difference between language and speech

Language vs. Speech

What's the difference.

Language and speech are closely related but distinct concepts. Language refers to a system of communication that involves the use of words, grammar, and syntax to convey meaning. It is a complex and structured system that allows humans to express their thoughts, emotions, and ideas. On the other hand, speech refers to the physical act of producing sounds and words using the vocal apparatus. It is the oral manifestation of language and involves the coordination of various muscles and organs involved in producing sounds. While language is a broader concept that encompasses both spoken and written forms, speech specifically refers to the spoken aspect of language.

Further Detail

Introduction.

Language and speech are two fundamental aspects of human communication. While they are closely related, they have distinct attributes that set them apart. Language refers to the system of communication using words, symbols, and rules, while speech is the physical act of producing sounds to convey meaning. In this article, we will explore the various attributes of language and speech, highlighting their similarities and differences.

Language is a complex and dynamic system that allows humans to express thoughts, ideas, and emotions. It is a shared code that enables communication between individuals within a community. One of the key attributes of language is its symbolic nature. Words and symbols represent specific meanings, allowing us to convey abstract concepts and refer to objects, actions, or ideas. This symbolic aspect of language is what distinguishes it from other forms of communication.

Another important attribute of language is its rule-governed nature. Languages have a set of grammar rules that dictate how words are combined to form meaningful sentences. These rules include syntax (word order), morphology (word structure), and semantics (meaning). The adherence to these rules ensures that communication is coherent and understandable to others within the same linguistic community.

Furthermore, language is a dynamic and evolving system. It adapts and changes over time, reflecting the cultural, social, and technological developments of a community. New words are coined, meanings shift, and grammar rules may be modified. This flexibility allows language to remain relevant and responsive to the needs of its users.

Language also possesses the attribute of displacement, which means that it can refer to things that are not present in the immediate context. Humans can discuss past events, plan for the future, or imagine hypothetical scenarios using language. This ability to communicate about abstract or distant concepts greatly enhances our cognitive capabilities and sets us apart from other species.

Lastly, language is a tool for social interaction and identity formation. It enables individuals to express their cultural heritage, beliefs, and values. Different languages often have unique vocabulary and expressions that reflect the worldview and cultural practices of a particular community. Language plays a crucial role in shaping our sense of belonging and collective identity.

Speech, on the other hand, refers to the physical production of sounds to convey meaning. It is the oral manifestation of language. While language is an abstract system, speech is the tangible and audible expression of that system. Speech involves the coordination of various physiological mechanisms, including the lungs, vocal cords, tongue, and lips.

One of the key attributes of speech is its individual variation. Each person has a unique voice, accent, and way of speaking. These individual differences in speech patterns contribute to our personal identity and allow us to recognize and distinguish others. Moreover, speech can convey emotions, attitudes, and intentions through variations in tone, pitch, and rhythm.

Speech is also characterized by its temporal nature. It unfolds over time, with sounds being produced sequentially to form words, phrases, and sentences. The speed, rhythm, and pauses in speech contribute to its intelligibility and convey additional meaning. Non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions and gestures, often accompany speech and enhance the overall communication process.

Unlike language, which can be written and read, speech is primarily an auditory form of communication. It relies on the listener's ability to perceive and interpret the sounds produced by the speaker. This real-time interaction between the speaker and listener allows for immediate feedback and clarification, facilitating effective communication.

Furthermore, speech is a skill that is acquired through learning and practice. Infants go through a process of language acquisition, gradually developing the ability to produce and understand speech sounds. Speech production involves the coordination of motor skills and the mastery of articulatory movements. It requires precise control over the vocal apparatus to produce the desired sounds accurately.

Similarities and Interdependence

While language and speech have distinct attributes, they are deeply interconnected and rely on each other for effective communication. Language provides the underlying structure and rules that govern speech production and comprehension. Without language, speech would lack meaning and coherence.

Similarly, speech is the medium through which language is realized and transmitted. It allows individuals to express their thoughts and ideas, making language tangible and accessible. Speech acts as a bridge between the internal linguistic system and the external world, enabling communication with others.

Moreover, language and speech mutually influence each other. As language evolves, it may introduce new words or expressions that require adjustments in speech patterns. On the other hand, changes in speech, such as shifts in pronunciation or intonation, can influence the development of language over time.

