sociology essay plan

Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in society based on their social status, wealth, and power. Social mobility, on the other hand, refers to the movement of individuals or groups up or down the social ladder. In this essay, I will evaluate the view that without social stratification and social mobility, society would collapse. I will provide examples and illustrations from the Caribbean to support my answer.

Functionalists argue that social stratification is essential for the smooth functioning of society. Emile Durkheim argues that social stratification is necessary because it ensures that each person is allocated a social role that is suited to their abilities and that society is organized in a way that maximizes productivity. Similarly, Talcott Parsons argues that social stratification ensures that the most talented individuals occupy the most important positions in society. In Trinidad, during the period of colonialism and indentureship, enslaved Africans and indentured labourers were assigned to the lower social status ranks in society. However, the decolonization process, increased access to education, and improved literacy and education of the non-white creolized members of society created what MG Smith called the plural society and what Braithwaite called the creole society. This new society was characterized by a more diverse and complex social structure where different ethnic and racial groups occupied different positions in the social hierarchy.

Caribbean sociologists, such as L. Braithwaite and M.G. Smith, have made significant contributions to the debate on social stratification and social mobility. Braithwaite, in his preliminary analysis of the work "Social Stratification in Trinidad," by Frazier, noted that the term "creole society" to describe the social structure of Trinidad, considers the interplay between race, and class, which directly influenced social mobility in Trinidad. Frazier focuses on the roles of various ethnic and racial groups, including Africans, Indians, Europeans, and Chinese. He argues that social stratification in Trinidad was largely based on race, with lighter-skinned individuals generally occupying higher social positions than darker-skinned individuals. With the onset of decolonization and the democratization of education a new middle class of educated 'browns' emerged, giving rise to a higher degree of social mobility, which emerged as a result of increased access to education and economic opportunities. The Creole society theory continues to provide relevant theoretical explanations that are applicable to most Caribbean societies in the post-colonial era, as we continue to see increased syncretism and hybridization of people groups and cultural practices. 

Similarly, M.G. Smith, in his book "The Plural Society in the British West Indies," argues that the legacy of colonialism has resulted in a fragmented society where different ethnic and racial groups occupy different positions in the social hierarchy. However, he also acknowledges that the process of decolonization has led to the emergence of a more complex social structure characterized by a diverse range of ethnic and racial groups. In a plural society, the members of society mix but do not combine, This means they meet in the marketplace for commerce, but do not intermingle in the private aspects of social life. While Smith's theory has been instrumental in explaining how early twentieth-century Caribbean societies functioned, we note that in the post-modern, post-Covid era, Caribbean social stratification has become more complex and nuanced where there appears to be further mixing of people groups, and cultural practices which the plural society theory, may not be able to adequately address with its original theoretical assertions.  

While functionalists argue that social stratification is necessary for the smooth functioning of society, conflict theorists argue that it can be detrimental to society. Karl Marx argues that social stratification is a result of the unequal distribution of wealth and power in society. The ruling class, who control the means of production, exploit the working class, who sell their labour for a wage. Both perspectives, provide generalized explanations for the macro-economic structure of the Caribbean societies. If we combine their analysis with that of Caribbean social stratification theories a more comprehensive understanding of how these societies function and are maintained may be achieved.  In the Caribbean, the legacy of colonialism and slavery has resulted in a deeply stratified society where the descendants of European colonizers and plantation owners continue to occupy the highest rungs of the social ladder in some territories such as the French dependencies, Cuba and the Dutch territories. This has resulted in social and economic inequality, which has had a detrimental effect on the development of the region.

Symbolic interactionists argue that social mobility is important for the development of the self and social identity. George Herbert Mead argues that social mobility allows individuals to assume different social roles and develop different aspects of their personalities. Similarly, Erving Goffman argues that social mobility allows individuals to perform different identities and experiment with different social roles. In the Caribbean, education and migration are two examples of factors that have enabled social mobility. The rise of the middle class, particularly in countries such as Jamaica, is an example of how education has enabled social mobility. Similarly, migration has enabled individuals to move to countries where they have greater access to economic and political opportunities.

Social stratification and social mobility are important features of any society. The Caribbean region has a complex social structure that has emerged as a result of the legacy of colonialism, slavery and indentureship, but also due to factors such as education and migration. The contributions of Caribbean sociologists, such as Lloyd Braithwaite and M.G. Smith, have helped to shed light on the unique social structure of the Caribbean and the role that social stratification and social mobility play in shaping it. However, it is important to acknowledge that social stratification can also have negative consequences for society, particularly if it results in social and economic inequality. In the Caribbean, the legacy of colonialism and slavery has resulted in a deeply stratified society where certain groups continue to dominate others. This has led to a lack of social and economic mobility for many individuals, particularly those in lower social status ranks. Therefore, while social stratification and social mobility are important for the development of any society, it is crucial that efforts are made to ensure that everyone has equal opportunities to succeed and move up the social ladder. This requires a commitment to social justice, equity, and inclusive policies that address issues such as poverty, discrimination, and inequality.

In conclusion, the Caribbean provides a fascinating case study for the role that social stratification and social mobility play in shaping society. While the legacy of colonialism and slavery has resulted in a complex social structure, education and migration have enabled social mobility for many individuals. However, it is important to acknowledge that social stratification can also have negative consequences, and efforts must be made to ensure that everyone has equal opportunities to succeed and thrive in society.

Family forms in the Caribbean have been shaped by a variety of determinants, including urbanization, modernization, cultural traditions, migration, and poverty. This essay will discuss the major determinants of three family forms found in the Caribbean, namely nuclear family, extended family, and female-headed households. By using empirical data from various Caribbean countries, as well as sociological theories, this essay will evaluate the impact these family forms have on socio-economic and political life in the Caribbean.

The nuclear family is a family unit consisting of parents and their children. It is the most common family form in urban areas of the Caribbean, where modernization and urbanization have led to changes in family structure. According to Parry, the nuclear family in the Caribbean is a product of urbanization and industrialization (Parry, 2010). As people moved from rural areas to cities, they adopted a more individualistic lifestyle, resulting in smaller family sizes and the nuclear family becoming the dominant family form. This shift has been further accelerated by migration, as people move away from their extended families to seek work in other countries.

Empirical data from Jamaica shows that in 2019, 27.5% of households were female-headed, with a higher prevalence in rural areas (34.5%) compared to urban areas (24.5%) (Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2020). This suggests that while the nuclear family is still the most common family form in urban areas, female-headed households are more prevalent in rural areas.

The impact of the nuclear family on socio-economic and political life in the Caribbean can be evaluated using structural-functionalism theory, which views the family as a social institution that performs vital functions for society, such as socialization and reproduction. According to Davis and Moore, the nuclear family serves as a functional unit that provides stability and support for its members (Davis and Moore, 1945). However, the feminist theory would argue that the nuclear family perpetuates gender inequality by reinforcing traditional gender roles and expectations.

An extended family is a family unit consisting of parents, their children, and other relatives such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles. It is the most common family form in rural areas of the Caribbean, where cultural traditions and kinship ties remain strong. According to Reddock, the extended family is an integral part of Caribbean culture and is deeply rooted in the region's history (Reddock, 1994). It provides a support system for its members, particularly in times of need. In 2011, 36.6% of households in Trinidad and Tobago were nuclear, while 32.5% were extended and 20.8% were female-headed (Central Statistical Office, 2012). This suggests that while the extended family is still prevalent in the region, the nuclear family is becoming increasingly common.

The impact of the extended family on socio-economic and political life in the Caribbean can be evaluated using kinship theory, which emphasizes the importance of kinship ties and extended family networks in Caribbean societies. According to Mintz, kinship ties are central to Caribbean culture and provide a sense of belonging and identity (Mintz, 1964). However, creolization theory would argue that the extended family is also a product of cultural mixing and hybridization in the Caribbean, as different cultural traditions have been blended to create a unique family form.

A female-headed household is a family unit in which the mother is the sole or primary caregiver for her children. It is becoming more common in the Caribbean due to the feminization of poverty, migration, and cultural shifts. According to Lewis, female-headed households are more prevalent in the Caribbean due to the high levels of female-headed migration, which leads to a breakdown of the traditional family structure (Lewis, 2001). This is particularly true in countries such as Jamaica, where the prevalence of female-headed households is highest. Empirical data from Barbados shows that in 2012, 21.1% of households were female-headed, with a higher prevalence in urban areas (23.5%) compared to rural areas (18.7%) (Barbados Statistical Service, 2013). This suggests that while female-headed households are becoming more common, they are still more prevalent in urban areas.

The impact of female-headed households on socio-economic and political life in the Caribbean can be evaluated using feminist theory, which argues that the gendered division of labour and the unequal distribution of resources within the family perpetuate gender inequality in wider society. According to Collins, female-headed households face significant challenges, including poverty, social isolation, and discrimination (Collins, 1991). This can lead to a cycle of poverty and disadvantage, particularly for single mothers.

In conclusion, family forms in the Caribbean are shaped by a variety of determinants, including urbanization, modernization, cultural traditions, migration, and poverty. The nuclear family, extended family, and female-headed households are the most common family forms in the region, with their prevalence varying depending on factors such as geography, culture, and economics. The impact of these family forms on socio-economic and political life in the Caribbean can be evaluated using a range of sociological theories, including structural-functionalism, kinship theory, creolization theory, and feminist theory. While each family form has its own strengths and weaknesses, it is important to recognize the diversity of family structures in the Caribbean and the need to support all types of families in the region.

This essay was well written.
•    The candidate understood the question and interpreted the question satisfactorily.
•    The Candidate referred to the relevant sociological theorists as it relates to the question.
•    Since the question spoke about the Caribbean in general, the candidate used her initative to confine her case study support to one country in this case Jamaica - by citing relevant data relating to the issue (matrifocality). Altogether the essay was coherent.
Suggestions for an enhanced essay:
The candidate could have included data from one or two more other Caribbean territories to drive home the point that matrifocality is prevalent in the Caribbean.
•    In 1997 Mondesire and Dunn noted the percentage of female headed
households in various countries:
Antigua 41.5%, Bahamas 35.8%, Barbados 45.3%, Grenada 42.7%,
Jamaica 38.0% and Trinidad & Tobago 28.1%.

In recent years, Edward Braithwaite's creolisation thesis has become a popular framework for understanding the social and cultural milieu of Caribbean societies. This essay explores the relevance of Braithwaite's creolisation thesis to an understanding of syncretism in different forms of religion in the region, drawing on empirical evidence from Haiti, Trinidad, Cuba, and Jamaica.

Braithwaite's creolisation thesis argues that the Caribbean is a "creole society," shaped by a process of cultural mixing and hybridization that has resulted in the creation of unique cultural forms. According to Braithwaite, this process of creolisation is not just a blending of different cultural elements, but a transformative process that gives rise to new cultural practices and identities. This process of creolisation is evident in the religious traditions of the Caribbean, where different religious beliefs and practices have been combined to create new forms of syncretism.

One of the most prominent forms of syncretism in the Caribbean is found in the vodou traditions of Haiti. Vodou is a blend of West African religious practices and Catholicism, reflecting the history of slavery and colonialism in Haiti. Vodou practitioners believe in a pantheon of spirits, or lwa, who are associated with different aspects of nature and human experience. These spirits are often identified with Catholic saints, reflecting the influence of Catholicism on vodou. The creolisation of vodou has resulted in a unique religious tradition that reflects the cultural and historical context of Haiti.

A similar process of creolisation can be seen in the religious practices of Trinidad, where the Orisha tradition of the Yoruba people has been combined with Catholicism to create a new syncretic tradition known as Shango. Shango combines the Yoruba belief in powerful deities, or Orishas, with Catholic practices such as baptism and confession. The result is a unique religious tradition that reflects the cultural and historical context of Trinidad.

