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[2023] What Is Your Teaching Methodology? A Comprehensive Guide

• August 4, 2023
• Instructional Coaching

Quick Answer: Your teaching methodology refers to the strategies and techniques you use to deliver instruction and facilitate learning in the classroom. It encompasses your approach to lesson planning, classroom management, assessment, and student engagement. The most effective teaching methodologies are those that are student-centered, promote critical thinking, and cater to diverse learning styles. Developing a well-rounded teaching methodology is essential for creating a positive and productive learning environment for your students.

Table of Contents

• Quick Answer

Quick Tips and Facts

Definitions.

• Direct Instruction
• Inquiry-Based Learning
• Cooperative Learning
• Differentiated Instruction
• Project-Based Learning
• Flipped Classroom

The Role of Teaching Methodologies in Society

The role of institutions in shaping teaching methodologies, factors of educational success, education studies, history of teaching methodologies, what is your teaching methodology examples, what is your teaching methodology answer, which teaching methodology is best, what is your learning methodology, how do teaching methodologies impact student learning outcomes, recommended links, reference links.

• Your teaching methodology plays a crucial role in student learning and engagement.
• Effective teaching methodologies are student-centered and promote critical thinking.
• It is important to adapt your teaching methodology to cater to diverse learning styles.
• Incorporating various teaching methodologies can enhance student understanding and retention.
• Continuous professional development can help you stay updated with the latest teaching methodologies.

Teaching Methodology: The strategies and techniques used by educators to deliver instruction and facilitate learning in the classroom.

Pedagogy: The theory and practice of teaching, including the principles, methods, and techniques used to educate students.

Andragogy: The theory and practice of teaching adult learners, focusing on self-directed learning and problem-solving.

Types of Teaching Methodologies

1. Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is a teacher-centered approach that involves explicit teaching of knowledge and skills. It typically includes lectures, demonstrations, and guided practice. This methodology is effective for introducing new concepts and building foundational knowledge.

• Provides clear and structured instruction.
• Allows for efficient delivery of content.
• Suitable for large class sizes.
• May not cater to individual learning styles.
• Limited opportunities for student engagement.
• Relies heavily on teacher-led activities.

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2. Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning encourages students to explore and discover knowledge through questioning, investigation, and problem-solving. It promotes critical thinking, collaboration, and independent learning.

• Fosters curiosity and a love for learning.
• Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• Encourages student engagement and ownership of learning.
• Requires careful planning and facilitation.
• May take longer to cover content.
• Students may need guidance in developing effective inquiry skills.

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3. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning involves students working together in small groups to achieve shared learning goals. It promotes collaboration, communication, and the development of social skills.

• Encourages teamwork and cooperation.
• Enhances communication and social skills.
• Provides opportunities for peer learning and support.
• Requires effective group management strategies.
• Individual accountability may be a challenge.
• May require additional time for group work.

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4. Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction involves tailoring instruction to meet the diverse needs of students. It recognizes that learners have different learning styles, abilities, and interests, and aims to provide targeted support and challenge.

• Addresses individual student needs and learning styles.
• Promotes inclusivity and equity in the classroom.
• Enhances student engagement and motivation.
• Requires careful planning and preparation.
• May require additional resources and materials.
• Assessing and tracking individual progress can be challenging.

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5. Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning involves students working on extended projects that require them to apply knowledge and skills to real-world problems or challenges. It promotes collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity.

• Engages students in authentic and meaningful learning experiences.
• Encourages creativity and innovation.
• Requires careful planning and scaffolding.
• May require additional time for project completion.
• Assessing individual contributions can be challenging.

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6. Flipped Classroom

The flipped classroom model involves students learning new content independently outside of class through videos or readings, and using class time for collaborative activities, discussions, and application of knowledge.

• Allows for personalized and self-paced learning.
• Maximizes class time for active learning and application.
• Facilitates student-centered and inquiry-based approaches.
• Requires access to technology and resources outside of class.
• May require additional planning and preparation.
• Students may need guidance in navigating self-directed learning.

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Teaching methodologies play a crucial role in shaping the future of society by equipping students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they need to succeed. They contribute to the development of critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and collaboration skills, which are essential for individuals to thrive in an ever-changing world.

Effective teaching methodologies also foster a love for learning, promote social and emotional development, and help students become responsible and engaged citizens. By incorporating student-centered approaches, teaching methodologies empower learners to take ownership of their education and become lifelong learners.

Educational institutions, such as schools and universities, play a significant role in shaping teaching methodologies. They establish guidelines, curricula, and assessment frameworks that influence teaching practices. Institutions also provide professional development opportunities for educators to enhance their teaching skills and stay updated with current research and best practices.

