case study examples in educational research

Case Studying Educational Research: A Way of Looking at Reality

November 2013
American Journal of Educational Research 1(1 9):391-395
1(1 9):391-395
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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Case Study in Education Research

Introduction, general overview and foundational texts of the late 20th century.

Conceptualisations and Definitions of Case Study
Case Study and Theoretical Grounding
Choosing Cases
Methodology, Method, Genre, or Approach
Case Study: Quality and Generalizability
Multiple Case Studies
Exemplary Case Studies and Example Case Studies
Criticism, Defense, and Debate around Case Study

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Case Study in Education Research by Lorna Hamilton LAST REVIEWED: 27 June 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 27 June 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0201

It is important to distinguish between case study as a teaching methodology and case study as an approach, genre, or method in educational research. The use of case study as teaching method highlights the ways in which the essential qualities of the case—richness of real-world data and lived experiences—can help learners gain insights into a different world and can bring learning to life. The use of case study in this way has been around for about a hundred years or more. Case study use in educational research, meanwhile, emerged particularly strongly in the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom and the United States as a means of harnessing the richness and depth of understanding of individuals, groups, and institutions; their beliefs and perceptions; their interactions; and their challenges and issues. Writers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, advocated the use of case study as a form that teacher-researchers could use as they focused on the richness and intensity of their own practices. In addition, academic writers and postgraduate students embraced case study as a means of providing structure and depth to educational projects. However, as educational research has developed, so has debate on the quality and usefulness of case study as well as the problems surrounding the lack of generalizability when dealing with single or even multiple cases. The question of how to define and support case study work has formed the basis for innumerable books and discursive articles, starting with Robert Yin’s original book on case study ( Yin 1984 , cited under General Overview and Foundational Texts of the Late 20th Century ) to the myriad authors who attempt to bring something new to the realm of case study in educational research in the 21st century.

This section briefly considers the ways in which case study research has developed over the last forty to fifty years in educational research usage and reflects on whether the field has finally come of age, respected by creators and consumers of research. Case study has its roots in anthropological studies in which a strong ethnographic approach to the study of peoples and culture encouraged researchers to identify and investigate key individuals and groups by trying to understand the lived world of such people from their points of view. Although ethnography has emphasized the role of researcher as immersive and engaged with the lived world of participants via participant observation, evolving approaches to case study in education has been about the richness and depth of understanding that can be gained through involvement in the case by drawing on diverse perspectives and diverse forms of data collection. Embracing case study as a means of entering these lived worlds in educational research projects, was encouraged in the 1970s and 1980s by researchers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, who provided a helpful impetus for case study work in education ( Stenhouse 1980 ). Stenhouse wrestled with the use of case study as ethnography because ethnographers traditionally had been unfamiliar with the peoples they were investigating, whereas educational researchers often worked in situations that were inherently familiar. Stenhouse also emphasized the need for evidence of rigorous processes and decisions in order to encourage robust practice and accountability to the wider field by allowing others to judge the quality of work through transparency of processes. Yin 1984 , the first book focused wholly on case study in research, gave a brief and basic outline of case study and associated practices. Various authors followed this approach, striving to engage more deeply in the significance of case study in the social sciences. Key among these are Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 , along with Yin 1984 , who established powerful groundings for case study work. Additionally, evidence of the increasing popularity of case study can be found in a broad range of generic research methods texts, but these often do not have much scope for the extensive discussion of case study found in case study–specific books. Yin’s books and numerous editions provide a developing or evolving notion of case study with more detailed accounts of the possible purposes of case study, followed by Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 who wrestled with alternative ways of looking at purposes and the positioning of case study within potential disciplinary modes. The authors referenced in this section are often characterized as the foundational authors on this subject and may have published various editions of their work, cited elsewhere in this article, based on their shifting ideas or emphases.

Merriam, S. B. 1988. Case study research in education: A qualitative approach . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This is Merriam’s initial text on case study and is eminently accessible. The author establishes and reinforces various key features of case study; demonstrates support for positioning the case within a subject domain, e.g., psychology, sociology, etc.; and further shapes the case according to its purpose or intent.

Stake, R. E. 1995. The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Stake is a very readable author, accessible and yet engaging with complex topics. The author establishes his key forms of case study: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Stake brings the reader through the process of conceptualizing the case, carrying it out, and analyzing the data. The author uses authentic examples to help readers understand and appreciate the nuances of an interpretive approach to case study.

Stenhouse, L. 1980. The study of samples and the study of cases. British Educational Research Journal 6:1–6.

DOI: 10.1080/0141192800060101

A key article in which Stenhouse sets out his stand on case study work. Those interested in the evolution of case study use in educational research should consider this article and the insights given.

Yin, R. K. 1984. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . Beverley Hills, CA: SAGE.

This preliminary text from Yin was very basic. However, it may be of interest in comparison with later books because Yin shows the ways in which case study as an approach or method in research has evolved in relation to detailed discussions of purpose, as well as the practicalities of working through the research process.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Case study examples
Research question	Case study
What are the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction?	Case study of wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park
How do populist politicians use narratives about history to gain support?	Case studies of Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán and US president Donald Trump
How can teachers implement active learning strategies in mixed-level classrooms?	Case study of a local school that promotes active learning
What are the main advantages and disadvantages of wind farms for rural communities?	Case studies of three rural wind farm development projects in different parts of the country
How are viral marketing strategies changing the relationship between companies and consumers?	Case study of the iPhone X marketing campaign
How do experiences of work in the gig economy differ by gender, race and age?	Case studies of Deliveroo and Uber drivers in London

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case study examples in educational research

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Ecological validity

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

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Resources for research

Case studies in educational research

31 Mar 2011

Dr Lorna Hamilton

To cite this reference: Hamilton, L. (2011) Case studies in educational research, British Educational Research Association on-line resource. Available on-line at [INSERT WEB PAGE ADDRESS HERE] Last accessed [insert date here]

Case study is often seen as a means of gathering together data and giving coherence and limit to what is being sought. But how can we define case study effectively and ensure that it is thoughtfully and rigorously constructed? This resource shares some key definitions of case study and identifies important choices and decisions around the creation of studies. It is for those with little or no experience of case study in education research and provides an introduction to some of the key aspects of this approach: from the all important question of what exactly is case study, to the key decisions around case study work and possible approaches to dealing with the data collected. At the end of the resource, key references and resources are identified which provide the reader with further guidance.

What is case study research?

Last updated

8 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Suppose a company receives a spike in the number of customer complaints, or medical experts discover an outbreak of illness affecting children but are not quite sure of the reason. In both cases, carrying out a case study could be the best way to get answers.

Organization

Case studies can be carried out across different disciplines, including education, medicine, sociology, and business.

Most case studies employ qualitative methods, but quantitative methods can also be used. Researchers can then describe, compare, evaluate, and identify patterns or cause-and-effect relationships between the various variables under study. They can then use this knowledge to decide what action to take.

Another thing to note is that case studies are generally singular in their focus. This means they narrow focus to a particular area, making them highly subjective. You cannot always generalize the results of a case study and apply them to a larger population. However, they are valuable tools to illustrate a principle or develop a thesis.

Analyze case study research

Dovetail streamlines case study research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

What are the different types of case study designs?

Researchers can choose from a variety of case study designs. The design they choose is dependent on what questions they need to answer, the context of the research environment, how much data they already have, and what resources are available.

Here are the common types of case study design:

Explanatory

An explanatory case study is an initial explanation of the how or why that is behind something. This design is commonly used when studying a real-life phenomenon or event. Once the organization understands the reasons behind a phenomenon, it can then make changes to enhance or eliminate the variables causing it.

Here is an example: How is co-teaching implemented in elementary schools? The title for a case study of this subject could be “Case Study of the Implementation of Co-Teaching in Elementary Schools.”

Descriptive

An illustrative or descriptive case study helps researchers shed light on an unfamiliar object or subject after a period of time. The case study provides an in-depth review of the issue at hand and adds real-world examples in the area the researcher wants the audience to understand.

The researcher makes no inferences or causal statements about the object or subject under review. This type of design is often used to understand cultural shifts.

Here is an example: How did people cope with the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami? This case study could be titled "A Case Study of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and its Effect on the Indonesian Population."

Exploratory

Exploratory research is also called a pilot case study. It is usually the first step within a larger research project, often relying on questionnaires and surveys . Researchers use exploratory research to help narrow down their focus, define parameters, draft a specific research question , and/or identify variables in a larger study. This research design usually covers a wider area than others, and focuses on the ‘what’ and ‘who’ of a topic.

Here is an example: How do nutrition and socialization in early childhood affect learning in children? The title of the exploratory study may be “Case Study of the Effects of Nutrition and Socialization on Learning in Early Childhood.”

An intrinsic case study is specifically designed to look at a unique and special phenomenon. At the start of the study, the researcher defines the phenomenon and the uniqueness that differentiates it from others.

In this case, researchers do not attempt to generalize, compare, or challenge the existing assumptions. Instead, they explore the unique variables to enhance understanding. Here is an example: “Case Study of Volcanic Lightning.”

This design can also be identified as a cumulative case study. It uses information from past studies or observations of groups of people in certain settings as the foundation of the new study. Given that it takes multiple areas into account, it allows for greater generalization than a single case study.

The researchers also get an in-depth look at a particular subject from different viewpoints. Here is an example: “Case Study of how PTSD affected Vietnam and Gulf War Veterans Differently Due to Advances in Military Technology.”

Critical instance

A critical case study incorporates both explanatory and intrinsic study designs. It does not have predetermined purposes beyond an investigation of the said subject. It can be used for a deeper explanation of the cause-and-effect relationship. It can also be used to question a common assumption or myth.

The findings can then be used further to generalize whether they would also apply in a different environment. Here is an example: “What Effect Does Prolonged Use of Social Media Have on the Mind of American Youth?”

Instrumental

Instrumental research attempts to achieve goals beyond understanding the object at hand. Researchers explore a larger subject through different, separate studies and use the findings to understand its relationship to another subject. This type of design also provides insight into an issue or helps refine a theory.

For example, you may want to determine if violent behavior in children predisposes them to crime later in life. The focus is on the relationship between children and violent behavior, and why certain children do become violent. Here is an example: “Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure and Participation in Adult Crime.”

Evaluation case study design is employed to research the effects of a program, policy, or intervention, and assess its effectiveness and impact on future decision-making.

For example, you might want to see whether children learn times tables quicker through an educational game on their iPad versus a more teacher-led intervention. Here is an example: “An Investigation of the Impact of an iPad Multiplication Game for Primary School Children.”

When do you use case studies?

Case studies are ideal when you want to gain a contextual, concrete, or in-depth understanding of a particular subject. It helps you understand the characteristics, implications, and meanings of the subject.

They are also an excellent choice for those writing a thesis or dissertation, as they help keep the project focused on a particular area when resources or time may be too limited to cover a wider one. You may have to conduct several case studies to explore different aspects of the subject in question and understand the problem.

What are the steps to follow when conducting a case study?

1. Select a case

Once you identify the problem at hand and come up with questions, identify the case you will focus on. The study can provide insights into the subject at hand, challenge existing assumptions, propose a course of action, and/or open up new areas for further research.

2. Create a theoretical framework

While you will be focusing on a specific detail, the case study design you choose should be linked to existing knowledge on the topic. This prevents it from becoming an isolated description and allows for enhancing the existing information.

It may expand the current theory by bringing up new ideas or concepts, challenge established assumptions, or exemplify a theory by exploring how it answers the problem at hand. A theoretical framework starts with a literature review of the sources relevant to the topic in focus. This helps in identifying key concepts to guide analysis and interpretation.

3. Collect the data

Case studies are frequently supplemented with qualitative data such as observations, interviews, and a review of both primary and secondary sources such as official records, news articles, and photographs. There may also be quantitative data —this data assists in understanding the case thoroughly.

4. Analyze your case

The results of the research depend on the research design. Most case studies are structured with chapters or topic headings for easy explanation and presentation. Others may be written as narratives to allow researchers to explore various angles of the topic and analyze its meanings and implications.

In all areas, always give a detailed contextual understanding of the case and connect it to the existing theory and literature before discussing how it fits into your problem area.

What are some case study examples?

What are the best approaches for introducing our product into the Kenyan market?

How does the change in marketing strategy aid in increasing the sales volumes of product Y?

How can teachers enhance student participation in classrooms?

How does poverty affect literacy levels in children?

Case study topics

Case study of product marketing strategies in the Kenyan market

Case study of the effects of a marketing strategy change on product Y sales volumes

Case study of X school teachers that encourage active student participation in the classroom

Case study of the effects of poverty on literacy levels in children

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Case Study Methodology of Qualitative Research: Key Attributes and Navigating the Conundrums in Its Application

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Research Guides

Case Studies

Dee Degner; Amani Gashan; and Natalia Ramirez Casalvolone

Description

Creswell and Poth (2018) define case study as a strategy that involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system (i.e., a setting or a context), a methodology, a type of design in qualitative research, or an object of study, as well as a product of the inquiry.

Flyvbjerg (2011) defines case study as an intensive analysis of an individual unit (as a person or community) stressing developmental factors in relation to the environment. Case study methodology aims to describe one or more cases in depth. It examines how something may be occurring in a given case or cases and typically uses multiple data sources to gather information. Creswell and Poth also argue that the use of different sources of information is to provide depth to the case description. Case study methodology aims to describe one or more cases in depth. It examines how something may be occurring in a given case or cases and typically uses multiple data sources to gather the information. This is the first step of data analysis in a qualitative case study. Following this, researchers must decide whether there is a case study to analyze, determine the boundaries of their case study and its context, decide whether they wish to use single or multiple case studies, and explore approaches to analyzing themes and articulating findings. Creswell and Poth (2018) are an ideal resource for defining case study, learning about its parts, and executing case study methodology.

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research: choosing among five approaches (4th ed.) . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2011). Case study. In N. K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (pp. 301-316 ). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Key Research Books and Articles on Case Study Methodology

Ashley, L. D. (2017). Case study research. In R. Coe, M. Waring, L. Hedges & J. Arthur (Eds), Research methods & methodologies in education (2nd ed., pp. 114-121). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

This edited text discusses several research methods in education. Dr. Laura Day Ashley, a professor at the University of Birmingham in the United Kingdom, contributes a chapter on case study research. Using research on how private and public schools impact education in developing countries, she describes case studies and gives an example.

Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. Qualitative Report, 13 (4), 544-559. http://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1573&context=tqr

The authors of this study presented an account of the qualitative case study methodology that can provide beneficial tools for researchers to explore any phenomenon under study within its context. The aim of this study was to guide novice researchers in understanding the required information for the design and implementation of any qualitative case study research project. This paper offers an account of the types of case study designs along with practical recommendations to determine the case under study, write the research questions, develop propositions, and bind the case. It also includes a discussion of data resources and the triangulation procedure in case study research.

Creswell, J. W. & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research: choosing among five approaches (4th ed.) . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.

The authors are both recognized academics in the field of qualitative research; Dr. Creswell has authored many articles and 26 books on topics such as mixed-methods research, qualitative research, and research design, and Dr. Poth has written more than 30 peer reviewed journal articles and was a guest co-editor at the International Journal of Qualitative Methods. The book thoroughly reviews and compares five qualitative and inquiry designs, including research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, and case study research. Chapter 4, which is titled Five Qualitative Approaches, gives a thorough description and explanation of what a case study research contemplates. It discusses its definition and origins, its features, the types of case study procedures to follow when doing a case study, and the challenges faced during case study development. In the appendix, on page 119, the authors offer an example of a case study and a question that can be used for discussion. The entire book has pertinent information for both novice and experienced researchers in qualitative research. It covers all parts of the research process, from posing a framework to data collection, data analysis, and writing up.

Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from start to finish . New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Yin is the CEO of an applied research firm. He has authored numerous articles in many fields, including education. He also authored Case Study Research, which is now in its Sixth Edition. This book uses three approaches (practical, inductive, and adaptive) to highlight many important aspects of Qualitative Research. He provides a definition of case study and references how case study differs from other types of research.

Recent Dissertations Using Case Study Methodology

Clapp, F. N. (2017). Teachers’ and researchers’ beliefs of learning and the use of learning progressions (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 10261732)

This study from Colorado State University was designed to identify the beliefs and discourse that both the Learning Progressions (LP) developers and the intended LP implementers held around student learning, teaching, and learning progressions. The study’s research questions were examined through the use of an instrumental case study. The researchers were deliberate in applying theory and study phenomena in their context, as it investigated teachers’ practices in the context of their respective classrooms.

Applying theory to the study phenomena, this study provided insight into the relationship between LP models and teachers’ perceptions about how students learn content in a particular context. The data was collected using interviews with teachers who participated in a year-long teacher-in-residence program. Researchers and content experts who conceptualized the LP were also interviewed to study the impact that it had on participants’ perceptions of the LP and any teacher reported changes in their respective classrooms. The findings of this study inform literature on both science teacher professional development and LP’s theory to practice.

Ruiz, A. M. (2011). Teachers and English language learners experiencing the secondary mainstream classroom: A case study (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 3471646)

This study from Georgia State University answered the following questions: 1) How does a secondary mainstream teacher experience the phenomenon of the inclusion of ELLs in a mainstream content area classroom? 2) How do ELLs experience the phenomenon of inclusion within the secondary mainstream content area classrooms? 3) How do the points of interaction between the secondary mainstream teacher, the English language learners, the content and the context shape the experiences of the inclusive classroom?

To comprehend the socio-constructivist learning theory which guided the design of this study, one must begin with understanding the epistemological stance of constructionism. Constructionism is seated within an interpretivist paradigm which asserts that reality does exist outside the realm of human interpretation; rather, it is human interpretation which makes meaning of this reality. The researcher applied Denzin and Lincoln’s (2004) bricoleur approach to this study, as it offered them the opportunity “to piece together a set of representations that is fitted to the specifics of this complex situation in an overlapping series of events” (p. 4). The researcher stated that his worldview shaped his research questions which called for a single case study research design.

Smith, P. H. (2000). Community as resource for minority language learning: A case study of Spanish-English dual-language schooling (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Order Number 304578045)

The author studied a school where a dual language (Spanish- English) program was being developed. He focused on the role of the community and the students’ acquisition of Spanish. Through a case study design, his theoretical framework was contemplated under the fields of language planning, language revitalization, and funds of knowledge. The author believed that minority language (Spanish) acquisition could be supported by incorporating local language resources, and in this way undermine the strong influence of the English language. To analyze his data, he went through a triangulation process of participant observation in classrooms, literacy instruction, teacher, parent and community interviews, and document and archival analysis. Findings showed that minority language resources are less often incorporated in the curriculum than those of the language majority. Thus the study suggested that these types of programs should include the funds of knowledge and available resources of the language minority communities.

Internet Resources

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Types of Case Study. Parts 1-3 on Case Studies .

This series of videos by Graham R. Gibbs at the University of Huddersfield effectively explains case studies. Some of Gibbs’ books on qualitative research include Qualitative Data Analysis: Explorations with NVivo (2002) and Analyzing Qualitative Data (2018).

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Types of Case Study. Part 1 on Case Studies . Retrieved from https://youtu.be/gQfoq7c4UE4

The first part of this series is an attempt to define case studies. Dr. Gibbs argued that it is a contemporary study of one person, one event, or one company. This contemporary phenomenon cab be studied in its social life context by using multiple sources of evidence.

When completing a case study, we either examine what affects our case and what effect it has on others, or we study the relationship between “the case” and between the other factors. In a typical case study approach, you choose one site to do your work and then you collect information by talking to people, using observations, interviews, or focus groups at that location. Case study is typically descriptive, meaning “you write what you see”, but it could also be exploratory or explanatory.

Types of Case Study:

Individual case study: One single person
Set of individual case studies: Looking at three single practices
Community studies: Many people in one community
Social group studies: The case representing social phenomenon “how something is defined in a social position”
Studies of organizations and institutions: The study of “election, ford, or fielding”
Studies of events, roles, and relationships: Family relationships

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Planning a case study. Part 2 on Case Studies . Retrieved from https://youtu.be/o1JEtXkFAr4

The second part of this series explains how to plan a case study. Dr. Gibbs argues that when planning to conduct a case study, we should think about the conceptual framework, research questions, research design, sampling/replication strategy, methods and instruments, and analysis of data.

For any type of research, a good source of inspiration could be either from personal experiences or from talking with people about a certain topic that we can adopt.

The Conceptual Framework: Displays the important features of a case study; shows the relationships between the features; makes assumptions explicit; is selective, iterative, and based on theory; takes account of previous research; includes personal orientations, and includes overlap and inconsistency.

Research questions should:

Be consistent with your conceptual framework.
Cover conceptual framework.
Be structured and focused.
Be answerable.
Form a basis for data collection.