Both language and speech are essential for effective communication. While language provides the structure and meaning, speech brings it to life, allowing for real-time interaction and understanding. Together, they form the foundation of human communication and are integral to our social, cognitive, and emotional development.

Language and speech are two interconnected yet distinct aspects of human communication. Language is a symbolic, rule-governed, and dynamic system that enables us to express thoughts and ideas. Speech, on the other hand, is the physical act of producing sounds to convey meaning. While language provides the structure and meaning, speech brings it to life through individual variation, temporal unfolding, and auditory perception.

Despite their differences, language and speech are interdependent and mutually influence each other. They are both essential for effective communication, allowing us to connect, share knowledge, and express our identities. Understanding the attributes of language and speech helps us appreciate the complexity and richness of human communication.

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Difference between speech, language and communication

• 25 September 2020
• Science outreach

In our day-to-day language, the terms speech, language, and communication are often used interchangeably. However, are these words synonyms? As it turns out, no, they are not! 

Here is how to better distinguish these terms:

Speech refers to the way we produce and perceive the consonants and vowels that form all the languages in the world. It can be considered the perceptual and motor components of oral language. More specifically, it includes the following elements:

• Voice. This refers to the way we use our vocal folds (sometimes called cords), in the larynx, and our respiration (especially the expiration) to produce speech sounds. Our voice varies in intensity and pitch – that is, it can be more or less loud and have a higher or lower pitch. These parameters are determined by the contraction and extension of the vocal folds.
• Articulation. It is the way we use our articulators, including our lips and our tongue, to produce speech sounds. For example, our lips are rounded to produce the vowel /o/, while they are stretched to produce the vowel /i/.
• Resonance. This refers to the modification of the sound generated by the vocal folds as it travels through the cavities formed by the pharynx as well as the inside of our nose and mouth. Resonance influences the quality of speech sounds (a nasal vowel such as “an” vs an oral vowel such as “a”) and depends mostly on our capacity to control the amount of air that is expelled from our nose when we speak. To block air from going through the nose, we lift soft palate (also called velopharynx); to allow air going into the nose, we drop the soft palate (see figure 1). For example, too much airflow through the nose results in a nasal voice (Kummer). It should be noted that damage to resonance or to the respiratory system is likely to make speech less natural and intelligible (ASHA). 
• Fluency. This concerns the rhythm of our speech and is characterized by the number of hesitations and repetitions of sounds when we speak. Non fluent speech is associated with communication disorders such as stuttering.
• Perception. The ability to detect and perceive fine variations in the acoustic signal of speech, including variations in intensity and frequency in a locutor’s voice or variations in their speech rate, are also key elements of speech at the receptive level.

Language refers to the comprehension and production of words and sentences to share ideas or information. Language can be oral, written, or signed (e.g. Quebec Sign Language). Below are the different spheres of language (ASHA; Bishop et al, 2017): 

• Phonology. At the interface between speech and language, phonology refers to the ability to identify and use speech sounds to distinguish the words of a language. For example, in English, it is important to distinguish the sounds associated with the letters “b” and “p” since words such as “bay” and “pay” do not have the same meaning.
• Morphology. This refers to the rules that regulate the use of morphemes, the smallest units of language that carry meaning. For example, in oral and written English, the plural is often indicated by adding the morpheme “-s” to a noun (eg. anemones). Some morphemes can be added at the beginning or at the end of a word to slightly modify the meaning. For example, the morpheme ‘’-est’’ in English is used to express the superlative. For example, when we add “est” to the adjective  tall, we  create the word  tallest , meaning the person who is the most tall.
• Lexicology and semantics. These components refer to vocabulary as well as the knowledge of the word meaning (e.g., knowing the word  anemone  and that it refers not only to a marine animal, but also to a colorful perennial plant).
• Syntax. This refers to the rules to combine words to create sentences in a language. For example, the sentence ‘’I love anemones’’ is composed of a subject (I) and a predicate (formed by the verb  love  and the noun  anemones ); the two obligatory components in an English sentence.
• Pragmatics. This refers to the rules about the use of language in a specific communication context. These rules include the respect of the turn-taking or the adjustment of the language level or content based on the interlocutor. It also includes the ability to detect humour, irony and sarcasm.

