographical information about Wheatley, consider the following questions:

• What literary elements of the poem stand out to you?
• How would you describe the author’s intent?
• How does reading the poet’s biography change or impact your understanding of the poem?

When writing an analysis using this lens, you’ll want to start by sharing a brief biography of the text’s author, including anything relevant to your understanding of the poem. A thesis statement might look something like this:

In her poem “To the Right Honorable William, Earl of Dartmouth,” Phyllis Wheatley’s childhood experiences with slavery impact the choice of imagery and metaphor, focusing on ideas of freedom and democracy that were denied to many contempory eighteenth century African Americans.

This thesis statement would then be supported from the text. Some examples of things you might use for support include the following:

• The description of freedom (capitalized) in the first stanza.
• The imagery of the goddess Athena, associated with the birthplace of democracy, in the second stanza.
• The description of slavery and the author’s appreciation for freedom in the third stanza.

Using this evidence along with biographical information about Phyllis Wheatley, including her education and her experiences, you could write an essay showing how the author’s intent, to celebrate freedom, is supported by her life history.

What Are the Limitations of Biographical Criticism?

While it can be interesting and fun to speculate about how the Bronte sisters’ real lives influenced their sometimes uncanny plots, there are several limitations and drawbacks to this kind of criticism.

• History is unreliable . With the Phyllis Wheatley poem and biography above, I provided you with one of the earliest known examples of a biography about this influential African American poet. Because she was enslaved, the lens through which her contemporaries and subsequent biographers viewed her was shaped by prejudice and bias. When we do biographical criticism, we have to assume that there are stable facts about history—and as we will learn later in this book, that’s a pretty big assumption.

Does this guessing game mostly evidence: A     the literacy mastery of the student? B     the competency of the student’s teacher? C     the absurdity of the questions? D     the fact that the poet, although she has never put her head in an oven, definitely has issues. Let’s go with  D since I definitely have issues, including issues with these ridiculous test questions (Holbrook).

Ascribing authorial intent where it does not exist is sometimes referred to in later forms of literary criticism as the “ intentional fallacy. ”

3. Literature has universal meaning. Focusing on the author’s history or biography detracts from the idea that a text can mean something to anyone from any time or place.

Consider this English translation of a poem from the Tang Dynesty (701-762 CE) Chinese poet Li Bai (also known as Li Po):

Your grasses up north are as blue as jade, Our mulberries here curve green-threaded branches; And at last you think of returning home, Now when my heart is almost broken…. O breeze of the spring, since I dare not know you, Why part the silk curtains by my bed?

We don’t have to know anything about the author or his cultural context to understand that this poem is about loss of a loved one. The poem speaks to us at a universal level about an emotion we can all recognize, using powerful imagery to convey a sense of loss.

Practicing Biographical Criticism

You’ll have the opportunity to practice biographical criticism with your first week writing assessment. I recommend that you review the Model AI Essay in the next chapter and also review MLA style requirements prior to submitting your response. This will be the only time we use biographical criticism in the course.

Biographical Criticism: Natasha Tretheway’s “Theories of Time and Space”

Further Reading

• Aristotle,  Poetics, translated by S.H. Butcher. https://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.1.1.html
• Arnold, Matthew , Ricks, Christopher  (ed.),  Selected Criticism of Matthew Arnold, New York: New American Library, 1972. OCLC 6338231
• Benson, Jackson J. “Steinbeck: A Defense of Biographical Criticism”. College Literature . Vol. 16, No. 2: 107–116, 1989. JSTOR   25111810 .
• Frye, Herman Northrop (1947)  Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, OCLC   560970612
• Johnson, Samuel.  Lives of the Poets Volume 1  at  Project Gutenberg
• Lynn, Stephen. Texts and Contexts.  2007.
• Stuart, Duane Reed. “Biographical Criticism of Vergil since the Renaissance.” Studies in Philology. Vol. 19, No. 1: 1–30, 1922. JSTOR 4171815 .

Critical Worlds Copyright © 2024 by Liza Long is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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