Graham R Gibbs. (2012, October 24). Replication or Single Cases. Part 3 of 3 on Case Studies . https://youtu.be/b5CYZRyOlys

In the final part of the three videos of case study, Dr. Gibbs examines case study designs and variations that are possible. He also discusses replication strategies which help give the studies reliability and test to see if they can be generalized. Dr. Gibbs highlights the methods and instruments used, how to analyze the data, and concludes with problems of validity you may encounter and common pitfalls of case study research. In summary, case studies can involve gathering a lot of data and you can start analyzing the data while collecting and going through it.

shirlanne84. (2014). Different types of case study </. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/tWsnvYs9Brs

In this short video (1.49 min.), three kinds of case studies (exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory) are described, as well as rationales for using them. These rationales are as follows:

Exploratory: If you know nothing about the case.
Descriptive: When you write what you see, you are describing the situation.
Explanatory: When you try to understand why things are happening, then you explain them.

Shuttleworth, M. (2008, Apr. 1). Case study research design [website]. Retrieved Feb 20, 2018 from https://explorable.com/case-study-research-design

This is a useful website that provides a guide to almost all of the research methods. It offers a clear explanation about what a case study is, the argument for and against the case study research design, how to design and conduct a case study, and how to analyze the results. This source provides a journey from the introduction of case study until the analysis of your data.

Case Studies Copyright © 2019 by Dee Degner; Amani Gashan; and Natalia Ramirez Casalvolone is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

Students working on projects in a classroom

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
How can we improve school attendance?
How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom:

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

DOI: 10.1057/9781137046635_4
Corpus ID: 156444133

A Case for Case Study Research in Education

Published 2012

29 Citations

Second level students’ experiences of creativity: an irish case study, a case study of student learning spaces during the pandemic; a sociomateriality perspective, challenges of a case study, the ‘learning office’ as an approach for inclusive education in mathematics: opportunities and challenges, case study: an effective technology of modern entrepreneurship education.

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Case Study Method to Increase Preservice Teachers' Experience with ELL Accommodations and Self-Efficacy

Transformative learning and pedagogical approaches in education for sustainable development: are initial teacher education programmes in england and turkey ready for creating agents of change for sustainability, awakening the awareness: critical thinking in vocational education, creative teaching design in stem: using graduate learning outcomes to distribute students' existing knowledge in first-year biology practical work groups, the leadership process in teacher education: a case study at the university of lisbon, 15 references, case study research in educational settings, case studies, make‐your‐case studies, and case stories: a critique of case‐study methodology in sustainability in higher education, qualitative research and case study applications in education, redefining case study, doing case study research: a practical guide for beginning researchers. third edition., qualitative case study methodology: study design and implementation for novice researchers, the art of case study research, using computers in qualitative research, yin, r. k. (2009). case study research: design and methods (4th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage., beliefs of preservice teachers toward art education, related papers.

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The List of Case Study Topics On Various Academic Subjects

Updated 18 Jun 2024

Although the majority of academic definitions of case study talk about some process or research work related to the development of a particular person, group of people, or events over a period of time, types of case studies also involve specific analysis to identify problems and find the outcomes. Therefore, the majority of case study topics already include some challenge or an assumption that requires additional research.

The case study usually includes a short description of a problem or an idea that must be explored with the data that should be helpful to let you explore and find the best solutions. For example, turning to a professional case study writing service , you will see that the case studies for nursing students will always differ from those that are used by engineering students. Keeping all these facts and related challenges in mind, we came up with a list of case study topics divided by category.

Case Study Ideas

Coming up with good and reliable case study ideas is essential for college students regardless of their course, existing skills, and academic objectives. Since case study writing explores a plethora of different research methodologies, choosing your topic correctly will help you to avoid such scenarios when your ideas become scattered all over your paper. Have a look at our list of case study ideas based on the subject and use them as a starting point for your future case study assignments. Need help with homework? Hire a professional essay writer .

Case Study Ideas For Psychology

The field of Psychology is quite challenging, which is why it is vital to choose your topic accordingly regardless if you already know the basics or want to overcome writer's block. Here are some interesting ideas to consider based on what is currently popular in various American universities:

Military operations and the PTSD recovery process.
The most common misconceptions about children with Autism.
The workplace leadership and the complex of Emperor.
The perception of danger in different cultures.
The origins of bipolar disorder through the prism of domestic violence.
Covid-19 and related anxiety cases among college students.
The dangers of advertisements on children's TV networks.
The negative influence of Instagram and distorted body image.
Mental recovery of child abuse victims.
Asthenic syndrome among teenage children.

Case Study Topics In Education

As you are dealing with Education, you should start by exploring the latest changes as the technology is constantly advancing. Compare old and new study methods used in schools or American universities to get the basic idea of competitive case study topics.

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Here are some of them to explore:

The challenges of remote education in rural locations in the USA.
The teaching methods of Montessori schools.
How to motivate children with learning disabilities?
Pros and Cons of AI-based systems in education.
The degree of freedom in Scandinavian schools.
The role of self-motivation in European middle schools.
Is Summer Camp education worth it?
The consequences of improper examination methods.;
The educative methodologies commonly used by male teachers.
The changes that have taken place in education during the Covid-19 period.

Information Technology

The students majoring in Data Science or Information Technology sciences also have to face case study writing, which is usually based on various data analysis methods or the impact that technology has in certain fields of life. Still, you can always explore a little bit further and choose different topics for case studies like the ones below:

Does technology advancement has an end?
The limitations of the Python programming language.
The differences between modern programming methods and the "old-school" approaches.
The analysis of ethical hackers.
Should one learn to become a hacker to prevent the majority of cyberattacks?
Is user simplicity always good: WordPress case study?
The challenges of software development in modern times.
The safety of data analysis for medical purposes.
The use of drones in police operations.
Semantic methods in debugging.

Environmental Science

It is only natural to examine various case studies as you are learning all the complex environmental science aspects. Since the majority of tasks in this field will include either reflective writing or cause-and-effect essays, the use of case study writing cannot be underestimated. We're the best law essay writing service that you can trust: we get A grades from our customers.

Here are some ideas to use as the starting points:

The mobile vessel pump systems that reduce ocean pollution.
Is saving endangered species possible in our times?
The cons and pros of ecological tourism.
The use of politics in the Global Warming campaigns.
The Earthquake prevention systems in the United States.
The clarity of Carbon Dioxide Emission reports.
The reasons why the Kyoto Protocol has double standards.
The correct method of planting trees in an urban environment.
How can college students help promote environmental protection.
The use of Green Technologies during pandemic times.

Marketing Case Study Ideas

As a rule, marketing specialists always have enough to deal with, yet choosing a successful case study topic is not always easy! Do your best to narrow your ideas down to meet the main argument of your thesis statement and the educational objectives. You can browse through a wide range of subjects, including:

The differences between female and male target marketing methods.
The unique strategies and popularity of Apple Inc.
Brand development methods: the most common mistakes.
German Automotive Industry in the American market.
Online (digital) versus physical marketing.
The factors that create customer loyalty in the field of beverages.
The negativity commonly associated with McDonald's.
The controversy between Samsung and Apple.
Is marketing to children morally acceptable?
The future of marketing methods in the post-Covid-19 world.

Management Case Study Topics

Management is always complex because it involves a plethora of different subjects that must be combined and analyzed. The role of case studies here is vital because it is the best way to learn both old and new methods of management. Consider this list of case study topics on Management:

Corporate planning and strategic management by Nike Corporation.
The activity-based costs systems in the Asian markets.
Is child entrepreneurship taking away the aspect of childhood?
Should financial management be taught at schools?
Human Resources Management bias and ethnicity aspects.
The challenges of global management in modern times.
The management and social media.
Does immediate innovation has a place in marketing?
Sustainable development and globalization.
Civil rights and the responsibilities of corporate management specialists.

Applied Physics

As you may think that Applied Physics is all about theory or lab experiments, you are quite far from the truth because it also involves case study writing to determine the engineering mistakes or provide college professors with a piece of evidence that you understand the subject correctly.

Condensed Matter and Mechanical Engineering studies.
The most common misconceptions about Nanoscience.
The Green Energy systems in the domestic environment.
Why the study of Microfluidics is often considered dangerous?
Quantum Information Science and Data Transfer methods.
The benefits of Astrophysics lessons for the school children.
The application of synchrotron radiation and relevant dangers.
The engineering mindset specifics in Applied Physics.
Radiation therapy and related mental aspects.
The role of female scientists in Applied Physics.

SMM Case Study Topics

It is hard to imagine our lives without social media these days. It is only natural that SMM or Social Media Marketing case study topics are becoming even more popular.

Here are some of them you must definitely check:

The use of children in SMM strategies.
The challenges of influencers on social media.
Why the majority of SMM trends are dangerous?
The reasons why TikTok became popular.
The importance of impromptu dancing on social media.
Is SMM Marketing the next best thing for modern sales?
Online marketing dangers.
The differences between globalization and mass trend following.
Social media dangers for children.
The age gap differences in social media groups.

MBA Case Study Topic Ideas

MBA studies still remain one of the most popular subjects for those who want to start their personal business or promote something innovative. Once you have your MBA degree, you can get employed at some of the world's best companies. Still, as you only study, it is crucial to do all these writing tasks, including reflective journals and case study papers. Have no fear as we have some MBA case study ideas for you:

Operations management styles at Intel Inc.
Why the majority of human resource management methods used are outdated today.
The specifics of marketing research in Japan.
Customer relationship management and religion.
Strategic Thinking VS Leadership training.
MBA marketing specifics.
The attitude and professional success: Bill Gates personality.
Steve Jobs' marketing style.
Financial responsibility of CEOs in the United States.
The IT marketing through the prism of staff training in marketing.

Human Rights Case Studies

Even though we all have heard about human rights and related challenges these days, it is often uneasy to choose the right case study topic. If you are unsure what to choose, consider these examples of case study topics below:

The challenges of the Palestinian community.
Misconceptions about the Black Lives Matter Movement.
Should children be allowed to vote and participate in politics.
The gender injustice in the scientific community of American Universities.
The abuse of female personnel workforce.
The Anti-Discrimination Act controversies.
The human rights controversies in the United States versus cases in Canada.
How can minor children stand for their basic human rights?
The moral aspect of freedom of speech.
The human rights activists and their moral principles: South Africa.

Nursing Case Study Subjects

The privacy of the nurse and patient communications.
The importance of ER nursing stress reduction methods.
Should nurses be taught self-defense tactics?
The presence of ethnic bias in the nursing community.
The emotional bonds established by the nurses in a team.
How does team solidarity affect nursing responsibilities?
The healthcare system in Norway: Bergen hospitals case study analysis.
Should nurses be granted additional payments for the emotional turbulence that they endure?
Patients with Alzheimer’s and the modern nursing methods.
How can nurses help children to communicate more efficiently?

Business Case Study Topics

Regardless of what business field you may encounter for your college studies in the United States, the chances are high that you will need some inspiration for your next case study assignment. Consider taking a look at these topic ideas:

The quality production differences between Gibson and Fender.
The link between production quality and strategic thinking implemented by the CEOs.
The image of the modern business individual today.
Pricing optimization at Apple Inc.
The reasons why start-ups became so popular in 2022.
Market expansion in the Asian markets.
Industry Landscape in Australia for investment purposes.
Profitability and moral limitations in business in China.
Personnel management issues at Amazon business outlets.
The problems of consumerism in the United States.

Of course, these are only the starting points or the basic ideas that you can use as you think about how to choose a good case study topic for your next project! When in doubt, always consult your academic advisor or hire a professional case study writer to pick the best subject and methodology!

How To Choose Good Case Study Topics?

Starting with your case study topic hunting, follow these simple rules:

Choose something that inspires you.
Narrow things down to reflect your main idea the best way possible.
Explore similar research ideas on the topic.
Identify the problem(s) and opinions related to your chosen subject.
Choose relevant methodology that will make it possible to research this or that case study topic.
Find alternate wording for your case study assignment.
Brainstorm available case study topics for college students.

Remember that if you are not sure about something, always ask your college advisor and check your grading rubric twice to ensure that you are on the right track!

Analysis Comes First

It must be reminded again that every assignment that you approach must include a preliminary analysis of the topic because you must be aware of various research aspects related to your topic. Take your time to consider different wording patterns and always narrow things down if possible to let your case study writing reflect your thesis and the main ideas. Always provide good evidence and analyze all the available information that you have in the case study instructions. It will help you to provide enough evidence of your research based upon a specific case study. Therefore, brainstorm our case study topics and let your education struggles become easier with our help! And remember that you can always ask us to write my case study!

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David is one of those experienced content creators from the United Kingdom who has a high interest in social issues, culture, and entrepreneurship. He always says that reading, blogging, and staying aware of what happens in the world is what makes a person responsible. He likes to learn and share what he knows by making things inspiring and creative enough even for those students who dislike reading.

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Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Case study examples
Research question	Case study
What are the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction?	Case study of wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park in the US
How do populist politicians use narratives about history to gain support?	Case studies of Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán and US president Donald Trump
How can teachers implement active learning strategies in mixed-level classrooms?	Case study of a local school that promotes active learning
What are the main advantages and disadvantages of wind farms for rural communities?	Case studies of three rural wind farm development projects in different parts of the country
How are viral marketing strategies changing the relationship between companies and consumers?	Case study of the iPhone X marketing campaign
How do experiences of work in the gig economy differ by gender, race, and age?	Case studies of Deliveroo and Uber drivers in London

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 29 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

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Case Study Thesis Statement

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A case study is a deep and comprehensive study of a specific subject, such as individuals, groups, or events, in their real-life context. Crafting a compelling thesis statement for a case study ensures that readers are primed to engage with the detailed analysis that follows. It sets the tone and provides a roadmap for what’s to be explored. Whether you’re examining a business scenario, a societal issue, or a psychological condition, a well-constructed thesis sets the foundation. Let’s delve into examples, writing techniques, and tips to perfect this art.

What is a Case Study Thesis Statement? – Definition

A case study thesis statement is a concise summary that outlines the central point or argument of a case study. It encapsulates the primary findings, insights, or conclusions drawn from the detailed analysis of a particular subject or situation in its real-life context. This statement serves as a guide for readers, offering a snapshot of what the case study will explore and the significance of its findings.

What is an example of a Case Study thesis statement?

“In the analysis of XYZ Corporation’s marketing strategies during the fiscal year 2020-2021, it’s evident that the company’s innovative use of social media advertising not only boosted its brand visibility among millennials but also led to a 15% increase in sales, demonstrating the power of digital platforms in modern business models.”

This Specific thesis statement provides a clear insight into the focus of the case study (XYZ Corporation’s marketing strategies) and highlights the primary conclusion (success in using social media advertising to boost sales).

100 Case Study Thesis Statement Examples

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Case study thesis statements provide a concise encapsulation of the primary conclusions or insights gleaned from an in-depth analysis of a subject. They serve as a roadmap for readers, informing them of the study’s focal points and key findings. To craft an effective case study thesis, it’s imperative to be specific, evidence-based, and relevant to the subject being explored. Below are 100 examples spanning various fields and scenarios:

Analyzing the success of Apple’s iPhone X launch, it’s evident that the blend of technological innovation and targeted marketing resulted in record-breaking sales figures globally.
A deep dive into London’s urban planning post-2000 reveals a significant push towards sustainable infrastructure, reducing the city’s carbon footprint by 12%.
In studying patient recovery rates at the ABC Rehabilitation Center, it becomes clear that personalized therapy programs yield a 25% faster recovery time compared to generic methods.
A review of Brazil’s reforestation efforts in the last decade demonstrates that community involvement is a pivotal factor, with local engagement accelerating afforestation by 18%.
Exploring the financial collapse of Company XYZ in 2019, mismanagement of funds and a lack of internal audits were the predominant causes leading to its bankruptcy.
The rise in mental health issues among high school students from 2015-2020, as examined in Region A, strongly correlates with increased social media usage and cyberbullying incidents.
A detailed analysis of Japan’s public transport system reveals that timely investments in technology and maintenance are primary reasons for its 99% punctuality rate.
Studying the diet patterns of Mediterranean regions provides insights into lower cardiovascular disease rates, highlighting the benefits of olive oil, fish, and whole grains.
The decline in print media sales from 2000-2020, as evident in the case of Magazine ABC, is largely due to the surge in digital content consumption and changing reader habits.
In assessing the success of the ‘Clean River’ campaign in City B, it’s observed that public awareness drives and stricter industrial regulations reduced water pollution by 30%
An examination of solar energy adoption in Rural Region X indicates that governmental subsidies coupled with community workshops played a pivotal role in increasing installations by 40% in five years.
By delving into the cultural revival in City Y, it’s apparent that grassroots movements and local art festivals were instrumental in rejuvenating traditional art forms and bolstering tourism.
A study of telecommuting trends during the 2020 pandemic reveals that companies with pre-existing digital infrastructure reported a smoother transition and a mere 5% drop in productivity.
Through analyzing the public health response in Country Z during the measles outbreak, it’s clear that rapid immunization drives and public awareness campaigns curbed the spread by 60%.
A review of the organic farming movement in Region P shows that farmer cooperatives and government-backed training sessions were crucial in tripling organic produce output in a decade.
Assessing the success factors behind Brand Q’s viral ad campaign, a blend of humor, social relevance, and effective online targeting resulted in a 300% ROI.
An in-depth look at the urban wildlife conservation initiative in City R suggests that integrating green corridors and public education were key to increasing urban biodiversity by 20%.
Studying the economic turnaround of City S post-recession, it emerges that a combination of SME incentives, infrastructure investments, and tourism promotions led to a steady 7% GDP growth.
Exploring the education overhaul in District T, the introduction of experiential learning methods and teacher training programs significantly improved student performance metrics across all grades.
The analysis of e-commerce trends in Country U during the festive season underscores that localized marketing campaigns and easy return policies boosted sales by an unprecedented 45%
An exploration of the rehabilitation programs in Prison V reveals that the integration of vocational training reduced recidivism rates by 15% over three years.
Investigating the decline of traditional crafts in Region W, it becomes apparent that globalized market pressures and a generational shift in career preferences were primary contributors.
The analysis of startup ecosystem growth in City X demonstrates that mentorship programs and venture capital accessibility were crucial drivers, leading to a 50% increase in successful startup launches.
In evaluating the healthcare system of Country Y, the strategic placement of clinics and telemedicine integration were central to achieving a 90% accessibility rate in remote areas.
Studying the architectural evolution in City Z, the emphasis on eco-friendly designs and green spaces has significantly enhanced residents’ quality of life and reduced energy consumption.
A detailed assessment of the digital literacy program in District A1 indicates that hands-on workshops and collaboration with tech companies led to a 30% increase in digital skills among the elderly.
The case study of the MNO Music Festival shows that blending international and local artists, along with immersive cultural experiences, resulted in a tripling of international attendees.
In examining the rebranding strategy of Company B2, leveraging user-generated content and transparency in production processes garnered a 60% boost in brand loyalty.
Exploring the impact of the ‘Green School’ initiative in Region C3, schools that integrated environmental education witnessed a marked increase in student-led sustainability projects.
By delving into the tourism dynamics of Island D4, it’s observed that the emphasis on eco-tourism and cultural preservation led to sustained tourism growth without ecological degradation.
A deep dive into the public transport upgrades in City E5 reveals that the inclusion of smart ticketing systems and real-time tracking improved user satisfaction rates by 25%.
Analyzing the performance of the XYZ sports team over a decade, the focus on grassroots talent recruitment and continuous training regimes was key to their championship victories.
A study of the fast-food industry shifts in Region F6 showcases that the introduction of plant-based menu options was instrumental in capturing a new health-conscious demographic.
Through assessing the cybersecurity reforms in Organization G7, proactive threat monitoring and employee training drastically reduced security breaches by 80%.
An examination of the ‘Urban Forest’ project in City H8 underlines that community participation and periodic maintenance drives ensured a 90% survival rate of planted trees.
Investigating the cultural festival in Village I9, the collaboration with local artisans and digital promotions drew an unprecedented global audience, revitalizing the local economy
The scrutiny of e-learning trends in School J10 revealed that blending video tutorials with interactive assignments resulted in higher student engagement and a 20% improvement in test scores.
In studying the revamp of the K11 shopping mall, the introduction of experiential retail spaces and diversified dining options significantly increased footfall and monthly sales.
By analyzing the success of the L12 mobile banking app, user-friendly interfaces combined with robust security measures led to a user adoption rate surpassing 70% within the first year.
The comprehensive review of NGO M13’s outreach programs indicates that localized content and leveraging social media influencers amplified awareness, doubling donations received.
An in-depth study of the transportation overhaul in City N14 highlights that integrating cycling lanes and pedestrian zones reduced vehicular traffic by 15% and enhanced urban livability.
A case study on the O15 biotech startup’s rapid growth identifies that collaborations with academic institutions and a focus on sustainable solutions were critical success factors.
Investigating the wildlife conservation measures in Park P16, the integration of community-based surveillance and eco-tourism initiatives resulted in a 10% rise in endangered species populations.
Exploring the dynamics of the Q17 film festival, the embrace of indie filmmakers and diversification into virtual screenings expanded the global audience base by threefold.
Through a detailed assessment of the R18 smart city project, data-driven decision-making and public-private partnerships accelerated infrastructure development and improved resident satisfaction.
A study of the resurgence of traditional crafts in Village S19 underscores that governmental grants combined with e-commerce platforms enabled artisans to reach global markets and triple their income.
By analyzing the mental health initiative in University T20, the introduction of peer counseling and mindfulness workshops led to a 30% decrease in reported student stress levels.
In evaluating the U21 sustainable farming project, the practice of crop rotation and organic pest control methods doubled yields without compromising soil health.
A deep dive into the V22 robotics industry shows that investments in research and development, coupled with industry-academia partnerships, positioned the region as a global leader in automation solutions.
The case study of the W23 urban renewal initiative reveals that preserving historical sites while integrating modern amenities revitalized the district and boosted tourism by 40%
Exploring the telehealth revolution in Hospital X24, it’s evident that user-centric design coupled with real-time patient support drastically reduced waiting times and enhanced patient satisfaction.
A review of the Z25 green tech startup’s rise showcases how tapping into emerging markets and prioritizing local adaptations enabled a 250% growth rate over two years.
By analyzing the Y26 literary festival’s global success, forging partnerships with international publishers and leveraging livestreamed sessions captured a diversified and engaged global readership.
In evaluating the urban art projects of City A27, integrating community artists and sourcing local materials led to culturally resonant artworks and rejuvenated public spaces.
The detailed study of B28’s freshwater conservation strategies highlights that community education, combined with sustainable fishing practices, restored marine life balance within a decade.
Through a comprehensive look at the C29 space tech firm’s accomplishments, early investments in satellite miniaturization positioned it as a front-runner in commercial space solutions.
By delving into the digital transformation of Retailer D30, the integration of augmented reality for virtual try-ons significantly boosted online sales and reduced return rates.
A study of the E31 desert afforestation initiative reveals that harnessing native drought-resistant flora and community-based irrigation systems successfully greened over 10,000 hectares.
Exploring F32’s inclusive education reforms, a curriculum designed with multi-modal teaching techniques led to improved learning outcomes for differently-abled students.
In examining the eco-tourism drive of Island G33, maintaining a balance between visitor volume and ecological sustainability ensured steady revenue without environmental degradation.
Analyzing the H34 online gaming platform’s surge in popularity, community engagement features and regional game localization were instrumental in its global user base expansion.
A review of the I35 urban cycling initiative shows that creating cyclist-friendly infrastructure, coupled with public awareness campaigns, led to a 20% increase in daily cycling commuters.
In studying J36’s public library modernization project, the fusion of digital archives with interactive learning zones increased visitor numbers and enhanced community learning.
By evaluating the K37 corporate wellness program, a holistic approach encompassing mental health, fitness, and nutrition resulted in a 15% reduction in employee sick days.
A detailed look at the L38 organic coffee farming cooperative identifies that fair-trade certifications and eco-friendly processing techniques doubled farmer profits and market reach.
Exploring the M39 microfinance model in developing regions shows that leveraging mobile technology and community leaders made financial services accessible to previously unbanked populations.
The case study of N40’s anti-pollution drive reveals that using technology for real-time air quality monitoring and public alerts led to actionable civic interventions and clearer skies.
Analyzing the O41 cultural dance revival initiative, collaborations with schools and televised events reintroduced traditional dances to younger generations, preserving cultural heritage.
Through studying the P42 renewable energy project, community-owned solar and wind farms not only achieved energy self-sufficiency but also created local employment opportunities.
By examining Q43’s digital archival project, crowdsourcing contributions and integrating multimedia storytelling resurrected historical narratives for a global digital audience.
In reviewing the R44 disaster response initiative, utilizing drones and AI-driven analytics for real-time situation assessment led to a 30% faster rescue response.
Exploring the success of the S45 women’s empowerment project, localized workshops and financial literacy programs led to the establishment of over 500 women-led businesses.
Analyzing the T46 urban farming revolution, rooftop gardens and vertical farming technologies not only reduced the carbon footprint but also bolstered local food security.
Through a detailed examination of U47’s mental health awareness campaign, leveraging celebrity ambassadors and social media channels destigmatized mental health discussions among young adults.
The study of V48’s coastal conservation initiative reveals that coral transplantation and sustainable tourism practices significantly enhanced marine biodiversity and local livelihoods.
By scrutinizing the W49 digital arts program, collaborations with global tech firms and virtual exhibitions brought contemporary art to a wider and more diversified audience.
In evaluating the X50 grassroots sports initiative, talent scouting at school levels and offering specialized training camps led to a surge in regional sports achievements.
Exploring the Y51 urban greenery project, the symbiotic integration of flora with urban structures, like bus stops and building facades, transformed the cityscape and improved air quality.
Through analyzing the Z52 elderly wellness initiative, mobile health check-ups and community gathering events significantly improved the well-being and social connectedness of seniors.
A deep dive into A53’s tech literacy drive for rural regions showcases that mobile classrooms and gamified learning tools bridged the digital divide, empowering communities.
Investigating B54’s smart waste management project, sensor-fitted bins and data-driven route optimization for collection trucks minimized operational costs and improved city cleanliness.
The case study of C55’s heritage restoration initiative highlights that a blend of traditional craftsmanship with modern conservation techniques revitalized historical landmarks, boosting tourism.
In studying D56’s alternative education model, experiential outdoor learning and community projects fostered holistic student development and real-world problem-solving skills.
By analyzing E57’s urban transit solution, electric buses paired with dynamic route algorithms resulted in reduced traffic congestion and a decrease in emissions.
The examination of F58’s sustainable fashion movement indicates that upcycling workshops and eco-conscious designer collaborations led to a greener fashion industry with reduced waste.
Through a deep dive into G59’s wildlife rehabilitation project, mobile veterinary units and habitat restoration measures significantly increased the population of endangered species.
In assessing H60’s collaborative workspace model, creating modular designs and fostering community events led to increased startup incubation and knowledge exchange.
Studying the I61 teletherapy initiative, the integration of wearable tech for biometric feedback and real-time counseling support made mental health care more accessible and tailored.
The review of J62’s community theater resurgence underlines that offering free training workshops and forging school partnerships enriched cultural landscapes and nurtured local talent.
By evaluating K63’s clean water initiative in remote areas, solar-powered desalination units and community-led maintenance ensured uninterrupted access to potable water.
Exploring the L64 sustainable architecture movement, it’s evident that the incorporation of passive solar design and green roofs reduced building energy consumption by up to 40%.
Through a detailed analysis of the M65 virtual reality (VR) in education program, integrating VR expeditions and interactive simulations led to a 20% increase in student comprehension.
The study of N66’s eco-village development project reveals that community-owned renewable energy systems and permaculture designs fostered self-sufficiency and resilience.
By reviewing the O67’s inclusive playground initiative, universally designed play equipment and sensory-friendly zones catered to children of all abilities, promoting inclusivity and joy.
Investigating the P68’s digital heritage preservation, utilizing 3D scanning and augmented reality brought ancient monuments and artifacts to life for global audiences.
By scrutinizing the Q69’s local organic produce movement, direct farmer-to-consumer platforms and community-supported agriculture initiatives revitalized local economies and promoted healthy living.
A deep dive into the R70’s urban beekeeping project indicates that rooftop apiaries and bee-friendly green spaces boosted pollinator populations, benefiting both biodiversity and urban agriculture.
In evaluating the S71’s community radio station initiative, platforms that prioritized local news and indigenous languages fostered civic participation and cultural pride.
Exploring the success of T72’s renewable energy transition, investments in grid-tied wind and solar farms led to the region achieving carbon neutrality within a decade.
The review of U73’s zero-waste community challenge highlights that community workshops on composting, recycling, and upcycling drastically reduced landfill contributions and elevated environmental consciousness.

These statements encompass a diverse range of endeavors, from technological innovations and educational transformations to environmental conservation and cultural preservation. Each thesis offers a concise yet compelling entry point, illustrating the multifaceted nature of case studies and their potential to drive change across various sectors.

Case Study Thesis Statement Example for Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay’s thesis statement presents a debatable claim about a particular scenario or situation, seeking to persuade the reader of its validity. It combines evidence from the case study with a clear stance on the matter, aiming to convince through both factual data and logical reasoning.

Despite the surge in e-commerce, a case study on Brick & Mortar Retail Y1 reveals that experiential in-store shopping can significantly boost customer loyalty and overall sales.
Examining the X2 city’s public transport model, it’s evident that prioritizing bicycles over cars results in healthier urban environments and happier citizens.
By studying vegan diets through the Z3 health initiative, there is undeniable evidence that plant-based diets lead to improved overall health metrics when compared to omnivorous diets.
Through a deep dive into the A4’s shift to remote work, productivity levels and employee well-being evidently increase when offered flexible work arrangements.
In the debate over renewable versus fossil fuels, the B5 country’s successful transition showcases the undeniable economic and environmental advantages of renewable energy.
Analyzing the C6 city’s urban greening project, it’s clear that community gardens play a pivotal role in crime reduction and social cohesion.
A study on the D7’s educational reforms reveals that continuous assessment, as opposed to one-off exams, offers a more comprehensive understanding of student capabilities.
By evaluating the E8’s plastic ban initiative, environmental rejuvenation and improved public health metrics affirm the necessity of eliminating single-use plastics.
Exploring the F9’s universal healthcare model, there’s a robust argument that public health services lead to more equitable societies and better health outcomes.
The success of the G10’s work-life balance policies underscores that a shorter workweek can lead to heightened productivity and enhanced employee satisfaction.

Case Study Thesis Statement Example for Research Paper

Case Study for research paper thesis statement serves as a central hypothesis or primary insight derived from the chosen case. It succinctly captures the essence of the research findings and the implications they might hold, offering a foundation upon which the paper’s arguments and conclusions are built.

An extensive analysis of the H11 city’s water conservation techniques presents innovative methodologies that have achieved a 30% reduction in urban water consumption.
Investigating the I12’s coral reef restoration projects, recent advancements in marine biology have been instrumental in rejuvenating dying reef ecosystems.
The in-depth research on J13’s forest management strategies reveals the successful intersection of indigenous knowledge and modern conservation techniques.
A comprehensive study on the K14’s biodynamic farming practices demonstrates their impact on soil health and crop yield enhancement.
Researching L15’s approach to mental health, community-based interventions, and localized therapy models have shown significant efficacy.
By delving into M16’s urban waste management, innovative recycling technologies are revolutionizing urban sustainability and waste reduction.
The examination of N17’s digital literacy programs for seniors demonstrates adaptive pedagogies tailored for older learners, resulting in improved tech proficiency.
In-depth research on O18’s tidal energy projects presents groundbreaking advancements in harnessing marine energy for sustainable power generation.
A study of P19’s green building materials showcases the potential for sustainable construction without compromising on durability or aesthetics.
Extensive research on Q20’s citizen science initiatives has shed light on the profound impact of public engagement in scientific discoveries.

Case Study Essay Thesis Statement Example for Essay Writing

In essay writing, the case study thesis statement offers a central idea or perspective about the case at hand. It provides a roadmap for readers, indicating the essay’s direction and focus, and typically draws on the unique aspects of the case study to make broader observations or arguments.

The revitalization of the R21 town square serves as a testament to the profound impact of urban design on community engagement and cultural preservation.
Exploring the journey of S22’s artisanal chocolate brand offers insights into the nuances of combining traditional recipes with modern marketing.
The success story of the T23’s community library initiative illustrates the timeless importance of books and shared spaces in fostering community spirit.
Through a narrative on U24’s eco-tourism model, the delicate balance between conservation, commerce, and community involvement comes to the fore.
V25’s transformation from a tech-averse community to a digital hub showcases the ripple effects of targeted tech education and infrastructure investment.
The tale of W26’s fight against deforestation illuminates the intertwining of grassroots activism, governmental policy, and global collaboration.
X27’s journey in preserving endangered languages paints a vivid picture of the role of technology in safeguarding cultural heritage.
Diving into Y28’s transition from coal to solar energy portrays the challenges, victories, and transformative power of collective will.
The story of Z29’s grassroots sports academy gives a glimpse into the potential of talent nurtured through community support and dedication.
A narrative on A30’s urban art movement elucidates the transformative power of public art in redefining cityscapes and fostering local talent.

Does a case study have a thesis statement?

Yes, a case study often has a thesis statement, especially if it is intended for academic or formal publication. While the nature of case studies is to explore, analyze, and present specific situations or phenomena in detail, a thesis statement helps provide direction, focus, and clarity to the study. It serves as a clear indication of the main point or argument the author wishes to make, derived from their analysis of the case.

What is a thesis statement for a case study analysis?

A thesis statement for a case study analysis is a concise summary of the main insight or argument derived from reviewing and analyzing a particular case. It should be specific and based on the evidence found within the study, aiming to encapsulate the core findings or implications. This statement will guide the reader’s understanding of what the case study is ultimately trying to convey or the conclusions the author has drawn from their analysis.

How do you write a thesis statement for a case study? – Step by Step Guide

Select Your Case: Before you can write a thesis statement, you need to choose a case that offers enough substance and relevance. Your case should be representative or unique enough to provide meaningful insights.
Conduct Thorough Research: Dive deep into the details of your case. Understand its history, the key players involved, its significance, and its outcomes.
Identify Key Themes or Patterns: As you research, note down recurring themes or patterns that emerge. These will often hint at the broader implications of the case.
Formulate Your Argument: Based on your observations, craft an argument or insight about the case. Ask yourself what the case reveals about a broader phenomenon or what makes this case particularly significant.
Be Specific: Your thesis statement should be precise. Avoid vague or overly broad statements. Instead, focus on the specific insights or conclusions you’ve drawn from the case.
Write and Refine: Draft your thesis statement. It should be one or two sentences long, capturing the essence of your argument. Revisit and refine it to ensure clarity and conciseness.

Tips for Writing a Case Study Thesis Statement

Keep it Focused: Your thesis statement should be concise and directly related to the case in question. Avoid generalities or unrelated observations.
Be Evidence-Based: Ensure that your thesis statement can be backed up with evidence from the case study. It should be a result of your analysis, not a preconceived notion.
Avoid Jargon: Keep your thesis statement accessible. It should be understandable even to those unfamiliar with the specifics of the case.
Stay Objective: While your thesis statement will represent your analysis and perspective, it’s crucial to base it on facts and avoid unnecessary biases.
Seek Feedback: Once you’ve crafted your thesis statement, share it with peers or mentors. Their feedback can help refine your thesis and ensure it captures the essence of your case study effectively.

In conclusion, while a case study delves deep into specific instances, having a clear thesis statement is crucial to give direction to your study and offer readers a concise understanding of the case’s significance and your analysis.

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Causal research designs and analysis in education

Published: 26 July 2024

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Peter M. Steiner 1 &
Yongnam Kim 2

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Causal inference in education research is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of educational policies, programs, and interventions. Establishing causal relations, that is, identifying interventions that actually work in practice, helps policymakers, educators, and researchers implement strategies that are genuinely beneficial, ensuring resources are allocated efficiently to enhance educational experiences and outcomes. Without rigorous causal inference based on experimental or quasi-experimental designs, efforts to improve education might rely on practices that appear effective but fail to produce actual benefits when scaled or applied in different contexts.

The main challenge with causal inference is that data alone are insufficient to reliably assess whether a causal relation between two variables of interest—the treatment conditions and the outcome—exists. In other words, data are uninformative about the causal relation of observed variables (Cunningham, 2021 ; Pearl & Mackenzie, 2018 ). Causal inference needs more than data. It also needs reliable background knowledge about the data-generating process, that is, subject-matter theory about how study participants got assigned or selected into treatment and control conditions and about the causal determinants of the outcome measure(s) under consideration. Such knowledge allows education researchers to assess whether the assumptions needed for causal inference are likely met and, thus, whether the estimated statistical associations or parameters warrant a causal interpretation. Given the crucial importance of causal assumptions, all contributions to this special issue, entitled “Causal Research Designs and Analysis in Education,” highlight the assumptions about the data-generating process so that effect estimates can be causally interpreted (and potentially generalized). It will become clear that researchers with an interest in evaluating education policies or interventions should rely on randomized or quasi-experimental research designs to quantitatively assess a policy’s or intervention’s impact on outcomes of interest. Though randomized experiments are still considered the gold standard with regard to internal validity, they are often not feasible for ethical or administrative reasons. Since the rationale of randomized experiments is well-known, this special issue focuses on the strongest quasi-experimental designs for causal inference, some of them not yet well-known to education researchers. Moreover, the special issue also tries to provide an overview of the main frameworks for formalizing causal inference.

The first three articles introduce different causal frameworks that provide formal languages to discuss questions related to causation and causal inference. Anglin et al. ( 2024 ) cover Campbell’s validity typology and its associated validity threats, with which most evaluation and education researchers are familiar. Then, Keller and Branson ( 2023 ) discuss the Rubin Causal Model with its potential outcomes notation, and Feng ( 2024 ) provides an introduction to causal graphs (directed acyclic graphs) and their underlying (nonparametric) structural causal models as put forward by Pearl ( 2009 ) or Spirtes et al. ( 2000 ). These three frameworks allow researchers to clearly explicate the causal quantity of interest and to discuss the assumptions needed for the identification of causal effects from experimental or observational data.

Then, the following five articles are devoted to the strongest quasi-experimental designs for education research. The first of these articles by Cham et al. ( 2024 ) provides a general overview of the four quasi-experimental designs covered in this special issue. The first two quasi-experimental designs address situations where the assignment (or selection) mechanism is essentially known and observed so that specific ways of covariate control are able to deconfound the causal relation of interest. These designs include regression discontinuity designs, which are introduced by Suk ( 2024 ), and propensity score matching strategies, which are addressed by Chan ( 2023 ), who also discusses the use of propensity score methods for causal generalization. The other two quasi-experimental methods, difference-in-differences and instrumental variable estimation, are able to deal with unobserved confounding, that is, causal effects are identifiable and estimable even if the observed covariates are not able to remove the entire confounding bias. The basics of difference-in-differences estimation are discussed by Corral and Yang ( 2024 ), while Porter ( 2024 ) provides a comprehensible discussion of the assumptions needed for a successful application of instrumental variables.

Finally, the last three articles cover some selected but important topics in causal inference. Li et al. ( 2024 ) discuss aspects of cluster randomized trials in education research, Qin ( 2024 ) provides an introduction to causal mediation analysis, and Shear and Briggs ( 2024 ) address measurement issues in causal inference.

All the articles in this special issue underscore the crucial importance of causal thinking in education research. By thoughtfully selecting and applying appropriate research designs and analytical methods, education researchers can broaden the scope of their investigations, leading to more significant and impactful evaluations and discoveries.

Anglin, K., Liu, Q., & Wong, V. C. (2024). A primer on the validity typology and threats to validity in education research. Asia Pacific Education Review . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09955-4

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Li, W., Xie, Y., Pham, D., Dong, N., Spybrook, J., & Kelcey, B. (2024). Design and analysis of cluster randomized trials. Asia Pacific Education Review . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09984-z

Pearl, J. (2009). Causality: Models, reasoning, and inference (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511803161

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Porter, S. R. (2024). Understanding the counterfactual approach to instrumental variables: A practical guide. Asia Pacific Education Review . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09982-1

Qin, X. (2024). An introduction to causal mediation analysis. Asia Pacific Education Review . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09962-5

Shear, B. R., & Briggs, D. C. (2024). Measurement issues in causal inference. Asia Pacific Education Review . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09942-9

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Suk, Y. (2024). Regression discontinuity designs in education: A practitioner’s guide. Asia Pacific Education Review . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09956-3

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Secondary school students’ perspectives on supports for overcoming school attendance problems: a qualitative case study in germany.

1 Faculty of Education, Institute of Special and Inclusive Education, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
2 Department of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
3 Department of Social Work, Faculty of Social Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Introduction: School attendance problems (SAPs) affect both the education and development of young learners. There is a need to better understand what supports are needed to overcome and prevent SAPs from students’ perspectives. The aim of the current study is to explore students’ perspectives on what challenges they faced, and what they perceived as helpful in overcoming attendance challenges on their pathways towards completing their education.

Method: We conducted interviews with students ( n = 9) in a local comprehensive school (Stadtteilschule) in the city-state Hamburg in Germany. Students were in their final year before obtaining a certificate that qualifies them for possible admission to post-secondary education. Data was analyzed using qualitative content analysis.

Results: Findings show that students experienced complex challenges to school attendance that were associated with emotional distress, negative school experiences, and reduced well-being. Our findings point to common protective mechanisms in students’ perceptions of what helped them overcome SAPs. The key drivers of school attendance are located within students and their social contexts, including personal resilience, supportive relationships at school, and the social environment.

Discussion: Based on students’ views, we present a model that illustrates the interconnectedness of perceived challenges and supports in the function of risk and protective factors moving across ecological systems in the development of SAPs. We highlight how these areas can guide prevention and intervention to support students in successfully completing their education and transitioning into multiple post-secondary pathways.

1 Introduction

While schools have a responsibility to provide a safe environment in which children and youth can develop positive relationships and competencies to master challenges in life ( Lehmann et al., 2021 ), the school environment may also contain stressors related to emotional and mental health issues, further impacting students’ ability to attend ( Hamilton, 2024 ). In a world characterized by constant change and growing complexity, school attendance for young individuals becomes a crucial foundation for their future prospects, academic achievement, well-being and wider development ( Allison et al., 2019 ; Heyne et al., 2022 ; Kearney et al., 2022a ; Hinze et al., 2023 ). Attendance at school prepares young people for successful transition to adulthood, and support their educational trajectories. In light of this, attendance may be a predictor of school success ( Heyne et al., 2024 ).

