importance of food security essay

What You Need to Know About Food Security and Climate Change

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What is the state of global food security today, and what is the role of climate change?

The number of people suffering acute food insecurity increased from 135 million in 2019 to 345 million in 82 countries by June 2022, as the war in Ukraine, supply chain disruptions, and the continued economic fallout of the COVID-19 pandemic pushed food prices to all-time highs.

Global food insecurity had already been rising, due in large part to climate phenomena. Global warming is influencing weather patterns, causing heat waves, heavy rainfall, and droughts. Rising food commodity prices in 2021 were a major factor in pushing approximately 30 million additional people in low-income countries toward food insecurity.

At the same time, the way that food is often produced today is a big part of the problem. It’s recently been estimated that the global food system is responsible for about a third of greenhouse gas emissions—second only to the energy sector; it is the number one source of methane and biodiversity loss.

It’s recently been estimated that the global food system is responsible for about a third of greenhouse gas emissions—second only to the energy sector; it is the number one source of methane and biodiversity loss.

Who is most affected by climate impacts on food security?

About 80% of the global population most at risk from crop failures and hunger from climate change are in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, where farming families are disproportionally poor and vulnerable. A  severe drought caused by an El Nino weather pattern or climate change can push millions more people into poverty. This is true even in places like the Philippines and Vietnam, which have relatively high incomes, but where farmers often live at the edge of poverty and food price increases have an outsized impact on poor urban consumers.

How might climate change affect farming and food security in the future?

Up to a certain point, rising temperatures and CO2 can be beneficial for crops. But rising temperatures also accelerate evapotranspiration from plants and soils, and there must also be enough water for crops to thrive.  

For areas of the world that are already water-constrained, climate change will increasingly cause adverse impacts on agricultural production through diminishing water supplies, increases in extreme events like floods and severe storms, heat stress, and increased prevalence of pests and diseases.

Above a certain point of warming -- and particularly above an increase of 2 degrees Celsius in average global temperatures – it becomes increasingly more difficult to adapt and increasingly more expensive. In countries where temperatures are already extremely high, such as the Sahel belt of Africa or South Asia, rising temperatures could have a more immediate effect on crops such as wheat that are less heat tolerant.

Without solutions, falling crop yields, especially in the world's most food-insecure regions, will push more people into poverty – an estimated 43 million people in Africa alone could fall below the poverty line by 2030 as a result.

How can agriculture adapt to climate change?

It’s possible to reduce emissions and become more resilient, but doing so often requires major social, economic, and technological change. There are a few key strategies:

Use water more efficiently and effectively, combined with policies to manage demand . Building more irrigation infrastructure may not be a solution if future water supply proves to be inadequate to supply the irrigation systems—which our research has shown may indeed be the case for some countries. Other options include better management of water demand as well as the use of advanced water accounting systems and technologies to assess the amount of water available, including soil moisture sensors and satellite evapotranspiration measurements . Such measures can facilitate techniques such as alternate wetting and drying of rice paddies, which saves water and reduces methane emissions at the same time.

Switch to less-thirsty crops . For example, rice farmers could switch to crops that require less water such as maize or legumes. Doing so would also help reduce methane emissions, because rice is a major source of agri-food emissions. But a culture that has been growing and consuming rice for thousands of years may not so easily switch to another less thirsty, less emitting crop.

Improve soil health . This is hugely important. Increasing organic carbon in soil helps it better retain water and allows plants to access water more readily, increasing resilience to drought. It also provides more nutrients without requiring as much chemical fertilizer -- which is a major source of emissions. Farmers can restore carbon that has been lost by not tilling soil and by using cover crops, particularly with large roots, in the rotation cycle rather than leaving fields fallow. Such nature-based solutions to environmental challenges could deliver 37% of climate change mitigation necessary to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement. But getting farmers to adopt these practices will take time, awareness-raising and training. In places where farm plots are small and farmers can’t afford to let fields lie fallow or even rotate with leguminous crops, improving soil health could pose a challenge.  

What is the World Bank doing to help countries build food security in the face of climate change?

The World Bank Group’s Climate Change Action Plan (2021-2025) is stepping up support for climate-smart agriculture across the agriculture and food value chains and via policy and technological interventions to enhance productivity, improve resilience, and reduce GHG emissions. The Bank also helps countries tackle food loss and waste and manage flood and drought risks. For example, in Niger, a Bank-supported project aims to benefit 500,000 farmers and pastoralists in 44 communes through the distribution of improved, drought-tolerant seeds, more efficient irrigation, and expanded use of forestry for farming and conservation agriculture techniques. To date, the project has helped 336,518 farmers more sustainably manage their land and brought 79,938 hectares under more sustainable farming practices.

Website:  Climate Explainer Series

Website:  Climate Stories: How Countries and Communities Are Shaping A Sustainable Future

Website:  Food Security Update

Website:  World Bank - Climate Change

Website:  World Bank - Agriculture and Food

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Food Security Crisis Resolution Essay

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Introduction

Global governance, importance and aids by global governance, works cited.

Food is one of the fundamental needs of human. Food security is the ability to access food by those who need it. Every household is termed as secured food wise if it has access to safe and enough food hence freedom from hunger. The World Food Organization describes this security as access to nutritious, safe and sufficient food to cater for the basic human desires.

The rapid increase of population all over the world is the major result for food insecurity (Harman 18). To ensure the situation does not run out of hand, the global body Food and Agricultural Organization has been at the forefront since time immemorial to cater for issues related to this basic human need. Central to this organization is governance. This can ensure that even if there is increased population, there can be enough resources or produce to cater for the increase and even shortages.

Food security has become a complex task to achieve with the development of globalization. Initially the main focus of the governing body was on agriculture. This ensured carefully monitoring of production and even the surplus that are stored. Today, different issues of concern have cropped up. These are in terms of food processing, food distribution and food consumption. Governance of food security has become challenging with the forms of contradictory policies that exist.

Most third world countries have weak connections with the global governance (Harman 18). These countries are always the worst hit groups when there is hunger breakout. On the other hand America and most of its environs have high influence in the global governance. Their exports have greatly increased while other third world countries exports have reduced. These countries used to export in a massive way but have since declined in production.

These countries are not promising at all. Therefore they have less influence of the global investment kitties. One will find that those countries that are stable in terms of agricultural production and are also doing great in the processing have much attraction to investment and are therefore considered a priority by the governing bodies

Several methods have been employed to cater for increasing cases of food insecurity. One of these methods is research. The cases of reduced land for tenure have been the main cause of low agricultural production. Currently, researchers have introduced novel ways of producing crops.

This has been aided greatly by biotechnology. This new research concept has enabled the production of crops that can resist adverse conditions. In addition, other crops can also do well in green houses. Unfortunately, other countries cannot afford this. Although global governance has given out these good options, some countries cannot afford. This is because their government cannot afford the finances in one way or another (Harman 18). This paints a bad picture of the governance while it is evident that it is not their fault.

Other forms of governance that would improve food security include Rule of law, internal peace, improvement of infrastructure from rural areas and support from the government for research. These proposals are best when employed on the ground. Developed countries have already put these practices in place and are ahead. There have been problems caused by global warming and other related disaster but this has been solved by having alternative methods. This does not mean that the conventional methods have been neglected.

Adoption measures have been for the purpose of bridging the gap between production and consumption. There is need for all countries to be stakeholders of global food programmes and government. This will ensure that there is a legitimate process for handling problems and also providing solutions for future activities. Unfortunately, the developing countries do not take part in the same footing. This therefore calls for a better government that will have honor for legitimate, political and democratic process.

Current Global Economic Situation

This is an economy which comprises all the economies of the world. The issue of globalization brought a great revolution in the economy of the world. This revolution comprised of merging of trade markets, free trade in international stock markets and many more. Initially, this impacted nations in a positive way (Harman 18). There was expansion of markets and industries, creation of employment opportunities for both the young and old the people and a paradigm shift from job search to creation of jobs. More so was the issue of innovation that brought about great investment both in foreign and indigenous countries.

Developed and developing countries have had different effects due to the dynamic global economy. Currently, the economy is at its worst. The economic metrics stand at a free fall at the moment. Some are quite rapid that it has become so scary. The situation has continued to deepen day by day from banks bail out to individual country bail outs.

Central to this crisis is the unavailability of basic commodities such as food. In addition, oil prices have posed the hardest hit to most countries. The oil crisis was brought about by the unstable situation in Japan and Northern part of America. These unrests led to reduced production of oil from the main oil producing countries such as Libya. The rising oil prices have been due to the scarce in the commodity or the raw material. This crisis has also translated to the current energy crisis

On the other hand is food crisis. This has also arisen due to globalization of the economy. Increased industries led to the deterioration of the environment. This consequently led to global warming. Global warming has had a great impact on Agriculture. The climate of the globe has changed tremendously towards the negative. This has contributed to the accumulation of greenhouse gases hence global warming.

Therefore the climate has changed affecting the agricultural activities. This has directly affected food prices mostly for people living in poor countries and the Asian community. This has since resulted in high increase in food prices. For instance, in Asia the food prices have increased to 10%. This has affected about sixty five million people in the country.

Another factor that has put the current economy at risk is the weakening of the Dollar. This has led to the rapid rise in market prices. The American people have huge debts to pay hence this has greatly affected their economy and even the grand global economy. Goods traded across the global market are as expensive as has never been experienced before.

The most affected are the developing countries which have to add an extra coin to get goods across the global market. There has been cumulative unemployment for fresh college students in both developing and developed nations. Also there has been a rebound in the trade globally. In 2010 the increase in trade was about 12% which was positive.

Resolution for the Crisis

The main resolution strategy to the current economic crisis is the issue of changing policies. This can be achieved by using neutral bodies that can help save the matter starting with the matters that are of priorities. First of all the weakening of the Dollar is one crisis that should be resolved. It actually affects the global markets and hence touches every part of the world. The crisis in the economic sector unfortunately combines almost all international affairs from trade, agriculture, social status, political status and many more affairs.