Communication

Communication refers to the process of exchanging information, including emotions and thoughts (Bishop and al., 2016), with others using speaking, writing, signs, facial expressions and body language. Communication thus incorporates speech and language, but also prosody (linguistic and emotional). Prosody refers to the ability to vary the intonation, rate and voice intensity to either emphasize certain syllables or words when we speak or to draw the attention of our interlocutor to a particular piece of information (linguistic prosody), or to convey our emotions, voluntarily or not (emotional prosody; Wilson & Wharton, 2005). 

Although the words  speech ,  language  and  communication  are often used interchangeably, these words have distinct meanings when used in scientific or clinical contexts. While  communication  is a broad concept,  speech  and  language  have very specific meaning. This is important because communication difficulties can affect speech and language independently. For example, a person with a speech impairment may have difficulty articulating correctly without having any language difficulty. Likewise, a person with a language disorder may have difficulty understanding the meaning of words, forming grammatically sentences, respecting speaking turns during a conversation, etc., while having no difficulty related to speech (normal voice, normal articulation).

Suggested readings:

• The cocktail party explained
• Comic strip about speech
• Speech perception: a complex ability
• What is the most important element of communication?

Speech analysis

• What is prosody?

References:

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 1 rst ). What Is Speech? What Is Language? https://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/speech-and-language/

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 1 rst ). Language in brief. https://www.asha.org/Practice-Portal/Clinical-Topics/Spoken-Language-Disorders/Language-In–Brief/

American Speech and Hearing Association (ASHA). (2020, September 23). Dysarthria in Adults. https://www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folderid=8589943481&section=Signs_and_Symptoms

Bishop, D.V.M., Snowling, M.J., Thompson, P.A., Greenhalgh, T., & CATALISE consortium. (2016). CATALISE: A Multinational and Multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus Study. Identifying Language Impairments in Children. PLOS ONE 11 (12): e0168066.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168066

Kummer, A.W. (2020, September 23). Resonance Disorders and Velopharyngeal Dysfunction.  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/- /media/cincinnati%20childrens/home/service/s/speech/patients/handouts/resonance-disorders-and-vpd.pdf?la=en

Wilson, D., & Wharton, T. (2006). Relevance and prosody. Journal of Pragmatics 38 , 1559–1579. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2005.04.012

The peripheral auditory system

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Respiratory mechanisms

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• American Speech-Language-Hearing Association - What is Speech? What is Language?
• Institute for Natural Language Processing - Voice quality: description and classification
• speech - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• speech - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

speech , human communication through spoken language . Although many animals possess voices of various types and inflectional capabilities, humans have learned to modulate their voices by articulating the laryngeal tones into audible oral speech.

The regulators

Human speech is served by a bellows-like respiratory activator, which furnishes the driving energy in the form of an airstream; a phonating sound generator in the larynx (low in the throat) to transform the energy; a sound-molding resonator in the pharynx (higher in the throat), where the individual voice pattern is shaped; and a speech-forming articulator in the oral cavity ( mouth ). Normally, but not necessarily, the four structures function in close coordination. Audible speech without any voice is possible during toneless whisper , and there can be phonation without oral articulation as in some aspects of yodeling that depend on pharyngeal and laryngeal changes. Silent articulation without breath and voice may be used for lipreading .

An early achievement in experimental phonetics at about the end of the 19th century was a description of the differences between quiet breathing and phonic (speaking) respiration. An individual typically breathes approximately 18 to 20 times per minute during rest and much more frequently during periods of strenuous effort. Quiet respiration at rest as well as deep respiration during physical exertion are characterized by symmetry and synchrony of inhalation ( inspiration ) and exhalation ( expiration ). Inspiration and expiration are equally long, equally deep, and transport the same amount of air during the same period of time, approximately half a litre (one pint) of air per breath at rest in most adults. Recordings (made with a device called a pneumograph) of respiratory movements during rest depict a curve in which peaks are followed by valleys in fairly regular alternation.