Unfortunately, there are still many young people facing difficulties that prevent them from remaining or going to school regularly ( Dee, 2024 ). This vulnerable group may struggle with personal challenges, emotional or behavioral problems ( Wilkins and Bost, 2014 ; Askeland et al., 2020 ), and/or face risk factors in the family, social or school environment ( Kearney et al., 2022b ). These factors may moderate psychosocial and educational outcomes in young people, which in turn affects their ability to attend school and graduate as well ( Melvin et al., 2019 ; Gren Landell, 2023 ). When young people stop being in school, it has significant consequences, particularly in relation to mental health and well-being, academic performance and acquirement of qualifications to access post-secondary education ( Ansari et al., 2020 ; Epstein et al., 2020 ; Liu et al., 2021 ; Kearney et al., 2023 ; Keppens, 2023 ). For these and other reasons, the support of school attendance is highly important. In Germany, young learners can obtain a secondary school certificate after nine or 10 school years. This qualifies learners to continue in either general education or vocational education and training (VET) at upper secondary or post-secondary level ( Cedefop, 2020 ). However, School Attendance Problems (SAPs) may impede youth at this stage from graduating and progressing towards post-secondary education pathways. Particularly, viewpoints from German students who experience SAPs and who are in the specific situation of transitioning to a post-secondary path offer interesting insights into what ensures that their “education is not cancelled.” Exploring student voices could enrich our understanding of both stressful events as risk markers to SAPs and protective dimensions that promote and prevent SAPs in the transition to post-secondary education ( Sundelin et al., 2023 ).

In light of this observation, the purpose of the current study is to explore secondary school students’ perspectives in Hamburg on what factors and supports have helped (and will continue to help) them overcome various school attendance challenges and facilitate their transition to post-secondary education despite facing adversities.

2 Background: the German education system

Germany is a federal republic with 16 more or less different education systems. The legal conditions of school attendance as well as the consequences of school absences are the subject of school legislation in the federal states of Germany. Since our study was conducted in the state of Hamburg, we restrict our focus to the system and regulations of Hamburg.

Compulsory schooling is a fundamental aspect of the German education system, requiring all individuals to attend school for a specified period ( Pischke and von Wachter, 2008 ). Hamburg’s Education Act (HmbSG; §§ 37 to §41a) provides the legislation with effect for attendance and school actions in the context of compulsory schooling at state level. In Hamburg, compulsory schooling lasts for a total of 11 school years. Full-time compulsory schooling covers all children and young people aged 6 to 15 years. Part-time compulsory schooling for young people aged 15–18 is fulfilled after the end of lower secondary school, or in a non-school setting (for example, as part of VET). The school and parents/legal guardians are defined as responsible for assuring compulsory schooling. The responsibility for monitoring lies within the respective school. Days of absence are registered in the class register and individual school reports ( Ricking, 2023a ).

The German school system portrays the separation model because it sorts students into different educational paths early on ( Keppens and Spruyt, 2019 ). Students are enrolled in different types of secondary schools after attending primary school (“Grundschule”). In Hamburg, there are two types of secondary schools: the eight-year long grammar school (“Gymnasium”) and the comprehensive school (“Stadtteilschule”). Grammar schools provide extended education where young people achieve an advanced level school leaving certificate (“Abitur”).

The local comprehensive school is unique of the school system in Hamburg. That means, students can achieve three types of school-leaving qualifications: general certificate of secondary of secondary education (“Erster Bildungsabschluss”), intermediate level certificate of secondary education (“Mittlerer Bildungsabschluss”), and the advanced level school leaving certificate at comprehensive school (“Abitur auf der Stadtteilschule”) at the end of year 13 ( Ministry of Labour, Social, Family Affairs and Integration, n.d. ) (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Hamburg’s school structure and school-leaving qualifications.

Meanwhile, students’ performances are constantly graded throughout the school year and summed up in reports to determine further educational options and appropriate school-leaving qualification tracks ( Falkenberg and Ringarp, 2021 ). The general or intermediate leaving certificates are a prerequisite for two potential routes. Graduates have either the option to choose vocational education or training (VET) courses or progress to grammar school to obtain a higher education entrance qualification. Both routes offer possibilities to progress to post-secondary levels ( Cedefop, 2020 ). Vocational education and training have a positive reputation in Germany, as it provides young people opportunities to advance in industry ( Beutner and Medvedev, 2016 ). In summary, the local comprehensive school ( Stadtteilschule ) provided an interesting context for our study to examine supports that successfully guide young learners toward attendance, successful graduation, and multiple routes into the post-secondary world.

In Hamburg, the Guidebook published by the Hamburg Education Authority provides measures to be taken to address violations of compulsory schooling ( Hamburg Authority for Schools and Vocational Training, 2013 ). In the approach to supporting school attendance in Hamburg, different professional actors are involved: class teachers, counselling or special teachers, and school social workers. Social workers from the Regional Education and Guidance Centre (ReBBz) serve as additional contact point ( Beutner and Medvedev, 2016 ). Absenteeism as a matter of “permanent school attendance violation” may also lead to legal measures in Germany. This involves the local school authority which has the option of imposing fines on parents or youth concerned ( Ricking and Rothenburg, 2020 ; Enderle et al., 2023 ).

3 Understandings, classifications, and qualitative research of school attendance problems

Numerous efforts have been made to conceptualize and address patterns of SAPs across a spectrum of categories and functional dimensions, including sub-phenomena such as school refusal, truancy, withdrawal and exclusion ( Heyne et al., 2018 ). While this has resulted in a substantial body of literature, it has resulted in a fragmented, narrow perspective on the phenomenon ( Kearney et al., 2019 ). Much of the focus has been on why students have been absent from school, often pointing to punitive, student-centered approaches ( Enderle et al., 2023 ). Researchers have pushed for a semantic shift in the field from absenteeism or school refusal to school attendance. This has also led to a focus on the complex dynamics within and around school environments and students that contribute to experiences of attendance issues ( Heyne et al., 2019 ; Gentle-Genitty et al., 2020 ; Walther-Hansen et al., 2024 ). Rather than referring to a single sub-phenomenon, this article uses the term of SAPs in its more flexible definition, applying it to encompass a broader, multi-faceted understanding ( Heyne et al., 2022 ). SAPs feature a continuum of active engagement or disengagement in teaching and learning practices ( Kearney, 2021 ), e.g., mental absence during lessons, tardiness, periodic absences, skipping classes, and complete absence from school for an extended period ( Kearney, 2016 ).

SAPs are believed to be a complex phenomenon with no singular identified cause. Research indicates that attendance and absenteeism are influenced by a variety of risk and protective factors, located in different domains, including the individual, family, school environment, and wider community (e.g., Lenzen et al., 2016 ; Gubbels et al., 2019 ; Kearney and Gonzálvez, 2022 ; Ricking, 2023b ). In the approach to understanding complexities and mechanisms of SAPs, Heyne et al. (2024 , p. 12) advocate for “exploring associated with school attendance and absenteeism, considering both proximal and distal factors”. Ecological systems theory moves beyond limited views of understanding SAPs and provides a holistic framework to analyze and understand the complex and dynamic interplay of factors contributing to SAPs ( Melvin et al., 2019 ; El Zaatari and Maalouf, 2022 ).

3.1 School attendance problems through ecological systems theory

Ecological systems theory informs educational research about how proximal processes and environmental contexts as well as the complex person-environment interactions ( Richman et al., 2004 ; El Zaatari and Maalouf, 2022 ) shape developmental outcomes, such as attendance patterns ( Bronfenbrenner, 2005 ; Woolley and Grogan-Kaylor, 2006 ). Informed by an ecological understanding, Melvin et al. (2019) developed a comprehensive framework called Kids and Teens at School (KiTeS) that is related to attendance. Specifically, the framework structures the contributing factors across micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chrono systems, while the individual is situated within the systems.

Building on this framework, we can categorize risk and protective influences on attendance and absenteeism from previous quantitative research, reviews and meta-analyses into these levels or ecological systems ( Ingul et al., 2012 ; Rasasingham, 2015 ; Balkis et al., 2016 ; Gubbels et al., 2019 ; Malika et al., 2021 ; Leduc et al., 2022 ). The following list is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather to provide an overview to contextualize the findings and insights from the quantitative research presented here.

3.1.1 Factors at student level

At the level of student, a range of mental health and/or somatic challenges are associated with SAPs: these include academic issues, interpersonal concerns, high stress levels, behavior problems, performance anxiety, sleep problems, emotional disorders related to internalizing problems like general anxiety, social phobia, depression, somatic complaints ( Finning et al., 2019 ; Askeland et al., 2020 ; Leduc et al., 2022 ). Conversely, good performance, self-efficacy and positive mindsets are examples of protective influences ( Henry and Huizinga, 2007 ; Ingul and Nordahl, 2013 ; Maric et al., 2013 ; Malika et al., 2021 ; Benoit et al., 2024 ). The ecological model also highlights individuals’ sense of agency - the capacity to act and exercise choices - ( Sadownik, 2023 ), which may empower students to have the tenacity to pursue a goal despite any attendance challenges that occur.

3.1.2 Micro- and mesosystem peers, school, and family

The microsystem entails settings, activities, and interpersonal relationships that directly influence an individual’s attendance or absenteeism, including both peers, school, family, and other close entities ( Bronfenbrenner, 2005 ; Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 2007 ).

Examples of peer-related factors associated with SAPs are social conflicts, for example bullying experiences and victimization ( Malcolm et al., 2003 ; Malika et al., 2021 ; Leduc et al., 2022 ; Schlesier et al., 2023 ). Further, levels of care, respect and peer support and friendships are inversely related to absenteeism ( De Wit et al., 2010 ; Hendron and Kearney, 2016 ).

Research suggests that factors in the microsystem school as key social context are both strong predictors to SAPs and serve a protective function for youth at risk of SAPs. This entails the quality of teacher-student relationships, the perceived teacher support and caring behavior for the student ( Pellegrini, 2007 ; Ingul et al., 2012 ; Rasasingham, 2015 ; Geiser Werren and Isaak, 2016 ; Brouwer-Borghuis et al., 2019 ; Malika et al., 2021 ; Lee et al., 2023 ). Further studies show that a positive school climate is related to a decreased risk of developing SAPs ( Price, 2015 ; Rasasingham, 2015 ; Hendron and Kearney, 2016 ; Van Eck et al., 2017 ; Brouwer-Borghuis et al., 2019 ; Karlberg et al., 2020 ; Ricking, 2023b ). Positive school climates exist when students feel comfortable, accepted and safe in an environment where they can interact with people they trust ( Naff et al., 2023 ). A sense of connectedness to peers, teachers and school is associated with higher motivation and engagement, and thus school attendance ( Van Eck et al., 2017 ; Korpershoek et al., 2020 ). Essentially, supportive social environments are foundational to positive school behavior, which influence students’ perceptions of school as enjoyable and meaningful and ultimately lead to school attendance and achievement ( Woolley and Grogan-Kaylor, 2006 ). Studies of SAPs in vulnerable populations demonstrate the complex interactions between student and teacher behaviors, highlighting the dynamics in the microsystem school that contribute to SAPs. For instance, teachers’ misconceptions about students with SAPs from transcultural, ethnic backgrounds may lead to inadequate support and influence student-teacher-relationships ( Martin et al., 2020 ).

Family-related risk factors are low parental involvement or lack of interest in school work, and parent pathology ( Hendron and Kearney, 2016 ; Gubbels et al., 2019 ; Leduc et al., 2022 ) while parents’ educational expectations and support are associated with high school completion ( Ross, 2016 ). Recent literature highlights that children from families with low income, low socioeconomic status, or immigrant background are at higher risk of developing SAPs ( Kearney and Benoit, 2022 ).

The mesosystem involves the interrelations between the individual’s different microsystems. Like school’s partnership with families and other stakeholders ( Sundelin et al., 2023 ) that have been shown effective to improve attendance rates ( Gren Landell, 2021 ).

3.1.3 Exosystem

The exosystem includes external settings that do not involve the student directly but affect their microsystem. As such, structural aspects like curricula ( Leduc et al., 2022 ) and negative classroom management ( Havik et al., 2015 ), teaching practices ( Henry and Huizinga, 2007 ), or the approach to intervention ( Keppens and Spruyt, 2020 ) are associated with SAPs. Ultimately, systemic school-based approaches as well as tiered systems of support characterized by a proactive, responsive system can be included in both the microsystems and the exosystem because they direct support to the individual student, but are also part of the immediate community ( Kearney and Graczyk, 2020 ; Boaler and Bond, 2023 ).

3.1.4 Macrosystem

The macrosystem encompasses broader societal and cultural influences on attendance, mainly programs or initiatives, but also the education (and welfare) system or state/government policies ( Freeman and Simonsen, 2015 ; Keppens and Spruyt, 2019 ; Childs and Scanlon, 2022 ).

3.1.5 Chronosystem

Changes over time affect development and can influence school attendance. The chronosystem refers to aspects of time ( Rosa and Tudge, 2013 ). Broadly understood, it implies an individual’s own developmental life course, such as transitions from primary to secondary school ( Melvin et al., 2019 ), and events occurring during the period through which the person lives, such as the COVID-19 pandemic ( Naff et al., 2023 ).

3.2 School attendance problems through resilience theory

Risk/resilience theory provides a valuable lens through which to view SAPs. Resilience is defined as individuals’ “capacity for constructive adaptation to adversity” ( Olsson et al., 2003 , p. 6). In the context of SAPs, resilience can be viewed as a reflection of how individuals cope with risks that negatively impact their school attendance behaviors. To date, the majority of research has had a focus on understanding risk factors contributing to adolescent absenteeism and attendance ( Melvin et al., 2019 ). The adoption of resilience theory encourages a balanced view of risk and resilience factors to take into account both the vulnerabilities and the strengths of the students that lead to the development of school attendance (problems). Attention to protective factors proves beneficial to identify processes that promote positive adaptation while protecting against threats to well-being ( Ungar, 2013 ).

An example demonstrating the relation of the concept of resilience and SAPs can be evidenced in the alignment and intersection of resilience research with studies on absenteeism. Supportive relationships have been shown repeatedly as resilience factor that mitigate the impact of risk factors in youth development ( Richardson, 2008 ; Ungar, 2011 ). Consistent, supportive interactions with adults in school and at home can enable students’ ability to overcome barriers to regular attendance ( Woolley and Bowen, 2007 ; Tomaszewska-Pękała et al., 2020 ).

However, this observation suggests that resilience is not merely an individual trait but results from a complex interplay between individuals and their multiple environments. This implicates an ecological understanding of resilience-related processes with interacting protective and risk factors across levels shaping the development of SAPs.

3.3 Ecological theory of resilience: an integrated perspective on school attendance problems

The current study is mainly guided by an ecological model approach as overarching theoretical framework, whilst combining it with a resilience perspective to focus on what can lead to a positive development for the individual in the presence of difficult life experiences ( Luthar et al., 2000 ; Acle-Tomasini et al., 2016 ; Cotton et al., 2017 ; Devenney and O’Toole, 2021 ).

Resilience within the ecological model can be defined as capacity of individuals to navigate to psychological, social, cultural, and physical resources that sustain their well-being. The personal agency of individuals to negotiate “for what they need is dependent upon the capacity and willingness of people’s social ecologies to meet those needs” ( Ungar, 2013 , p. 256). This definition highlights the dynamic and interactive process of resilience within the social ecology, where multiple systems contribute to resilient outcomes ( Ungar et al., 2013 ). According to Fergus and Zimmerman (2005) , resilience factors can be divided into resources (environmental factors) and assets (personal factors). In other words, resources may be conditions and interactions within and between eco-systemic levels, such as school experiences, family interactions and social support ( Richardson, 2008 ). Resources interact with personal assets, such as young learners’ self-regulation and sense of efficacy ( Thun-Hohenstein et al., 2020 ). In turn, both resources and assets are critical elements of resilience, which in turn can promote attendance or prevent attendance difficulties.

Applying this integrated perspective forms a comprehensive view on the interplay of individual and environmental factors that facilitate or hinder the development of young learners’ connection to school ( Heyne et al., 2024 ) and their attendance behaviors.

Given the impact of the social environment on adolescents’ health and well-being, social elements can provide protection against the risk of non-attendance ( Warne et al., 2020 ; Kearney et al., 2022b ). In light of this, student engagement theories can contribute to valuable insights into school attendance, covering various facets of school engagement, such as behavioral, cognitive, and emotional investment in academic achievement, as described by Kearney and Gonzálvez (2022) . As we aim to explore elements and support measures that may mitigate the risk and enhance attendance and successful transitions to post-secondary education, we consider it a useful starting point to identify patterns of engagement ( Kearney and Gonzálvez, 2022 ) as resilient routes at individual and broader level. Student engagement concepts can be linked to socio-emotional, behavioral and academic support available in individuals’ environment (e.g., Clycq et al., 2017 ). By highlighting support sources, we can emphasize the dynamic interaction between risk and resilience elements associated with SAPs in youths’ stories. As described by Clycq et al. (2014 , 2017) , we connect a wider macro-structural context with individual resilience, as demonstrated by the encounters of a student within the family, peer group, and community.

3.4 Youth voices regarding attendance problems and support

As we experience rapid changes in educational and social landscapes, listening to voices of stakeholders are important ( Keppens and Spruyt, 2020 ; Johnsen et al., 2021 ). Research on absenteeism interventions shows mixed results, with many programs only achieving small to moderate improvements ( Keppens and Spruyt, 2020 ; Eklund et al., 2022 ). This variability can be attributed to the complex, individualized nature of the factors affecting attendance, such as personal, familial, and contextual influences. Given these mixed outcomes, incorporating student perspectives is crucial for developing more effective interventions.

In this regard, qualitative studies aimed at capturing students’ unique perceptions, experiences, and views in this area can help to design tailored attendance strategies that are contextually relevant and supportive of their specific needs ( Tarabini et al., 2019 ; Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ). Previous qualitative research into youths’ experiences of SAPs highlight areas of hindering or supportive factors to attendance that are connected to the person and their social environments. In what follows, we summarize studies focusing on youths’ perceptions of SAPs and support, making reference to eco-systemic levels.

3.4.1 Youth characteristics as protective factor

At individual level, a qualitative study of children’s perceptions of reasons for being absent highlights themes such as anxiety and depression ( Baker and Bishop, 2015 ). Oehme (2007) has studied school refusers’ subjective theories for their absence in Germany. The study revealed participants’ complex argumentation structures for explaining their absence from school associated with academic difficulties, depression, or negative self-perception. A qualitative study on youth’s perceptions of anxiety-related absenteeism ( Dannow et al., 2020 ) found that academic aspirations were related to motivation for returning to school. Another study of enrolling German youth with emotional and behavioral difficulties highlights motivation, wish for participation and self-efficacy as areas of resilience to overcome the risk of SAPs ( Heckner, 2013 ). Additionally, an increase in self-confidence appeared to be important to youths experiencing school refusal ( Heyne et al., 2021 ). Most recently, research from Wright (2023) explored perceptions of primary school children in England. Children share the experience of receiving support that may have helped them to self-regulate their emotions, particularly anxiety.

3.4.2 Direct social interactions in microsystems

Gregory and Purcell (2014) were able to show that, from the adolescents’ perspective, bullying was a reason for absenteeism. In contrast, adolescents experienced friendship as a motivator to attend school and a support in coping with stress ( How, 2015 ), they value social contact with peers ( Heyne et al., 2021 ). The perception of peer relationships was interconnected with a sense of belonging, school experience and personal wellbeing ( Richards and Clark-Howard, 2023 ).

Although qualitative studies mostly report school-level factors as having negative effects on absenteeism from youth’s perspective ( Dannow et al., 2020 ), some studies have identified school-related factors and resilience domains as important in supporting attendance ( Heckner, 2013 ).

Several studies into youth voices have highlighted the significance of positive relationships between students and teachers within the school environment. How (2015) identified positive relationships with teachers as a protective factor, emphasizing the importance of teachers demonstrating care, respect, and providing individualized support to students. Wright (2023) further explored this theme by emphasizing that access to a key trusted adult who listened and met youth’s social, emotional wellbeing as well as learning needs was important. A common theme in young people’s accounts regarding intervention, particularly in the context of school refusal, were supportive relationships with at least one adult – characterized by kindness, caring behavior and availability (e.g., Gabrielsen and Havik, 2021 ; Heyne et al., 2021 ; Kljakovic et al., 2021 ). The importance of being understood and heard was frequently highlighted by youth (e.g., Nuttall and Woods, 2013 ; Baker and Bishop, 2015 ; Heyne et al., 2021 ). Additionally, Sundelin et al. (2023) show the importance of listening, showing empathy, and caring for students’ concerns as essential components of experienced supportive adult-student interactions. Findings from studies of the experiences of students with school refusal involved in an Australian re-engagement program and Canadian alternative settings highlight the need of being recognized, understood and feeling a sense of belonging. Students also expressed the need for “compassionate and caring educators, who were aware of the mental health difficulties” ( McKay-Brown and Birioukov, 2021 , p. 95) their students are experiencing.