This then means that there is need to restructure the financial operations. As mentioned above, a policy reform is the ways to go. International organizations dealing with specific global issues should sit down and allow room for policy interventions that will be able to advocate for the independence of countries in terms of control of each country resources (Pacula etal., 276).

For instance, every country should have the sovereign authority to strategize on self sufficiency. That is, every country should have the capacity to state their productivity, consumption and even surplus without being influenced externally. Central regulation has proven to lack transparency hence failure in the part of governance.

The issue of central control can be avoided by having each country regulate their resources and present what they have to the international organizations. This does not mean that the mandates of these international organizations are being neglected but it means that the essence of external interventions is nullified.

Another critical sector that needs quick salvaging is the financial sector. There are policies that were imposed by the World health organization, World Bank, international Monetary Fund and the regional and bilateral trade (Pacula etal., 276).

These policies have tremendously caused the current financial crisis that has been predicted to last for about two years before it picks up in a steady state. It is speculated that the years 2012 and 2013 will be bad years for more so the developed countries. Controls such as the forced quotas, regulated market prizes, control of imports should be solely left within the agreements by countries.

In the case of finances, the issue of financial literacy needs to be worked out. The current crisis means that there has been inefficiency in management of money matters. It there was a well sophisticated system able to work out the financial problem and even speculate the trends in an actual way then the issue of global crisis could not be a pandemic at the moment. For example, the issue of high mortgage ownership in developed countries has led to the banks running in huge debts hence a need for bailouts.

If there were plans put in place to train the consumers who were taking credits then there would not be the issue of debt default. This would mean that the consumers would be aware of the steps they are taking and would only participate in taking debts that they are able to clear. This can also translate in the global credit acquisition by countries. There have been increasing complexities in the financial markets both in individual countries and globally. Having financial literacy would solve the issue of this crisis.

Approach to Crisis Resolution

Fortunately, these approaches are underway as there have been non partisan groups that are lobbying for reforms and policy change in international organizations. Having and ear for the cry of these lobbyists will be a good step taken by the developed countries and even the international organization in working out the crisis. Therefore, to have success, there should be great interest by these organizations and countries to take part in reforms especially on the issue of financial education which is very important.

Harman, Chris. “Financial and Economic Crisis”. The Guardian Weekly 3 Aug. 2007: 18. Print.

Pacula etal. “Politics of the United Nations”. Journal of Political Economy . 95.2 (2006): 107-300. Print.

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Stability in the 21st Century: Global Food Security for Peace and Prosperity

The world today faces enormous challenges, including the threats of rapidly increasing instability, conflict, and migration as a result of inadequate food supplies and water scarcity.

Key Findings

America is facing enormous global challenges at the beginning of 2017, including the threat of rapidly increasing global instability, conflict, and migration as a result of inadequate global food supplies and water scarcity. Today’s global population of 7.4 billion people is expected to grow to 8 billion by 2024 and 10 billion by 2056. In addition, rising incomes in many low- and middle-income countries are further increasing the demand for food to satisfy the desire for higher quality, more nutritious, and diverse diets.

Yet we have never been as well equipped as we are today to respond to these challenges. Bipartisan leadership from the United States and action by the global community over the past 25 years has led to impressive results in the fight against the destabilizing forces of food insecurity. The US government, in close cooperation with the private sector and university system, is well-positioned to expand its legacy of commitment to food security and not only bolster the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers and entrepreneurs around the world, but also open up new business opportunities and partnerships in emerging economies.

Global food and nutrition security is in America’s national security and economic interests

 food security promotes national security..

Particularly in urban areas of low- and middle-income countries, high food prices and reduced access to food can trigger protests and rioting, including armed conflict, that lead to political and economic instability with global consequences. The global food crisis of 2007-08 demonstrated how spikes in food prices can plunge millions into hunger and deeper poverty, sparking riots that can undermine progress for years. The food price crisis hit hardest in countries with systems that were least able to respond effectively to global price volatility. For example, food price–related protests toppled governments in Haiti and Madagascar in 2007 and 2008. In 2010 and 2011 food prices and grievances related to food policy were one of the major drivers of the Arab Spring. Food insecurity can also be a powerful driver for migration. Despite ongoing conflicts, much of today’s global migration crisis is driven by economic factors, as millions of people flee hunger and poverty in their countries. On the other hand, countries that have achieved sustained development progress and greater food security are less susceptible to volatility and violence.

Food security promotes stability and economic opportunity.

Greater prosperity and economic growth in low-income countries create new and expanding markets, presenting growth opportunities for American farmers, ranchers, and businesses. For instance, in Africa alone the value of the agriculture and food sector is expected to reach $1 trillion by 2030. Rising incomes and changing diets are increasing demand for more diverse and nutritious foods. As economies grow, so does the demand for agricultural products, benefiting farmers locally and globally. Growing economic opportunities in the agriculture sector reach well beyond food production into sales of machinery and inputs, growth in demand for consumer packaged goods, and digital technologies for agriculture, where American companies are global leaders.

Agricultural development leads to greater food and nutrition security, economic growth, and well-being

If the history of development has taught us anything, it is that a strong agricultural sector is a cornerstone of inclusive and sustainable growth, broad-based development progress, and long-term stability. Simply put, sustainable growth, job creation, and stability in low- and middle-income countries is not possible without a robust and productive agricultural sector.

Agricultural development programs are cost-effective.

Investments in agricultural development have been proven to be more than twice as effective at reducing poverty as investments in other sectors. And gains to farmer productivity and income have proven enormously important both for the individuals involved and for societal progress more broadly.

Agricultural production has, on average, almost doubled in low- and middle-income countries since 1995.

Private investment in small and large farms and in agricultural value chains has been central to this growth, alongside public investments in infrastructure, R&D, and improvements in agricultural policies. There has been notable progress across almost all regions. These gains in agriculture are central to generating inclusive and sustainable growth, reducing hunger and poverty, improving nutrition, and achieving long-term stability.

The combination of greater food availability and higher incomes over the past two decades has led to substantial reductions in hunger and improved nutrition.

There are 200 million fewer chronically undernourished people in the world today compared with 1990, despite significant increases in population. The proportion of chronically undernourished people in low- and middle-income countries has fallen from 23 percent to 13 percent. At the same time, the number of people suffering from physical and cognitive stunting as a result of malnutrition has fallen from 250 million to 150 million.

Current challenges must be met

As important as the gains in fighting hunger and malnutrition over the past several decades have been, they are not nearly enough. Major obstacles for food and nutrition security loom large.

Population growth and rapid urbanization are increasing demand.

The global population will reach 8 billion by 2024 and 10 billion by 2056. Ninety-nine percent of the projected growth in the next century will occur in low- and middle-income countries.11 The challenges posed by this growth are daunting, especially in Africa, where more than half of the total population growth between now and 2050 will take place, adding another 1.3 billion people to the region. Most striking of all, in Nigeria, already the seventh-largest country in the world, the population is projected to grow from 180 million to nearly 400 million, surpassing the population of the United States by 2050. At the same time, many more people will live in cities than ever have before.12 The United Nations (UN) projects that the share of people living in urban areas worldwide will increase from about 50 percent today to two-thirds by 2050. Virtually all of the expected growth in world population between now and 2050 is expected to be concentrated in the urban areas of low- and middle-income countries.

Youth populations are exploding.

In much of Africa and South Asia, a large and increasing share of growing populations will be adolescents and young adults—known as a "youth bulge." Africa has the youngest population in the world. There are currently 200 million people in the region between the ages of 15 and 24, and this number is expected to double within the next 30 years.13 As young populations boom, their creativity and productivity can help boost their countries’ gross domestic product (GDP)—creating a pool from which the best and brightest can emerge to help solve problems around the world. Barred from participation in employment and opportunity, however, large populations of young people can be a destabilizing force in economies on the rise. A thriving food and agriculture sector, while by no means a silver bullet, is important to addressing the youth bulge by not only ensuring food and nutrition security, but also offering a source of employment throughout agricultural supply chains.

Risks from climate and natural resource pressures are increasing.

Nearly half of the planet’s land is currently used for agricultural and livestock production. As stewards of the land, farmers are among the most committed to preserving the natural resource base. Given that they depend on the land for their livelihood, they are also the most affected by a changing climate, including volatile weather and pressures on the natural resource base. Farmers must be valued as allies in preserving the environment. Indeed, among the most significant threats to food and nutrition security are the interrelated issues of climate change and natural resource constraints, including water scarcity, increased incidences of pests and disease, poor-quality soils, and volatile weather patterns.

Collaboration with our allies and partners is essential to ending hunger and malnutrition through accountability and opportunity

While it is crucial that the United States act to fight hunger and enhance global food security, it should not and will not act alone.

Government leadership is crucial for effective development.

Other governments, including rising global powers and low-income countries themselves, have all contributed significantly to improved global food security in recent years. The 2007-08 food price crisis was a wake-up call that spurred action not only by the United States, but by governments, multilateral institutions, businesses, investors, and civil society organizations around the world. Global leaders stepped up to meet the need for increased action and investment to advance global food security, agricultural production, and improvements in nutrition. Rising powers, especially China, India, and Brazil, have taken an increased interest in global agriculture and food systems, particularly in emerging markets. Moreover, governments in many low-income countries have significantly increased their own investments at home, improved their policy environments, and begun to strengthen many of the key institutions that provide the foundation for robust agricultural production and better nutrition. Continued action by all of these actors will be crucial for substantial and sustained progress in strengthening global food security.

Agriculture and food production are driven in large part by the private sector.

Up and down the value chain, from seed and tool companies to large and small farm producers to traders to food processors, the business of feeding the planet is stewarded by private investment. Achieving increases in agricultural productivity, improvements in nutrition, and enhanced global food security is only possible through the considerable capital, technological and product development capabilities, knowledge, experience, and distribution capacities of private businesses, large and small. Although private-sector investment in areas related to food security has increased rapidly in recent years, businesses still face many obstacles and impediments, keeping investment from reaching its full potential. Unlocking that potential is a key challenge, but one that brings enormous gains.