In Cuba, the process of creolisation has given rise to Santeria, a syncretic tradition that combines Yoruba religious beliefs with Catholicism and other African spiritual practices. Santeria practitioners believe in a pantheon of deities, known as orishas, who are associated with different aspects of human life. These orishas are often identified with Catholic saints, reflecting the influence of Catholicism on Santeria. The creolisation of Santeria has resulted in a unique religious tradition that reflects the cultural and historical context of Cuba.

In Jamaica, the creolisation of Christianity has given rise to Rastafarianism, a syncretic religion that combines elements of Christianity, African spirituality, and political radicalism. Rastafarians believe in the divinity of Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia and see him as a messianic figure who will lead them to redemption. Rastafarianism reflects the cultural and historical context of Jamaica, where the legacy of slavery and colonialism has shaped the country's social and cultural landscape.

While Braithwaite's creolisation thesis is a useful framework for understanding the syncretic religious traditions of the Caribbean, it is not without its limitations. Some scholars have criticized the thesis for its emphasis on cultural hybridity at the expense of political and economic factors. Others have argued that the thesis overemphasizes the agency of creole cultures and overlooks the power relations that shape the process of creolisation.

In conclusion, Braithwaite's creolisation thesis provides a useful framework for understanding the syncretic religious traditions of the Caribbean. The thesis recognizes the ways in which various religious traditions have blended and transformed in the Caribbean context, with the result being a unique and dynamic religious culture. The empirical evidence presented in this essay from Haiti, Trinidad, Cuba, and Jamaica highlights the diverse ways in which syncretism has manifested in the region. However, it is important to note the limitations of Braithwaite's thesis and the critiques of it. Despite these limitations, the thesis remains relevant for understanding the social and cultural milieu of the Caribbean and its religious traditions. It is through this lens of creolisation that we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities and richness of the Caribbean's syncretic religious landscape.

Matrifocality simply defined means pertaining to, or designating a family unit or structure headed by the mother and lacking a father permanently or for extended periods. A family defined by George Peter Murdock is “a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexually relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults.

The Caribbean region is often characterized by sociologists as one in which the family structure is highly dysfunctional due to the fact that matrifocal families are the most common forms of families throughout the region. The predominance of this family structure has been highlighted in many studies done on the Caribbean. These include those done by Frazier, Herskovits, Elliot Liebow and Oscar Lewis. These studies support the writer’s view that the Caribbean is characterized by Matrifocality. Frazier believed that the matrifocal family derived from slavery retentions. He claimed that the way many Caribbean families are formed and structured was as a result of the influences from the days of slavery being retained in the Caribbean. These plantation experiences include the inability of the slave fathers to cohabit with and provide for their children. This was due to the fact that the white plantation owners forbade it and to keep them separated they often sold the males and the males and females lived in different quarters. Due to this practice under slavery, it is Frazier’s view that the males have developed a lazy and reluctant attitude when it comes to being an active member of their families.

Another factor is the fact that many of the slave women had either forced or consensual sexual relations with the white plantation owners. These white men did not claim their children and so the women had to bear the burden of raising the children all alone, and these practices he believes have been carried over into modern societies. Contradicting Frazier’s view is Herskovits. He believes that the Caribbean matrifocal family form, among others is as a result of African cultural retentions brought here by the slaves. These cultural retentions include their sexual relations and family patterns such as polygamy which was reinterpreted in Caribbean to produce progressive monogamy. This type of sexual relationship leads to a man having multiple sexual partners which may lead to multiple children with different women. As a result of this the father is unable to be an active member in the lives of all his children and so has to resort to arrangements such as visiting relationships and in some cases single parent families, usually headed by the female.

Another point highlighted by Herskovits was that in African Polygamist families the women had a certain kind of economic independence and so the men played a marginal role. It was as though the man was not necessary for the family to function effectively. This pattern, he believes, continued and was transmitted to the Caribbean when the slaves came here. So this would account for the marginal roles that men play in the lives of their families in the Caribbean. Elliot Liebow argued that matrifocal families in the Caribbean were due mainly to the economic position of blacks. Liebow sees female headed families resulting from the desertion by the husbands or male figures because he has insufficient funds to play the role of father and breadwinner. Faced with a situation of failure to perform his manly duties, men often desert their families. So he is of the view that the matrifocal families that result thereafter are as a result of low income and not poverty. This is to say that some men do not earn a substantial amount to invest in improving his economic standings. Most times he earns just enough to survive and so has no guarantee of provision should he invest. As a result of this his economic standings may remain the same or deteriorate over time. If this should happen he would be unable to carry out his duties as father and provider for his family. Most men do not want to be faced with this reality and so they abandon the situation by leaving the mother alone to care for the children. On the other hand, there is Oscar Lewis, whose view is contained in the concept of the culture of poverty. He believes that matrifocal families are as a result of poverty and states that Matrifocality has become a part of the subculture of the poor.

Also supporting Lewis’ view is Ulf Hannerz who argues that female-headed families are so common that to some degree they have become an expected and accepted alternative to the standard nuclear family. Therefore matrifocal families can be seen as not only a product of poverty but also of culture. So it is the view of Lewis and Hannerz that due to poverty, the presence of matrifocal families is normal. It is widely accepted in society and as such has become a product of culture. So it can be said that matrifocal families are prevalent in the Caribbean due to the presence of poverty.

To conclude, it can be said that the family structure that dominates the Caribbean is the matrifocal family. This is supported by the works of Frazier, who believes that the matrifocal family is as a result of slavery retentions, Herskovits, who claims that Matrifocality is as a result of African retentions and reinterpretations, Liebow, who is of the belief that Matrifocality is as a result of the economic position of the black men and the combined views of Lewis and Hannerz who both believe that the matrifocal family is as a result of poverty. Due to these studies and the fact that matrifocal families are very dominant in the region, the writer concludes that the assertion that the Caribbean is characterized by Matrifocality is a true assessment.

Written by: Anya

According to Functionalism, the family is a universal social institution in society that takes care of the needs of society. George. P. Murdock states that the family is a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom who maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children own or adopted of these sexually co-habiting adults. According to Murdock the nuclear family is universal and performs four functions necessary for the survival of society. However many theorists argue that the nuclear family in not universal and there are several different family forms which fulfill the need of society. These include same-sex marriages, the Nayar in Kerala, India and the single-parent household. In the Caribbean there is a prominent and distinct family form; the matrilineal family of the African community. In this essay the prominence of the matrifocal family and the reason for its prevalence as well as other family forms that exist in the Caribbean will be discussed.

Simey contends that the . He states that the West Indian family is a loose-time organisation responsible for juvenile delinquency, poor nutrition and other social ills. However M.G Smith (1962) asserts that the system of plantation slavery in the Caribbean accounts largely for mother-headed households. When slaves were sold, family units were usually broken however mother and her dependent children were usually kept together. This lead to the male slave losing authority as head of the family as he now had to defer to the clout of the white slave master who with his male white counterparts had sexual access to all female slaves. In other words the matrifocal family is still present today because the model formed under slavery seems to have persisted. This theorist also argues that the black male is absent or marginal because of socio-economic issues such job insecurity, high under or unemployment, migration and low social and racial status. Elliot Liebow through his research, “Fally’s Corner” concurs with this argument with the findings of his research which affirm that . He possesses mainstream goals and values and regards a conventional family life as ideal and strives to play the mainstream role of father and breadwinner. He cannot provide for his family because of his lack of income he develops an inferiority complex and so deserts his family.

Herskovits and Frazier (1947) maintains that . In West Africa, the culture of polygyny was practised because of this the female had to fend for herself, she had to be economically independent and this meant that the husband played a relatively marginal role in family life. They state that this practice has continued up to today with common-law type relationships where a man has relationship with woman A,B,C and D. This can be concurred with R.T Smith’s (1973) research where he coined the term visiting unions where a woman to support herself and her family would engage in relationships with other men when the “main of the house” was absent. These findings are also supported by Edith Clarke’s (1957) study ‘My Mother Who Fathered Me” who stated that marriage and wealth was positively correlated. In the poorest of the three towns that she studied she found that marriage was least common as it could not be afforded so matrifocal families were an ordinary part of life.

Oscar Lewis states that . The poor have certain norms and values which keep them poor. One of these norms would be that of single-parent households as such children inherit this custom as ordinary and typical and so transmit this onto future generations. Though, it must be noted that even though the matrilineal family is common in low income, black communities it is not rampant in other ethnic groups or classes. Even though indentureship had devastating effects on the Indian family, the communities has overcome the effects of sexual imbalance and barrack living and has been able to maintain very strong kinship ties and as such the extended family is almost ubiquitous is this society.

According to Morton Klass, . However, according to Nevadonsky and Angrosino the traditional East Indian family has reacted to the economic and political changes in wider society and has adapted their values and lifestyles to suit. The modern Indian family was developed in the Caribbean and satisfies socio-economic functions. Robert Bell states that the modern East Indian family is becoming more inclined toward the nuclear family form seeing it as a sign of more modernity, independence and economic advancement. In addition races like European descendants may be more prone to follow the nuclear family type structure. In contemporary times, the reasons for matrifocality may have changed slightly. Women have become more educated and economically dependent and as such many have chose to parent children outside of marriage as single parents.

In conclusion, one cannot say that there is a correspondence between the matrifocal family and the Caribbean society as a whole. In terms of the working-class black community in the Caribbean matrifocality does correspond to that way of life but when other races are studied it is realized that female-headed households are not common in these areas. Therefore the matrifocal family corresponds mainly with the black, working class community.

Question: Discuss the relevance of ONE sociological perspective to an understanding of the distribution of educational opportunities in a named Caribbean society. Support your response with reference to any TWO of the following: social class, gender, government policy. Reference can also be made to a relevant empirical study in a named Caribbean society

Unit & Module: Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education Year: 2010 Essay:

Educational opportunities seem to be distributed quite unfairly and unequally, Marxists tend to agree with this. In this essay, the Marxist views on the distribution of educational opportunities with reference to social class and government policy in Jamaica will be discussed. Firstly, it is important to note what Marxists generally contend about educational systems and the opportunities they offer to students. Marxists believe that education is a mechanism for social control and seeks to create laborers for capitalists. The students they aim to make laborers are usually of the lower class. They are certain that the system to meritocracy is an illusion and only seeks to alienate its students. Secondly, when considering the social class of persons seeking education, there is clearly some unequal distribution of educational opportunities in Jamaica. Students are often banned together by their social class or position in society and given educational opportunities that do not point them towards their absolute best but rather to jobs that suit the capitalists in society. An example of this is would be teaching lower-class students vocational training rather than engaging them in classes that are geared towards academics. Also with the banding of students, Marxists believe that the educational system socializes students into accepting their positions in society and does not attempt to provide them with educational opportunities that would lead to good jobs in the future that would allow them social mobility. With the educational system pushing its students of the low social class towards vocational training, they consequently ignore any special talents those students may have. There is also an unequal distribution of educational opportunities because of government policies. National scholarships funded by the government often come in small numbers. Rewards like these are utilized to motivate students but tend to alienate them in preparation to be further alienated in the workplace. Also, with some government-funded scholarships, they are large qualifications that are hard to meet. Marxists argue, unlike functionalists, that the educational system is in fact not meritocratic as it claims to be. Also in countries like Jamaica where secondary schools are not funded by the government, it restricts any future social mobility for students who cannot afford the tuition. Secondary school education is highly valued in the Caribbean and is a stepping stone to college or university which their degrees or certifications are necessary for acquiring a job. Therefore lacking these things prevents students from moving up the social ladder and further cement the view of Marxists that the educational system aims to teach students conformity to unequal educational opportunities. In conclusion, contrary to the beliefs of Functionalists theorists, equality of educational opportunity is indeed an illusion. Factors like social class and government policies do play a significant role in how a student is socialized in the educational system and how they make it out. Marxists are of the firm view that the system’s desires are to make students “comfortable” with the unequal distribution of educational opportunities as well as to use them to create an efficient labor force for the capitalists in society.

What are the most significant processes that have affected change in the West Indian stratification system over the past two centuries?