Phonic respiration is different; inhalation is much deeper than it is during rest and much more rapid. After one takes this deep breath (one or two litres of air), phonic exhalation proceeds slowly and fairly regularly for as long as the spoken utterance lasts. Trained speakers and singers are able to phonate on one breath for at least 30 seconds, often for as much as 45 seconds, and exceptionally up to one minute. The period during which one can hold a tone on one breath with moderate effort is called the maximum phonation time; this potential depends on such factors as body physiology, state of health, age, body size, physical training, and the competence of the laryngeal voice generator—that is, the ability of the glottis (the vocal cords and the opening between them) to convert the moving energy of the breath stream into audible sound. A marked reduction in phonation time is characteristic of all the laryngeal diseases and disorders that weaken the precision of glottal closure, in which the cords (vocal folds) come close together, for phonation.

Respiratory movements when one is awake and asleep, at rest and at work, silent and speaking are under constant regulation by the nervous system . Specific respiratory centres within the brain stem regulate the details of respiratory mechanics according to the body needs of the moment. Conversely, the impact of emotions is heard immediately in the manner in which respiration drives the phonic generator; the timid voice of fear, the barking voice of fury, the feeble monotony of melancholy , or the raucous vehemence during agitation are examples. Conversely, many organic diseases of the nervous system or of the breathing mechanism are projected in the sound of the sufferer’s voice. Some forms of nervous system disease make the voice sound tremulous; the voice of the asthmatic sounds laboured and short winded; certain types of disease affecting a part of the brain called the cerebellum cause respiration to be forced and strained so that the voice becomes extremely low and grunting. Such observations have led to the traditional practice of prescribing that vocal education begin with exercises in proper breathing.

The mechanism of phonic breathing involves three types of respiration: (1) predominantly pectoral breathing (chiefly by elevation of the chest), (2) predominantly abdominal breathing (through marked movements of the abdominal wall), (3) optimal combination of both (with widening of the lower chest). The female uses upper chest respiration predominantly, the male relies primarily on abdominal breathing. Many voice coaches stress the ideal of a mixture of pectoral (chest) and abdominal breathing for economy of movement. Any exaggeration of one particular breathing habit is impractical and may damage the voice.

The question of what the brain does to make the mouth speak or the hand write is still incompletely understood despite a rapidly growing number of studies by specialists in many sciences, including neurology, psychology , psycholinguistics, neurophysiology, aphasiology, speech pathology , cybernetics, and others. A basic understanding, however, has emerged from such study. In evolution, one of the oldest structures in the brain is the so-called limbic system , which evolved as part of the olfactory (smell) sense. It traverses both hemispheres in a front to back direction, connecting many vitally important brain centres as if it were a basic mainline for the distribution of energy and information. The limbic system involves the so-called reticular activating system (structures in the brain stem), which represents the chief brain mechanism of arousal, such as from sleep or from rest to activity. In humans, all activities of thinking and moving (as expressed by speaking or writing) require the guidance of the brain cortex. Moreover, in humans the functional organization of the cortical regions of the brain is fundamentally distinct from that of other species, resulting in high sensitivity and responsiveness toward harmonic frequencies and sounds with pitch , which characterize human speech and music.

In contrast to animals, humans possess several language centres in the dominant brain hemisphere (on the left side in a clearly right-handed person). It was previously thought that left-handers had their dominant hemisphere on the right side, but recent findings tend to show that many left-handed persons have the language centres more equally developed in both hemispheres or that the left side of the brain is indeed dominant. The foot of the third frontal convolution of the brain cortex, called Broca’s area, is involved with motor elaboration of all movements for expressive language. Its destruction through disease or injury causes expressive aphasia , the inability to speak or write. The posterior third of the upper temporal convolution represents Wernicke’s area of receptive speech comprehension. Damage to this area produces receptive aphasia, the inability to understand what is spoken or written as if the patient had never known that language.

Broca’s area surrounds and serves to regulate the function of other brain parts that initiate the complex patterns of bodily movement (somatomotor function) necessary for the performance of a given motor act. Swallowing is an inborn reflex (present at birth) in the somatomotor area for mouth, throat, and larynx. From these cells in the motor cortex of the brain emerge fibres that connect eventually with the cranial and spinal nerves that control the muscles of oral speech.