The United States must strengthen its commitment to ending hunger and malnutrition

Since World War II, when America’s leaders strove to meet the challenges of "hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos" in the aftermath of such great conflict and suffering, the United States has been strongly committed to ending hunger and malnutrition around the world, not just as a moral imperative but as a matter of national security.15 Since that time, US efforts to advance global food and nutrition security have been among the greatest triumphs of American ingenuity and generosity. In July 2016 Congress overwhelmingly passed the Global Food Security Act, authorizing the administration to continue to meet US global food and nutrition security goals. The act passed with strong bipartisan support, with no objections in the Senate and 87 percent approval in the House.

Recommendations

To address the challenges facing the United States and the world and threatening global food and nutrition security, the US administration together with Congress should support investments that take an integrated approach to agricultural-led economic growth, nutrition, and food system resilience through innovation and new technologies. To succeed, the administration and Congress must work closely with private businesses, farmers, entrepreneurs, investors, universities, research institutions, and civil society.

The crises and challenges facing the world and threatening food and nutrition security continue to call for action. To meet these challenges, we recommend that the administration and Congress take urgent action in four key areas.

Recommendation 1

Make global food and nutrition security a pillar of US diplomatic and national security engagement and strengthen the integration and coordination of activities both within the United States and around the world.

• Amplify the importance of global food security for US national security and diplomatic activities.
• Maximize resources through smart integration and coordination among agencies and between the US government and civil society.
• Work closely with bilateral and multilateral partners to achieve collective goals.

Recommendation 2

Prioritize public research investments to unlock innovation and harness new technologies for the agriculture, food, and nutrition sectors.

• Harness the unparalleled expertise of American universities and their research partners to solve the most pressing problems in agriculture, food, and nutrition at home and abroad.
• Expand support for the development of scientific and technological innovations that improve agricultural productivity, pest and disease resistance, supply chain development, and nutrition.
• Develop new technology platforms to collect more and better data and improve communication of information among key stakeholders.

Recommendation 3

Productively partner with committed companies to amplify the power of the private sector to transform food and nutrition security, from individual entrepreneurs to multinational businesses.

• Form strong public-private partnerships to harness the private sector’s strengths and spur inclusive and sustainable growth in smallholder agriculture and food systems in low-income countries.
• Strengthen and open the environment for investment, action, and collaboration.
• Increase access to finance and mitigate the risks that undermine opportunities for investors.

Recommendation 4

In strategic alignment with foreign policy goals, ensure that US agriculture and nutrition assistance programs are efficient and support low-income countries’ capacity to implement responsible and effective policies.

• Strengthen the effectiveness of development assistance through strong commitment to monitoring, learning, and evaluation for accountability.
• Build national governments’ capacity to prioritize, implement, manage, and measure their agricultural and nutrition policies, strategies, and goals.

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Food Security - List of Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Food Security is the condition where all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food. Essays might explore the strategies to achieve food security, challenges like climate change or political instability hindering food security, and the roles of individuals, communities, and nations in promoting food security. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Food Security you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

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Bridging Communities through the River Food Pantry

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Essay on Importance of Food

Students are often asked to write an essay on Importance of Food in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Importance of Food

The vital role of food.

Food plays a crucial role in our lives. It provides us with the energy we need to carry out our daily activities. We cannot survive without food, as it is the fuel for our body.

Nutrition and Growth

Nutrition is essential for growth, especially in children. It helps in building strong bones and muscles. A balanced diet ensures we get all the nutrients required for healthy growth.

Food and Health

Eating healthy food helps prevent diseases. Fruits, vegetables, and whole grains boost our immunity, keeping us healthy and strong. It’s important to eat a variety of foods for overall wellbeing.

Food and Culture

Food also brings people together. It’s a vital part of our culture and traditions, helping us connect with our roots and each other. Every culture has unique dishes that reflect its history and lifestyle.

250 Words Essay on Importance of Food

Introduction.

Food is the fundamental necessity of life. It provides us with the energy to carry out daily tasks, supports our immune system, and contributes to the healthy functioning of our body and mind. Understanding the importance of food transcends beyond the realm of basic sustenance and delves into the realms of health, culture, and socio-economic dynamics.

Nutrition and Health

Food is the primary source of nutrients that our bodies need to function effectively. It provides us with carbohydrates for energy, proteins for muscle development, fats for cell function, and vitamins and minerals for immune support and other essential bodily functions. A balanced diet can prevent malnutrition and a multitude of health issues, emphasizing the importance of food in maintaining good health.

Cultural Significance

Food also carries cultural significance. It is an integral part of traditions, rituals, and celebrations, reflecting the unique identity of different cultures. Food brings people together, fostering a sense of community and belonging.

Economic Implication

On a larger scale, food plays a pivotal role in the economy. The food industry generates employment, contributes to GDP, and is a significant factor in trade relations between countries. Moreover, food security is a critical aspect of national security, underlining the strategic importance of food.

In conclusion, food is much more than mere sustenance. It is a vital cog in the wheel of life, impacting our health, culture, and economy. Understanding the importance of food can lead us towards a healthier, more inclusive, and sustainable world.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Food

Introduction: the necessity of food, the biological importance of food.

Food is the primary source of energy for all organisms. The human body needs a variety of nutrients to function optimally, and these nutrients are obtained from the food we consume. Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals are all critical for various biological processes. For instance, proteins are essential for tissue repair and muscle growth, carbohydrates provide energy, fats serve as energy storage, and vitamins and minerals are crucial for several metabolic activities.

Food and Physical Health

The link between food and physical health is undeniable. A well-balanced diet can help maintain a healthy weight, strengthen the immune system, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. Conversely, poor dietary choices can lead to obesity, malnutrition, and various health complications. Therefore, understanding the nutritional value of food and making informed dietary choices is crucial for maintaining physical health.

Food and Mental Health

Food and cultural significance.

Food also holds significant cultural and social value. It is an integral part of our cultural identity and heritage. Different cultures have unique cuisines, food habits, and rituals, reflecting their history, geography, and lifestyle. Sharing meals is a universal way of fostering social connections and community bonds.

Food and Environmental Impact

The food we consume also has a profound impact on the environment. Sustainable food practices can help conserve natural resources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote biodiversity. Conversely, unsustainable agricultural practices and food wastage can lead to environmental degradation. Therefore, conscious food choices can contribute to environmental sustainability.

Conclusion: The Multifaceted Importance of Food

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Essay on food security.

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According to FAO, “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active life.”

This involves four dimensions:

i. Adequacy of food supply or availability;

ii. Stability of supply, without seasonal fluctuations or shortages;

ii. Accessibility to food or affordability; and

iii. Utilisation: quality and safety of food.

These factors include a broad spectrum of socioeconomic issues with great influence on farmers and on the impoverished in particular.

Large shares of the world’s small-scale farmers, particularly in central Asia and in Africa, are constrained by access to markets, while inputs, such as fertilisers and seed, are expensive. With lack of irrigation water, infrastructure and investments, and low availability of micro-finance combined with dependency on few multinational suppliers, crop production is unlikely to increase in those regions where it is needed the most, unless major policy changes and investments take place. These constraints are further compounded by conflicts and corruption.

Agricultural prices are forecast to remain well above the levels of the first half of 2001-10. In addition, a production short of demand, a greater geographical inequity in production and demand, combined with possibly more extreme weather and subsequent speculation in food markets, could generate much greater price volatility than before.

Food Availability:

The availability of food within a specific country can be guaranteed in two ways: either by food production in the country itself or by trade.

Increase in productivity can come about by using innovative soil and moisture conservation techniques, e.g., the double plantation techniques adopted by farmers in the Mekong plains of Indo- China and the elaborate terraces and irrigation systems of Bali and South China.

The Green Revolution helped to increase production in cereals in some regions, but the technologies involved had their own limitations.

Developments on the demand side require increase in production in those regions with the highest economic growth or population increase. The majority of these regions will be in emerging economies in Africa and Asia. Nowadays, Africa is especially dependent on food imports. Food production in this region is lagging behind due to limited research investments and the problems for farmers to use the appropriate inputs in their production process.

The world regions are sharply divided in terms of their capacity to use science in promoting agricultural productivity in order to achieve food security and reduce poverty and hunger.

Productivity has risen in many developing countries, mainly as a result of investment in agricultural R&D combined with improved human capital and rural infrastructure. In Africa, the levels of productivity are much lower and their growth has also been slower than in Asia.

One of the major options for significantly raising crop production is increasing the use of mineral fertilisers. The Africa Fertiliser Summit 2006 concluded that the use of fertilisers should be increased to a level of at least 50 kg/ha by 2015.

A major challenge is to find ways of making fertiliser available to smallholders at affordable prices. There is also a need for holistic approaches to soil fertility management that embraces the full range of driving factors and consequences of soil degradation. This would include the integration of mineral and organic sources of nutrients, thereby using locally available sources of inputs and maximising their use efficiency, while reducing dependency upon prices of commercial fertilisers and pesticides. The use of perennials, intercropping and agroforestry systems, such as the use of nitrogen fixating leguminous trees, are ways to increase nutrient availability, and enhance water availability and pest control, in a more sustainable manner.

After 1980, growth in expansion of irrigated area decreased and it is assumed this trend will continue in the near future. One of the reasons is that the areas most suitable for irrigation are already used, leading to higher construction costs in new areas. Current irrigation systems could be improved by investing in water control and delivery, automation, monitoring and staff training.

In most African regions, the major challenge is not the lack of water, but unpredictable and highly variable rainfall patterns with occurrences of dry spells every two years causing crop failure. This high uncertainty and variability influence the risk adverse behaviour of smallholder farmers. Rarely are investments made in soil management and fertility, crop varieties, tillage practices and even labour in order to avoid losses in case of total crop failure.

Managing the extreme rainfall variability over time and space can provide supplemental irrigation water to overcome dry periods and prevent crop failure. In combination with improved soil, this should reduce the risk of total crop failure and enhance the profitability of investments in crop management, for example, fertilisers, labour and crop varieties. Increasing crop canopy coverage reduces evapotranspiration from the soil, improving soil moisture and the provision of water for the crop.