Over the last two centuries, the West Indian stratification system has experienced significant changes that resulted from numerous factors. Though the social structure of the Caribbean has been greatly influenced by the impact of colonialism and its accompanying influences, the writer wishes to discuss the factors the most significant factors that have effected change in the West Indian stratification system.
According to M.G. Smith "societies in the Caribbean such as Trinidad, Guyana and Jamaica had had a closed system of stratification". In a closed system of stratification, social status and position was strictly defined and ascribed at birth, there was strictly no social mobility since this was a rigid system with clearly demarcated boundaries. This closed system of stratification was quite prominent during the days of slavery and indentureship in the Caribbean.

Over the years, the social structure in the Caribbean has undergone significant transformation. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is evident that the social structure has moved from one that was closed to one that is open. In open societies, there are opportunities for social mobility,social status can be achieved through an individual's efforts. Thus,membership within certain social spheres are dependent upon factors that individuals can control.

Several factors have accounted for the change of the Caribbean's social structure from being closed to open. Selwyn Ryan asserted that the major vehicles for the transformation of the Caribbean social structure has been political independence, transformation of the economy,education and the creation of new wealth. The emergence of self governance,policies and strategies were initiated to ensure that large numbers of the population were given equal opportunities to experience social mobility and a higher standard of living.

Gender policies have become an important part of the political culture in the Caribbean , which has served to change the social structure of Caribbean states. Increasingly women have successfully been integrated into the public domain, excelling in the field of education, business,fashion, interior decoration , politics and several other fields of endeavour from which traditionally they had been restricted to participate in at all levels of society. Miller asserts that "women have been advancing their social positions through education in all levels". Thus, women have attained significant upward social mobility, over the last two centuries. Further still Miller noted that female upward social mobility has also emerged into a social phenomena known as the feminization of professions, since "the enrollment at the teacher's colleges reflects a reversal of the male dominance".

Although the Caribbean enjoys an open stratification system in the contemporary period, it is worthy to note that its colonial history with the implementation of plantation slavery (an extreme and violent version of the European traditional estate system), created a new unfree society in which social mobility was unknown, status was ascribed based on ethnic, phenotypic and economic factors. The unfree lacked opportunities for upward social mobility. The different ethnic groups inhabited the same geographical space, but lived in mutual hostility towards one another. M.G . Smith surmised that sugar plantations caused a great shift in the stratification system, in which race colour and socio - economic status were linked together in a caste-like system.

In conclusion, the stratification system has moved from one that was primarily a closed system to an open system of stratification. Self governance has led to the adoption of policies and strategies to ensure that the majority of the population were given equal opportunities to experience social mobility and a higher standard of living. Gender changes have also given rise to the upward social mobility of women at all levels. All of these changes have been the result of political independence, the transformation of the economy, the availability of education and the creation of wealth as succinctly stated by Selwyn Ryan.

Of What relevance to the Caribbean is Davis and Moore's theory on social stratification?

Social stratification is the distinct division and ranking of social groups at different levels in any society. Functionalist theorists Davis and Moore in their theory of stratification argue that social stratification contributes to the maintenance of society, therefore making it useful. Generally, Davis and Moore believe that social stratification effectively provides a mechanism for role allocation and performance. Caribbean countries are highly stratified and possess an open stratification systems after having a closed social system that dominated its colonial past. In this essay, we shall attempt to discuss the relevance of Davis and Moore's theory on social stratification to the Caribbean social reality.

Davis and Moore's assumptions are based on the presumption that a differential system of rewards must be offered to attract the right talent to fill the various social positions available in the social structure. This assumption may be exemplified by noting that in general professional positions such as doctors, lawyers and politicians, possess more employment and social benefits than a construction or sanitation worker. Davis and Moore assumes that more skill is involved in filling the former positions as opposed to the latter positions. Further, Davis and Moore asserts that, the more skill and training involved in becoming a trained professional such as a doctor, lawyer etc... implies that the role is functionally more important than other positions. This 'modus operandi' as outlined by Davis and Moore is in effect in the contemporary Caribbean society, since with the advent of independence and the univeralization of educational opportunities for Caribbean citizens, achievement has increasingly become based on achievement, creating a meritocracy which contrasts with the closed ascriptive social stratification system of the Caribbean's colonial past. Melvin Tumin opposes the views held by Davis and Moore, he argues that there is no unanimously accepted way of measuring the functional importance of social positions, as such all roles may be equally functional for society.

Davis and Moore's second assumption for differential rewards is that natural ability an talent may not be widespread in society, therefore, high rewards should be offered in order to motivate persons with those skills to compete, resulting in the position being filled by the most talented. In Trinidad and Tobago, there is a demand for nurses and doctors, the government has sent out highly attractive incentive packages to induce Caricom nationals to fill these positions in Trinidad and Tobago. Additionally, Jamaican and continental African born hairstylists are highly sought after and charge higher fees for hair styling services in comparison with Trinidadian local born and trained hair stylists. The empirical evidence cited before supports Davis and Moore's assertion that high rewards should be offered in order to motivate persons with those skills to compete, resulting in the position being filled by the most talented. Tumin response to Davis and Moore's postulation is that there is no effective mechanism for measuring talent and ability; ultimately, it means according to Tumin, if a person chooses a career outside of the traditional highly esteemed professions (doctor, lawyer, engineer etc...) this does not necessarily mean that they lack the ability to become one of the aforementioned professionals. Further still, Tumin contends that a person may have the ability to easily become a doctor, but may not have a passion or desire to help others in this manner. Darren Ganga is a professional cricketer for the West Indies cricket team, although he is a qualified and trained lawyer, his primary passion has been cricket and as such he has devoted his time and energy into developing his skill as a professional sportsman. This example, supports Tumin's criticism of Davis and Moore's assumption.

Tumin's argument against Davis and Moore's belief is that differences in rewards have been influenced by power rather than functionality. In Trinidad and Tobago, the more renowned the professional the more money he earns in comparison to his peers, for example the famous beauty Queen Wendy Fitzwilliams, would command a 'heftier' remuneration package for a 2 minute advertisement in comparison to a less known trained actor, who can perform that same task, just as well or even 'better', than the former. The factor however that influences the difference in remuneration is power according to Tumin, not skill/talent or training.

Fourthly, Davis and Moore argue that differential rewards are necessary when rewarding people who undergo long training periods and personal sacrifices. In the British West Indies, for the most part of last fifty years, the University of the West Indies has the the premier tertiary institution for the region. Admission, has traditionally, been small in comparison to the literate population as a whole, ranging from 3-4% during the 1980's and 1990's and rising phenomenally to 10-12% of the population in the last decade. This empirical fact supports Davis and Moore's assumption that this minority group of tertiary trained professionals should be compensated with higher rewards for their personal sacrifice of extra years of study to become 'experts' in their various fields of endeavour. Tumin believes that this minority group, to which Davis and Moore refers to are essentially the upper and middle classes, who already have the socioeconomic advantage over the working/lower classes. According to Tumin, individuals born into the lower strata of society would always be at a major disadvantage regarding the opportunity to realize their true potential in comparison to those born into the upper strata. During colonialism, this principle also held true for the poor non-white masses. Consequently, this type of social stratification according to Tumin demotivates those in the lower classes to participate in national efforts. Lower class communities such as Beetham Gardens and Sea Lots are perpetually in conflict with the government and upper classes in the society, since they view themselves are disadvantaged, and cheated against when compared to other socioeconomic groups which are positioned higher in the social structure. To Tumin this hostility and distrust is caused by social stratification.

Altogether, we have examined Davis and Moore's theory of stratification as it applies to the Caribbean, on the one hand we can say that the theory is applicable to the Caribbean, since the region has become increasingly meritocratic in the post-colonial era, with the universalization of education and modernization. However, on the other hand, Tumin's criticisms of Davis' and Moore's theory as it applies to the Caribbean is also valid, since there are vestiges of the colonial past that have lingered into the contemporary Caribbean social structure which corrupts the attempt for it to be truly meritocratic. Caribbean sociologists are yet to formulate a theory of social stratification that is best suited to explain the dynamics of Caribbean social stratification in terms of role allocation and performance.

Fertility control has been a topic of great debate in the Caribbean for many years. Some argue that fertility control is the key to development in the region, while others believe that it is not the only factor necessary for development. In this essay, we will discuss this statement and make reference to specific countries in the Caribbean, using population theories such as Malthusian theory, demographic transition theory, and Rostow's economic stages of development to support our arguments.

The Caribbean is a diverse region, with many different cultures, languages, and religions. However, one thing that is common among all the countries in the region is the high fertility rates. According to the World Bank, the fertility rate in the Caribbean is 2.1, which is higher than the world average of 1.8. This high fertility rate has been a concern for many regional policymakers, who believe it is hindering development.

The Malthusian theory is a population theory that argues that population growth will outstrip the earth's resources, leading to poverty and famine. In the Caribbean, Malthusian theory has been used to argue that the high fertility rates in the region are leading to poverty and underdevelopment. However, this theory has been criticized for its lack of attention to the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to poverty and underdevelopment.

Demographic transition theory, on the other hand, argues that as a country develops, its fertility rates will decline. This theory has been used to argue that fertility control is the key to development in the Caribbean. Countries like Barbados have successfully reduced fertility rates through family planning programs, leading to economic growth and development. However, this theory has also been criticized for its lack of attention to the cultural and social factors that influence fertility rates.

Rostow's economic stages of development is another theory that has been used to support the argument that fertility control is the key to development in the Caribbean. This theory argues that countries go through different stages of economic development and that fertility control is necessary for a country to move from the traditional stage to the takeoff stage. However, this theory has been criticized for its lack of attention to the historical and cultural factors that influence economic development.

When we look at specific countries in the Caribbean, we can see that there is a great deal of variation in fertility rates and development. For example, Barbados has a low fertility rate and is considered to be a developed country, while Haiti has a high fertility rate and is considered to be an underdeveloped country. Barbados has achieved this development through a combination of factors, including fertility control, while Haiti has struggled with poverty and underdevelopment due to a lack of access to resources and political instability.

In conclusion, while fertility control may be an important factor in development in the Caribbean, it is not the only factor. Population theories such as Malthusian theory, demographic transition theory, and Rostow's economic stages of development can provide useful insights into the relationship between fertility control and development, but they must be considered in the context of the social, cultural, and political factors that influence development in the region. As such, future research and development in the Caribbean must take a comprehensive approach that addresses these factors.

Introduction

The Caribbean is a unique region that faces distinct challenges in addressing crime. While mainstream theories of crime have some relevance to the Caribbean context, the region needs its own sociological theory of crime that takes into account its distinct historical, social, and economic conditions. This essay will analyze the applicability of mainstream theories of crime to the Caribbean reality, with a focus on the countries of Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago. The essay will then explore the historical, social, and economic factors that shape crime in these countries and their potential relevance to a Caribbean theory of crime. The essay will conclude by arguing that the Caribbean needs its own sociological theory of crime that takes into account its unique context.

Mainstream Theories of Crime

Classical, positivist and critical theories of crime have all been used to explain crime in different contexts. However, these theories have limitations when it comes to explaining crime in the Caribbean. Classical theory, which emphasizes individual choice and rationality, does not take into account the social and economic factors that shape criminal behaviour. Positivist theory, which emphasizes biological and psychological factors, is also limited in its ability to explain crime in the Caribbean, as it fails to consider the historical and cultural factors that shape crime patterns. Critical theory, which emphasizes the role of power and inequality in shaping criminal behaviour, is more relevant to the Caribbean context but still does not fully capture the unique historical, social, and economic conditions of the region.

Historical Context

The legacy of colonialism in the Caribbean has had a profound impact on crime patterns. The legacy of slavery and the plantation system has left a legacy of poverty and inequality, which is closely linked to crime in the region. Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago are two countries that illustrate this point. Haiti, which was the first independent black nation in the world, has struggled with political instability and poverty. The legacy of slavery and the plantation system has left a legacy of poverty and inequality, which is closely linked to crime in the region. On the other hand, Trinidad and Tobago has a history of colonialism and slavery that has left a legacy of racial and social inequality. The historical context of both countries is an important factor in understanding the root causes of crime.