In Oehme’s (2007) research, youth also report on family-related reasons that hindered their attendance, such as family conflicts, parental problems and lack of interest in school. Similarly, students in the study of Dannow et al. (2020) talk about their parents’ limited understanding and knowledge concerning school absenteeism. Young adults with a history of school refusal from immigrant and ethnic minority backgrounds express a sense of obligation to live up to their parents’ dreams of academic success as well as parental misunderstanding ( Brault et al., 2022 ). Studies included in a systematic review of qualitative research in New Zealand identify illness and death in family as experienced barrier to attendance while also mentioning the importance of “family supporting them to attend school and helping them re-engage after a period of absenteeism “( Richards and Clark-Howard, 2023 , p. 85). Another aspect as reported by students to be important is regular home-school communication ( Nuttall and Woods, 2013 ).

3.4.3 Impact of extended community and society

Related to experiences of the exosystem, structure and quiet surroundings in school are viewed as helpful in supporting school attendance ( Heyne et al., 2021 ; Havik and Ingul, 2022 ). At structural level, participants disliked lessons “which were academically challenging, repetitive and boring” ( Wright, 2023 , p. 87). The quality of the pedagogical approach, curriculum and having a choice over subjects appeared as a theme in Richards and Clark-Howard (2023) , while the need for adjustments to learning was another supportive factor to attendance according to youth ( Wright, 2023 ).

3.4.4 School as key facilitative environment

The above findings corroborate existing reviews of qualitative studies. Among the identified themes by Richards and Clark-Howard (2023) , students’ relationships with teachers and peers emerged as the most prevalent topic. Students discussed the need of teacher support and their non-attendance as a response to negative interactions causing them to disengage. In a systematic review of existing UK-based literature on lived experiences of persistently non-attending youth, Corcoran and Kelly (2023) generated seven themes: difficult relationships with peer group, inconsistent relationships with and support from adults, negative experiences of school transition, negative experiences of learning in school, emotional wellbeing and mental health needs, others’ negative perceptions of the individual’s needs, personal beliefs about attendance. Through the synthesis, an overarching higher-order concept was developed which exemplifies the relation between macrosystems. It captures the need of a sense of belonging which holds “the positive experiences of feeling connected, listened to and receiving individualized support as conducive to regular school attendance “( Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 , p. 10).

Previous research has provided valuable insights into SAPs, but there are a few gaps that require further exploration. In understanding SAPs and support, there is a need “to include perspectives on who is most affected: the student.” ( Warne et al., 2020 , p. 4). In addition, the existing literature often emphasizes hindering factors contributing to SAPs, while overlooking the investigation of factors and supports that help students overcome these challenges or promote school attendance. Therefore, a more balanced approach is needed to fully understand the interplay of risk and protective factors in the development of SAPs. A qualitative study can allow us to analyze what is perceived as helpful and how, in what kind of situations, it unfolds as a protective mechanism in relation to risks.

4 Aim and research questions

The aim of the study is to explore attendance-related challenges, as well as key factors and supports that are perceived as helpful and important for overcoming SAPs from youths’ perspectives. The main focus is on secondary school students’ views and experiences of what supports their transition to post-secondary contexts in a local comprehensive school ( Stadtteilschule ) in the city state Hamburg in Germany. We address the following research questions:

• RQ1: What kinds of challenges for attendance can be identified in Hamburg secondary school students’ accounts?

• RQ2: What is perceived as helpful support and important factors to overcome SAPs and enable successful transitions to post-secondary education from the perspective of secondary school students in Hamburg?

• RQ3: How can the identified challenges and factors from RQ1-2 be organized into an ecological framework of risk and resilience of students and their social contexts as a basis for attendance support?

5.1 Study design

The current study is part of the international research project School Attendance Problems in International Comparative Perspectives (SAPIC). The project uses a mixed method approach combining quantitative analysis of large-scale data on the national level with qualitative case studies on the organizational and individual level ( Kreitz-Sandberg et al., 2021 , 2022 ; Fredriksson et al., 2023 , 2024 ). At the individual level, the case studies put the situation and views of young people with experience of SAPs in focus, exploring their individual perspectives on support. Within the case study, focus group interviews with school professionals and teachers were also conducted at respective schools. This article builds on interviews with 15- to 18-year-old adolescents with experience of SAPs in German schools, in Hamburg.

5.2 Participants and data collection

In total, ten individual in-depth interviews were conducted with students in lower secondary school in July 2023. Two secondary comprehensive schools ( Stadtteilschulen ) from lower socio-economic areas in two different districts in Hamburg were selected and contacted for the study. Using a snow-balling strategy ( Friebertshäuser and Langer, 2013 ), the research team contacted school leaders and other professionals who were asked to identify students who have or had experience with SAPs according to the professionals to participate in individual interviews. The degree of non-attendance was not relevant for participation in the study. The recruitment stopped at this number to not place additional burden or stress on participating schools, ensuring that the study adheres to ethical standards as approved by the Hamburg authority for schools and vocational training.

In line with the scope of this study, the authors decided to include in the analysis interviews with students who were in their last year of lower secondary education (year 10) before they obtain their school-leaving qualification and transition to either upper secondary education or VET. One interview did not meet this criterion. The final sample for analysis consisted of n = 9 secondary school students. The recruited students fell into overlapping risk categories, for instance young carers ( Ricking and Albers, 2019 ), experiencing mental health and behavioral problems, coming from low-income families and migration background (e.g., Malika et al., 2021 ; Brault et al., 2022 ). Four of the students were female. The description of participants’ school experiences and challenges are outlined in the results section.

The interviews were conducted with adolescents in separate rooms at their school. Parents were asked to fill out an informed consent for their children to participate in the study. Additionally, interviewed adolescents were given written and oral information about the study prior to the interviews. They were informed that participation was voluntary, that their answers remain anonymous, and that they could terminate the interview at any point. At the same time as the interviews, adolescents gave their written and oral consent to data being processed and stored in accordance with data protection regulations.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted in German at both school locations the interview guide was designed based on the study’s research questions and literature. Students were asked about the support they received, their thoughts on what has helped and what could have been done differently. In addition, they could express what advice they would have for schools in promoting attendance among students. The interviews lasted between 13 and 38 min. All interviews were audio recorded and converted to transcript and pseudonymized.

5.3 Ethical considerations

The Institute of Monitoring and Improving Educational Quality in Hamburg (Institut für Bildungsmonitoring und Qualitätsentwicklung; IfBQ) as part of the authority for schools and vocational training (Behörde für Schule und Berufsbildung; BSB) has approved data collection in Hamburg schools (Dnr. e514.101.5000–002/222,047; Decision 31.03.2023). Data was handled according to the German law for data protection. In both the analyses and presentation of results, attention was given to protect privacy of data. Students and parents/guardians were given appropriate information as described above. All names used in the quotations are fictitious and do not allow for personal identification.

5.4 Data analysis

For data analysis, we employed qualitative content analysis to describe themes and patterns in statements of young people ( Graneheim et al., 2017 ; Kuckartz and Rädiker, 2023 ). More specifically, we employed an abductive approach to qualitative content analysis ( Graneheim et al., 2017 ) including both inductive and deductive approaches during different stages in the analysis process. An example of the coding process with the number of codes for each category can be accessed in Supplementary material . Each interview was transcribed verbatim ( Dresing and Pehl, 2018 ) and the program f4analyse was used to assist the data coding. The analysis was conducted according to the following steps:

1. First, transcriptions were explored numerous times by the first author and meaning-carrying units related to the aim of the study were extracted. To organize the data, two sets of categories were identified in relation to the RQs (1) Experienced challenges for SAPs and (2) Helpful elements and resources related to attendance support . Each RQ represents an overarching theme in the results section.

2. Descriptions of challenges or obstacles to school attendance constituted the first unit of analysis to allow for a general picture of young people’s risk background regarding RQ1. In a first inductive exploration, quotations related to obstacles, challenges and experiences of non-attendance were sorted into the first category map to find patterns and themes in the data.

3. In the main analysis process to answer RQ2, the primary focus was on factors that young people identified as helpful or important in the decision to either attend or not attend school and ultimately complete their education and progress into upper or post-secondary education. Using an inductive approach, we included students’ statements about elements of (school-based) support as well as more implicit perceptions of support and engaging factors that counteracted the development of SAPs. When operationalizing (social) support described by the students, we directed attention to “perceptions of general support or specific supportive behaviors (available or acted on) from people in their social network, which enhances their functioning or may buffer them from adverse outcomes” ( Malecki and Demaray, 2003 , p. 231).

4. In the next steps, meaning-carrying units were condensed and abstracted into codes as part of content analysis. During the process of developing codes, we looked for redundancy in codes. When no new codes emerged from the data, saturation was considered to be reached. The codes were compared and sorted into subcategories.

5. To ensure theoretical sufficiency, the identification of subcategories was consistently compared with ecologically-based protective and risk factor categories. In a first step, we looked for classifications of protective processes sitting at three levels: individual, family, and social environment which is further divided into school environment and broader social environment like community, institution and system ( Olsson et al., 2003 ; Bengel et al., 2009 ). In a second step, we acknowledged that certain codes occurred across ecological levels and were not aligned to a single level or system. We revisited the material, looking for recurring emotions present in students’ statements and the main source, actor or environment that students attributed to school (non-)attendance. Therefore, relational, behavioral and emotional aspects were compared to conceptual understandings of the sense of school belonging that could capture subjective feelings of connection, understanding and support by others in the school social environment ( Allen et al., 2016 ; El Zaatari and Maalouf, 2022 ).

6. Following this step, categories and subcategories for RQ1 and RQ2 were adjusted. In a deductive manner, the meaning-carry units and codes were checked again and sorted into the subcategories. In few cases, the meaning units needed to be re-coded and they resulted in another subcategory. Tentative codes and emerged subcategories were discussed by all authors and revised until consensus was reached, i.e., dialogical intersubjectivity ( Kvale, 1996 ).

The authors engaged in ongoing reflexive practices to acknowledge their own biases and assumptions that could influence data analysis. This included transparent documentation of the coding process, reflection on biases, and discussion of context-specific meanings among the international group of authors. Critical dialogues with international research colleagues from different cultural and national backgrounds further ensured the quality and integrity of the study by bringing diverse and more nuanced interpretations.

Following the research questions, we first present the backgrounds and self-reported challenges of Hamburg secondary students that emerged from data analysis (RQ1). Second, we show the results of what was experienced as helpful (RQ2). The exemplary quotations are translated from German, using a language translation tool. The translation was checked by the authors. The quotations are numbered (Q1, Q2…) and the corresponding original German excerpts can be found in the Supplementary material .

6.1 Experiences of school attendance problems and perceived challenges

When listening to Hamburg youth’s voices, diverse descriptions of having had frequent or extended SAPs emerged. The majority reports being periodically absent in the early years of secondary school (grade 5 to 7), while others describe skipping classes now and then. The characteristics of youths’ self-reported degree and type of absence are summarized in Table 1 .

Table 1 . Characteristics of youths and reported school attendance problems.

In the interviews, students illustrate various different reasons as to why they experienced SAPs due to social, emotional, and learning problems inside and outside of the school environment. Few students report a shift to disengagement in school as way of mental absence and boredom (e.g., Kearney and Gonzálvez, 2022 ). In general, all cases present complex and unique educational trajectories. The analysis indicated that all students experienced challenges that can be identified as risk factors across the levels of individual, family, school, and peers. The driving mechanisms for school attendance difficulties were emotional stress, negative school experiences and reduced well-being in the majority of student statements. These statements were categorized according to the main source, actor, or environment that students attributed to their feelings of stress and inability to attend school. Consequently, four main categories emerged relating to the overarching theme of experienced challenges to attendance (see Figure 2 ).

Figure 2 . Category system for RQ1 - experienced challenges to attendance.

6.1.1 Mental health problems and emotional distress

Most notably, a common feature of young people’s histories were experiences and reflections surrounding mental health challenges, including depression, trauma and social anxiety. The statements highlight how difficulties in attending school result from the interplay between mental health problems, low self-esteem and external stressors in the school environment, such as academic pressure or transitions between educational stages.

During the time when I suffered from depression. That was in eighth grade. Hm, and then it was also very, very difficult for me to come to class because I had, let's say, experienced a lot of traumas and I was just afraid to come to school (Amira, Q1)

I suffer from an anxiety disorder and yes, I also believe that a lot of young people have a mental illness, unfortunately. And I think if you then put even more pressure on these children and expect even more […] it's completely over. (Leila, Q2a)

Leila displays an example of how performance pressure can also increase mental health issues. It seems that mental illness or a diagnosis were onset factors to their non-attendance while other students had experienced these as a result or maintenance factors to attendance problems and changes in environment. Nadja mentioned the transition and adjustment from primary to secondary school as stressful factor that was connected to lower self-esteem and the fear of making mistakes or being ridiculed in front of the class.

For me personally it was the beginning, the (…) transition from Primary School to Secondary School. […] I didn't really participate as much as I should have because I was afraid that I would be laughed at or that something bad happened if I said something wrong. […] then I just didn't want to go to school (Nadja, Q2b)

6.1.2 Lack of social belonging

This category encompasses youths’ experiences of disconnection and detachment from the social environment in school, particularly the impact of peer relations. A central topic was the experience of bullying and victimization in class. On the one hand, negative interactions and problems with peers were described as making them feel uncomfortable and as a consequence, they stayed away from school:

It was also because I simply had a lot of problems in my class. I didn't really enjoy my time at school, but yes, that's why I didn't go to school sometimes (Noah, Q3)

On the other hand, the fear of negative reactions from peers evoked negative emotional feelings, somatic complaints and reduced wellbeing in class.

in fifth grade there was a bit of teasing […] which made me feel a bit uncomfortable and I actually didn't go to school a few times and pretended that I was ill, had a stomach ache or something." (Nadja, Q4)

When asked about reasons why youth do not attend school, students mention negative interactions with peers that are perceived as stressful and affecting the motivation to come to school.

6.1.3 Negative teacher-student dynamics and lack of enjoyment in learning

This category is derived from descriptions of youth regarding teacher behaviors, classroom dynamics, and delivery of education that created a sense of being pushed away from meaningful learning opportunities. Statements in this category address the impact of teachers on students’ school experiences, including perspectives on relationships with teachers, as well as teaching methods and pressure exerted by teachers that affect motivation, engagement and enjoyment in class. Students described that school was boring, or that teaching methods did not meet their skill level.

I have a teacher who I just don't like that much and I don't have so much fun in class (Luckas, Q5)

Another common topic in statements were stress experiences, especially related to perceived high academic demands, exams and grades. Students feel that stress and anxiety intensified if they did not meet schools’ and teachers’ performance expectations.

It often depends on the teacher, how the teachers create psychological pressure. Especially with all the exams and everything, they really put a lot of pressure on you, so you really don't like going there because you know they are just putting you down because you haven't studied enough or else. (Leila, Q6)

6.1.4 Stressors in the home environment

This category concerns descriptions of youths’ situation and experiences at home, as it affected their attendance behavior. Amira describes feelings of helplessness and exhaustion due to parent’s sickness, caring for siblings and financial instability. Janik feels pressure from his parents, such as the expectation to advance to higher levels in education and perform well in school.

They also have money problems, for example, and are somehow not doing well financially and that really stresses me out. And I don't know how to deal with something like that and that's why I ended up playing truant" (Amira, Q7)

At home, there's some stress because of school, that you have to manage everything, particularly if you continue to upper secondary, and you have to handle all things, make more effort and if you hear that all the time, you just don't have no more desire [to go to school] (Janik, Q8)

Overall, youth talk about parental behaviors or stress at home that placed emotional burden on them, and thus impacted students’ ability to attend school and/or cope with school demands.

6.2 Perceptions and experiences of helpful elements and resources related to attendance support

In the analysis of factors that students perceived as helpful in overcoming attendance challenges and transitioning into post-secondary education, we identified three main categories with respective sub-categories (see Figure 3 ).

Figure 3 . Category system for RQ2 - views of students on support and helpful factors.

6.2.1 Personal resilience

This main category emerged as central topic when listening to students’ voices about what has helped or still helps them to attend school. The quotes indicate assets and personal strengths of students to handle difficult situations and strive for aspired educational pathways, including self-regulation abilities, optimism and future orientation, dimensions known from the literature on personal resilience ( Thun-Hohenstein et al., 2020 ).

6.2.1.1 Academic engagement and future orientation

The sub-category is based on codes that refer to competence-related statements, essentially the relation between school attendance, academic performance, engagement and hopes for future education opportunities. When asked about why students attended school, they highlight the personal value of school reports and good grades to achieve a school-leaving certificate. The statements also point towards optimism and confidence about the own educational future.

In tenth grade, the report is very important, to get a school-leaving certificate. (Samir, Q9)

Because I just want to get good grades and stuff. That's why I have to pay attention in class. If I'm not there, then I can't keep up (Malik, Q10)

Malik also shares his opinion about the potential negative consequence of absence because it would adversely affect one’s graduation and limit job opportunities.

I don't think that's good, because it messes up your school leaving certificate or your life if you don't get the right job or if the employer sees that you weren't there much at school. Then he has no confidence in you. (Malik, Q11)

The goal of obtaining an advanced school-leaving certificate was highlighted by most of the students because it is necessary to progress to higher education. Having this goal in mind seemed to be a central motivator to attend school regularly. Students recognize a lack of regular attendance or participation in class can hinder their ability to achieve good grades and graduate. This is the main reason why they remain academically engaged in the learning process to enter their preferred path of post-secondary education.

6.2.1.2 Regaining a sense of agency

In this sub-category, students reflect on situations in which they regained a personal strength by navigating their way to psychological assets. This seemed to make them resilient in the face of stress or challenges associated with attendance. For example, Noah actively ignored classmates who teased him. The strategy Leila mentioned was to go outside, take a deep breath, and self-regulate to deal with social anxiety and panic.

In addition, students describe how changes in self-confidence and self-esteem affected well-being and feelings of safety in school which helped to cope with previous barriers to attendance, such as peer victimization.

It just stopped with the fact that I then built myself up more and more against it and gained more self-confidence […] That helped. (Nadja, Q12)

The importance of personal strategies to manage stress or challenging situations created a buffer for negative school experiences, and thus supported school attendance.

6.2.2 Feelings of connectedness and belonging in school

Most of students’ responses were coded in this main category. Subsumed under this category were statements indicating subjective perceptions of the quality of social interactions, relational characteristics, and involvement in the learning environment that demonstrate a sense of school belonging and relatedness as components of well-being and health ( Allen et al., 2016 ). Feeling connected to school acts as a protective mechanism that plays a central role in shaping school attendance outcomes at multiple ecological levels, not just at a single ecological level.

6.2.2.1 Trusting and supportive relationships with teachers and other professions

The category relates to descriptions of youth about how communication, trust, understanding in social relations with professional actors in the microsystem school helped navigate challenges and foster a sense of belonging and well-being. Reports generally refer to supportive behaviors or actions that were experienced as helpful to buffer them from adverse outcomes ( Malecki and Demaray, 2003 ). In the responses, youths listed different teachers as generally helpful where they turned to for support. They describe significant interactions with teachers whom they trusted and felt comfortable confiding in to discuss their challenges and concerns. These teachers were approachable, attentive, and responsive listeners.

In general, the teachers, who are always open to talking. (Janik, Q13)

Some teachers, especially our class teacher […] and we actually always trust her with everything (Nadja, Q14)

We just discussed how I was feeling, how I felt about it […] she gave me tips on what I could do about it (Noah, Q15)

Somehow, they made sure that you enjoyed coming to school again. (Leila, Q16)

When asked about what they would have done differently, Noah expresses the belief that having approached a teacher sooner might have prevented or mitigated the development of attendance issues.

Back then, I should have gone to the teacher faster or earlier. It probably wouldn't have escalated so much, as it has then. (Noah, Q17)

Others report the importance of having access to emotional support from different sources like social workers or “Vertrauenslehrer” (confidant teachers) in the school environment. For example, Leila describes the positive impact of communication:

Well, we also have social workers at the school, of course you can always go to them, you can also make appointments with them, talk to them. That's good (Leila, Q18)

Zara mentions that support from social workers should be made available for all students struggling with difficulties:

We have social workers […] they also have a place where you as a student can knock on the door and talk to them. But I would say that they could perhaps advertise it a bit more for the people who need it. (Zara, Q19)

Overall, students recall interactions with teachers and other professionals that helped them overcome prior negative experiences and facilitated their return to school. As such, supportive relations with teachers built coping abilities in relation to experienced mental health or peer problems. The stories also make visible the youths’ agency. Particularly, they refer to behaviors that helped them to navigate their way to resources they needed to handle challenges in school ( Ungar, 2013 ).

6.2.2.2 Supportive peer relationships

Concerning the peer level, youth mention the positive impact of having supportive friends, classmates and confidants. For example, Amira turned to support from one good friend that helped her coping with various difficulties.