This option has become more and more important with increasing transport possibilities and storing capacities and the growing challenges faced by some countries in their domestic production, including because of limitations in available cropland. International trade in agricultural products has expanded more rapidly than global agricultural GDP.

An increasing share of global agricultural exports originates from developed countries. The EU countries account for most of the global growth.

A large portion of this increase is accounted for by intra-EU trade.

Another perspective of trade is the purchase of land abroad for food production. Responding to recent food crises, a number of countries have started to purchase land abroad for cultivation of – crops needed to support domestic demand.

This is seen as a long-term solution to the high prices of agriculture commodities and increasing demand for Agroforestry products such as palm oil. Among the most active countries owning, leasing or concessioning farmland overseas are China, India, Japan, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and United Arab Emirates. The total area of overseas farmland in different countries was estimated at 5.7 million ha at the end of 2008 or 0.4 per cent of the global cropland area.

Food Supply Stability:

A major reason for instability in food supply is high fluctuation in food prices (price volatility). Volatile prices lead to poor investment strategies of producers and immediate impacts on consumers, especially in developing countries where consumers spend a large share of their income on food. Another source of instability is conflicts, which increase food supply risks.

Trade policies that limit market access, increase the volatility of commodity prices, unfairly subsidise developed country exports and constrain the trade policy flexibility of the developing world affect the stability and security as well as overall economic well-being of developing countries.

A quarter of the world’s governments implemented some export restrictions in the period of high prices in 2007-08 to ensure domestic food security. The impacts of these restrictions varied from panic-buying to the cultivation of smaller areas due to high input costs and the expectation of low product prices. These restrictions even increased price volatility of food products on the world market, thereby decreasing the food security of other countries.

With open markets, developing countries are very vulnerable to fluctuations in global food supply and prices and temporary protection of their own agricultural markets is promoted for these countries.

Conflicts greatly increase the risk of food supply instability. Countries in conflict and post-conflict situations tend to be food insecure, with more than 20 per cent of the population, and in many cases far more, lacking access to adequate food.

Accessibility to Food:

Accessibility to food refers not only to physical access but also affordability. Access to markets includes transportation of commodities and its costs and the transmission of price developments to producers. Poor transmission of price incentives to producers results in increasing the gap between consumers and producers especially as diets change.

As urbanisation increases, large urban markets are created and with this the scope of the establishment of big supermarket chains increases. This has implications for the entire food supply chain. Supermarkets have become an emerging force in South Asia, particularly in urban India, since the mid-1990s. The growth and power of international food corporations affect the opportunities of small agricultural producers in developing countries. Market entry is often barred to the majority of producers because of stringent safety and quality standards of food retailers.

Trade and urbanisation affect consumer preferences. The rapid diversification of the urban diet cannot be met by the traditional food supply chain in the hinterland of many developing countries. Consequently, importing food to satisfy the changing food demand could be relatively easier and less costly than acquiring the same food from domestic sources.

In Asia, traditional rice-eating societies are consuming increasing quantities of wheat in the form of bread, cakes, pastry and other products. Countries that traditionally [imported rice for meeting food shortfalls may now be shifting towards increasing levels of Wheat imports. This trend is also evident in the import of other temperate products like vegetables, milk and dairy products and temperate fruit. The overall result is that we are beginning to see a homogenisation of food tastes across the globe, but with regional variations.

Poor connections between urban and rural areas hinder price transmissions towards local markets, broadening the gap between urban demand and rural production in increasing demand for traditional products or for product diversification. The lack of access to markets is most evident in Africa, although large parts of Latin America and Asia are also experiencing long transport hours to reach markets. Consequently, domestic prices do not always follow international prices as an FAO report pointed out in 2006.

The periods of rising real prices were generally associated with real exchange rate devaluations. Relaxation of government controls over prices and market systems also led to gains in producer prices in some cases. In other instances, import liberalisation appears to have contributed to a decline in the real domestic prices of some commodities. Consequently, global shortages of food and feed that lead to global price increases are not followed by production increases at the local level.

Future World Food Prices:

Accessibility to food is also determined by the long-term trend in food prices (which is a different issue from price volatility).

In 2007-08 food prices were driven by a combination of rising fuel costs, production of biofuels, and unfavourable weather conditions, with trade restrictions boosting upward price pressures.

As the cost, and subsequent use, of fertiliser is strongly correlated with price, a potentially higher oil price would lower the use of fertiliser or further increase the food price.

Fuel price is one of the main determining factors for fisheries. Rising energy prices have a strong impact on capture as well as aquaculture (for the production and transport of fish feed) and lead to higher costs during the processing, transport (particularly air freight) and distribution of fish products. Small-scale fisheries, which depend on outboard motors and small diesel engines, have especially suffered from the spiralling rise in fuel prices.

While a higher oil price increases demand for biofuels, there is a catch: the agricultural commodities used nowadays or biofuels were previously used for feed and fodder; in the circumstances, demand for agricultural commodities as for factor inputs increases in this case. The overall decline in food prices is not expected to be so marked because of biofuel use.

Most of the quantitative and qualitative indicators of food security at the household level are linked to the poverty issue. As Amartya Sen (1981) points out, the poor do not have adequate means or entitlements to secure food, even when food is locally or regionally available. It is interesting to note that merely increase in income does not necessarily ensure improved nutritional status. Access to gainful employment, suitable technologies and other productive resources are important factors influencing undernutrition.

Though, overall, soaring food prices are blamed for their impacts on human vulnerability, there are two sides to this picture. Increasing food prices do have a positive effect on net food-selling households (FAO, 2008), augmenting their incomes and allowing more possibilities for farmers to afford investments in production inputs.

This underlines the need to minimise short-term price volatility and stimulate slow increases in long- term food prices, in order to enhance investments in the agricultural system and bridge the gap between developed and developing countries as well as between rural food producing and urban food consuming regions. Ideally, these developments should take environmental aspects into account to achieve sustainable agricultural systems that will meet the food demand of all the world citizens and eradicate hunger.

However, increasing yield and food supply without simply continuing the conventional expansion of cropland and rangeland and use of fertilisers and pesticides—at the cost of biodiversity and future generations—will require major investments and implementation of food energy considerations in the entire food production and consumption chain.

Utilisation, Quality and Safety:

As already mentioned in discussing the problems of nutrition patterns, much requires to be accomplished to acquire equitability in this regard.

Apart from quantitative aspect, qualitative aspects of diet such as consumption habits and nutritional needs also affect food security. In the absence of adequate attention to qualitative aspects of food, the ability of the individual to sustain the benefits of development gets affected.

A number of more novel matters will need to be dealt with, such as:

(i) The positive and negative impacts on non-communicable diseases of intensive production systems, not only in terms of health (e.g. nitrite in vegetables, heavy metals in irrigation water and manure, pesticide use), but also in terms of dietary quality (e.g. leaner meats in intensive poultry production);

(ii) The effects of longer food chains, in particular of longer storage and transport routes, such as the higher risk of -deterioration (even if most of this may be bacterial and hence not a factor in chronic diseases), and the use and misuse of conserving agents and contaminants; and

(iii) The effects of changes in varietal composition and diversity of consumption patterns, for example, the loss of traditional crop varieties and, perhaps even more significantly, the declining use of foods from “wild” sources.

Improving Food Security:

In the short term, the volatile prices can be decreased by price regulation and creation of larger cereal stocks to buffer the tight markets of food commodities and the subsequent risks of speculation. Safety nets need to be provided to alleviate impacts of rising prices and food shortage. Subsidies on agricultural commodities and inputs that are aggravating the food crisis need to be reduced/removed and investments made to shift to sustainable food systems and food energy efficiency.

In the middle term, efforts should be made to develop alternatives for feeds for animals and fish. Our ability to change the feed destined for livestock and aquaculture is probably greater than that of changing people’s food choice habits, which are not as easily controlled. Finding alternative feed sources provides a huge potential for increasing the availability of cereal for human consumption.

For other feed sources to become a sustainable alternative to the current use of cereals, their exploitation must not be resource- demanding. This poses a big challenge, since most of the easily available feed sources have already been fully exploited, although some alternatives still exist.

By using discards, waste and other post-harvest losses, the supply of animal and fish feed can be increased and be sustained without expanding current production, simply by increasing energy efficiency and conservation in the food supply chain.

There has been little focus on salvaging food already harvested or produced. An important question centers around the percentage of food discarded or lost during harvesting, processing, transport and distribution as well as at the point of final sale to consumers. Reducing such losses is likely to be among the most sustainable alternatives for increasing food availability.

Discarded fish from’ marine fisheries is the single largest proportion lost of any food source produced or harvested from the wild. The proportion is particularly high for shrimp bottom trawl fisheries. If sustainable, the amount of fish currently discarded at sea could alone sustain more than a 50 per cent increase in aquaculture production. However, many of these species could also be used directly for human consumption.

The potential to use unexploited food waste as alternative sources of feed is also considerable for agricultural products.

Food losses in the field (between planting and harvesting) could be as high as 20-40 per cent of the potential harvest in developing countries due to pests and pathogens. Postharvest losses vary greatly among commodities and production areas and seasons.

Substantial losses and wastage occur during retail and consumption due to product deterioration as well as to discarding of excess perishable products and unconsumed food. Food waste represents a major potential, especially for use as animal feed, which, in turn, could release the use of cereals in animal feed for human consumption.

Recovering energy from agricultural wastes is becoming increasingly feasible at the industrial production level; investments in technology enhancement of existing systems and innovation in new waste management systems is called for to support this expanding green economy.

Farmers need to be supported in developing diversified and resilient eco-agricultural systems. This includes management of extreme rainfall and use of inter-cropping to minimise dependency on external inputs like artificial fertilisers, pesticides and over irrigation.

Increased trade and improved market access can be achieved by improving infrastructure and reducing barriers to trade.

In the long term, awareness needs to be created about the pressures of increasing population growth and consumption patterns on sustainable functioning of the ecosystem. Alternative sources of food have to be explored and developed.