Social Factors

Social factors, such as poverty, family, education, and socialization, are closely linked to crime in Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago. Poverty is a major driver of crime in both countries, as it creates a context in which criminal behaviour is seen as a viable means of survival. Family and education are also important factors, as they shape the values and attitudes of individuals towards crime. The socialization process in both countries is closely linked to the cultural and religious practices of the region, which may be different from mainstream Western values. For example, in Haiti, voodoo is a religion that is widely practised and has been linked to some criminal activities.

Economic Factors

Globalization, organized crime, tourism, and drug trafficking are all economic factors that are closely linked to crime in the Caribbean. These factors are especially relevant to Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago. Globalization has profoundly impacted the informal economy, which is often linked to organized crime. Tourism and drug trafficking have also created new opportunities for criminal activity. The economic factors that shape crime in the Caribbean are closely linked to the historical context of the region and the legacy of colonialism.

Theoretical Perspectives

Mainstream theories of crime have limitations in explaining Caribbean crime patterns. The region's unique historical, social, and economic conditions require a theory that considers these factors. Possible theoretical frameworks that could be used to develop a Caribbean theory of crime include critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and cultural criminology. These theories emphasize the importance of understanding the historical, social, and cultural context of crime, and could provide a more nuanced understanding of crime in the Caribbean.

Strengths and Weaknesses

One strength of mainstream theories of crime is that they provide a general framework for understanding criminal behaviour. However, their limitations become apparent when applied to the Caribbean context. For example, the classical theory fails to consider the role of poverty and inequality in shaping criminal behaviour, while the positivist theory does not account for the cultural and historical factors that shape crime patterns in the region. Critical theory is more relevant to the Caribbean context, but it does not provide a comprehensive understanding of crime in the region.

On the other hand, a potential strength of a Caribbean theory of crime is that it could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the root causes of crime in the region. By taking into account the unique historical, social, and economic conditions of the Caribbean, a Caribbean theory of crime could provide a more nuanced understanding of criminal behaviour in the region. However, a potential weakness of a Caribbean theory of crime is that it may not apply to other regions of the world, which could limit its usefulness in a global context.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Caribbean needs a sociological theory of crime that takes into account its unique historical, social, and economic conditions. While mainstream theories of crime have some relevance to the Caribbean context, they have limitations when it comes to explaining crime in the region. A Caribbean theory of crime could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the root causes of crime in the region and could be based on theoretical frameworks such as critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and cultural criminology. By developing a Caribbean theory of crime, policymakers and practitioners could gain a better understanding of the root causes of crime in the region and develop more effective strategies to address it.

Examine how the Demographic Transition Model may be applied to a named Caribbean society [25 marks]

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the Demographic Transition Model

B. Brief overview of the chosen Caribbean society

C. Thesis statement: This essay will examine how the Demographic Transition Model can be applied to [name of Caribbean society].

II. Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 1

B. Application of Stage 1 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 1 in the society

III. Stage 2 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 2

B. Application of Stage 2 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 2 in the society

IV. Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 3

B. Application of Stage 3 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 3 in the society

V. Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Definition and explanation of Stage 4

B. Application of Stage 4 to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Factors that contribute to Stage 4 in the society

VI. Criticisms and limitations of the Demographic Transition Model

A. Overview of criticisms and limitations

B. Evaluation of the applicability of the model to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Discussion of alternative models or theories that may be more applicable

VII. Conclusion

A. Summary of key points

B. Final evaluation of the applicability of the Demographic Transition Model to the chosen Caribbean society

C. Suggestions for future research

This essay plan provides a structured approach to answering the question and ensures that all key points are covered. By using the Demographic Transition Model as the framework for the analysis, the essay will be able to provide a comprehensive understanding of the demographic patterns in the chosen Caribbean society. The essay will also evaluate the limitations of the model and suggest alternative models or theories that may be more applicable.

Introduction

The Demographic Transition Model is a conceptual framework that explains the changes in population patterns and demographics that occur as societies undergo economic and social development. This essay will examine how the Demographic Transition Model can be applied to Barbados, a Caribbean society with a population of approximately 290,000 people. The essay will analyze each stage of the model and examine the factors that contribute to population growth and decline in the country.

Stage 1: High stationery

Barbados was once in Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model, which is characterized by high birth rates and high death rates that result in a stable population. In the early 20th century, the country experienced high infant mortality rates due to poor sanitation and healthcare infrastructure. However, as public health initiatives were implemented and medical advancements were made, the death rates began to decline. Nonetheless, the birth rates remained high due to cultural and religious beliefs that promoted large families.

Stage 2: Early Expanding

Barbados entered Stage 2 of the Demographic Transition Model in the mid-20th century when death rates continued to decline and birth rates remained high. This resulted in a population explosion, with the population doubling between 1950 and 1980. The country's economic development during this period contributed to population growth, as it led to improvements in healthcare and living standards, which reduced mortality rates. Additionally, the country's agricultural sector provided employment opportunities and increased food security, which led to an increase in birth rates.

Stage 3: Late Expanding

In the 1980s, Barbados entered Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model, which is characterized by declining birth rates and declining death rates that lead to slowing population growth. During this period, the country experienced a decline in birth rates due to increased access to education and healthcare, as well as changing attitudes towards family planning. Women began to delay childbirth and have fewer children, as they pursued higher education and careers. The decline in birth rates was also attributed to the increasing urbanization of the country, which led to smaller family sizes and a shift away from traditional agricultural practices.

Stage 4: Low stationery

Barbados is currently in Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model, which is characterized by low birth rates and low death rates that result in a stable population. The country's birth rate is currently below replacement level, at 1.58 births per woman, and the population is projected to decline in the coming decades. The decline in birth rates is attributed to factors such as increased access to family planning, changing attitudes towards family size, and the increasing costs of raising children.

Criticisms and Limitations

While the Demographic Transition Model provides a useful framework for understanding population trends, it has been criticized for being too simplistic and not accounting for the complex social, cultural, and political factors that influence population patterns. For example, the model assumes that population growth is solely determined by economic and demographic factors, and does not account for the role of political institutions, migration, or cultural norms in shaping population patterns.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Demographic Transition Model provides a useful framework for understanding the population patterns and trends in Barbados. The country has gone through each stage of the model, experiencing high birth rates and high death rates in Stage 1, a population explosion in Stage 2, declining birth rates in Stage 3, and a stable population in Stage 4. While the model has some limitations, it provides a starting point for understanding the demographic changes that occur as societies undergo economic and social development.

 ESSAY

Assess the extent to which the Malthusian theory of population can be applied to a named Caribbean territory. 

Malthus’ theory of population involves the relationship between population growth and food supply. It observes that the world’s population tends to increase more rapidly than the food supply that is needed to sustain it. Malthus argued that population would increase exponentially (for example; 2, 4, 8,16), while food supply would increase arithmetically (for example; 2, 3, 4, 5); where population growth outnumbers food supply available. He claims that the population would continue to grow naturally until there was not enough food, in which case some of them would starve, move on to find a new place with food, or die due to malnutrition and weakened immune systems. This theory, however, cannot be applied to Caribbean territories as from a as well as the availability of food supply. The territory of Trinidad highlights this argument effectively.
              The advent of Columbus in the New World, arriving in Trinidad on July 31st, 1498, set in motion a series of momentous events affecting the population trends of this territory even to this day. The indigenes were decimated, commonly by enslavement, deportation and disease after the region’s ‘discovery’ by Europeans. The mass depopulation of the indigenes led to a search for a new source of labour via the ‘ . This renewed attempt to encourage settlement in Trinidad was eminently successful and was the means that put Trinidad firmly on the road to development. When proclaimed in 1783, the island’s population was just about 3,000; exclusive of the Amerindians. A decade later, more than 10,000 settlers came in. The steady flow of immigrants to Trinidad continued and when the French Revolution broke out in 1789, the turmoil in the French islands caused further waves of people to flee to Trinidad. By the time of the British occupation in 1797, the population had reached 18,000, with a mass extinction of the Amerindians. Here we note that the mass increase in the population does not relate to the Malthusian perspective as Malthus argues that the growth in population is due to natural increase. However, during this era, the main reason of population growth was as a result of migration.         Malthusian Theory to the Caribbean further when considering Chattel Slavery in Trinidad. continued search labour after the extermination of the indigenous peoples, introduction of forced migration into the island. An estimated eight to fifteen million Africans reached the Americas from the sixteenth through the nineteenth century. Only the youngest and healthiest people were taken for what was called the middle passage of the triangle trade, partly because they would be worth more in America, and partly because they were the most likely to reach their destination alive. .
        According to Jack Harewood, during the period 1880-1920, the determinant of population policy was still the need for a large labour supply on the part of the plantations; hence the continuation of indentured immigration in Trinidad. This phase is particularly significant in Caribbean population history, because it marks the first period in which there was a large scale net emigration from the region. Also, for the first time, with partial exception of intra-Caribbean migration, a significant population movement was taking place not as a result of population policy or inadequate food supply and malnutrition, but on the basis of voluntary decisions on the part of individuals seeking their own self-interest. This emigration was partly in response to depressed economic conditions in most of the Caribbean territories, and partly in response to opportunities for large scale emigration to North Central America and to less densely populated territories of the Caribbean.
     In the early twentieth century, Trinidad and Tobago gained their independence. This nation was one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, refining Middle Eastern oil and providing its own through offshore fields. With the opening of a U.S. naval base on Trinidad in 1940, a number of local inhabitants joined or provided services to the American military.  There was an influx of immigrants in the post-Independent era, however, exact immigration figures are difficult to determine.
     In the contemporary period, the population of Trinidad and Tobago obtained from the 2000 Population and Housing Census consists of approximately 1,262,366 persons, up from 1,213,733 persons in 1990. This new count is in keeping with the trends of population change for Trinidad and Tobago, which has shown an increase at each census from 1851. The census survival ratios indicated that in-migration into the country was relatively insignificant, and was said to have counter-balanced out-migration. The Trinidad and Tobago population increased by 4.01 percent between 1990 and 2000 which is about one third of the increase occurring in the previous decade between 1980 and 1990 which was 12.4 percent. This increase in population shows that the Malthusian theory, which claimed to foresee a decrease due to lack of food availability, proves the Malthusian theory as void.
     For most countries, migration has been for much of the time an important component of population growth-from the pre-Columbian to the post-Independent era. Indeed, G.W Roberts sees the history of the Caribbean populations as ‘dominated by a series of currents of external migration’. Over an extended period of two and a half centuries, all the European countriesinvolved brought in people from wherever they could be best obtained-from Europe, Africa, Asia- and under whatever terms they could most economically be obtained- slavery, indenture and free labour. The statement is therefore reiterated that the Malthusian theory is neither appropriate nor applicable when identifying Caribbean territories; especially from a historical approach.

Notes:

A postitive check according to Malthus refers to positive checks to population growth as being any causes that contributed to the shortening of human lifespans. He included in this category poor living and working conditions which might give rise to low resistance to disease, as well as more obvious factors such as disease itself, war, and famine.

Written by: Brianna

       The Neo-Malthusian theory was born out of a number of crises within the world which resembled the predictions Malthus had made. Over the last four decades it has been reported that there have been several economic disasters which had raised concern with what Malthus had predicted. A great deal of evidence has surfaced both economic and non-economic which support what Malthus had proposed. This includes the fact that the United Nations had declared 88 nations as being unable to provide enough food for their inhabitants, 26 billion tonnes of top soil lost, six hundred thousand square miles of forest being cut and the growth of the world’s population by nearly 100 million per year. It was these factors which resulted in the re-visitation of Malthus’ theory which had been written many years ago. It is important to understand though that while Neo-Malthusians agree with Malthus on the prediction of future collapse, they state that Malthus had shortcomings especially with his failure to note the potential of birth control to stabilize populations. Jordan et al also noted that they disagreed with Malthus those factors such as war and famine being the key to population control. It has often been questioned whether the Neo-Malthusian approach can be used as an effective policy for population control in the Caribbean. It should be noted that to an extent it would be effective as in the case of its advice for the use of contraception as well as abortion as well as Planned Parenthood. But in the case of the Eugenicist movement this would be ineffective as this movement which has been seen as an ideal of the Neo-Malthusian movement is formed on the basis of racial prejudice and should not be used in any country.