In the opposite direction, fibres from the inner ear have a first relay station in the so-called acoustic nuclei of the brain stem. From here the impulses from the ear ascend, via various regulating relay stations for the acoustic reflexes and directional hearing, to the cortical projection of the auditory fibres on the upper surface of the superior temporal convolution (on each side of the brain cortex). This is the cortical hearing centre where the effects of sound stimuli seem to become conscious and understandable. Surrounding this audito-sensory area of initial crude recognition, the inner and outer auditopsychic regions spread over the remainder of the temporal lobe of the brain, where sound signals of all kinds appear to be remembered, comprehended, and fully appreciated. Wernicke’s area (the posterior part of the outer auditopsychic region) appears to be uniquely important for the comprehension of speech sounds.

The integrity of these language areas in the cortex seems insufficient for the smooth production and reception of language. The cortical centres are interconnected with various subcortical areas (deeper within the brain) such as those for emotional integration in the thalamus and for the coordination of movements in the cerebellum (hindbrain).

All creatures regulate their performance instantaneously comparing it with what it was intended to be through so-called feedback mechanisms involving the nervous system. Auditory feedback through the ear, for example, informs the speaker about the pitch, volume, and inflection of his voice, the accuracy of articulation, the selection of the appropriate words, and other audible features of his utterance. Another feedback system through the proprioceptive sense (represented by sensory structures within muscles, tendons, joints, and other moving parts) provides continual information on the position of these parts. Limitations of these systems curtail the quality of speech as observed in pathologic examples (deafness, paralysis , underdevelopment).

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The Difference Between Speech and Language

by HEAR Center | Mar 7, 2024 | News

For the average person, speech and language seem interchangeable words. After all, the thesaurus lists them as synonyms. However, these two words have very different definitions in the field of child development.

Understanding each is essential to helping struggling children. Fortunately, there are resources to help parents get a firm grasp on these concepts. The following questions cover the basics of children’s development and when parents should seek professional support .

What Is the Difference Between Language and Speech?

Language comes in many forms :

Individuals usually have proficiency in multiple forms of language; many have proficiency in multiple languages. There are thousands of languages today, each with multiple dialects. There are also countless “dead” languages that now only exist in historical texts. As people use language, it expands and changes to include new ideas.

While these languages are incredibly different, they all have two things in common: grammatical rules and words containing meaning. While these may change over time or by location, they remain stable enough that two individuals with a common language can communicate.

Speech plays a vital role in spoken language, as it impacts how a person forms words. There are three components to speaking :

• Articulation

Individuals can have difficulty with one or multiple components.

How Do Issues With One Affect the Other?

Children can have difficulty with speaking, language or both. For example, children struggling with language skills may have a limited vocabulary. Kids with speaking problems may stutter or have trouble producing certain sounds.

An initial issue with one can even affect the development of the other. For example, problems with language mean fewer opportunities to practice pronunciation. Problems with speech may make children self-conscious and unwilling to talk with others. The less children converse, the more limited their experience with communication.

How Can You Support Your Child’s Speech and Language Development?

Fortunately, there are many ways for parents to support their children’s development at home. In fact, you probably already do many of the recommended activities :

• Ask open-ended questions.
• Play music and sing songs together.
• Play pretend.
• Read together.
• Narrate actions with self and parallel talk.

Children develop at their own pace, and you may see differences in siblings’ abilities at similar ages. However, you should still watch for signs your child needs professional assistance:

• Lack of age-appropriate speaking and gestures
• Inconsistent voice quality or stuttering
• Lack of babbling
• Inconsistent pronunciation
• Sentence formation later than peers

Who Can Help If Your Child Has Speech and Language Development Difficulties?

Speech and language pathologists can identify language disorders and help individuals, including children, develop their communication skills. These experts provide individual therapy, ensuring patients receive specialized care. SLPs can also teach parents strategies to create a language-rich home environment.

If your child deals with speech or language issues, HEAR Center can help. This clinic provides a variety of services, including therapy with an SLP. Early intervention can help your children keep up with their peers, so don’t hesitate to make an appointment. To schedule, call 626-796-2016 or visit  HEAR Center website.