What definitely made me forget my worries was my best friend. […] I am also very, very grateful. […] that was my counseling. (Amira, Q20)

Overall, students highlight the value of having trustworthy friends who offer support, understanding, and assistance. Peers with similar and shared experiences were particularly perceived as helpful.

6.2.2.3 Call for recognition of individuals’ needs

This sub-category results from youths’ wishes regarding what is important in the support for SAPs. Essentially, youths talk about the approach of school in relation to individual problems and needs.

Maybe ask WHY first. You don't always know why he [the student] doesn't attend. Then try to implement what he thinks. Let's say he doesn't like a teacher. Maybe then try to help him somehow so that he gets closer to the teacher. (Luckas, Q21)

Show a bit of understanding for the pupils, yes. (…) Just understanding for their problems (Leila, Q22)

Students express the desire for educators to prioritize emotional needs instead of only focusing on academic school outcomes. These statements reveal how school influences students’ feelings of being accepted, listened to and supported that improves school attendance when they are struggling.

6.2.2.4 Social integration and positive school climate

This sub-category is based on codes indicating students’ shared desire for fostering social cohesion in school. As an exemplary helpful strategy, the idea of pairing students to promote positive relationships is mentioned in interviews. Zara describes her idea about fostering a positive class climate by designing rooms more colorful:

The classroom climate should definitely improve. […] in terms of class climate, [the teacher] could perhaps decorate the classroom a bit, like more colorful (Zara, Q23a)

Students also emphasize the importance of avoiding stigmatization, bullying, or addressing exclusion issues. They call for school practices to control misbehaviors and shape social dynamics of the classroom.

I would say, if you are an outsider or excluded or bullied, that the school takes it seriously, and I mean that it takes the students seriously (Zara, Q23b)

As example, when asked what schools should do to prevent SAPs, Zara expresses the responsibility of school to create an inclusive school environment where students feel accepted and included. This description points to positive school climate factor as element of a sense of school belonging.

6.2.2.5 Safe spaces in school

Another important factor that created a sense of connectedness and well-being included designated safe spaces as characteristic of the physical school structure. In particular, students with anxiety experienced this as a helpful setting to withdraw and relax when feeling unwell at school.

The rooms where you can retreat if you need some time. Or the common room here [in school] for the tenth graders, where you can just play table football during the break. (Janik, Q24)

6.2.2.6 Meaningful and enjoyable learning experiences

For many students, facilitators of attendance are related to the quality of teaching and instruction, characterized by relevant and tailored learning practices according to students’ interests and needs for autonomy. More creative and fun teaching approaches are noted as important in fostering motivation to attend classes.

As a teacher, you have to come up with a good [teaching] concept for the lesson that is both instructive, but also a bit of fun. […] it's just more enjoyable to go there (Leila, Q25)

The students also note the role of teachers who motivate them to attend their lessons and encourage them to come to school. Some of the students believe that tailored language and engaging teaching methods could contribute to positive academic outcomes for all, while improving attendance. Particularly, this entails the organization of lessons, a quieter atmosphere of the learning environment and adaptive academic language.

6.2.3 Supportive mechanisms in wider social environment

This main category emphasizes youth voices on the importance of fostering positive relationships between families and schools, as well as implementing proactive measures to address issues promptly and effectively.

6.2.3.1 Parent–child relationships

The role of parental support that exists in the family microsystem is highlighted by youths in different ways. Students underscore the need for parents to discuss concerns, build trust, and support the child to address attendance challenges. In addition, parents play a proactive role, for instance, through active encouragement and their child’s upbringing on the attitude towards education and school attendance.

Well, first of all my mother, she helps me a lot to go to school (Malik, Q26)

My mother didn't think it was particularly great that I skipped lessons. She encouraged me to go [to school] anyway, even if the teachers were annoying and even if I didn't feel like going, because attendance is important (Leila, Q27)

Especially, the supportive role of mothers in motivating and encouraging attendance seemed important in the student perspective.

6.2.3.2 Parental involvement

This sub-category concerns parental involvement as parent-school communication built in the mesosystem. Generally, students wish for a more proactive approach, suggesting schools to check on the student and inform their parents if they are unaware of the student skipping school:

If you know that the person is playing truant, come by again and let the parents know that he might be playing truant. Maybe they [parents] don't know about it either (Luckas, 28)

Youths further describe how schools should communicate with parents to manage the child’s absenteeism. Students recommend that schools should explain to families the importance of the child’s school attendance and emphasize the negative consequences of the behavior on academic performance, school-leaving certificates, and future job opportunities.

6.2.3.3 Sanction systems

In some cases, students talk about the role of legal measures, specifically fines. Schools can take this action as a last resort, when warnings and efforts to restore regular attendance have failed. Schools must report a case of “permanent school attendance violation” to the school authority, which issues the fine to be paid by parents or students. For example, Janik explains that the prospect of fines acts as a deterrent, influencing his decision to attend school regularly.

I don't feel like paying for simply not attending. I can just attend and not have to pay anything (Janik, Q29)

Samir believes that the fine is not appropriate sometimes, especially for those who cannot afford it or where other circumstances could prevent students from attending school.

I really think €250 is a bit too much for a fine, because sometimes you can't do anything. For example, if you live further away from school (Samir, Q30)

Students express mixed feelings about the fairness of fines. They suggest a system where students could provide explanations to their absence before fines are issued. However, the underlying message might be interpreted as a call for schools to investigate causes to students’ SAPs.

7 Discussion

This article sought to explore perspectives of secondary school students in Hamburg regarding experienced challenges to attendance (RQ1), alongside key factors and supports perceived as helpful and important in overcoming SAPs on their pathways towards post-secondary education (RQ2). The statements from youths imply conditions that increase the risk of SAPs, as well as social and personal resources that act as buffers to mitigate the risk of negative impacts on attendance. Identified factors from youths’ perspectives appear to interact and move across multiple ecological contexts with direct and indirect impact ( Kearney and Gonzálvez, 2022 ). Thus, for answering RQ3, we structure the complexity of findings across ecological levels in order to visually represent the interconnectedness of proximal processes and environmental contexts ( Bronfenbrenner, 2005 ) that influence attendance outcomes (see Figure 4 ).

Figure 4 . Model of risks and resources related to school attendance support across ecological levels from the views of students.

7.1 Ecological model of risks and resources to attendance from students’ perspectives

In accordance with the underlying theoretical framework, we propose areas of perceived support and helpful elements within a model of attendance support from the views of youths, as ( Nuttall and Woods, 2013 ; Naff et al., 2023 ) did this in a similar manner. The Figure 4 recognizes the balance of risk and protective factors that are connected to the systems as outlined in Melvin et al. (2019) . The student is at the core, accounting for individual-level aspects. The student is surrounded by the micro- and meso systems of school, peers and family, and more distal systems at higher levels (exo and macro) that account for social and contextual factors as identified in this research. The levels are reflected in a resilience-based perspective, referring to structural, social, and personal protective factors. Given the interaction of factors between and across systems ( Nuttall and Woods, 2013 ), the interrelations between factors from different levels may have inhibited or enhanced youth’s ability to overcome attendance challenges, and should thus not be seen as stand-alone factors. It should be noted that the categorization of factors into different levels is not clear-cut as some factors may be found overlapping in several systems (e.g., the choice of teaching styles can be part of the exosystem, reflecting educational curricula, or a characteristic of the direct relations in the microsystem).

Based on this structure, we can further analyze what is perceived as helpful and how , in what kind of situations, supportive elements relate to identified risk factors.

7.1.1 Link between student and other systems

With regard to RQ1, we identified mental health problems, including descriptions of emotional distress, anxiety, somatic and depression symptoms in youths’ stories as reason for SAPs. These findings are consistent with risk factors for the development of school refusal and chronic absenteeism reported in quantitative and qualitative literature ( Baker and Bishop, 2015 ; Finning et al., 2019 ; Gubbels et al., 2019 ; Malika et al., 2021 ; McKay-Brown and Birioukov, 2021 ; Leduc et al., 2022 ; Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ; Benoit et al., 2024 ). Youth descriptions suggest an interplay with contextual aspects, where school or teachers placing high demands on their performance led to increased stress levels and decreased motivation. Looking at students’ reports from our study, they seem to experience certain stressors in environmental contexts that have reciprocal and unintended effects on emotional well-being and attendance behavior (e.g., performance pressure). In fact, some of these have been identified as psychosocial risk factors for SAPs ( Wille et al., 2008 ; Ross, 2016 ; Gubbels et al., 2019 ), and as factors listed in other qualitative research, such as strict and harsh teaching styles ( Dannow et al., 2020 ) or pressure of completing exams ( Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ). Students’ complaints emphasize how negative interactions with teachers and the stress of academic expectations contribute to adverse educational experiences for students. Similar to above, the findings point to the critical role of mental health in influencing school attendance and participation, highlighting the negative impact of school environments to trigger emotional distress.

In contrast, the category of “personal resilience” revealed internal assets that strengthened students’ connection to school. Students from our study presented future optimism, set goals and aspired academic post-secondary academic pathways that affected their willingness to attend and engage in school, despite negative experiences. Motivation to perform as a positive factor to attendance is evidenced in literature on youth voices ( Nuttall and Woods, 2013 ; Baker and Bishop, 2015 ; How, 2015 ; Dannow et al., 2020 ; Kljakovic et al., 2021 ; Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ). However, students in our study described specific extrinsic motivators, including the pressure to achieve high grades and pass exams to obtain a favorable school-leaving certificate or job qualification. These statements highlight that motivation and hopes for the future do not develop in a vacuum but as the result of interactive dynamics of each ecological system. By attending school, students probably feel better prepared to succeed with their school-leaving exams and therefore better prepared for post-secondary education and employment. German youth in Heckner’s (2013) study talked about this topic in a similar way, as grades and graduation certificates determined their opportunities for participation in society. We assume that attitudes about the importance of a school-leaving certificate are mediated by distal factors. First, students in Year 10 are entering late adolescence with possible changes in self-identity and beliefs about their future (e.g., chronosystem). Second, schools’ and family’ expectations and beliefs about education and the need for certificates to access post-secondary education or training in the German context may have impacted motivational attitudes. The potential link between the value of academic achievement and future educational opportunities could be an indicator of how structural contexts influence the development of engagement among youths ( Clycq et al., 2017 ; Melvin et al., 2019 ), but also their interpretation of how support in schools should be structured.

Students who felt empowered with higher levels of self-esteem and coping abilities seemed to be more resistant to both negative school experiences and mental health issues that impacted attendance behavior. This is in line with previous research that outlined self-efficacy and self-regulation as areas of protective influence to overcome internalizing symptoms associated with SAPs ( Heckner, 2013 ; Ingul and Nordahl, 2013 ; Wright, 2023 ). Statements from students in our study can extend Corcoran and Kelly’s observation in their review of qualitative studies about how youths with experience of attendance challenges characterize their situation as non-coping ( Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ). In this regard, our findings support a more strengths-based understanding of how the ability to cope with negative experiences or feelings serves as a buffer to reduce or prevent SAPs.

However, our study suggests that well-being and coping was built through the perception of positive relations and social support in microsystemic environments. This suggestion supports earlier qualitative studies that show that positive experiences of school and support from adults encourage individual resiliency ( Heckner, 2013 ; Heyne et al., 2021 ).

7.1.2 Micro- and mesosystems: relationships with peers, school and family

Related to RQ1, almost all interviewed youth express that difficult relationships with peers, particularly bullying, were one onset factor that intensified negative emotions, stress and (social) anxiety which made them stay away from school or lessons. This is in line with previous studies suggesting that peer problems are a risk factor for both anxiety and absenteeism ( Malcolm et al., 2003 ; Malika et al., 2021 ; Leduc et al., 2022 ; Schlesier et al., 2023 ). However, descriptions of negative reactions from classmates did not contribute directly to SAPs. Rather, these experiences resulted in lower well-being and internalizing problems, which then affected attendance behavior. The experience of bullying was linked to transitions to secondary school, which could be an indicator to a chronosystemic factor that contributed to attendance difficulties ( Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ). The situations of youth illustrate how the accumulation of risk factors put them at higher risk of school disengagement ( Tomaszewska-Pękała et al., 2020 ; Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ).

In contrast, related to the theme of RQ2, the main category of “Feelings of Connectedness and Belonging in School” presents an area of resilience in microsystems of students. One key set of factors with protective function in the development of SAPs relates to the school environment, namely social support sources from interpersonal interactions ( Malecki and Demaray, 2003 ). Youths’ perceptions of being supported is a central theme in our study. It seems to be strongly linked to a sense of belonging, well-being, agency, and self-determination which in turn increases the engagement to stay/return to school and education, which aligns with theoretical understandings ( Rohlfs, 2011 ; Rose et al., 2013 ; Wilkins and Bost, 2014 ; Allen et al., 2016 ; Tomaszewska-Pękała et al., 2020 ; Ricking, 2023b ).

At peer level, the availability of supportive and trusting friends or classmates could ameliorate risk experiences of students. This is confirmed by existing research ( How, 2015 ; Heyne et al., 2021 ; Richards and Clark-Howard, 2023 ). There is a need to explore how friendships play a different role in students’ microsystem, e.g., peers may have differential impacts on attendance difficulties depending on different age phases.

Students’ perceptions in our study reveal the protective function of student-teacher relationships and teacher support in the microsystem school. Essentially, experienced supportive relationships were characterized by teachers who listened, showed understanding and provided assistance in overcoming negative feelings related to attendance. These descriptions are consistent with themes found in qualitative studies ( Nuttall and Woods, 2013 ; How, 2015 ; Gabrielsen and Havik, 2021 ; Heyne et al., 2021 ; McKay-Brown and Birioukov, 2021 ; Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ; Sundelin et al., 2023 ). This can also be confirmed by previous quantitatively oriented research ( Ingul et al., 2012 ; Rasasingham, 2015 ; Korpershoek et al., 2020 ; Malika et al., 2021 ; Lee et al., 2023 ).

What seems particularly distinctive to our study is that teachers were the primary reason given for going back to school or attend lessons. Apart from teachers, students also named other professions in school that act as a support source in coping with challenges related to attendance. However, they were not attributed the same prominent role as teachers.

In our study, youths emphasize that the effectiveness of emotional support from school professionals depends on the quality of the contact and on emotional problems and needs being taken seriously. This is similar to previous findings suggesting that support should be provided in a personalized way ( Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ) and meet emotional well-being and learning needs ( Dannow et al., 2020 ; Wright, 2023 ). In youth’s stories, we observe a high degree of self-reflection regarding their own active role in seeking help and communicating with adults to address concerns and prevent the development of SAPs. This implies that relationships develop their protective effect on reducing SAPs through the link between perceptions of available, caring support and students’ determination to accept this support ( Malecki and Demaray, 2003 ).

In line with these findings and theory, we argue that relational elements within the school environment provide a key area of resilience, contributing to engagement and thereby school attendance. As such, good relations with peers and school-based professionals contributed to positive school experiences, well-being and connectedness to school, while bullying contributed to reduced well-being and non-attendance. This is emphasized in descriptions of students to strengthen positive connections between classmates, indicating an inclusive school climate where young people are seen and taken seriously which, in turn, can lead to higher engagement.

Concluding, a supportive school environment entails both close relationships with a caring adult, peers, and opportunities for meaningful participation as conducive to school attendance. This aspect corroborates the concept by Corcoran and Kelly (2023) of the need of a sense of belonging. However, our findings extend this by the suggestion that the balance between experienced socio-emotional support, feelings of acceptance or belonging, abilities for handling challenging situations contribute to resilience formation and facilitate attendance ( Tomaszewska-Pękała et al., 2020 , p. 457).

Another area that is relevant in relation to risk and resilience was the family setting, from our sample reported on family as barrier to their attendance. As one reason, parental illness and death in family was mentioned as a reason. One girl described the herself in the role of a young carer, a phenomenon described in the literature as a risk factor for absenteeism ( Ricking and Albers, 2019 ).

In relation to conditions at home, students describe parents pushing too hard by imposing high expectations on their child’s academic outcome. This perception could relate to the significance of performance and grades to access advanced certificates in the German education context. It is conceivable that academic pressure is not only exerted by teachers, but also by parents that seem to cause stress-related feelings about school. Similar to the literature on SAPs of children of migrants ( Brault et al., 2022 ), their parents’ hopes for academic success may be the source of academic pressure. However, it is not only students from transcultural backgrounds in our study who face high parental expectations for academic success, which seems to add to students’ stress load. In contrast, almost all students in our study highlighted the significance of parents in encouraging attendance, e.g., shaping positive attitudes towards attendance despite negative school experiences. The influence of family support in helping students re-engage after a period of absence was also discussed in other studies ( Richards and Clark-Howard, 2023 ).

Students referred to school-family communication as a necessary intervention effort to address SAPs of the child. Although school-family communication has been identified in other studies ( Nuttall and Woods, 2013 ; Hendron and Kearney, 2016 ; Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ), recommendations from students in our study about what this communication should look like have not been previously reported. From students’ perspective, communication is most effective when schools emphasize the negative effects of absenteeism on attainment of school-leaving certificates, future employment, and overall academic performance. This seemed even more important in cases where parents became a maintaining factor for SAPs because they lack interest in school work, something that has been shown as risk factor ( Benoit et al., 2024 ). It can be presumed that hopes and personal aspirations for academic success in connection with society’s expectations may have influenced students’ suggestions about how schools “educate” families on the significance of school attendance. For example, experiences of education in family and the transmitted meaning of education in school might be reflected in these suggestions.

7.1.3 Exosystem: Structural, institutional and legislative contexts

Findings from our study also suggest that structural aspects of learning, teaching and the organizational- institutional structure can have both negative and positive influence on attendance.

Students mentioned engaging teaching practices as helpful for attendance. On the one hand, they refer to a pedagogical teaching concept where teachers consider individual interests and not only curriculum-based content. Elements of creative and “fun” lessons are a shared desire to increase enjoyable learning experiences and improve attendance. However, influenced by German education policy and curriculum, teachers only have limited options of implementing variation in teaching contents. On the other hand, however, students describe motivational and attentive teachers who adapt their instructional language to meet academic levels. In this respect, the style of teaching can be influenced by teachers’ personality and characterize the immediate environment (microsystem). The teacher as a person seemed as a helpful factor in building motivation to attend a lesson. This is supported by qualitative and quantitative studies which highlight the need for adjustment and personalized instruction ( Henry and Huizinga, 2007 ; Dannow et al., 2020 ; Heyne et al., 2021 ; Corcoran and Kelly, 2023 ; Richards and Clark-Howard, 2023 ). Still, pedagogy and curriculum do not seem to have direct influence on students’ ability to attend school, but rather contribute to a broader academic sphere ( El Zaatari and Maalouf, 2022 ) that shapes the sense of school belonging as protective mechanism.

Another aspect of adjustment to needs included spaces for relaxation, recreation and withdrawal. These settings seemed to facilitate students’ ability of coping with emotional distress. Thus, it also exerted a positive effect on well-being and the perception of a positive school climate, ultimately supporting attendance. This finding illustrates how structural settings function as protective factors in relation to risks by supporting students’ resilience and positive perceptions of the context. It further confirms findings from other research on the role of safe settings on coping ( Heyne et al., 2021 ) and shows that we need to consider the interaction of protective factors in order to understand the positive effects on strengthening school attendance can have a calm and safe setting was shown to facilitate coping among students with internalizing problems who feel unwell at school.

One main finding that has not been touched upon previously in qualitative studies is the topic of legal measures, (e.g., fines) that are quite unique to intervention approaches in addressing absenteeism the German context. The students’ perceptions of this system of sanctions are ambivalent. For some, the financial consequence connected to the fine has a preventive effect to keep non-attendance levels low. However, the threat of this type of legal punishment does not guarantee attendance in the form of active engagement in learning but may mean that the student is physically present but not mentally engaged ( Kearney and Gonzálvez, 2022 ). Among students, there seems to be an awareness about not issuing sanctions too fast. Rather, the investigation of reasons in a case of absenteeism might be more appropriate. Still, this pattern needs to further investigated.