       Paul Ehrlich was a neo-Malthusian theorist who advocated for the use of birth control methods as well as abortions. Ehrlich’s idea of the use of birth control may be applicable to a number of Caribbean countries. While abortion may be used it may not be an effective policy as a number of people in the population of Caribbean territories would be opposed to the idea of abortion which they would deem as murder as well it is illegal to have an abortion in most Caribbean countries with the exception of Cuba. Ehrlich had predicted that food for the population had been outstripped by population increase in two thirds of the developing countries between 1978 and 1988. He however did not agree with Malthus of the use of moral restraint and thus proposed alternate ideas as mentioned above. Ehrlich idea of abortion which forms part of the Neo-Malthusian approach may not be the best option to attempt to effectively control population in the Caribbean. According to the United Nations abortion in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago is only allowed where it threatens the health of the mother or in attempt to preserve mental and physical health. In Cuba which is perhaps according to the UN reports in 2007 which allowed abortions, it is legal and has been this way since 1965 to have an abortion. In fact a number of abortions are often performed in Cuba as noted by statistics obtained from the UN the number of abortions performed in Cuba in 2007 were 66 008. The point here is abortions which is prescribed as a way of controlling the population by Ehrlich may not be the most effective option for many Caribbean countries. One reason being it is  illegal in many Caribbean countries as in Trinidad and Jamaica unless needed for medical reasons as well as in these countries there would most likely be a strong united opposition towards abortions. Thus if abortions are illegal within the Caribbean they cannot be used as a population control method. Also if there is strong opposition there is no way it can be used to control the population as there is perhaps the chance that this method may not get the support of a number of Caribbean women.

       Ehrlich’s other suggestion was the use of other contraception. This suggestion can be tied into the suggestion made by the other neo-Malthusian theorists about Planned Parenthood. Planned Parenthood was initiated in the United States in the early 20th century. Two of the most famous advocates had been Margaret Sanger and Anne Besant. Their propositions influenced a number of co-operations and foundations to offer financial assistance to promote birth control for people in the third world in countries in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean where the issue of population control was a problem that was thought that could never be solved. However it should be noted that Planned Parenthood also constitutes abortion which should not be considered as an alternative for the Caribbean as mentioned. However the other forms of birth control which Ehrlich and Planned Parenthood may have advocated which may include the birth control pill or patch, the use of inter uterine device (IUD), condom, as well as spermicide may be considered for use within the Caribbean. In fact it should be noted that in Trinidad during the 1960’s because there was a need to control the population there were attempts to introduce a comprehensive family planning which more than likely would have included a number of these birth control methods with the exception of abortion and perhaps the morning after pill. According to Norma Abdullah in Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago, the programme was indeed successful and by the late 1970’s about 95% of the population aware of contraceptive alternatives and the average annual growth rate which had been 3% until 1960 which had been considered detrimental was reduced to slightly above 1 %. Among other factors such as the desire to have fewer children and the change in family patterns the use of contraceptives which had become more readily available had contributed to a great decline in the population growth rate of Trinidad. Therefore as shown birth control methods as advocated by the Neo-Malthusians indeed had a positive impact on the growth rate of Trinidad and Tobago and can indeed lead to a reduction in population growth in a number of other Caribbean countries. This is mainly due to the fact that methods such as the birth control pill, patch or injection as well as the condom are common to Caribbean society and as such Caribbean people are familiar with these methods and even though some may hold religious views against its use many do not hold it in the same context as seeing abortion is murder.

       Neo-Malthusians also have as one of their ideas, the Eugenicist movement. According to Jordan et al the Eugenicist movement which had surfaced in the 19th century had been a key factor in population control. This movement promoted the view of population control on the grounds of racism. The basic belief which had been held by Eugenicists was that only certain ethnic groups namely only the whites should be allowed to procreate and undesirable races such as blacks, Indians and Chinese should be prevented from natural increase through procreation so that overtime only the most suitable gene the whites would populate the earth. This movement would thus be incompatible with controlling population within the Caribbean and should in fact be seen as being unsuitable for use in any part of the world. It is morally wrong and unjustified to remove persons of various races simply because they do not have the desired skin colour or the desired physical genes. Thus the Eugenicists movement should never be considered in attempting to control the population of the Caribbean which after the effects of colonialism and slavery had a population made up of a white minority and large numbers of Africans and Indians. It was noted that the Latin American country of Argentina once employed the policy of selective breeding where they removed all the blacks so that they would have a solely white population. It was also noted in South Africa that during the apartheid period a number of young African females would often go to clinics for routine check ups and actually be sterilised so as to prevent the spread of the black race. It should also be noted that citizens within the Caribbean were seen as such second class citizens that Puerto Ric became guinea pigs for birth control and as a result many years later they suffered with cervical cancer. This was thus an attempt at showing who were superior human beings. The point is regardless of whether other countries have tried selective breeding; it morally wrong and infringes upon the fundamental human right of the individual.

                 Thus it can be said the Neo-Malthusian theory can be used to curb population growth to a certain extent in the Caribbean but it cannot be used in its entirety. The Neo-Malthusian theory of birth control as advocated by Ehrlich and Sanger and Besant can be used with the exception of abortion and the morning after pill. The Eugenicist movement however should definitely not be tried in the Caribbean. Thus the Neo-Malthusian theory may not be the best theory to be adapted for use as an effective policy control within the Caribbean.

This was a very good essay. Well written! The student demonstrates very good understanding of the theories under examination. Interpreted the question well, used present day example appropriately to justify and support theoretical argument. Concluded well by stating both theories should be considered for their merits and demerits.

N.B.

Avoid using reproachful language, in your essay writing. Do not take a personal tone. (Dispicable) is not an appropriate word to use, in academic writing!

    As we venture further into the 21st Century, the global population seems 
to be growing at an alarming rate. By 2030, the world is to be home of an 
estimated 8.3 billion, as compared to 6.12 billion just 30 years prior. (UN, 
2008) Issues such as sustainable agricultural and economic practices are 
gaining increased attention as our leaders prepare to face a ‘population 
explosion’. Thus the inevitable question is asked: Can we as a human race 
survive it? In this essay, we will seek to answer this question, focusing 
intently on two of the most influential theories in this subject: those of 
Thomas Malthus and Karl Marx. Through in-depth analysis of these ideologies, 
we will examine the demographic phenomena that are occurring, in the attempt 
to greater comprehend what is occurring around us.
           Firstly, in his essay on The Principle of Population (1798), 
Malthus presented a startling
Idea. He theorized that populations grew exponentially (i.e. 2, 4, 8 etc.), 
whilst food supply grew arithmetically (i.e. 1, 2, 3 etc.). This idea, dubbed 
the ‘Malthusian Equation’, was seen as proof that the world population 
would inevitably outstrip food supply. The result, he believed, would be 
human anarchy. The population would thus be dramatically reduced, as many 
(the majority being the poor) would die of starvation. Support for this is 
found in Calcutta, India, which has witnessed unbridled population growth. In 
the streets of the city, which are notorious for being the dirtiest and most 
densely populated in the world, thousands starve to death. (Mustapha, 2006)
     Thus, this is the Malthusian Problem: How can human misery be averted? In 
order to combat this imminent demise of the human race, Malthus suggested 
preventative and positive checks. Preventative checks refer the decrease in 
birth rates through abstinence and chastity whilst positive checks refer to 
the increase in death rates through war, famine etc. He was particularly 
critical of the poor, who he saw as a thorn in the side of society. He was a 
strong advocator of the abolition of the ‘Poor Laws’, a welfare system, 
which he believed encouraged the poor to reproduce themselves. He saw no 
reason to pay the poor, as they would not be able to ameliorate their 
position and would continue to be a ‘parasite’ on society. Instead, he 
advocated that the money be given to the upper classes, so that they could 
contribute to ‘high’ society: the arts, science etc. In his view, the 
rich had been ‘naturally selected’ to rule the Earth and carry on a 
strong and rich legacy. In the words of Herbert Spencer, this was ‘survival 
of the fittest’.
    In critiquing Malthus’ theory, we must first look at the ethical side of 
it. Firstly, his support of the abolition of the Poor Laws and the 
abandonment of the poor is somewhat despicable, especially in contemporary 
times. Moreover, some argue that his argument is fundamentally flawed, as it 
has been proven that when social conditions are optimum, and the people are 
happy, population growth subsides significantly. For example, in Barbados, 
the relatively high levels of living and social services, such as education 
and health, have contributed to a minute annual population growth of 0.3%. 
(UNDP, 2008) Contrastingly, Niger, a country where there is a high incidence 
of poverty and inhumane conditions, the population is expected to grow by 
3.6% between 2002 and 2015. (UNDP, 2008). Furthermore, the lifeboat earth 
view presupposes that international aid will come to the rescue of the poor 
countries, and not watch with indifference as Malthus theorises.
    Karl Marx’ take on demographics, like most of his other sociological 
theories, is founded on basic economic principles. He agrees with Malthus on 
one point only: that the population is increasing at a startling rate. 
However, he completely challenges all the other tenets of the Englishman’s 
theory. Perhaps Marx’ most robust criticism of Malthus’ theory is the 
latter’s opinion that the poor are culpable for the global demise. Marx 
states that it is not the poor who should be blamed for the population surge, 
but the rich. He believes that in an effort to accumulate and expand capital 
growth, the rich rely heavily on the poor to reproduce themselves. This is 
because when there is a large labour force but a scarcity of jobs, the 
worker, in his desperation for employment, will work for anything. Thus, the 
capitalists are able to keep wages very low and a ‘reserve army of 
labour’ is engendered, who will work at anytime for anything. The 
bourgeoisie brainwash the proletariat into thinking that large families will 
result in greater chances of employment, and as a result, population sees a 
marked expansion. Therefore, in Marx’ eyes, Malthus’ theory is the 
capitalist’s attempt to reify social phenomena and blame the poor for 
something that is not their fault.
    Marx’ theory, like Malthus, has its strengths and its faults. He is 
right in theorizing the existence of the ‘reserve army of labour’, as 
there are many in the developing countries of the world. For example, the 
many multinational companies (MNC’S) and transnational companies (TNC’s) 
that have established themselves in poor countries such as Vietnam and Mexico 
are exploiting the workforce in order to maximize profits. In Mexico, for 
example, people as young as 12 years work in the ‘maquilas’ (sweatshops), 
where they work 12-hour shifts and are paid between $30 and $50 a week. (New 
Industrialist, 1998). Thus, we see how the rich take advantage of the poor, 
even up to today. However, Marx’ theory has been criticised for being too 
“economically deterministic”. Whilst economics is an important factor in 
population growth, there are many other issues that must be looked at. 
Pressing matters such as sustainable agricultural methods, education of women 
and cultural change must all be dealt with if one seeks to truly combat 
population growth. Some Neo-Marxists focus on these issues, in the attempt to 
modernize traditional conflict thought.
    In closing, both the Malthusian and Marxist theories on demographics have 
their strengths and weaknesses. We see tenets of their ideas coming through 
in all aspects of our modern society. However, to apply one only to our 
current situation is a flawed approach, as we much combine the best elements 
of the two. We must also adopt various ideas from other demographic 
perspectives, such as the Demographic Transition Theory and Neo-Malthusian 
thought. A combination of them will allow us to better understand what is 
happening around us and give us the insight to plan sensibly for the future.