Related Articles:

• Food Problems: Notes on the Causes of Food Problems
• Food Security in India: Definition, Availability of Food Grains and Other Details

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Essays on Government Policy and Food Safety

Food safety is important to prevent foodborne illnesses that can negatively affect public health and the economy. Preventative measures can be taken by government agencies, food-related workers, and consumers to reduce the occurrence of such illnesses. This paper examines the impact of government policies on food safety from the perspective of consumers, restaurant employees and employers, and food processing workers. The first essay explores how food safety recalls affect consumer behavior. The second essay studies the impact of minimum wage policies on service quality in the restaurant industry. The third essay investigates the effect of minimum wage policies on product food safety in the meat and poultry processing industry. 

Degree Type

• Doctor of Philosophy
• Agricultural Economics

Campus location

• West Lafayette

Advisor/Supervisor/Committee Chair

Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, additional committee member 4, usage metrics.

• Agricultural economics
• Health economics
• Food and hospitality services
• Labour economics

Significance of millets for food and nutritional security—an overview

• Open access
• Published: 14 August 2024
• Volume 4 , article number  73 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Thillaigovindan Sanjay Kumar 1 ,
• Raman Nageswari   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3434-8438 2 ,
• Selvaraj Somasundaram 3 ,
• Pokkaru Anantharaju 3 ,
• Murugaiyan Baskar 4 ,
• Thanakkan Ramesh 5 ,
• Selvaraj Rathika 5 ,
• Chockalingam Vanniarajan 1 &
• Kasirajan Subrahmaniyan 2  

Millets are an important traditional food known for their dietary diversity. They play a key role in ensuring human health and well-being. Millets, which are small-seeded grains cultivated widely in various areas of the world, have emerged as significant contributors to this paradigm shift. They are nutrition powerhouses, that boast raised levels of dietary fibre, protein, vitamins, and minerals. Since they are gluten free, those with celiac disease may utilize them and serve as alternatives to wheat products. The promotion of these grains as a staple food holds significant promise for facing the global challenges of malnutrition, food insecurity, and environmental degradation. Moreover, millets contain bio-active compounds like flavonoids, lignin, phenolic acids reduce inflammation and serve as antioxidants. Millets have positive health benefits related to blood sugar, cardiovascular disease and obesity, and the gastrointestine. This article provides an overview of the functional role of millets as promising food for human health.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) envisages healthy diets from foods which are more desirable and affordable in its Global Food policy Report, 2024. Currently, the world population is facing the twin problems of malnutrition i.e., under-nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies along with obesity. In countries like Africa and South Asia, more than two billion people cannot afford a healthy food [ 1 ]. As the food and nutritional security remain critical concerns in the world as a whole in the current era, millets offer a sustainable solution to the global challenge. The term "millet" originated from ‘mille’, a French word. Millets belong peculiarly to the Poaceae family with small seeded grasses that can thrive in critical agroclimatic situations [ 2 ]. They are course cereals that serve as fodder and also called by other names, such as “Cereals of the poor, Siridhanya, Nutri-cereals, Super foods and Next Generation Smart Foods” [ 3 ]. In fact, the millets were also called “orphan crops” by the Father of Green Revolution, Dr. M.S. Swaminathanan [ 4 ]. They play a notable role in India's ecological and economic stability. Cereal foods serve as vital parts of the food chain because they contain essential micro and macro elements and particularly non-nutrient bio actives. Millets have several recognized health benefits due to their potent mineral and vitamin profile as well as low glycemic index, dietary energy and fat. Epidemiological data show an important link between the consumption of millets and a reduced incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancers [ 5 ]. Millets are often called to as "energy houses of nutrients," renowned for being an excellent source of retinol (Vitamin A), particularly abundant in yellow pearl millets. Additionally, millets are rich in essential micro nutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu). They contain high levels of cystine, methionine, and other essential amino acids, contributing positively to human health. Moreover, millets are gluten-free and boast higher fibre and protein content compared to other cereals [ 6 ]. The limiting factors like water scarcity, elevated food prices, increasing global populations, changing climate and various socio-economic factors present significant threats to agriculture and food security across the world, particularly impacting impoverished communities residing in dry regions [ 7 ]. In recent years, the resurgence of interest in millets has sparked innovative research and development initiatives aimed at unlocking their full potential. From value-added products to policy advocacy, stakeholders across sectors are recognizing the critical role of millets in achieving sustainable development goals, alleviating hunger and ensuring good health and well-being. This overview delves into the profound significance of millets in ensuring food and nutritional security, throwing light on their diverse benefits and potential to transform agricultural landscapes and dietary patterns worldwide.

2 Global scenario of millets

The year of 2023 will be observed as the ‘Global Year of Millets’ because these millets are recognized as sustainable options for achieving food and nutritional security, garnering significant attention due to their health benefits and environmentally friendly characteristics[ 2 ]. However, the area and production of traditional millet cultivation in India has experienced a decline [ 8 ]. The growth rate of millet in terms of both area and production exhibited a negative trend, at a declining rate of 16.31% and 13.58% in area and production per year, respectively. Similarly, productivity showed a downward track until 2005 [ 9 ]. Approximately 97% of millets are both produced and consumed by developing countries, with a notable concentration in Africa and Asia. India holds the position as the largest grower of millets at global level, accounting for 26.6% of the world's production and 83% of Asia's millet cropping area [ 10 ]. These sorts of plants can be raised either as a sole crop or as an inter crop with pulses, oilseeds, spices, and condiments [ 11 ]. National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (NNMB) has highlighted that the millets consumption was higher in the states of Karnataka (finger millet), Gujarat (pearl millet, maize), Maharashtra (sorghum) but inadequate among the states of Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala and Tamil Nadu where the majority of popular cereal consumed is rice [ 12 ]. On estimating the future scenario of millets in India which is the largest grower of millets in the world, [ 8 ] found that there might be a net surplus of 3.48–3.81 mt in the case of bajra, and 0.14–0.19 mt in the case of small millets by 2029. But in the case of jowar and ragi there may be a net deficit in a range of 1.14–0.83 and 0.29–0.14 mt respectively, envisaging the important measures to be taken to ensure assured supply.

3 Types of millets

In India, varieties of millets are cultivated and consumed which encompass Finger millet ( Eleusine coracana L.), Pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum L.), Barnyard millet ( Echinocloa esculenta A. and Echinocloa colona L.), Foxtail millet ( Setaria italica L. sub sp. italica ), Proso millet ( Panicum miliaceum L. sub sp. miliaceum ), Kodo millet ( Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), and little millet ( Panicum sumatrense Roth.)

3.1 Major millets

Major millet includes sorghum (Jowar), Finger millet (Ragi) and Pearl millet (Bajra) that are cultivated widely throughout the world.

3.1.1 Pearl millet

Pearl millet or Bajra ( Pennisetum glaucum L.) is the frequently grown type of millet [ 13 ] and it is assumed to have originated as early as 5000 years ago in Africa [ 14 ]. Globally, it is the sixth most important cereal and fourth most tropical cereal after rice, corn and sorghum. It is also called as ‘cereal of sahel’ [ 15 ].

3.1.2 Finger millet

The probable origin of Finger millet or Ragi ( Eleusine coracana L.) is said to the highlands of Ethiopia and Uganda. The ear heads of the crop bear a resemblance to the fingers of a human hand, hence earning it the name "finger millet” [ 16 ]. The crop is well-suited to tropical climates with intermediate altitudes ranging from 500 to 2400 m and experiences low to moderate rainfall between 500 and 1000 mm. It can survive dry and hot conditions, with temperatures reaching up to 35 °C, particularly in well-drained soils [ 17 ].

3.2 Minor millets

The group of minor millets includes proso millet ( Panicumm miliaceum ), kodo millet ( Paspalum scrobiculatum ), foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ), barnyard millet ( Echinochloa frumentacea ), little millet ( Panicum sumatrense ), and browntop millet ( Brachiaria ramose ) [ 18 ]. These millets can be cultivated for both food and fodder purposes [ 4 , 9 ]. These can enhance the immune system of humans, serve as fodder for livestock, contribute to biodiversity enhancement, and support the livelihoods of farmers [ 19 ]. The appropriate blend of minerals, vitamins along with antioxidants found in grains of millet implies the potential optimization of immune system performance. The significant presence of resistant starch in millets guarantees a gradual and sustained release of glucose into the bloodstream, supplying a daily requirement of calories ranging from 2000 to 3000 per individual [ 20 ].

4 Agrarian importance of millets

Millets, are one of the oldest food crops and also small-seeded hardy crops that may be grown even in dry or rain-fed areas with less soil fertility and moisture conditions. It also adapts to degraded saline, acidic and aluminium toxic soils [ 21 ] (Yadav and Rai 2013). In semi-arid and tropical regions globally, millets hold significant agricultural importance due to their short life cycle, resilience against pests and diseases, and ability to maintain high productivity even under various stress conditions [ 3 , 22 ] and it can be commonly cultivated in areas with low-fertility soil by tribal communities in rain-fed regions, and even in hilly areas. This highly advantageous characteristic of millets is particularly crucial in densely populated areas worldwide [ 23 ]. Millets can be cultivated in shallow, low-fertility soils, thriving in a pH range from acidic (4.5) to basic (8.0) [ 24 ]. Millets comes under the category of C4 cereals, which is well-known for their ability to efficiently utilize carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, converting it to oxygen. They exhibit high Water Use Efficiency (WUE) and require minimal inputs, making them environmentally friendly. Therefore, millets have the potential to alleviate climatic uncertainties, reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, and play a role in mitigating climate change [ 25 ]. Millets can grow even in low rainfall regions with notable Water Use Efficiency.

(Table  1 ) presents the major and minor millets along with their respective growing conditions for comparison.