7.2 Lessons learned for educational practice and future directions

The findings from our study can guide the work of schools and educators. When considering potential prevention and intervention strategies to mitigate risk and encourage resilience relative to attendance, “a combination of personal attributes, positive relationships, and institutional supports “( Richardson, 2008 , p. 24) may be beneficial. The ecological lens allows for identification of conditions for effective supports within youth’s specific school and social context that can be met on the road to promote attendance. The findings from our study provide some ideas for the work of schools and educators. To account for the central protective mechanism of a sense of school belonging, schools can establish a learning environment where young people feel welcome, safe, included, and accepted in order to develop the sense of belonging and connectedness with school. This implies that teachers and school professionals can build positive relationships and act proactively, e.g., listen to concerns, check on students, react to problems, support students at emotional, academic and behavioral level in challenging situations ( Tomaszewska-Pękała et al., 2020 ). Schools might involve parents and establish close collaboration with families as resources to support attendance in the long term ( Rasasingham, 2015 ; Tomaszewska-Pękała et al., 2020 ). This is particularly valuable to strengthen parental influence on youth’s commitment to attending school regularly. When working with underrepresented youth, schools may consider the diverse cultural, psychological and social backgrounds of their families with the goal of strengthening their relationship to education ( Martin et al., 2020 ; Brault et al., 2022 ; Kearney and Benoit, 2022 ). Next to attendance monitoring, schools can establish early detection systems to identify at-risk students with the aim to intervene as early as possible ( Rasasingham, 2015 ; Ricking and Albers, 2019 ). As mentioned by youths in various qualitative studies, professionals in school may assess and screen for indicators of SAPs, such as peer problems, mental health issues, disengagement in learning, performance pressure or lower levels of well-being. While youths’ experiences suggest that a combination of personal, social, familial and structural resources might prevent the development of SAPs, it is essential to leverage the entire system ( Heyne et al., 2024 ) as part of a holistic, systemic approach to attendance support ( Boaler and Bond, 2023 ). One potential example is the use of multi-tiered systems of support to address SAPs ( Kearney and Graczyk, 2020 ). This is consistent with students’ emphasis on learning and emotional needs that might be addressed at different tiers (e.g., differentiating instruction at Tier 1, individualized interventions with focus on internalizing problems at Tier 2 and 3). Thus, attendance should be viewed in connection with young learners’ interactions and experiences within their environment, the curriculum, and peers ( Heyne et al., 2024 ). Overall, the key supporting mechanisms suggest a relationship- and resource-oriented pedagogy that takes the students’ perspectives, integrates their voices and utilizes the available resources and strengths.

In summary, or study stresses the need for a whole-school approach in supporting all students in their academic and socio-emotional development. Above all, prevention and attendance support should strengthen feelings of safety, acceptance and a sense of belonging in the classroom, as well as focus on the emotional well-being, motivation and self-image of individual students.

7.3 Strengths and limitations

This study built on a small-scale qualitative sample, which must be regarded as a limitation. Given the small sample size, the theoretical saturation for each category is limited, as the full range of student experiences may not have been captured. To address this gap, findings from similar qualitative studies could be integrated to provide complementary insights and help validate and extend the findings presented in this research.

We selected students who have experienced SAPs but had managed to overcome the problems. This decision was made both for methodological reasons, as we believed that these students would be willing to talk to us, and for conceptual reasons, as we were interested in what preceded positive outcomes. The students who talked to us can be considered a “positive sample.” Students who are prepared to talk about their absenteeism may have different perspectives than students who have been absent, but who are not open to talking about it. However, the results seem to confirm research with student groups that presented extended school non-attendance.

The selection of the participants can have affected the results as the informants consisted of a group of students with various histories of SAPs. The self-reported severity of SAPs differed among youth. The degree of non-attendance could vary between just skipping some classes to long-term absenteeism. For some, this was a very recent experience, while for others the experience was farther in the past. Accordingly, risk and protective factors may differ with regard to adversity, and thus, what is being experienced as helpful by some, may not apply to everyone else. Specifically, we may need more studies on salutogenic factors for students who belong to disadvantaged populations, minorities or who have, for whatever reason, developed chronic absenteeism ( Malika et al., 2021 ; Naff et al., 2023 ). The sample size is restricted to a specific context, which may limit the transferability of the findings. However, since our findings are compatible with previous research from other countries (e.g., How, 2015 ; Dannow et al., 2020 ; Heyne et al., 2021 ; McKay-Brown and Birioukov, 2021 ; Richards and Clark-Howard, 2023 ), it might tell us something about students’ perspectives even outside the German context.

Finally, we did not consider conditions of the pandemic in this article, although the topic occurred during conversations. This may be a topic for further elaboration in the future. With regard to our theoretical model, we would like to mention that such factors that are specific for certain times, such as the school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic, should be studied further in the future and discussed in relation to the chronosystemic factors within Bronfenbrenner’s model.

7.4 Future studies

In light of the study described here, we suggest a number of ideas for future research. More evidence needs to be gathered on ways to build sustainable structures in schools where supportive factors outweigh possible challenges for students who develop SAPs. More qualitative research is needed on what strengthens or weakens students’ connection to school. In particular, we suggest that intervention studies should be conducted in which researchers and practitioners establish educational practices and identify resource areas based on resilience-oriented research to support school attendance. Such projects could develop modes of prevention rather than using all resources to solve problems after they qualify for additional attention or support in a “wait-to-fail” approach. We encourage school leadership and professionals to investigate classroom atmospheres, key players, school climate and inclusion–exclusion processes in the school community, students’ emotions and their lived experiences in relation to school attendance. Such analysis could focus on processes across eco-systemic levels.

We also suggest conducting more comparative research to gain deeper understanding of the occurrence of SAPs in relation to specific school and welfare systems, reflecting the exo- and macrosystem. Although research on SAPs is an extended international research field, there are few studies that use comparisons as a means of understanding by identifying and exploring unique, shared or divergent experiences. That could be used to raise awareness and reveal perspectives of students in other countries on what factors and supports have helped them. This would allow for the identification of overarching support mechanisms, but would also uncover differences in youth’s perspectives on SAPs as a reflection of their context, interactions, and experiences.

Finally, the interaction of risk and protective factors in the ecological model presented could be validated and further investigated in quantitative research. In combination with qualitative findings, we can understand more about the interaction of contextual and individual factors.

8 Conclusion

From the perspective of secondary school students with experience of SAPs in the city-state Hamburg in Germany, our study aimed to explore what challenges they have faced and what factors and supports have helped them to overcome attendance challenges on their educational paths to completing their education and transition to post-secondary education.

First, in exploring challenges for attendance, our study identified complex and unique descriptions in students’ accounts that put them at higher risk for disengagement and attendance problems (e.g., mental health problems, bullying, performance pressure, stress at home).

Second, using the ecological lens with a resilience perspective, the study investigated supports and factors that have been important to students in ameliorating the negative effects of experienced attendance challenges. Individual factors (e.g., self-esteem, motivation, future orientation, coping) were perceived as having positive effects on youth’s ability to engage and attend. These characteristics of individual resiliency make youth persist towards obtaining school-leaving certificates and pursuing their education. Yet, support from others and positive relationships provided a solid basis in building resilience and overcoming attendance challenges. Considering micro-and mesosystemic areas of resilience, emotional, cognitive and behavioral support mechanisms enacted through educators, peers and family (e.g., trusting relationships, positive school climate, varied instruction, encouraging parents, family-school collaboration) constituted students’ feelings of well-being, connectedness and belonging in school as key mechanisms that enhanced or hindered school attendance. More distant levels of contextual influence (exo, chrono, macro) are connected to areas of resilience. They permeated students’, schools’ and parents’ beliefs about education, the structure of the education system, and the value of school leaving certificates, and attendance.

Third, we presented a model of risks and resources to attendance, based on students’ perspectives. The model shows the complex interplay between perceived challenges and supports in the function of risk and protective factors in the development of SAPs. Specifically, our findings highlighted how protective mechanisms unfold in relation to risks, building resilience in both students and their environments.

The study reports important areas for prevention and intervention that can support students with school attendance challenges and strengthen their relationship with education in secondary school. Ultimately, the study contributes to the broader discussion on taking systemic, proactive approaches to promote attendance, emphasizing the need for exploring the lived experiences of students to support them in achieving their educational goals and transitioning to post-secondary settings successfully.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors upon reasonable request by interested researchers, following data protection plans in line with ethical considerations.

Ethics statement

The Swedish Ethical Review Authority approved the basic application of the international study SAPIC (Dnr 2020-05441, Linköping department, Decision 24.11. 2020). The application with diary number Dnr 2022-06350-02 for change was submitted to The Ethical Review Authority on 2022-11-22 and became valid on 2022-12-02. The change concerned the storage, processing and analysis of data collected abroad (Decision 2022-12-09). The studies involving humans were approved by Monitoring and Improving Educational Quality in Hamburg (Institut für Bildungsmonitoring und Qualitätsentwicklung; IfBQ) as part of the authority for schools and vocational training (Behörde für Schule und Berufsbildung; BSB) has approved data collection in Hamburg schools (Dnr. e514.101.5000-002/222,047; Decision 31.03.2023). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardians/next of kin.

Author contributions

CE: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SK-S: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. ÅB: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. JI: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. UF: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing. HR: Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This research was funded by the Swedish Research Council (VR 2019-04639).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Jasmin Brandt for her assistance in the data collection and preliminary analysis of the interviews. We would also like to express our gratitude to the schools who supported our study. In particular, we would like to thank all students who participated in the interviews. Their willingness to share their perspectives and experiences enriched our research and was essential in advancing our understanding in the field of school attendance.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2024.1405395/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: school attendance, school absenteeism, student perspective, resilience, ecological systems approach, secondary education, post-secondary education

Citation: Enderle C, Kreitz-Sandberg S, Backlund &, Isaksson J, Fredriksson U and Ricking H (2024) Secondary school students’ perspectives on supports for overcoming school attendance problems: a qualitative case study in Germany. Front. Educ . 9:1405395. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1405395

Received: 22 March 2024; Accepted: 02 July 2024; Published: 29 July 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Enderle, Kreitz-Sandberg, Backlund, Isaksson, Fredriksson and Ricking. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Chiara Enderle, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Chemistry Education Research and Practice

A case study on graduate teaching assistants’ teacher noticing when enacting a case-comparison activity in organic chemistry.

* Corresponding authors

a Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA E-mail: [email protected]

Graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) hold a unique positionality as instructors and research mentors to undergraduate students, research mentees to faculty members, and employees to an institution. With limited pedagogical training and teaching resources, the enactment of planned teaching activities and learning resources may be influenced by how GTAs conceptualize their teacher identity, role, and experiences. In this study, we explored how chemistry GTAs enacted a scaffolded, cooperative-learning case-comparison activity in a second-semester organic chemistry laboratory course. Our study was guided by the conceptual framework of teacher noticing. Teacher noticing – an instructor observing “important” instructional moments and connecting their observations to theory and practice – is a part of developing instructional responses based on students’ reasoning. Pairing this conceptual framework with a case study methodology, we recruited two GTAs, and conducted a pre-observation interview, two observations, and a post-observation interview. We explored GTAs’ teacher noticing – what they observed and interpreted as well as how they shaped and responded. We exposed the tension and the resolution between learning objectives ( i.e. , objectives set by the instructional team for students) and teaching objectives ( i.e. , objectives set by the GTAs for themselves and their students). GTAs’ framing seemed to influence their shaping, and their shaping seemed to balance the instructional team's learning objective and GTAs’ teaching objectives. Because chemistry GTAs serve as instructors in many science undergraduate courses, understanding the unique GTA framing may support both graduate and undergraduate learning experiences. Furthermore, our study has implications for researchers who design organic chemistry learning resources to consider different ways GTAs may support students’ learning. This study additionally has implications for faculty instructors to develop transformative, consistent professional development opportunities focused on transparency, collaboration, and community in teacher learning.

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Converting Lawns Into Diverse Landscapes: Case Studies

replacing a portion of lawn with biodiversity

A resident of Harford County replaced portions of the lawn with native plants to increase native habitat and beauty in the landscape.

Growing and maintaining turf in Maryland is challenging and resource-intensive. Replacing grass areas with locally adapted native plants and landscaping is an effective way to make your property beautiful and better for the environment.

Take a look at the examples below of Maryland residents who reduced their lawns, solved water runoff problems, increased enjoyment of their property, and reduced the negative impact of lawn maintenance on climate change .

Converting lawn strip into a pollinator garden

Lawn before it was removed

Early spring this year - one year after the garden was planted

Summer view of garden showing native bee balm in bloom. The bees loved it. Also showing the certification signs for the garden.

Garden in September with asters about to bloom. Phlox and goldenrod in bloom.

View of the garden from the other direction with goldenrod in bloom to provide nectar for migrating butterflies as well as other pollinators.

Landscape design sketch

The main plants used in this garden:

Asclepias tuberosa (butterfly weed)
Asclepias syriaca (common milkweed)
Aster 'October Skies'
Solidago 'Fireworks' (goldenrod)
Nepeta 'Walker's low' (catmint)
Allium Millennium
Monarda 'Bradburiana' (bee balm)'
Caryopteris 'Golden Sunshine'
Echinacea (purple coneflowers)
Sisyrinchium angustifolium (Blue eyed grass)
Oenthera (evening primrose) for ground cover
Phlox subulata

Lessons learned:

"We did the entire garden ourselves. I bought plugs of many of the plants to reduce the cost. I planted in drifts so the pollinators would have easy access to them. The bees love the catmint and allium millennium although neither are native. The garden has required little maintenance. However, it has been a struggle to resist the temptation to deadhead taller plants like the coneflowers and milkweed to make the garden look better. I have to tell myself the goldfinches love the coneflower seeds and the monarch caterpillars are still on the milkweed. You have to view the garden from the insects’ point of view rather than the humans’ point of view."

- Diane Mitchell, Harford County

Townhouse property converted to native and edible plantings

Front yard before

Backyard before

Front yard after

Backyard after

"Once only turf, mulch, and non-native plants, I converted my small townhouse front and back yards to native and edible plantings over three years. The garden is a Certified Wildlife Habitat and was featured as a stop on the first annual Green Team Urbana garden tour (a group I co-founded to help restore the land in our heavily developed area). I'm an enthusiastic amateur gardener and currently a Certified Master Naturalist intern in Frederick County."

Plant list:

"Black- and brown-eyed Susans, tall phlox, rattlesnake master, bee balm, blanket flower, goldenrod, aster, coral honeysuckle, American wisteria, purple coneflower, anise hyssop, sunflowers, mountain mint, false sunflower. Various herbs, vegetables, and berries. I used marigolds, catmint, and alliums as low-profile "edging" around taller native plants and transplanted violets into my garden beds as ground cover."

"This was a DIY project. I started by marking out garden beds and layering them with cardboard and compost, then cutting holes in the cardboard and planting plugs. I found gardens or pieces of gardens I liked on Pinterest and then recreated them with native plants. (I'm a particular fan of English cottage gardens, and the look is easy to recreate with the lush, organic, slightly messy look of native plants.) I tried and failed a lot, but I dug in and got my hands dirty and wasn't afraid to fail. Some plants will surprise you; let them. Don't be afraid to start. You can always dig up or move plants later on."

-Bethany Adams, Frederick County

Increasing plant diversity along the sidewalk

Beginning of project: using a pickaxe, shovel and rake, I physically removed zoysia grass, being sure to remove all roots, but retaining soil.

Using a flexible hose to define the curving shape of the new garden, I finalized the design and edged the border with the remaining lawn. Remember to call Miss Utility about underground utilities!

Using leftover bricks from previous projects, I installed brick edging along the sidewalk. This will help retain water, soil, and mulch until the new garden is well established.

After enriching the new plot with compost, it was time for transplanting. I moved creeping phlox ( Phlox stolonoifera ), Siberian iris ( Iris sibirica ), a rose bush, black-eyed susan ( Rudbeckia hirta ), and a large mangave ( Mangave Macho Mocha).

The final steps included installing new plants (mostly native) and shrubs, and mulching. The new plants included asters ( Aster laevis ‘Bluebird’), dogwood ( Cornus stolonoifera Farrow), yarrow ( Achillea Summer Sangria), and beardtongue ( Penstemon Husker red). Mulching and watering sufficiently to get plants established are the final steps.

"In 2021, I decided to reduce the lawn area and increase plant diversity in our front yard bordering the sidewalk, mirroring the shape of the garden on the south side of the walkway. Considerations included reducing runoff from hard surfaces, introducing more native plants and shrubs, and diversity of color, foliage, and blooming season of transplanted and newly-purchased plants."

Lessons Learned:

"This was a DIY project, and it was labor-intensive. Removing all grass and roots was strenuous work. Half of the plants installed were transplants from other locations on the property. Purchased plants and mulch cost approximately $225."

-Larry Clements, Prince George's County

Rain garden solved a runoff problem

August 2015 Rain Garden “Before”

September 2015 Rain Garden

October 2015 (downspout through berm and the rain garden planted)

May 2021 “After” (Spring bloom in the rain garden)

July 2021 “After” (Summer bloom in the rain garden)

Debbie Sheppard from Prince George's County comments:

We were looking to solve the problem of rainwater runoff coming from the direction of our neighbor's yard. The water would sit against our home's foundation and puddle for days making it impossible to walk around two sides of the house. We decided to install a deep rain garden to catch the runoff. With a simple phone call to the Prince George’s County Rain Check Rebate , they quickly had someone come visit our property and go over any questions about the program. By doing all of the digging (my husband with a small backhoe and me with a shovel and wheelbarrow) and completing the install, we were able to accomplish the project at a low cost. It was a great "excuse" to make a fun design and shop for the appropriate plants! We now enjoy the ability to walk around our yard after a rain. We have a swing right next to the rain garden where we drink our coffee. It is a delight to take in the beauty of the flowers, plants, birds, and pollinators!

Plants that worked best over the years:

Golden ragwort (Packera aurea) - fantastic, quick, and dense ground cover in center of rain garden

Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) - tremendous self sower, really throws up plants everywhere

Creeping phlox ( Phlox stolonifera) - absolutely beautiful on the berm

Bowma’s root (Gillenia trifoliata) - Always looks tidy, no pest or disease problems

Ninebark ( Physocarpus opulifolius) - beautiful and healthy

Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) - flowers

Blazing star (Liatris spicata ‘Kobold’) - beautiful texture and bloom

White Wood Aster ( Eurybia divaricata) - dry shade

Tips for others who want to do a similar project?

Be ready to weed for a few years to allow for plants to grow in. Stay on top of weeding, otherwise you will have a field and not a planned garden. Did I mention that you will need to love weeding?! Wow - what a learning opportunity! So fulfilling!

Turning lawn into a meadow

Backyard original: I dug out dozens of cinder blocks and pavers, put in trenches with hugelkultur backfill. The area to the left is an old garage pad of concrete with 6-8” of soil on top… hopefully will remove this over the winter. I have many photos of the before, during, and after. When we moved in there was almost entirely grass. Now we have native plants everywhere!

I installed sections from a mature cherry tree to add some terracing to slow down runoff. I’ve planted with 90% native plants and a few high value non-natives. I have a toddler and dog so the yard has to be “play friendly.”

Front yard has Honeyvine milkweed, blueberries, little bluestem, joe pye, my iron weed, helianthus Maximilian, giant yellow hyssop, winterberry, echinacea, and other natives. I’ve been cultivating violets, native plantain, and other walkable green mulches to use as edging around the fence. I’ve documented the “hell strip” next to the side wall and noted what grows well and what requires lots of maintenance. Next spring I plan to start removing all the plants and replacing them with native carex, lyreleaf sage, and native plantain.

Front yard has a child’s playhouse and several enormous cherry logs that act as a stage. This side has aromatic asters, Solidago altissima, and other native plants. I’ve trained a native clematis to grow up the side and over the roof of the little house to provide summer shade. On the back corner (behind the non native magnolia), is an enormous pokeweed I’ve pruned to grow along with native plants and tithonia… they’re over 6’ now.

Still working on eliminating non-native, invasive honeysuckle, mulberry, and others, but this area has a log “fence” over a swale and then is planted with yarrow, liatris, and blue lobelia. The logs are gorgeous in cooler weather when the moss and fungi come out. We’ve seen two new species of woodpecker, had Orioles fledge two chicks, and a resident group of bluebirds visit the enormous American holly in the back.

"I have over 100 native plants including 7 varieties of asters, 4 goldenrod, and 2 perennial sunflowers. My plantings are based on Dr. Tallamy’s research into keystone plants plus additional shrubs, understory trees, and perennials that are host plants. I’ve kept detailed lists of all the plants I’ve put in."

- Amy Sawyer, Prince George's County

Calvert County meadow added along driveway area

Beginning of meadow garden with solarization.

We put in an extension to our driveway in order to have the driveway be circular. This created a "lawn" from a previous hayfield. In the Fall of 2020 I started a narrow, curved meadow garden down the middle of the circular driveway with native grasses and forbs. Photo shows a small patch with solarization. This Fall I am filling in either side of that narrow meadow so that it fills up nearly the whole space created with a circular driveway.

First season with planted meadow

This is the view of the meadow in the Fall of 2021. I used Little Bluestem ( Schizachyrium scoparium "MinnBlueA" and Hairawn muhly (Muhlenbergia capillaris) for the grasses as they don't get very tall (2'-3').

Meadow island

This photo shows a border (planted 2018) created to reduce lawn. I initially used Canadian Wild Rye and Big Bluestem (Andropogan gerardii) and various forbs. The Canadian Wild Rye started to take over the forbs and I removed it after two years.

The main plants used in this design:

"I used perennial black-eyed Susans, butterfly weed, native grasses as discussed in photos, goldenrod, bee balm, liatris and many other natives. I used zinnias for continuous color."

"I learned that I really need to cut my tall grasses down early in the season as they get so tall that they fall over and must be staked."

Sidewalk strip grass replacement

Master Gardener Beth Blum Spiker got tired of mowing the strip along the sidewalk.

Lawn replaced between sidewalk and street

A large portion of the lawn was replaced. Now the entire yard can be mowed in 17 minutes!

The new plants look great in bloom.

Landscaping adjacent to the house

The landscaping in front of the house was also expanded.