Deviance is defined as any violation of societal norms; Deviance is present within every society, as not every member of a society will observe the shared norms and values of that society. The interactionist perspective takes on a micro approach in attending to the issue of deviance in society and analyses the causes and influences of deviant behaviour, by examining small social groups. In the following essay the writer intends to outline the major assumptions of the interactionist perspective on deviance, by outlining the major assumptions of each interactionist theory of deviance and assessing their strengths and weaknesses.

Several interactionist theories of deviance are of the view that deviance is prevalent amongst the lower classes. Edwin Sutherland (1939) in his theory of Differential Association stated that criminal behaviour just like any other is learnt, it is not innate. Sutherland believed that it is through the process of communication, between the individual and primary groups of socialization, such as family and friends - that this type of behaviour is learnt. Learning, according to Sutherland is dependent upon specific variables of frequency (how often the learning takes place), duration (the length the learning periods lasts), priority (at what age criminal learning begins) and intensity (the prestige of the criminal trainer/teacher). Altogether, Sutherland asserted that individuals with an excess of criminal definitions (this becomes their normal way of life) will more likely become criminal, than an individual who has less exposure to such definitions (ways/modes of conduct and rationalization). The weakness of Sutherland's explanation for criminal behaviour is that the theory fails to explain why some people who may have been in regular contact with criminal behaviour (i.e. having all of the necessary ingredients of frequency, intensity, priority and duration) do not become criminals.

Travis Hirschi (1969) had similar views to that of Sutherland. Hirschi in his social control theory stated that the strength of social bonds individuals have with others determine their likelihood of committing a crime. According to Hirschi, people form social bonds through attachment, commitment, involvement and belief. Their attachment to people determines how much individuals value their relationships with others, commitment is the amount of activities an individual participates in and Hirschi believed that a lack of positive activities may cause an individual to participate in delinquent acts; involvement was another social bond outlined by Hirschi, he believed the more an individual's time is occupied with conventional interests of society the less time they will have to engage in criminal activities. Lastly, Hirschi believed that the strength of an individual's religious views will determine their likelihood of engaging in deviant acts. The weakness of this explanation is that social control theory's assumptions are derived from small scale studies of specific groups, which may not be reflective of the larger population of societal reality.

Other interactionist theorists such as Albert Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin and Walter Miller focus their theories of deviance on the lower class. Albert Cohen (1955) in his theory on the subculture of delinquency stated that the delinquent behaviour of lower class boys maybe caused by their inability to achieve middle class goals. As a result of this inability to achieve middle-class goal, lower class boys develop a subculture that invests middle-class values and allows them to seek status in other ways, such as banding together and forming a gang. Now some may disagree with this theory in that it is an inaccurate generalization, as it is not to be assumed that lower-class juveniles cannot measure up to the middle-class measuring rod, or that they would even care to do so.

Cloward and Ohlin (1960) look a lower-class juveniles in a somewhat similar light but offers a deeper explanation for lower-class juveniles delinquent behaviour. Cloward and Ohlin's (1960) differential opportunity theory posits that in order to become a criminal, one must have access to illegitimate means of attaining material goals and one must first be denied access to legitimate opportunities for attaining material goals. Unlike Albert Cohen's theory, they state that the illegitimate opportunity structure is as well defined as the legitimate ones and also has the ability to block people's access from it. While Cloward and Ohlin provides sound explanations of criminal behaviour, it must be noted that there has been a limitation in their theorization in that they ignore middle and upper class crime, and focus only on lower class criminal activity.

Walter Miller (1962) in his theory of lower-class focal concerns proposed that middle-class values are less important to gang delinquency than Cohen and others thought. He argued, instead, that expression of lower class values is more the more the purpose of gang behaviour. Miller states that there are a number of focal concerns that are indicative of lower-class delinquency, such as autonomy, excitement, smartness or the ability to outsmart someone and toughness to name a few. Although Miller offers a different perspective to the Interactionist theory of delinquency, it is prejudiced towards lower-class juveniles and their sub-culture but it does not necessarily explain crime in and of itself.

In retrospect, the majority of interactionist theories on deviance vary little from each other, in that somehow they all focus on the lower classes and fail to account for criminality amongst the other classes such as middle and upper classes. Thus, perpetuating the notion, whether (it is deliberate or not) that crime is essentially a lower- class phenomenon, which we know by fact that it is not! It should be noted that all of the aforementioned theories of deviance offer plausible explanations for the occurrence of deviance, they are biased towards lower-class juveniles who are labelled as the instigators and perpetrators of deviance within society and consequently, sociological theorizing is yet in need of a more balanced explanation of crime as a social phenomenon which is present and perpetuated by individuals in every strata of society and not limited to one social strata.

Introduction:

Crime is a pervasive issue that has plagued societies worldwide for centuries. Throughout history, official statistics have shown that males are more likely to commit crimes than females. However, in recent years, the role of women in the Caribbean has been changing. This essay aims to explore the statement that males are more likely to commit crimes than females in light of the changing role of women in the Caribbean. This essay will use sociological theories of crime to support arguments and reference current case studies of crime rates in the Caribbean up to 2021.

Official statistics are important indicators of crime rates in society. However, the accuracy and reliability of these statistics can be problematic. The under-reporting of crimes, particularly gender-based crimes, can skew official statistics. This is especially true in the Caribbean, where cultural attitudes towards gender roles and sexuality can impact crime reporting. Nevertheless, official statistics have consistently shown that males are more likely to commit crimes than females in the Caribbean.

Sociological theories of crime, such as Merton's strain theory and Bandura's social learning theory, provide insight into the gendered nature of crime in the Caribbean. Strain theory posits that social structures that promote the pursuit of wealth and success create stress and strain on individuals, which can lead to criminal behaviour. Social learning theory, on the other hand, argues that individuals learn criminal behaviour through exposure to criminal role models and reinforcement of criminal behaviour. Both theories suggest that male socialization and gender roles contribute to the gendered nature of crime in the Caribbean.

The changing role of women in the Caribbean has had a significant impact on crime rates. Women's increased participation in the workforce and political sphere may have reduced their involvement in criminal activities. The Caribbean Development Bank reported that women's labour force participation rate in the Caribbean increased from 51.3% in 1990 to 57.3% in 2018. Additionally, the number of women in political office in the Caribbean has also increased, with several countries electing their first female Prime Ministers in recent years. The intersectionality of gender with other social factors, such as race and class, also impacts crime rates in the Caribbean. For example, Afro-Caribbean males have been disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system. This is due, in part, to structural inequalities that limit their access to education and employment opportunities. Similarly, low-income individuals are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour due to economic pressures and lack of access to resources.

In conclusion, the changing role of women in the Caribbean has had a significant impact on the gendered nature of the crime. Sociological theories of crime suggest that male socialization and gender roles contribute to the higher rates of crime committed by males. However, the increasing participation of women in the workforce and political sphere may be changing this dynamic. The intersectionality of gender with other social factors also impacts crime rates in the Caribbean, and policymakers must consider these factors when addressing crime in the region. Future research should continue to examine the role of gender in crime in the Caribbean to inform policy and intervention strategies.

Crime and deviance are complex social phenomena that have been the subject of study in the field of sociology for many years. Functionalist sociologists argue that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values. However, this notion may not fully explain the complexities of crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as evidenced by the high crime rates in Trinidad and Haiti. This essay will critically assess the applicability of the notion that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean.

Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the importance of social order and stability in society. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as functional for society because they help to reinforce social norms and values and provide an opportunity for social control. For example, the punishment of criminals serves as a deterrent to others who may be considering committing crimes. However, this perspective fails to fully explain the high crime rates in Trinidad and Haiti, which are among the highest in the world.

 The conflict perspective is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power dynamics and social inequality in shaping social structures and processes. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as a result of social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. For example, poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education and healthcare can lead to criminal behaviour. However, this perspective also has limitations in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as it does not account for the role of cultural factors.

Interactionism is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the importance of how crime and deviance are socially constructed and perpetuated through social interactions and meanings. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as subjective and relative to social norms and values. For example, behaviours that are considered deviant in one society may be considered acceptable in another. However, this perspective may also have limitations in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as it does not account for the structural factors that contribute to high crime rates.

 The Caribbean's complex history and cultural context may influence crime and deviance. For example, the legacy of colonialism and slavery has contributed to social inequality and the marginalization of certain groups, which may lead to criminal behaviour. Additionally, cultural values such as machismo and the glorification of violence may also contribute to high crime rates. However, using a universal theoretical framework to explain crime and deviance in the Caribbean may have limitations, as each society is unique and may require a specific analysis.

 The latest crime statistics from Trinidad and Haiti reveal alarmingly high rates of crime and violence. In Trinidad, there were 538 murders in 2021, while in Haiti, there were 1,105 homicides in 2020. Factors contributing to these high crime rates include gang activity, the proliferation of illegal firearms in both countries and more particularly, political instability- in Haiti. The theories discussed in sections II, III, and IV can offer some explanations for these high crime rates, but none fully account for all the complex factors at play.

In conclusion, while the notion that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values has some validity, it may not fully explain the complexities of crime and deviance in the Caribbean, particularly in Trinidad and Haiti. The functionalist perspective fails to fully account for the high crime rates, while the conflict and interactionist perspectives may not fully account for the cultural and historical factors at play. A specific analysis that takes into account the unique context of each society may be necessary to fully understand and address the issue of crime and deviance in the Caribbean.

Written by:Student Liam Rice

Caribbean political leaders such as Sir Grantley Adams (Barbados), Sir Norman Manley (Jamaica) and Dr. Eric Williams (Trinidad) believed in the principle of enhancing Human Capital. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of the Human Capital Theory in its application to Caribbean societies. As the world industrializes, the desire to optimise efficiency and maximize profits is paramount to societal development. Many have written on this, proposing numerous theories on how the worker may perform at his/her best using ethical methods or motivation. One such ideology is the Human Capital Theory. Introduced by Adam Smith, the ‘father of economics’, this theory seeks to create a link between education of the worker and enhanced productivity. This school of thought will be discussed in this essay, along with its merits and demerits in applying it to Caribbean society. Human capital theorists believe that the economic success of a business is directly proportional to the education of its labour force. It is a functionalist idea that reveres the meritocratic system of education. It advocates the moving away from manual labour and seeks to develop a specialized population whose expertise will facilitate capital accumulation and ultimately, the progress of the country as a whole. The theory has been embraced by some of our most instrumental leaders, such as Sir Grantley Adams of Barbados and Dr Eric Williams of Trinidad. As a result, these individuals placed a great emphasis on the education of the masses and constructed many schools on the islands. Perhaps the most evident and successful sign of these efforts was the birth of the University of the West Indies, which has greatly aided in the creation of a Caribbean intelligentsia. However, recently, the rapid acceptance of this model has come into question. To what extent has it been successful in the Caribbean? Firstly, the Human Capital Theory was initially beneficial because it helped to improve the socio-economic position of the socially marginal in the region. Racism and classism still permeated social institutions such as the school and the church long after emancipation. Blacks, although now free, were still discriminated against in society: they were often unemployed, by virtue of their lack of education and the white, oppressive employees. However, with independence, whites were now legally prohibited to withhold or provide employment based on colour or class, but rather base it on whether the prospective employee fulfilled the educational requirements of the job. Thus, the explosion in schooling institutions in the region allowed blacks and other socially marginal groups to begin the process of social mobility through educational and economic empowerment. Moreover, strength of the application of the HCT to Caribbean society is that it has provoked change in familial structures, which has aided economic development on the islands. Prior to independence, poor blacks were taught to identify large families with economic stability. In their view, many children would equate to many people working, which would bring in a lot of money for the family. However, this only created a type of reserve army of labour and the perpetuation of poverty. The added importance of education drastically changed this view and encouraged the schooling of women. Thus, after a while, women moved from mainly being housewives to being gainfully employed. Their perceptions of family life changed and careers became increasingly important in comparison to traditional roles such as - over child rearing. As a result, Caribbean women are now having children and marrying at a later age. This has significantly improved the economic performance of many countries, for example, Barbados. In 2009, the GDP per capita in that country was US $18,500, whilst in 1950 it was US $6755.02! (CIA Factbook) This almost 300% increase can be attributed to the added contribution of women to the workforce. However, one shortfall of the theory is that often governments spend a disproportionate amount on money on education, neglecting other areas of society that need urgent attention. This has been the case in the Caribbean, and the consequences of this have been more pronounced in some countries than others. In Trinidad for example, in 2001, 16.7% of total government expenditure was spent on education. (UNESCO) However, in the same year, only 6.4% was spent on health. (WHO). This discrepancy has had serious implications for the country. In 2001, the crude death rate increased from 7.2 per 1,000 in 1999 to 7.8 per 1,000. (WHO) As new epidemics beleaguer the country, such as HIV/AIDS and non-communicable diseases like diabetes and obesity, it is imperative that more money is invested in the development of the healthcare system in the country to combat these ills. Education alone will not solve them. In addition, perhaps the biggest flaw in the application of the Human Capital Theory to the region is that it undermines the racial, classist and sexist attitudes that inhabit the Caribbean job market. The theory assumes that society is fair and like most functionalist ideas, places much store by the power of education. It proposes that once one is educated to a certain level, acquiring a job is automatic. However, whilst this may be true in metropolitan societies, the region’s history of colonialism does not allow for this easy transition. Many Caribbean businesses continue to be owned by the while middle and upper class and lower-class blacks and females, with and without education, continue to be grossly underemployed. For instance, in Jamaica, in 2008, out of the 134,600 of those without a job, 81,800 were female. (Statistical Institute of Jamaica) This is despite the fact that the female to male ratio of educational enrolment is 6.3:3.3. This shows the social injustices that are still engrained into Caribbean society today despite the many efforts of our forefathers to promote an egalitarian society. Thus, whilst education is an essential tool in the development of human capital, other key factors must be in place to truly realise the potential of the labour force. Thus, in closing, we as a region must look further than just educating the labour force in order to enhance productivity. We are an anomalous case in the world, as our colonial history and lack of natural resources present to us our own unique problems. Important issues such as racism, sexism and improper government spending must be dealt with in conjunction with the education of the masses. Furthermore, we must be cognizant of the ever looming threat of ‘over-educating’ our population, as we simply do not have enough jobs in the region to support a fully skilled Caribbean. Such a scenario would lead to a socially and economically unstable society, with increases in brain drain and significant drops in wages due to augmented competition for jobs. Thus, there must be added importance to untapped industries such as agriculture, rather than focusing mainly on professional or service based jobs. Furthermore, there is not only need for formal education, but also the education of the society as a whole to be less judgemental and prejudiced. Such solutions, as mentioned above, will be instrumental in the drive towards economic prosperity in the region. If they are implemented, the dreams of our forefathers such as Adams, Manley and Williams stand a high chance of being realised.