5 Millet as food

During the 1990s, Prime Minister HD Deve Gowda publicly declared ragi mudde (consisting of fingermillet balls served with sambar ), as his favorite dish in Karnataka. This declaration sparked a nationwide trend, leading to restaurants offering the dish under the moniker "Prime Minister's Delight". Stories like these echoes across continents, where millets have been a dietary staple for centuries. But it's not just tradition that makes these grains special; it's their remarkable contribution to human health that demands attention. Likewise, Millets have gained interest as functional foods because of their health-promoting phytochemicals. Across various states in India, millets have long been an integral part of tribal food, including Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Karnataka, and Uttarakhand [ 26 ]. They offer a safe substitute for people with gluten allergy and celiac disease, being non-acid forming and non-allergenic, which makes them easily digested [ 7 ]. Numerous anti-nutritional compounds, including protease inhibitors, phytates, lectins, galacto-oligosaccharides, tannins, ureases, phenolics, and saponins, are found in millets. However, these anti-nutritional factors can be neutralized through various processing methods such as steeping, cooking, roasting, malting, germination, and fermentation [ 11 ].

A variety of conventional dishes and beverages can be prepared from millets, which includes bread, roti, porridge, snacks, baby foods, fast foods, millet nutrition powder, and millet wine [ 27 ]. The research findings of [ 28 ], states that processing plays a unique role in utilizing millets as food. Millets can undergo various processing methods such as sprouting, roasting, popping, salting, and fermenting to create products like ready-to-eat grains, porridges, and fermented foods [ 28 ] are listed in (Table  2 ). In various millet-growing regions of Tamil Nadu, traditional millet recipes include idli , samai dosa, pakoda, vaddai, adai, sweet halwa, and kolukattai are made from finger millet; kabab or burfi from foxtail millet and porridge, payasam and puttu from little millet.

In southern parts of Karnataka, both urban and rural populations commonly consume Mudde (thick porridge) made using finger millet. Incorporating 50–75% flour from barnyard millet is feasible for the preparation of idly, rotis, chakli, and dosa [ 28 ].

5.1 Millet—based snacks

Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and East Asia are home to a wide variety of traditional millet-based foods and beverages, including whole-grain snacks, flatbreads, steaming entrees, dumplings, porridges, and puffed products. Since most millets have a low gluten content, they need to be added as component in amounts ranging from 20% for bread to 50% for cookies [ 34 ]. Extrusion, baking, spray drying, gun puffing and popping, malting, instant mixing, and brewing are some of the food processing techniques used on millet grains to create a variety of millet products. These include instant mixes, convenient, ready-to-eat, and ready-to-cook products; novel food products, such as meal bars, pellets, muesli, edible films, roti/chapatti (unleavened bread), idli  (fermented savory cake), dosa  (fermented pancake), koozh, koko, togwa, dambu, chhyang, ogi, uji, and brewed drinks [ 35 ] which playa key role in daily food habits.

5.1.1 Puffed and flaked millet

The technique of popping or puffing cereals is practiced conventionally for preparing grains to serve as either a breakfast or snack cereal. These puffed grains may be eaten plain or seasoned with spices, salt, or sweeteners, offering a versatile and flavourful option for consumption [ 36 ]. The process of flaking involves pearling, hydrothermal treatment, flaking/rolling and blistering which bring in changes in the nutrient composition and phytochemical contents resulting in the ready cooking of flakes. These products have therapeutic effects. Phytochemicals in plant foods are believed to exert beneficial health effects by combating oxidative stress in the body [ 37 , 38 ]. The process of milling resulted in the highest and lowest mineral contents in whole and polished grains, respectively, also dehulling of millets resulted in a significant impact on the total dietary fibre content. To prepare expanded flakes, foxtail millet and finger millet flour were cooked within the temperature range of 80–100 °C, with varying water levels (100 to 130 ml) and durations (1 to 3 min) to make the dough. Subsequently, the dough was extruded using a manual extruder and then flaked to a thickness of 0.6 mm. Finally, the flakes are roasted at temperatures between 90–110 °C for a duration of 5–15 min [ 39 ]. [ 40 ] The grains were conditioned for 2 h with a moisture content of 20% and then subjected to puffing in hot sand at temperatures ranging from 220 °C to 230 °C. A ready-to-eat (RTE) snack food was established by using barnyard millet ( Echinochloa frumentacea ) as the base ingredient and a thin rectangular-shaped pieces were created by steam-cooking cold extrudate (pieces of dough) and then subjected to puffing using the high temperature short time (HTST) puffing process. The dough consisted of barnyard millet, tapioca powder, and potato mashat at a ratio of 60:3:37 [ 41 , 42 ]. Flaking significantly reduced the moisture, protein, crude fat and total minerals in sorghum [ 43 ].

5.1.2 Noodles and other food products

Noodles are highly favoured by any age group because of their extended shelf life and significant commercial value. Convenience foods, including noodles and pasta, are made by using a cold extrusion process, which, when dried, becomes brittle and stiff. Preparing these noodles is highly convenient and only takes a brief period. Noodles with various mixtures were manufactured, including those composed solely of finger millet (ragi), an association of finger millet and wheat at a 1:1 ratio, and a mixture of finger millet, wheat, and soy flour at a 5:4:1 ratio. Additionally, pasta formulations may incorporate with finger millet, soy flour, and refined wheat with compositions ranging from 50%, 40%, and 10% respectively [ 44 ]. Barnyard millet exhibited a relatively low carbohydrate content (58.56%) with a slow digestibility rate of 25.88% [ 28 ]. This health advantage of millet was utilized in the creation of value-added noodles with a low glycemic index using barnyard millet flour. This involved incorporating sago flour, pulse flour, and bengal gram leaf powder at varying levels to produce plain, pulse, and vegetable noodles, respectively [ 45 ].

Ladoo (sweet balls) and shankarpara (flakes) were prepared using foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ) or kanagini by replacing half of the refined wheat flour with foxtail millet flour. Kanagini ladoo had a protein content of 13.13%, ash content of 4.92%, and iron and zinc levels of 13.83 and 2.35 mg/100 g respectively [ 46 ]. As a result of their study, Srivastava produced popped grains from barnyard, foxtail, and little millet by utilizing common salt as the heating medium. This process involved placing millet and salt in an open iron pan at a ratio of 1:20 and heating them at temperatures between 240 °C and 260 °C for 15 to 25 s [ 47 ].

5.2 Vadagam

It is a traditional recipe typically prepared by mixing kodo millet flour, along with chili powder, cumin powder, salt and water, and making thin slices of the produce followed by sun-drying. It is used after deep-frying in hot oil as needed. Once prepared, the final product is sun-dried and stored in an airtight container to extend its shelf life [ 48 ].

5.3 Non-alcoholic beverages

‘ Oshikundu ’ from Namibia, ‘ Kunun-zaki ’ from Nigeria, ‘Malwa/Ajon’ from Uganda, and ‘Uji’ from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda are the non-alcoholic drinks made from millets. ‘Jandh’ from Nepal, ‘ Kodo ko jaanr’ from India, Nepal, and Bhutan, ‘ Burukutu ’ from West Africa, ‘Koozh ’ and ‘ Madua Apong ’ from India, and ‘ Xiao mi jiao ’ from Taiwan are some of the alcoholic beverages [ 54 ].

5.4 Fermented foods

In addition to enhancing flavour, fermentation increases food value by adding protein, calcium, fibre, vitamin B, and, in turn, increasing protein digestibility while lowering anti-nutrient levels in food grains [ 56 ]. Some of the fermented food products prepared from millet and microorganisms used forfermentation are listed in Table  3 .

6 Nutrient components of millets

According to the analysis of [ 64 ], millets are essential for maintaining nutritional security for people worldwide because they offer calories and protein. Millets have a high protein content and are also high in essential amino acids, excluding lysine and threonine [ 12 ], but comparatively high in amino acids that include sulphur, such as cysteine and methionine. Millets are remarkable with 60–70% starch, 7–11% protein, 2–7% crude fibre, 1.5–5% fat, and flavonoids. However, they are not given much importance or sufficient awareness. Additionally, millets are gluten free and filled with essential vitamins and nutrients such as iron, calcium, potassium, zinc, and magnesium, essential fatty acids, and amino acids [ 65 , 66 ] reported that foxtail millet constitutes an excellent source of protein with a value of 14%, and brown top millet was rich in fibre and zinc contents of 16.08% and 66.10 mg, respectively. Kodo millet had an impressive iron content of 206.5 mg, and a high amount of calcium was observed in finger millet (3811.98 mg). Moreover, millets contain more lipids than sorghum, rice, and maize [ 67 ]. The nutritional contents of different millets are depicted in Table  4 .

[ 69 ] reported that pearl millet and finger millet are rich in micro-nutrients like calcium (10–348 mg/100 g), iron (2.2–17.7 mg/100 g), zinc (0.4 –2.8 mg/100 g), and phosphorus (189–293 mg/100 g), vitamins such as thiamine (0.15–0.60 mg/100 g), niacin (0.89–4.6 mg/100 g), and riboflavin (0.9–0.28 mg/100 g)(Table  5 ). Millets have essential amino acids which ensure their contribution to the nutritional security of mankind upon consumption [ 70 ] (Table  6 ).