What is the Difference Between Language and Speech Development?

https://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/speech-and-language/

FAQ: What’s the difference between speech and language?

https://raisingchildren.net.au/babies/development/language-development/language-development-0-8

https://www.parents.com/baby/development/talking/9-ways-to-help-your-childs-language-development/

https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/not-talk.html

Top 10 Signs Your Child Has a Speech Disorder

https://onlinegrad.baylor.edu/resources/what-speech-language-pathologists-do/

https://www.understood.org/en/articles/difference-between-speech-impairment-and-language-disorder

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What is the Difference Between Speech and Language?

Episode 1: what is the difference between speech and language.

This is going to be the shortest ‘What is…’ Series, but such an absolutely crucial distinction to make.

The topic I’m tackling today is, ‘What is the difference between ‘speech’ and ‘language’?

Speech is the verbal means of communication or conveying a message.

It requires very precise neuromuscular coordination (planning and execution of specific motor sequences).

Language is a learned code, or system of rules that enables us to communicate our ideas and to express our needs. Reading, writing, gesturing and speaking are all forms of language.

Partly innate and partly learned.

Language falls under 2 divisions:

• Receptive Language
• Expressive Language

Receptive language basically refers to ‘understanding’ or ‘comprehension’, which is usually the first to develop and for a lot of human beings ends up being bigger or greater than the expressive component.

Therefore, receptive language precedes and exceeds expressive language.

Which just means it comes or develops before expressive language and tends to be larger.

It is the reason why babies will understand for a much longer time before uttering their first word.

But, the issue in most of these cases is in fact ‘language’ and NOT ‘speech’.

It’s funny actually because the times when I have felt the problem was actually ‘speech’, parents have tended to say it was the opposite….

Like if the child is saying some words or phrases, but you can hardly understand them, that would be a difficulty with the mechanics of producing the sounds/words.

In some of those cases, the parents have said the problem was that the child was not talking.

I, therefore, gently say to the parent, “but your child IS talking, it’s just that it’s difficult to understand them”

When a child is delayed in talking, the most important thing for them at that early stage is language and not necessarily speech. In fact, the starting point for me, would be ‘pragmatics!

Yes! Pragmatics…can they attend/listen, are they giving me sufficient eye contact, can they establish joint attention, turn-take, copy what I asked them to or gesture for them to, etc.

It is far better to have a child who is saying 100 words, but misarticulating them than a child who is saying 2 words with perfect enunciation.

You cannot communicate with the child with only 2 words, but with the other child you can.

Also, teaching ‘speech’ or correcting ‘speech’ is the easiest thing compared to teaching language.

I hope this explanation demonstrates that ‘speech’ and ‘language’ are different terms that cannot be used interchangeably.

I of course realise this is a very brief overview of the fascinating distinction between SPEECH and LANGUAGE and everything that is encompassed under LANGUAGE.

If you would like to learn more, please read the rest of the blog and check out more of the associated videos in this series.

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Lorna muthamia-ochido.

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ARTICULATION TEACHER

• speakeasycommunity
• Dec 15, 2022

The difference between speech and language

Speech and language are often used interchangeably, but they are actually two separate aspects of communication. While they are related and can affect each other, it is important to understand the differences between speech and language and how they impact a person's ability to communicate.

Language is the system of words, sounds, and grammar that people use to communicate with each other. It allows us to express our thoughts and ideas and understand those of others. Language is made up of four main components: phonology, which is the study of sounds; semantics, which is the study of meaning; syntax, which is the study of sentence structure; and pragmatics, which is the study of how language is used in social situations.

Speech, on the other hand, is the physical production of language. It involves the use of the mouth, lips, tongue, and other speech muscles to produce sounds that make up words and sentences. Speech is how we physically produce language and make it audible to others.

While speech and language are related, they can be affected by different factors. For example, a person may have difficulty producing speech due to a physical impairment or a speech disorder, but their language skills may still be intact. On the other hand, a person may have difficulty understanding or using language due to a language disorder, but their speech production may be unaffected.

It is important for parents and caregivers to be aware of the differences between speech and language and how they can impact a person's ability to communicate. If you are concerned about your child's speech and language development, it is important to speak with a healthcare provider or speech-language pathologist who can assess their skills and provide support as needed.

Articulation Teacher focuses on speech development and articulation, while our other app, SpeakEasy: Home Speech Therapy , focuses more on language development. Happy talking!

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