The Poor Will Always Be With Us. Discuss.

Poverty, according to United Nations Development Program is defined as a human condition characterized by the sustained chronic deprivation of resources, capabilities, choices, security and power necessary for the enjoyment of the adequate standard of living and other civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. Some theorists state that the poor are in their current position because they do not have the necessary funds to save and if given the opportunity can remove themselves from their destitution. On the other hand some thinkers assert that the poor exists because of the nature of society and the system of poverty will continue because its presence benefits society in some way or the other. In this essay the rationale supporting the statement of the perpetuation of poverty will be discussed.

According to Herbert Gans the poor perform certain functions that are necessary for society’s survival. The lower-class performs the physically dirty, dangerous and menial jobs for a low wage because they have no other option. Poverty also generates employment for occupations that serve the poor, like prison and welfare officers. Additionally the reality of poverty guarantees the status of those who are not poor on the social hierarchy.

 As indicated by Marxism, capitalism as a mode of production ensures and produces poverty by keeping wages low in order to maximize profits. Furthermore the huge quantity of lower-class workers ensure that wage levels remain low though competition. Low wages help to reduce the wage demand of work as any wage above the minimum rate gives the earner a bogus sense of security and keeps them in a state of false-class conscious. They do not feel the need to try to bargain for higher wages but still cannot afford basic amenities. Since most of the Caribbean exists in such a system, the lower class feels the burden of such.

In industrialized societies where the production process is automated, there has been an increased demand for skilled workers. The unemployed and underemployed of the working class usually do meet this criteria and so remain in a state of poverty.

Poverty can also be perpetuated via international channels. Organizations like the International Monetary Fund and World Trade Organization can induce destitution via the loans they provide. In keeping with their policy of structural adjustment programs, governments must reduce spending and consequently shrink expenditure on social services. The current middle-class must now spend their savings on facilities that they would have previously received free-of-charge.

Most Caribbean countries depend heavily on tourism and are therefore victim to seasonal poverty. During a particular time frame where the influx of tourists is at its peak this group of people earn sufficient subsistence but once that period is over they are now unemployed. According to C.Y.Thomas this group varies from season to season and is a sign of the ups and downs of the economy.

As maintained by Oscar Lewis the poor have a unique value system and they remain in poverty because of how they deal with the issues of such a life. The mentality that exists in the subculture is then passed down to subsequent generations. The poor have little ability to delay gratification and have a sense of fatalism; they do not see hard work and determination as a technique out of the grips of poverty. Walter Miller stated that one of the focal concerns of the lower-class was their tendency to depict the future as a consequence of fate and not of factors under their control.

Additionally on a family level there are a high number of female-headed households resulting from free union marriages and high rates of divorce and on a community level there is a lack of cohesiveness and solidarity.

Another factor that generates the perpetuation of poverty in the Caribbean is its high incidence of matrifocality. Women are more likely to have a greater number of dependents, experience wage discrimination and high unemployment and time restrictions due to child-rearing activities. In addition poor women are also challenged with predicaments such as teenage pregnancy, domestic violence and high fertility rates.

The youth in the Caribbean are also at risk, particularly males. They leave school with few skills and experience increased barriers to employment such as a lack of access to the job market. For those that are employed they are in danger of being continuously employed in ‘training programs” where they only receive a marginal stipend. Also in some Caribbean nations the economy has failed to produce enough jobs in preferred areas.

In terms of geographical explanations, the Caribbean lies on the convergence of two plates which makes us susceptible to natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanoes. In addition the reality of being tropical islands makes the Caribbean vulnerable to hurricanes. Any one of these tragedies can set to retard a nations’ development by hundreds of years and may leave needy, disadvantaged and deprived citizens.

In addition, according to George Beckford the plantation system which exists in the Caribbean as a type of economy and social organization that creates persistent employment, relatively low levels of income and highly unequal distribution of resources.

There exist in society several factors that encourages the perpetuation of poverty whether it is of a functional, economic or cultural reason. In some instances the factors that generate poverty can easily be terminated but because it may disrupt the social order of present society, the powers that be see no reason to change the situation. In short poverty is a phenomenon that will be maintained until the end of time.

Crime is an act in violation of the criminal law and subject to official punishment, meaning formal negative sanction by the state. Deviance is an act which strays away from the norms and expectation of a particular society. It is a term that is relative TO TIME, PLACE and PERSON and it can only be defined in relation to a particular standard. Therefore deviance is culturally and socially determined. Many Caribbean theorists in attempting to explain crime and deviance in a Caribbean context use European theorists such as Walter Millar and Albert Cohen. These Caribbean theorists believe their research is suitable in describing reasons for Caribbean crime.

On the other hand several theorists argue that there is a need for a Caribbean criminology. Theorists like Ken Pryce state that criminology is needed that is based of the distinctiveness of the region, attempts to illuminates the causation of crime and deviances within the Caribbean people historical and contemporary experience and that would examine the Caribbean cultural heritage of black working-class styles of protest from slavery to neo-colonialism. The essay will discuss the suitability and ability of European theories to scrutinize crime in a Caribbean society.

Ken Pryce and Figuera state that rape in Trinidad and Tobago is mainly a lower class phenomenon. Violence is prevalent to the experience of the underprivileged and the oppressed. Violence helps these people to reassert their dignity. Lower-class men are exposed to goals and materialism which are usually denied to them but constantly advertised in the media. As a result they feel deprived and frustrated and rape women in an attempt to gain a reputation and personal status. Walter Miller agrees stating that crime can be explained through a distinctive lower class, this lower class has a unique set of norms and values that encourage them to break the law. Within this lower class subculture there are a number of focal concerns such as fate, autonomy, toughness, excitement, smartness and trouble which form the base of the lower class males’ offenses.

Oscar Lewis agrees with his theory, ‘The Culture of Poverty’ stating that the lower-class because of their particular sub-culture is pre-disposed to a number of factors which make crime and inevitability and they transmit this subculture to their children. However it is dangerous to adopt metropolitan cultural concepts wholesale as they are sometimes based on an outdated United States of America and Britain. The conditions in these countries are very different to the conditions in the Caribbean. These models explain crime in a white, mostly homogenous society whereas the Caribbean exists in a mostly plural, heterogeneous one. In conformity with Pryce and Figuera is Hyacinth Ellis, she states that Jamaica’s history has been one of violence, racism, slavery, colonialism and low self esteem. These factors have created a sub culture of violence that applauds the infliction of violent behaviour since violence brings ego, self-esteen and realistic socio-economic gains that the lower-class was previously denied.

In agreement are Albert Cohen and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin who come closer to outlining a view of delinquency which is applicable to the Caribbean. Cohen states that lower class individuals adhere to mainstream goals but due largely to education failure and the resulting dead-end jobs; they have little opportunity to achieve these goals. As a result working class boys suffer from status frustration; they are discouraged and dissatisfied with their low status in society. Consequently they reject the success goals of mainstream culture and replace it with an alternative set of norms and values through which they commit crime. Cloward and Ohlin concur stating that deviant behaviour results from an increased access to illegitimate opportunity structures to achieve success.

These theories, according to Pryce are more suitable because they discussed the experience of delinquent subcultures in terms of the class situation with reference to their restrictive life chances and the frustrations upon their inability to measure up to their aspirations. However they still have limited theoretical values in the Caribbean because the style of protest of lower-class youth cannot be adequately explained without taking into account the Caribbean experience of racism and neo-colonialism. Maureen Cain disagrees with Pryce and Figuera, she states that high levels of crime are also found in Europe where there is no colonization. She states that crime and deviance is cross-cultural and trans-national.

The conventional viewpoint is that developing countries is a product of social change and modernization but according to Pryce third world countries face crime because it is a symptom of a particular type of development based on exploitation and development of underdevelopment. Also profits from the first world tend to be circulated among the upper and middle classes leaving the lower-class no other choice but to turn toward pimping, hustling prostitution and violence because of unemployment. He states that a Caribbean criminology that examines the reality of crime in the context of the Caribbean history of capitalist oppression and exploitation is best.

On the contrary Carl Stone argues that pseudo-historical explanations do not allow us to understand the new patterns of social behaviour. Poverty cannot explain violence as it existed before slavery but crime took more than one century after slavery to manifest itself in such proportions. According to Carl Stone modernization and social change Is the cause of violent criminal behaviour.

In conclusion, the Caribbean may very well be better equipped with criminology of its own. It is a unique region and should not be explained by theories based on evidence that was not seen to have existed in the Caribbean district.

Natural disasters have had a significant impact on the lives of Caribbean people and have led to an increase in the number of climate refugees seeking refuge in other Caribbean territories. The devastation caused by Hurricane Maria in 2017 provides a poignant example of this phenomenon. The impact of natural disasters and the displacement of populations has been studied through several sociological theories, including modernization, dependency, and world system theories. This essay will explore the implications of these theories for the Caribbean region and how social actors and institutions have shaped the impact of natural disasters and the provision of refuge for climate refugees.

Modernization theory emphasizes the importance of economic development and progress, arguing that societies must adopt Western economic and social models to achieve modernization. However, the persistence of natural disasters in the Caribbean region challenges this paradigm, as it is difficult for countries to achieve sustained economic growth and development when they are continually devastated by hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters. For example, Dominica, a small island nation in the Caribbean, was severely impacted by Hurricane Maria in 2017, which destroyed much of the island's infrastructure and caused significant economic disruption. The disaster set back the country's development by years, illustrating the challenges posed by natural disasters to modernization efforts.