7 Health benefits of millets

Millets are called alkaline-forming foods. An alkaline-based diet is frequently prescribed for achieving optimal health, particularly when combined with digestive enzymes. The calming alkaline characteristics of millets aid in maintaining a balanced pH in the body, which is essential for preventing illnesses. Millet has many medical and nutritious functions [ 68 , 71 , 72 ]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the health-promoting properties of millets. Small millets such as kodo, foxtail, little, and barnyard are abundant sources of fibre, protein, and phytochemicals including flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which serve as potent antioxidants [ 73 , 74 ]. Little millet, Kodo millet, and pearl millet have been found to be effective at controlling blood glucose and improving lipid profiles[ 74 ]. Regular intake of millets increases serum leptin, decreases insulin resistance and inflammation due to the presence of these bioactive components[ 75 ]. The high polyphenolic content within the seed coat of finger millet decreases the chance of diabetes and cancer and the abundance of fibre supports slow digestion and helps maintain blood sugar balance[ 29 ]. Barnyard millet sprouted seeds contain more amount of astringent, acidic, emollient, and stomach properties. They are used in treating conditions such as abdominal dyspepsia, impaired digestion, and nutritional stagnation. White seeds have refrigerant properties and are employed in managing cholera and fever [ 76 ]. The consumption of proso millet with other millets reduce the risk of type two diabetes mellitus [ 77 , 78 , 79 ], as whole grains serve as a rich source of this mineral. Additionally, the incidence of migraine headaches and heart attacks can be decreased, providing benefits to individuals with atherosclerosis and heart disease [ 79 ]. Foxtail millet is an essential source of crude fiber, helps in the digestive process by stimulating bowel movement and promoting a laxative effect and leads to a balanced digestive system [ 32 ]. Proso millet protein concentrate exhibits protective effects against D-galactosamine-induced liver injury in rats [ 80 ]. Other health benefits of millets include prolonging the duration of emptying the gastric and providing roughage to the gastrointestinal tract [ 81 ].The major benefits of millets for health are listed in Table  7 .

7.1 Millets for cardiovascular disease

Various factors, such as an improper diet, stress, smoking along with other factors cause impaired circulation in the brain and problems with the heart and blood vessels. The consumption of millets is linked to numerous health advantages, including improved digestive health, enhanced weight management and a reduced risk of heart disease. Millet grains contain good quantities of magnesium, potassium, lignans, antioxidants and fibres, offering potential benefits in lowering blood pressure and heart related issues [ 87 ]. According to [ 53 ], incorporating barnyard, finger and proso millets into the diet elevated the production of adiponectin and protein by fat along and triglyceride levels in individuals with high blood lipid content. Similar effects were also observed with lipid extracts of grain sorghum and phenolic extracts of little, pearl, proso, kodo, foxtail, and finger millets which exhibited inhibitory effects on lipid peroxidation in humans i n vitro . These effects resulted in inhibition ranging from 1.0% to 41%, with kodo millet displaying superior inhibition [ 7 ]. Little millet is employed in managing diabetic and cardiovascular disorders among patients, with the aim of controlling or reducing the blood glucose response [ 88 , 89 , 90 ].

7.2 Antidiabetic properties in millets

Diabetes is prevalent among adults aged 40 and above, marked by insulin resistance and its relative insulin deficiency. The natural inhibitors of alpha-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase play an essential role in managing postprandial hyperglycaemia and are safer than artificialagents. Small millets viz ., barnyard millet, finger millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet and little millet are abundant in fibre, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids, rendering them potent antioxidants and suitable for consumption by individuals with diabetes[ 4 ]. Research has proved that the intake of millets as whole grains is more advantageous and medically established to alleviate diabetic symptoms [ 7 , 91 ]. The finger millet based diet ensures a low glycemic index due to its alpha amylase inhibition properties coupled with high fibre content. These characteristics lead to a reduced level of digestion of starch and its absorption contributes to better glycemic control [ 90 ]. Millets demonstrate effectiveness in regulating blood sugar and lipid contents. For instance, a food additive mixture containing foxtail millet was found to glycosylate haemoglobin, decrease blood glucose, homocysteine and blood lipid, and increase insulin levels people with diabetes and to have a lipid- lowering effect in pre-diabetic individuals [ 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 ]. [ 93 ] observed similar results in mice with diabetes. The consumption of finger millet helps regulate sugar levels in blood and improves antioxidant status, thereby enhancing the recovery rate of diabetic patients from skin wounds [ 94 ]. [ 95 ] reported that millet seed coat containing phenolic compounds effectively control the glycemic index paving the way for normal glucose homeostasis. The soluble and bound fractions of some selected cultivars of foxtail millet and little millet were found to regulate blood sugar levels after a meal [ 96 ].

7.3 Anticancer activity of millets

Millet grains are abundant in phytochemicals including phytic acid which decreases cholesterol, and phytate, and reduces the possible occurence of cancer [ 97 ]. The millet phenolics present in the millets can typically prevent cancer in-vitro [ 98 ]. [ 99 ] reported such results with breast cancer. An experiment conducted by [ 100 ] revealed that proso millet derived vanillin extract suppressed the growth of HT-29 cells. A similar extract from barnyard millet significantly reduced the proliferation of MCF-7 cells. In finger millet, differential influence of free phenolic compounds and bound phenolic compounds on proliferation of breast cancer and colorectal cancer cells were observed by [ 101 ]. The anticancer properties of the phenolic substances of millets which work especially against breast cancer and colon cancer were also documented by [ 102 ].

7.4 Anti-inflammatory properties of millet

Ferulic acid helps protect cells from free radical damage as a potent antioxidant and reduces inflammation. These antioxidants protect tissues by healing wounds. The roles of antioxidants present in finger millet in healing dermal wounds in diabetic rats and modulating inflammation have been reported [ 103 ]. The presence of bio-active compounds including phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and lignin in millets contributes to their ability to mitigate inflammation and oxidative stress [ 104 ]. Hence, the polyphenols present in millets served as natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents, for managing certain diseases.

7.5 Millets and celiac disease

Celiac disease is immune-mediated and activated by gluten in individuals who are susceptible to this disease. Gluten-free millet is an alternative for people with celiac disease. Sensitivity to gluten, leads to irritation [ 7 , 54 ].

7.6 Antimicrobial activity of millets

In- vitro evaluations were conducted on extracts of seed protein from millets to assess their ability to control the growth of microbes such as Macrophomina phaseolina , Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum . It was concluded that all the phytopathogenic fungi were effectively suppressed by the pearl millet protein extract [ 105 ]. In addition, millets, such as sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, and foxtail millet, have been reported to have potential antibacterial properties. Gram—negative and gram-positive bacteria ( Escherichia coli , Citrobacter freundii , Salmonella spp ., Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus sp ., Bacillus cereus and Listeria ivanovii ) [ 106 ] were effectively controlled by the ethanolic fractions of pearl millet. [ 107 ] reported the antibacterial activity of phytochemicals derived from sorghum bran against Escherichia coli  and  Staphylococcus aureus, famous foodborne pathogens.

7.7 Phytochemical properties of millets

Millet plants are resistant to many abiotic stress factors. These plants are having high amounts of micronutrients and substances such as polyphenols, phytosterols, phytoestrogens, lignins, and phytocyanins as reported by several studies [ 108 ]. The highest flavonoid content was detected in foxtail millet (7.808 mg/g) and high alkaloids in barnyard millet (2.149 mg/g) and least in finger millet (0.058 mg/g). The contents of the bound phenolic fractions were greater than those of the free phenolic fractions. A greater total anthocyanin content was recorded in the finger millet, kodo and pearl millet varieties.

7.8 Prebiotic aspects of millet dietary fibre

The quantity of phenol compounds in millets is influenced by many procedures, including dehulling and decortication, malting, fermentation, and thermal processing. The antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella dysenteriae, Enterococcus  sp.  and Salmonella sp was reported previously [ 109 ] . The microflora present in the fermented products of millets have probiotic effects [ 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 ] . Sorghum grains produce certain biochemicals [ 112 ] including phenolic acids with health-promoting properties. It reduces the incidence of diet-related noncommunicable diseases including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes.

7.9 Millets as weaning foods, health foods and enteral foods

Millets, including finger millet play crucial roles in various food applications, particularly in weaning foods, health foods, and enteral foods. Millets are often used in baby foods due to their remarkable nutritional scenario. They are rich in carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fibre, vitamins, and minerals. Finger millet, in particular, has high calcium content, which is beneficial for developing bones in infants and young children. Weaning foods made from millets provide a nutrient-dense option for transitioning infants from breastfeeding to solid foods. [ 113 ] formulated fortified instant weaning food containing essential macronutrients and micronutrients from Musa paradisiaca (banana) and Eleusine coracana which could be used for three months when stored in aluminum foil pouches.

Millets are a healthy food due to their numerous health benefits. Millets are suitable for individuals with gluten intolerance or diabetes since they are gluten-free and have a low glycemic index. Millets are also rich in antioxidants which reduce oxidative stress, heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. Incorporating millets into a diet can lead to an improvement of overall health. Foxtail millet grains possess good quantity of phenols and flavonoids, which could be added to make convenient food products for instant use for fulfilling nutrient requirements and managing health disorders [ 114 ].

Millets are used in enteral nutrition formulations for individuals who cannot consume food orally and who require tube feeding. Enteral foods made from millets provide a balanced nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Millets are easily digested and well-tolerated by most individuals, making them suitable for enteral feeding in clinical settings. [ 115 ] succeeded in preparing a blended food based on sorghum, soybean and sesame seeds for tube feeding of adults. Hence, millets, including finger millet, are versatile ingredients that play important roles in weaning foods, health foods, and enteral foods. Their nutritional composition, gluten-free nature, and health benefits make them valuable additves to various food products aimed at promoting growth, health, and nutrition in infants, children, and adults.

8 Future prospects

The future of millet-based food for promoting human health appears promising. As global awareness of food choices increases, millets offer a sustainable alternative that aligns with the principles of a healthy and environmentally conscious diet. Research on millets continues to uncover new health benefits and innovative ways to incorporate millets into dining and modern diets. The collaboration between the agricultural sector, food industry and public health initiatives will be essential for harnessing the full potential of millets for human well-being.