Master Gardener Beth Spiker got tired of mowing the strip along the sidewalk. She replaced everything she didn’t like when she mowed, and now she can mow the entire yard in 17 minutes!

Lawn replacement along the waterfront

A section of lawn around the stairway was replaced with new plants.

A second view of the newly-planted feature looking towards the water.

As the plants mature, they fill in the space.

Gardens like this with native plants should reduce runoff into our waterways.

“ When we bought our house there were three trees, one rhododendron, three camellias, a dozen or so azaleas, and a similar number of boxwood. After 5 years of owning the house, I converted a portion of it to a nice collection of all types of plants. We had Adkins Arboretum help us with a garden design using native plants, and the non-natives were mostly given to us by friends from their yards.” - Dora Jean Hanna, Master Gardener

Desert area to native plant meadow

The backyard was a desert after the installation of the ground loop system. The ground was hard, dry, full of clay and rocks - just right for native plants!

I bought very few plants. I was able to transplant coneflowers and black-eyed-Susans from other gardens. Friends also gave me many plants. I knew I wanted grasses and movement in the garden so I sowed little bluestem and prairie dropseed grasses in jiffy cups and tended them very carefully. If I had sown seeds directly in the ground, they would have been lost among the emerging weeds.

Because the grass plugs were small, I put chicken wire cages around each one for protection from rabbits, groundhogs, and deer. I found a few plants with teeth marks, but for the most part, the animals left the meadow alone. I had plenty of other food that probably interested them.

Each time I planted a grass or perennial, I mulched the surrounding area. After a native garden is established, watering is not necessary. When starting a meadow, the gardener has to baby the plants. I watered a great deal last summer. There were some very hot, dry days. This year I did not water the meadow at all.

It was unbelievable to me that I was able to establish this mini meadow in one season. It is true that using native plants in hostile territory is the path to take. I did not amend the soil, but I did put a little compost from my compost pile into each planting hole. This meadow is the first thing I look at every morning when I walk onto the back patio. It is my last view every evening. On windy days the grasses dance just as I had hoped they would do.

"After my husband and I put in a ground loop heating and air conditioning system, the backyard was a desert. Because I had read Doug Tallamy's book Nature's Best Hope , I envisioned a small meadow. I consulted friends, researched online, read books, and visited Longwood Gardens in Pennsylvania and Mt. Cuba in Delaware. I knew what I wanted to do."

-Harford County gardener

Bay-Wise landscape

From above, you can see the property is almost surrounded by plants other than turf.

The only turf George kept on his property, other than pathways through his landscapes, is this small maintained "lawn room" close to his home and pool.

A narrow turf pathway winds between native plant landscaping.

The landscape looks great at sunset.

Curved lines in the landscape create interest. They pull you through the garden to see what's around the corner or the curve.

George's property is an official Bay-Wise demonstration landscape.

Maryland Master Gardener George Yurek kept a small “lawn room” close to his home and pool. Around the rest of the property, he created a Bay-Wise landscape by adding a variety of trees, grasses, shrubs, and perennials. Minimal lawn strips are used as walkways throughout the landscape.

Sod to native plant conversion

Before adding garden landscaping the yard contained mostly grass.

Newspaper was laid down in areas to smother the grass.

Mulch is laid over newspaper and new plants are planted.

This is the yard as it is now.

Howard County Master Gardener Molly McElwee laid sod at her new home in 2006. Then she started adding gardens, continuing with an expansion in 2016 using the “lasagna method” to smother grass and prepare the planting areas. “We have a very heavy emphasis on natives, especially host plants and plants beneficial to all sorts of wildlife. We are leaving some grass for pathways through the garden!”

Related information

The Challenge of Growing a Lawn in Maryland

Lawn (Turfgrass) Removal Methods

Lawn Alternatives

Recommended Native Plants for Maryland

Still have a question? Contact us at Ask Extension .

Smiling person looking out the window from an office inside a city building.

Is tax-loss harvesting worth it? Now more than ever

As a strategy for lowering taxes and potentially helping increase returns, tax-loss harvesting has been around for a while. But it's a time-consuming and complex process, so it hasn't held enough appeal—or expected payoff—for a lot of investors.

Recently, 2 trends are bringing tax-loss harvesting into the spotlight. First, advice services that use technology to automate tax-loss harvesting—like Vanguard Personal Advisor®—have made it more accessible for millions of investors. Second, because investment losses are necessary for tax-loss harvesting, the volatility of the past few years has made this tax strategy even more appealing.

Tax-loss harvesting can provide major value, but it depends on your specific situation as an investor. And there's no doubt that automation and volatility increase the potential rewards. Let's see how.

What is tax-loss harvesting?

Simply put, it's selling investments at a loss so you can use the losses to offset gains in other investments. You then take the money from the sale and use it to buy an investment that fills a similar role in your portfolio, so you stay invested in the market. This last point is critical—it's what distinguishes this powerful tax strategy from market-timing or locking in losses, and it provides the potential for increasing returns.

Beneath the simple explanation, there's a lot more detail and some important caveats. You can learn more about the process and its risks in our tax-loss harvesting explainer.

Read more about how to get ready for any market with tax-loss harvesting

Why tax-loss harvesting? 4 benefits

Save on taxes.

When you file your income taxes, you can use tax-loss harvesting to reduce the amount you would have owed on capital gains. If you don't have gains in the same tax year, you can carry forward losses to use in future years.*

Grow your portfolio

If you reinvest your tax savings, they'll compound over the life of the investment, greatly increasing the financial benefit.

Reduce cost and risk

If you have assets you want to sell because of high costs or risks, tax-loss harvesting gives you a way to do so while potentially lowering a large tax bill.

Turn volatility into opportunity

Markets can't be controlled—but you can strategically control things like costs and taxes.

Read more about offsetting gains through tax-loss harvesting

The power of automation

When it comes to tax-loss harvesting, automation doesn't just make the job easier—it greatly increases the potential benefit.

An automated tax-loss harvesting service never has to take a day off, and it can easily check for opportunities across dozens of investments and hundreds of investment lots.

Minimized costs

Each tax-loss harvesting trade has a cost—but combining technology with the experience and knowledge of investment experts allows you to execute trades in the most cost-effective way.

IRS compliance

To claim losses, the IRS requires you to comply with a number of rules—something an automated service like Vanguard's can build into the technology.

3 real-life examples of tax-loss harvesting

Now to the numbers: We based these 3 case studies on real Vanguard Personal Advisor clients to see how similar investors could benefit from automated tax-loss harvesting.

The case studies illustrate how tax-loss harvesting could help you stay in control during volatile markets, lower your taxes, and ultimately increase your wealth.**

I needed to take some action. Now I feel more at peace, like I'm back in control.

Smiling woman looking into the distance surrounded by plants in her living room.

The opportunity: Retirement is on the horizon, but volatility has threatened years of planning—and her $450,000 nest egg. She feels it's impossible to "stay the course" at a time like this.

After tax-loss harvesting: Kelly feels more assured—and has tangible evidence—that she's taking control back from the markets.

Tax losses harvested: $45,000

Potential tax savings: $6,750

Potential net increase in wealth: $11,160

I was facing a big tax bill in a terrible market. Tax-loss harvesting made a real difference.

Person sitting in a coffee shop having tea and using a tablet computer.

The opportunity: His $2.7 million portfolio took a big hit in the markets, but he was also facing a huge tax bill from the upcoming sale of his businesses.

After tax-loss harvesting: Ken carried forward the losses until the sale of his businesses and then used them to offset the gain, greatly reducing his tax bill.

Tax losses harvested: $376,000

Potential tax savings: $70,688

Potential net increase in wealth: $99,338

I hate losing, and selling felt like losing. But ultimately I was able to turn it into a win.

Man with glasses holding a mug in a coffee shop.

The opportunity: He takes his investment success very personally, and it was painful to lose any of the $4.3 million in wealth he'd built. However, he loved the idea of turning these losses into a potential win.

After tax-loss harvesting: Tim is pleased to come out on top despite volatility and knows he's building additional wealth to pass on to heirs.

Tax losses harvested: $300,000

Potential tax savings: $71,400

Potential net increase in wealth: $118,045

Note: These case studies are based on real client scenarios that have been simplified for illustrative purposes. These are not actual client quotes, results, or experiences.

Volatile markets = a time-sensitive opportunity

Over the past few years, investors have experienced the kind of market environment that's generally rare in an investing lifetime. While it was painful, it can also present a huge opportunity for certain investors.

In a high-volatility environment like we experienced in 2022, our research shows an average benefit of 0.95% for investors who engage in automated tax-loss harvesting—equivalent to almost an entire percentage point of return.

In fact, for all 3 of our case study investors and thousands of others, the value was many times more than they paid for the full suite of financial advice and strategies available through Vanguard Personal Advisor.

The value of automated tax-loss harvesting can be much higher than the cost to access it

Source: Vanguard's research-based model for estimating the value created by tax-loss harvesting. The tax-loss harvesting impact is calculated as the difference in internal rate of returns (IRR) of the baseline portfolio without tax-loss harvesting and the portfolio with tax-loss harvesting. The impact shown is the median benefit. In a high-volatility environment the model's estimate ranged from 0.51% to 1.4% and during an average level of volatility, the estimate ranged from 0.08% to 0.83%. For more information on the model, see Tax-Loss Harvesting: A Portfolio and Wealth Planning Perspective , specifically regarding the equation (Equation 4) in Appendix 3.

0.30% is the fee for Personal Advisor Select™ and the approximate fee for a standard Personal Advisor portfolio. Depending on the investments chosen, Personal Advisor charges a maximum gross fee of 0.40%. See the article notes for more information on fees.

Inputs to the model: Harvest tax rate (25%, 30%), Liquidate tax rate (15%, 20%), Capital gains (0% to 5% by increments of 1%), Cash flow (0% to 10% in increments of 2%). "Average volatility" from 2000-2022 is 18%; "high volatility" is the 24% level in 2022.

By tax-loss harvesting now, before a potential market rebound, you can capture your losses to use in future years with capital gains. To learn more and find out if it's right for you, talk to an advisor .

Take advantage of automated tax-loss harvesting through Vanguard Personal Advisor—included in the annual advisory fee.

Most Viewed

Start with this step-by-step guide to opening a personal investment account, such as a general investing brokerage account or an IRA.

*By nature, tax-loss harvesting results in a lower cost basis for the investments you purchase with the sale proceeds, meaning more of your investment could be subject to taxes when you sell it later. So it's most beneficial and appropriate if you think your tax rate will be lower in the future. If it's not, you may end up deferring the taxes owed but not ultimately reducing them.

**In all cases, tax savings were assumed to be reinvested. Estimated growth assumes 5% annual return over 20 years. Harvest tax rates are 15% tax rate for Kelly (short-term tax rate), 18.8% for Ken (long-term tax rate and net investment income tax of 3.8%), and 23.8% for Tim (long-term tax rate and net investment income tax of 3.8%). For simplicity purposes, we show the calculations using one tax rate instead of any blended rate that would apply should capital gains exceed their current tax threshold. Liquidation tax rates are 0% for Kelly and Tim and 15% for Ken.

Vanguard Personal Advisor Select and Vanguard Personal Advisor Wealth Management charge fees based on a tiered fee schedule (maximum 0.30%) calculated as an average advisory fee on all advised assets. Vanguard Personal Advisor charges Vanguard Brokerage Accounts an annual gross advisory fee of 0.35% for its all-index investment options and 0.40% for an active/index mix. These services reduce those fees by the amount of revenue that Vanguard (or a Vanguard affiliate) retains from your portfolio in order to calculate your net advisory fee. Note that this fee doesn't include investment expense ratios. Please review each service's advisory brochure for more fee information.

You should consult your plan fee disclosure notice for the applicable annual gross advisory fees that apply to your 401(k) account.

All investing is subject to risk, including the possible loss of the money you invest.

Tax-loss harvesting involves certain risks, including, among others, the risk that the new investment could have higher costs than the original investment and could introduce portfolio tracking error into your accounts. There may also be unintended tax implications. We recommend that you consult a tax advisor before taking action.

Neither Vanguard nor its financial advisors provide tax and/or legal advice. This information is general and educational in nature and should not be considered tax and/or legal advice. Any tax-related information discussed herein is based on tax laws, regulations, judicial opinions, and other guidance that are complex and subject to change. Additional tax rules not discussed herein may also be applicable to your situation. Vanguard makes no warranties with regard to such information or the results obtained by its use, and disclaims any liability arising out of your use of, or any tax positions taken in reliance on, such information.

We recommend you consult a tax and/or legal advisor about your individual situation before engaging in tax-loss harvesting. The IRS website at irs.gov also contains information that would be prudent for you to review about the consequences of engaging in tax-loss harvesting. The treatment of capital gains and losses, including the ability to offset gains with losses, is subject to current tax provisions. Please see IRS Publication 550, Investment Income and Expense for additional information. Tax-loss harvesting may also implicate state or local tax consequences for your particular situation.

Vanguard's advice services are provided by Vanguard Advisers, Inc. ("VAI"), a registered investment advisor, or by Vanguard National Trust Company ("VNTC"), a federally chartered, limited-purpose trust company.

The services provided to clients will vary based upon the service selected, including management, fees, eligibility, and access to an advisor. Find VAI's Form CRS and each program's advisory brochure here for an overview .

VAI and VNTC are subsidiaries of The Vanguard Group, Inc., and affiliates of Vanguard Marketing Corporation. Neither VAI, VNTC, nor its affiliates guarantee profits or protection from losses.

IMAGES

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49 Free Case Study Templates ( + Case Study Format Examples + )

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Social Marketing & Case Study Examples: Educational (WHO), Profit Sharing (Tom's Shoes), &Olympics
What is a Case Study in Research
Understanding the Case Study Approach in Qualitative Research
case study|case study method|case study method in research [email protected]
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Early Years Foundation Stage: Exemplification materials

COMMENTS

Case Studying Educational Research: A Way of Looking at Reality
The research was predominantly qualitative and category-based, having as sample 42 Master´s dissertations, including single and multiple case studies, from students attending a Portuguese university.
Case Study in Education Research
Stenhouse, L. 1980. The study of samples and the study of cases. British Educational Research Journal 6:1-6. DOI: 10.1080/0141192800060101. A key article in which Stenhouse sets out his stand on case study work. Those interested in the evolution of case study use in educational research should consider this article and the insights given.
Case Study
A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation. It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied.
What Is a Case Study?
Revised on November 20, 2023. A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research. A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative methods are ...
Sage Research Methods
The authors bring together the practical and the theoretical, enabling readers to build expertise on the principles and practice of case study research, as well as engaging with possible theoretical frameworks. They also highlight the place of case study as a key component of educational research.
A Case Study of Student and Teacher Relationships and The Effect on
Marzano (2003) studied the practices of effective teachers. and determined that "an effective teacher-student relationship may be. the keystone that allows the other aspects to work well" (p. 91). The relationships that teachers develop with their students have. an important role in a student's academic growth.
Case Study Methods and Examples
Case study research is conducted by almost every social science discipline: business, education, sociology, psychology. Case study research, with its reliance on multiple sources, is also a natural choice for researchers interested in trans-, inter-, or cross-disciplinary studies. The Encyclopedia of case study research provides an overview ...
Case studies in educational research
This resource shares some key definitions of case study and identifies important choices and decisions around the creation of studies. It is for those with little or no experience of case study in education research and provides an introduction to some of the key aspects of this approach: from the all important question of what exactly is case ...
A Case for Case Study Research in Education
This chapter makes the case that case study research is making a comeback in educational research because it allows researchers a broad range of methodological tools to suit the needs of answering questions of "how" and "why" within a particular real-world context. As Stake (1995) suggests, case study is often a preferred method of ...
Case studies and practical examples: Supporting teaching and improving
Search for: HOME; OUR MISSION. About; ACCESS MODELS. Institutional. Library Provisioned Textbooks
How to Use Case Studies in Research: Guide and Examples
1. Select a case. Once you identify the problem at hand and come up with questions, identify the case you will focus on. The study can provide insights into the subject at hand, challenge existing assumptions, propose a course of action, and/or open up new areas for further research. 2.
The Case Study in Educational Research: a Review of Selected ...
Case method is an instructional technique whereby the major ingredients of a case study are presented to. students for illustrative or problem-solving purposes. Case history— the tracing of person, group, or institution's past — is sometimes part of a case study. 206 The Journal of Educational Thought.
Case Study Methodology of Qualitative Research: Key Attributes and
A case study is one of the most commonly used methodologies of social research. This article attempts to look into the various dimensions of a case study research strategy, the different epistemological strands which determine the particular case study type and approach adopted in the field, discusses the factors which can enhance the effectiveness of a case study research, and the debate ...
Student Case Study
A student case study is an in-depth analysis of a student or a group of students to understand various educational, psychological, or social aspects. It involves collecting detailed information through observations, interviews, and reviewing records, to form a comprehensive picture. The goal of a case study analysis is to unravel the ...
PDF A Case for Case Study Research in Education
ua-tions in educational contexts.Key TermsCase study research: An empirical inquiry that investigates a con-temporary phenomenon within its real-life context, in which the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident, in which the questions are of the "how" or "why" variety, or in.
PDF Case Study Research
12. 12. Case Study Research. Patricia A. Hays. Northern Arizona University. Forthcoming in: Foundations of Research: Methods of Inquiry in Education and the Social Sciences. Edited by Kathleen Bennett deMarrais The University of Georgia and Stephen D. Lapan Northern Arizona University Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Action research in education: a set of case studies?
The present work provides a review of two widely used approaches in educational research: action research and case study. Action research aims to improve educational practice by means of reflective cycles and shows variants according to a predominant paradigm, from technical to critical visions. A case study, described as an umbrella term ...
Case Studies
Creswell and Poth (2018) define case study as a strategy that involves the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system (i.e., a setting or a context), a methodology, a type of design in qualitative research, or an object of study, as well as a product of the inquiry. Flyvbjerg (2011) defines case study as an ...
Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies
1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students' lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers. 2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary.
A Case for Case Study Research in Education
K. Grauer. Published 2012. Education. This chapter makes the case that case study research is making a comeback in educational research because it allows researchers a broad range of methodological tools to suit the needs of answering questions of "how" and "why" within a particular real-world context. As Stake (1995) suggests, case ...
120 Case Study Topics For College Students
The perception of danger in different cultures. The origins of bipolar disorder through the prism of domestic violence. Covid-19 and related anxiety cases among college students. The dangers of advertisements on children's TV networks. The negative influence of Instagram and distorted body image.
A Qualitative Case Study of Students' Perceptions of Their Experiences
and the research on online course effectiveness has focused primarily on student outcomes. The objective of this qualitative case study was to capture students' perceptions of their experiences and the processes that facilitated the outcomes or the quality of student learning. This study sought to inform the practice of developing
Case Study
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research. A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative methods are sometimes also used.
Case Study Thesis Statement
Case Study Thesis Statement Example for Research Paper. Case Study for research paper thesis statement serves as a central hypothesis or primary insight derived from the chosen case. It succinctly captures the essence of the research findings and the implications they might hold, offering a foundation upon which the paper's arguments and ...
Causal research designs and analysis in education
Then, the following five articles are devoted to the strongest quasi-experimental designs for education research. The first of these articles by Cham et al. provides a general overview of the four quasi-experimental designs covered in this special issue.The first two quasi-experimental designs address situations where the assignment (or selection) mechanism is essentially known and observed so ...
Frontiers
An example demonstrating the relation of the concept of resilience and SAPs can be evidenced in the alignment and intersection of resilience research with studies on absenteeism. Supportive relationships have been shown repeatedly as resilience factor that mitigate the impact of risk factors in youth development (Richardson, 2008; Ungar, 2011).
A case study on graduate teaching assistants' teacher noticing when
Chemistry Education Research and Practice. ... Pairing this conceptual framework with a case study methodology, we recruited two GTAs, and conducted a pre-observation interview, two observations, and a post-observation interview. We explored GTAs' teacher noticing - what they observed and interpreted as well as how they shaped and responded
Computational Nondestructive Evaluation Case Studies at NASA
Computational Nondestructive Evaluation Case Studies at NASA The state of the art of numerical simulation of nondestructive evaluations (NDE) has begun to transition from research to application. The simulation software, both commercial and custom, has reached a level of maturity where it can be readily deployed to solve real world problems.
Converting Lawns Into Diverse Landscapes: Case Studies
Growing and maintaining turf in Maryland is challenging and resource-intensive. Replacing grass areas with locally adapted native plants and landscaping is an effective way to make your property beautiful and better for the environment. Take a look at the examples below of Maryland residents who reduced their lawns, solved water runoff problems, increased enjoyment of their property, and ...
Is tax-loss harvesting worth it? Now more than ever
Now to the numbers: We based these 3 case studies on real Vanguard Personal Advisor clients to see how similar investors could benefit from automated tax-loss harvesting. The case studies illustrate how tax-loss harvesting could help you stay in control during volatile markets, lower your taxes, and ultimately increase your wealth.**

Case Studying Educational Research: A Way of Looking at Reality

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Case Study in Education Research by Lorna Hamilton LAST REVIEWED: 27 June 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 27 June 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0201

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