Dependency theory, on the other hand, argues that global economic inequalities perpetuate the underdevelopment of poorer countries. The Caribbean region is a prime example of this phenomenon, as countries in the region are often subjected to the whims of larger, more powerful nations. For instance, some Caribbean countries are more vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change than others due to their geographic location, economic dependence on larger countries, and lack of resources to address environmental concerns. These factors increase their vulnerability to natural disasters and limit their ability to respond effectively to the needs of climate refugees.

World system theory posits that the global economy is structured around a core of wealthy countries that extract resources and labour from peripheral countries to maintain their dominant position. The Caribbean region has historically been a peripheral player in this system, exporting raw materials and labour to wealthier nations in exchange for finished products. This pattern of exploitation has left the region vulnerable to economic shocks and environmental disasters, which often disproportionately affect the most vulnerable populations. As a result, many Caribbean countries struggle to cope with the influx of climate refugees, who are often among the poorest and most vulnerable members of society.

The impact of natural disasters and the provision of refuge for climate refugees in the Caribbean region are shaped by a variety of social actors and institutions. Regional organizations such as the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) play an important role in managing natural disasters and supporting the displacement of climate refugees. For example, after Hurricane Maria devastated Dominica, CDEMA coordinated the efforts of regional governments, NGOs, and civil society organizations to provide assistance to affected populations. NGOs and civil society also play an important role in providing assistance to climate refugees and advocating for more sustainable development policies.

In conclusion, the impact of natural disasters on the lives of Caribbean people and the provision of refuge for climate refugees are complex issues that require a nuanced sociological analysis. By exploring the implications of modernization theory, dependency theory, and world system theory for the Caribbean region, we can better understand the challenges posed by natural disasters and climate change. The case of Dominica, which was devastated by Hurricane Maria in 2017, provides a poignant illustration of these challenges. Moreover, the role of social actors and institutions, such as CDEMA, NGOs, and civil society, is critical in shaping the impact of natural disasters and the provision of refuge for climate refugees. By working together, these actors can help to build resilience and reduce vulnerability in the Caribbean region, ensuring that those affected by natural disasters and climate change receive the assistance they need to rebuild their lives.

Urbanization is a process that occurs when people migrate from rural areas to urban areas in search of better opportunities, living conditions, and quality of life. It has become a widespread phenomenon in many countries, including the Caribbean. The statement "urbanization inevitably increases environmental health issues" is a contentious one that has sparked much debate. This essay will critically discuss this statement concerning Barbados, a small island developing state in the Caribbean, and analyze how theoretical frameworks such as modernization theory, world systems theory, theory of social change, and dependency theory apply to the issue of urbanization and environmental health.

Barbados has experienced rapid urbanization since the 1950s, with urban areas now accounting for approximately 80% of the population (Barbados Statistical Service, 2022). While urbanization has brought about economic development, improved infrastructure, and better access to education and healthcare, it has also resulted in various environmental health issues. The consequences of these issues are significant, including respiratory and other illnesses, environmental degradation, and reduced quality of life.

Modernization theory asserts that as societies become more developed, they will experience a shift from traditional to modern values and institutions, leading to improvements in living standards, including environmental health. According to this theory, urbanization is a positive force that drives economic growth, social change, and modernization. In the case of Barbados, urbanization has resulted in improved living standards for some, particularly those who have benefitted from the tourism and financial services sectors. However, the benefits have not been evenly distributed, with many low-income urban dwellers experiencing inadequate housing, poor sanitation, and other environmental health issues.

World systems theory posits that global economic systems create hierarchies of wealth and power, with core countries exploiting peripheral countries for their resources and labour. Barbados has historically been a periphery country, with the tourism and financial services sectors serving as the primary sources of economic growth. The influx of tourists and the rapid development of these sectors have resulted in significant environmental health issues, including air and water pollution, which disproportionately affect the residents of urban areas.

Dependency theory suggests that peripheral countries like Barbados are trapped in a cycle of underdevelopment due to their dependence on core countries for capital and technology. This dependence makes it difficult for peripheral countries to implement policies that protect the environment and public health. In the case of Barbados, the tourism and financial services sectors have been major sources of economic growth, but they have also contributed to environmental degradation and public health issues, particularly in urban areas.

Theories of social change emphasize the role of social movements in driving change. In Barbados, numerous social movements have advocated for environmental justice and sustainable development, particularly in urban areas. Some of these include the Barbados Renewable Energy Association, which advocates for renewable energy sources, the Future Centre Trust, which promotes sustainable lifestyles and practices, and the Caribbean Youth Environment Network, which promotes environmental education and youth empowerment in the Caribbean region. These movements have been instrumental in pushing for policy changes and raising awareness about environmental health issues and the impact of urbanization on the island and region by extension.

In conclusion, the relationship between urbanization and environmental health in Barbados is complex and cannot be reduced to a simple causal relationship. While urbanization has brought about some improvements in living standards, it has also resulted in significant environmental health issues, particularly in low-income urban areas. The theoretical frameworks of modernization theory, world systems theory, dependency theory, and theories of social change can all help to explain different aspects of this relationship. However, a comprehensive understanding of the issue requires a nuanced analysis of the political, social, and economic contexts in which urbanization and environmental health interact. Policymakers, stakeholders, and citizens must work together to implement sustainable development policies and practices that prioritize

Globalization refers to the process by which the world is becoming more interconnected through the increasing flow of goods, services, information, and people across national borders. As a result, the gap between rich and poor nations has become increasingly pronounced, leading some to argue that globalization is the key to the development of poor nations. This essay will examine this claim, drawing on sociological theories of development and using two Caribbean territories, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, as case studies.

The modernization theory of development posits that economic growth and development are the results of industrialization and the adoption of Western values and institutions. According to this theory, globalization should benefit poor nations by promoting economic growth and modernization. However, critics argue that this theory overlooks the structural inequalities that perpetuate poverty in poor nations, such as unequal access to resources and power. In the case of Jamaica, the country has experienced some economic growth and development as a result of globalization, particularly in the tourism industry. However, poverty remains high, and the benefits of globalization have not been distributed equally, leading to growing inequality and social unrest.

Another theory of development is dependency theory, which argues that poor nations are structurally dependent on rich nations and that their development is hindered by this relationship. According to this theory, globalization exacerbates the dependence of poor nations on rich nations, leading to underdevelopment and economic stagnation. In the case of Trinidad and Tobago, the country has experienced economic growth and development as a result of globalization, particularly in the energy sector. However, the country remains heavily dependent on foreign investment and imports, and its economic growth has not translated into improved social conditions for all its citizens.

In conclusion, the impact of globalization on the development of poor nations is complex and depends on a range of factors, including historical and structural inequalities, political and economic institutions, and cultural values and norms. While globalization has the potential to promote economic growth and development, it can also exacerbate existing inequalities and perpetuate dependence on rich nations. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago provide contrasting examples of the impact of globalization on development, highlighting the need for a nuanced and context-specific approach to understanding the complex relationship between globalization and development.

To what extent  can it be argued  that Sir Arthur Lewis policy of  ‘Industrialisation by Invitation’ aided  in the development of the B.W.I
By Jennine Small.

       According to  Nassur Mustapha development  is defined as, ‘the progressive process of human, cultural, political, economic and social change, which shapes people’s lives.’ The southern countries particularly the Caribbean have been classified as developing countries, which are still somewhat dependent on the metropolis which once colonized them.   Sir Arthur Lewis in the immediate post- World War II period  advocated industrialization of the British West Indies, he adopted a policy  called ‘ Industrialisation by Invitation.’  He felt that this was a step needed to be taken for the British West Indies to develop.  Sir Arthur Lewis policy aided in the development of the B.W.I but the policy itself also hindered development as well as left out major aspects of development.
           The Industrial Revolution was one of those historical events which drastically changed societies all over the world.  Despite the revolution having its roots in Europe , particularly Britain it then spread to  places like the U.S.A  and later the Caribbean.  Industrialization became the  mechanism  used  for a society to make the transition  from a traditional, labour intensive economy based on agriculture (agrarian)  to a more capital- intensive economy based on manufacturing by machines , specialized labour  and Industrial factories. Sir Arthur Lewis recognized the importance of Industrialisation but realized that the British West Indies could not do it on their own, they would need financial aid, in the form of investments which could stimulate Industrialisation.
         After Lewis studied the system known as Operation Bootstrap (policy of deliberately inviting  foreign direct investors) in Puerto Rico, he set out  to adopt and implement similar in the British West Indies. The economies of the British Caribbean  were mainly agricultural  and there was a need to stimulate industrial growth  and trade in manufactured  goods, to diversify the  economic base, since these economies were mainly monocrop economies. This term not only refers to the dependence on sugar and bananas, it also characterizes the  dependence  on tourism or the oil industry. Lewis therefore proposed the strategy to invite foreign investment as a way to stimulate growth, not only in industry but also agriculture, and therefore to reduce the dependency on the export sector. He reasoned that the British West Indies  had a great abundance of unskilled labour in agriculture and amongst the unemployed. These countries did not have  much capital. Thus multinational corporations (MNCs) with  millions of dollars at their disposal were to be invited to the British West Indies where they could earn huge profits  by employing cheap surplus  labour from agriculture. They would also benefit from tax holidays for the first five or ten years of their operations, and other concessions such as subsidies. In other words incentives would be offered to encourage these corporations to invest .
              Caribbean governments  popularly adopted this policy in the 1960s. Several foreign based companies that are established today in the Caribbean are the result of  Sir Lewis’ policy. This is most apparent in the tourist industry  many foreigners have invested in hotels which  employ the  majority of people.In Antigua for example, 50% of the population is employed in the tourism industry. In addition to this, infrastructure such as roads and transportation has been developed by governments to complement these  businesses.  Foreign investors have introduced the latest technologies  and influenced the improvement of  public services.
           On the contrary, the policy is very much economically based , its aim is for countries to achieve economic growth. However development also includes other aspects, there is no indication on how foreign investers may  positively impact the quality of life , welfare or education. Therefore this policy cannot be seen as aiding development in the British West Indies as a whole , as the policy was based primarily on the stimulation of economic growth. In addition, most of the money earned by these investors have been repatriated to their home  countries  thus  money is not invested in the economy, this is a grave issue with serious implications for the tourism industry.
       The policy eventually failed in the British West Indies, mainly because the Caribbean governments invited the MNCs but did not control them. When the initial period of the tax-free holidays were up they 'closed up shop' and moved on. They were mainly capital-intensive industries, virtually no provisions were  made for  training citizens to organize and run similar plants, such as the assembly of motor vehicles and small appliances. Hence no sustainable development.
        Neo-marxists  who came up with the dependency theory, also initially developed their theory in Latin America.  Andre Gunder Frank and Samir Amin were the two theorists associated with this school of thought .  Both argued that the third world countries are classified as the Peripheries and the Western/ Industrialised  capitalist countries are the core. The former being largely dependent on the latter. The development of the core countries  caused the underdevelopment  of the periphery since economic surplus  was transferred from the latter to the former for expansion purposes. These sociologists recommended that the peripheries need to break the link between them and the core in order to be self- sufficient and independent. Therefore the MNCs can be seen as detrimental  according to this perspective dependence is an undesired state and situation . It only causes, injustice, unfairness and exploitation. Following from the dependency theory, we can assert that foreign companies therefore would not be aiding development but hindering it for their metropolis benefit. They would encourage the mindset of preference for foreign goods thus maintaining dependence.
               It can be seen that the Industrialisation by Invitiation policy is indeed a controversial one when considering whether it has aided development in the Caribbean. There is no doubt that MNCs  are an important means to economic development. However in order for a country to develop, the country must have control of its own businesses and resources, move away from  traditional economic models that make them dependent on foreigners and also perpetuate the legacy of  colonialism in how the Caribbean economy is structured.