9 Conclusions

The incorporation of millet-based food products such as protein, calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), into international, national, and state-level community feeding programs holds promise for addressing prevalent nutrient deficiencies in developing countries. The overview of the significance of millets for food and nutritional security envisages their multifaceted role in addressing global challenges. Millets are resilient crops that offer sustainable solutions for agricultural production. Their rich nutritional content makes them invaluable allies for combating malnutrition and promoting public health, especially in vulnerable communities. By integrating millets into agricultural systems, we can foster resilience against climate change and enhance food sovereignty, empowering smallholder farmers and rural communities. The resurgence of interest in millets signals a promising shift towards more diverse, nutritious, and sustainable food systems. The significance of millets is that they invite collective action from stakeholders across sectors, including policymakers, researchers, farmers, and consumers. By understanding the potential of millets, we can pave the way for a more resilient, equitable, and nourished future for all.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Sanjay Kumar, T., Nageswari, R., Somasundaram, S. et al. Significance of millets for food and nutritional security—an overview. Discov Food 4 , 73 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-024-00149-w

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Utilizing the google earth engine for agricultural drought conditions and hazard assessment using drought indices in the najd region, sultanate of oman.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. description of the investigated area, 2.2. the data used and processing, 2.3. drought indices (dis) utilization, 2.3.1. temperature condition index (tci), 2.3.2. vegetation condition index (vci), 2.3.3. vegetation health index (vhi), 2.4. pearson correlation coefficient analysis (pca), 2.5. the drought hazard index (dhi) calculation, 2.6. google earth engine (gee) tools, 2.7. the study methodology, 3.1. evaluation of drought indices, 3.1.1. temperature condition index (tci), 3.1.2. vegetation condition index (vci), 3.1.3. vegetation health index (vhi).

Click here to enlarge figure

3.2. Pearson Correlation Coefficient Analysis (PCA) between Drought Indices (DIs)

3.3. the drought hazard index (dhi) assessment, 4. discussion.

• The results of the TCI index values over the study period exhibit variations over time, with notable minimum observed values in specific years (2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, and 2021); this indicates periods of more severe temperature conditions in the study area during those years [ 14 ]. The TCI index values trend shows an increase in temperature in the years 2014 to 2023 compared to the years 2001 to 2013; this trend suggests a worsening of temperature conditions over the years, which can have implications for the study region’s environment and ecosystems [ 48 ]. The TCI mean values throughout different years ranged from 18.9 to 80.9, indicating the varying severity of drought conditions over time. Therefore, the analysis provides valuable insights into the impact of temperature conditions on drought dynamics in the Najd region, emphasizing the importance of considering multiple factors in assessing drought conditions through indices such as TCI and VCI indices [ 49 ]. Song et al. (2018) [ 50 ] used MODIS-based indices to study drought conditions in China. Their findings highlighted how extreme temperature conditions, reflected by low TCI values, were crucial for understanding drought dynamics and impacts on agriculture. This supports the observation that minimum TCI values signify critical temperature stress periods.
• The spatial distribution maps of the VCI index revealed that several years, including 2001, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023, were characterized by mild drought conditions, and the mean VCI values ranged from 48.2 to 67 throughout the study period. This indicates fluctuations in vegetation health and moisture availability in the region over the years. The results suggest a varying pattern of drought severity, with certain years experiencing milder drought conditions while others show wetter conditions. These results provide valuable insights into the dynamics of vegetation response to environmental conditions in the Najd region over the studied time period; the results are similar to the VCI analysis on spatiotemporal variations of spring drought in China by Liang et al. (2021) [ 51 ]. Omondi, (2010) [ 52 ] employed statistical models to analyze VCI trends in the Horn of Africa, finding that VCI values significantly correlated with seasonal rainfall patterns. Their analysis revealed a mean VCI decrease during drought years, with VCI values dropping by up to 20 compared to non-drought years; the study highlighted those periods with a VCI below 50 corresponded with severe drought conditions and reduced vegetation health.
• According to VHI index spatial distribution maps, all studied years (with the exception of 2005 and 2007) were classified as moderate drought years, and the mean VHI values ranged from 36.6 to 70.5 throughout the study period. Based on Jalayer et al. (2023) [ 53 ], the VHI index results underscore the persistent nature of drought conditions in the Najd region, with a noticeable escalation in severe drought events in the latter years of the study period. The spatial and temporal analysis of VHI provides valuable insights into the evolving drought patterns in the region, emphasizing the need for effective mitigation and adaptation strategies to address the heightened risk of drought in the study area [ 54 ].
• The high positive correlation between VHI and VCI (0.829, p < 0.01) underscores a robust linear relationship, implying that VCI is a significant predictor of VHI. The correlation coefficient between the VHI index and TCI index is 0.679, indicating a positive correlation. This suggests that as the VHI index increases, the TCI index tends to increase. Meanwhile, the correlation coefficient between the VCI index and TCI index is 0.152, indicating a positive and very weak correlation; this result is compatible with Al-Kindi et al.’s (2022) study [ 55 ], which aimed at drought monitoring using various drought indices (DIs) in the northern part of the United Arab Emirates.
• The DHI index’s spatial analysis reveals significant regional disparities in drought severity, highlighting the most severe conditions in the northern regions of the study area, and the spatial distribution maps indicate that the northern regions experienced the highest levels of drought risk, with severity gradually decreasing towards the south and east. Specifically, the data show that approximately 44% of the total area fell under moderate drought risk, while a substantial 56% faced very severe drought risk. The differential in drought severity underscores the importance of understanding regional variations in drought severity and the need for proactive measures to build resilience and mitigate the impacts of drought on vulnerable communities and ecosystems [ 56 ].

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

• The TCI index exhibited temporal variations over the study period, with notable minimum values observed in specific years (2001, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, and 2021). Furthermore, there was a discernible trend of increasing temperatures from 2014 to 2023 compared to earlier years, indicating potential climate change impacts.
• Several years, including 2001, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023, were characterized by mild drought conditions based on the VCI index, with mean values ranging from 48.2 to 67 throughout the study period. This suggests periodic but relatively moderate levels of vegetation stress in the region.
• Except for 2005 and 2007, all studied years were classified as moderate drought years based on the VHI index, indicating persistent drought conditions in the region. A noticeable escalation in severe drought events was observed towards the latter years of the study period, emphasizing the evolving nature of drought patterns and the need for effective mitigation and adaptation strategies.
• A strong positive correlation was found between VHI and VCI indices, indicating a robust linear relationship and highlighting VCI as a significant predictor of VHI. Positive correlations were also observed between VHI and TCI indices, albeit with varying strengths, while the correlation between VCI and TCI indices was positive but very weak.
• The northern regions of the study area faced the most severe drought hazards, gradually diminishing towards the south and east. Approximately 44% of the total area was classified as under moderate drought risk, while the remaining 56% faced very severe drought risk, underscoring the widespread and significant impacts of drought in the study area.
• Ground Validation and Local Accuracy: (a) Increase the number and coverage of ground-based monitoring stations, especially in remote and arid regions. Collaborative networks between local governments, research institutions, and international organizations can help achieve these goals. (b) Leverage local knowledge and observations from communities to validate satellite data and improve local accuracy.
• Expertise and Interpretation: (a) Provide training for local experts and stakeholders in remote sensing and climate science to improve the interpretation of satellite data. (b) Develop more intuitive tools and platforms that can assist non-experts in interpreting satellite-derived indices.
• Historical Data Limitations: (a) Combine satellite data with other historical datasets, such as meteorological records or historical maps, to extend the temporal analysis. (b) Use climate models to simulate past conditions and fill gaps in the historical record.
• Resolution and Fine-Scale Variations: (a) Where possible, use higher-resolution satellite data or combine multiple data sources to capture finer-scale variations. (b) Apply statistical and machine learning techniques to downscale coarse-resolution data to better reflect local conditions.
• Access to Data and Resources: (a) Foster partnerships between researchers, governments, and organizations to share resources and expertise. (b) Support and utilize open access platforms and initiatives like Google Earth Engine (GEE) to facilitate data access and processing.
• Socio-Economic Impact Assessment: (a) Combine satellite data with socio-economic data through integrated assessment models to capture the broader impacts of drought. (b) Engage with local communities to understand and incorporate their experiences and impacts into drought assessments.

Author Contributions

Data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Al Nadabi, M.S.; D’Antonio, P.; Fiorentino, C.; Scopa, A.; Shams, E.M.; Fadl, M.E. Utilizing the Google Earth Engine for Agricultural Drought Conditions and Hazard Assessment Using Drought Indices in the Najd Region, Sultanate of Oman. Remote Sens. 2024 , 16 , 2960. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16162960

Al Nadabi MS, D’Antonio P, Fiorentino C, Scopa A, Shams EM, Fadl ME. Utilizing the Google Earth Engine for Agricultural Drought Conditions and Hazard Assessment Using Drought Indices in the Najd Region, Sultanate of Oman. Remote Sensing . 2024; 16(16):2960. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16162960

Al Nadabi, Mohammed S., Paola D’Antonio, Costanza Fiorentino, Antonio Scopa, Eltaher M. Shams, and Mohamed E. Fadl. 2024. "Utilizing the Google Earth Engine for Agricultural Drought Conditions and Hazard Assessment Using Drought Indices in the Najd Region, Sultanate of Oman" Remote Sensing 16, no. 16: 2960. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16162960

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Where Tim Walz Stands on the Issues

As governor of Minnesota, he has enacted policies to secure abortion protections, provide free meals for schoolchildren, allow recreational marijuana and set renewable energy goals.

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By Maggie Astor

• Aug. 6, 2024

Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, the newly announced running mate to Vice President Kamala Harris, has worked with his state’s Democratic-controlled Legislature to enact an ambitious agenda of liberal policies: free college tuition for low-income students, free meals for schoolchildren, legal recreational marijuana and protections for transgender people.

“You don’t win elections to bank political capital,” Mr. Walz wrote last year about his approach to governing. “You win elections to burn political capital and improve lives.”

Republicans have slammed these policies as big-government liberalism and accused Mr. Walz of taking a hard left turn since he represented a politically divided district in Congress years ago.

Here is an overview of where Mr. Walz stands on some key issues.

Mr. Walz signed a bill last year that guaranteed Minnesotans a “fundamental right to make autonomous decisions” about reproductive health care on issues such as abortion, contraception and fertility treatments.

Abortion was already protected by a Minnesota Supreme Court decision, but the new law guarded against a future court reversing that precedent as the U.S. Supreme Court did with Roe v. Wade, and Mr. Walz said this year that he was also open to an amendment to the state’s Constitution that would codify abortion rights.

Another bill he signed legally shields patients, and their medical providers, if they receive an abortion in Minnesota after traveling from a state where abortion is banned.

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