It is important for institutions to create a supportive and collaborative environment that encourages innovation and experimentation with teaching methodologies. By embracing diverse teaching approaches, institutions can cater to the unique needs of their students and promote inclusive and effective education.

Several factors contribute to educational success, and teaching methodologies are a crucial component. Here are some key factors that influence student learning outcomes:

• Effective Instruction : Well-planned and engaging instruction that aligns with learning objectives and incorporates research-based teaching strategies.
• Teacher-Student Relationship : Positive and supportive relationships between teachers and students that foster trust, motivation, and a sense of belonging.
• Classroom Environment : A safe, inclusive, and well-managed classroom environment that promotes active engagement and collaboration.
• Student Engagement : Active participation and involvement in learning activities that stimulate curiosity and promote deep understanding.
• Assessment and Feedback : Regular and meaningful assessment practices that provide feedback to students and inform instructional decisions.
• Parental Involvement : Collaborative partnerships between teachers, parents, and families that support student learning and well-being.

By considering these factors and implementing effective teaching methodologies, educators can create an optimal learning environment that maximizes student success.

Education studies encompass research and scholarly work on various aspects of teaching and learning. They explore the effectiveness of different teaching methodologies, the impact of educational policies, and the factors that influence student achievement.

Education studies provide valuable insights into the best practices and strategies for effective teaching. Educators can benefit from staying informed about current research in the field to continuously improve their teaching methodologies and enhance student learning outcomes.

Teaching methodologies have evolved over time in response to changing educational philosophies, societal needs, and advancements in technology. Here is a brief overview of the history of teaching methodologies:

• Traditional Methods : In the early years of formal education, teaching was often based on rote memorization and direct instruction.
• Progressive Education : In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, progressive educators like John Dewey advocated for student-centered approaches that focused on hands-on learning and real-world experiences.
• Behaviorism : In the mid-20th century, behaviorism influenced teaching methodologies, emphasizing the use of rewards and punishments to shape student behavior.
• Cognitive Revolution : In the 1960s and 1970s, cognitive psychology led to a shift towards constructivist approaches that emphasized active learning, problem-solving, and critical thinking.
• 21st Century Approaches : In recent years, teaching methodologies have embraced technology-enhanced learning, personalized instruction, and the integration of 21st-century skills.

Today, educators draw from a diverse range of teaching methodologies to meet the needs of their students and create engaging and effective learning experiences.

Teaching methodologies can vary based on the subject, grade level, and individual teaching style. Here are some examples of teaching methodologies:

• Direct Instruction : Lectures, demonstrations, and guided practice.
• Inquiry-Based Learning : Questioning, investigation, and problem-solving.
• Cooperative Learning : Group work and collaboration.
• Differentiated Instruction : Tailoring instruction to meet individual student needs.
• Project-Based Learning : Extended projects that apply knowledge to real-world problems.
• Flipped Classroom : Independent learning outside of class and collaborative activities in class.

As educators, our teaching methodology is a combination of various approaches that cater to the diverse learning needs of our students. We believe in creating a student-centered learning environment that promotes critical thinking, collaboration, and active engagement. Our methodology includes elements of inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, and differentiated instruction to foster a love for learning and empower students to become lifelong learners.

There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, as the best teaching methodology depends on various factors such as the subject, grade level, and individual student needs. However, effective teaching methodologies are those that are student-centered, promote critical thinking, and cater to diverse learning styles. It is important for educators to adapt their teaching methodologies based on the specific needs of their students and the learning outcomes they aim to achieve.

Our learning methodology is centered around active engagement, critical thinking, and collaboration. We believe in providing students with opportunities to explore, question, and discover knowledge through hands-on activities, discussions, and problem-solving. Our methodology encourages students to take ownership of their learning, develop 21st-century skills, and become lifelong learners.

Teaching methodologies have a significant impact on student learning outcomes. Effective teaching methodologies promote student engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, which are essential for deep understanding and knowledge retention. By catering to diverse learning styles and providing opportunities for active learning, teaching methodologies enhance student motivation, confidence, and overall academic achievement.

Developing a well-rounded teaching methodology is essential for creating a positive and productive learning environment for your students. By incorporating student-centered approaches, promoting critical thinking, and catering to diverse learning styles, you can enhance student engagement, foster a love for learning, and empower students to succeed academically and beyond. Remember to continuously explore and adapt your teaching methodologies to meet the evolving needs of your students and stay updated with the latest research and best practices.

• Shop Assessment Techniques on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Classroom Management on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Critical Thinking on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Differentiated Instruction on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Early Childhood Education on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Instructional Coaching on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Instructional Methods in Education on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Lesson Planning on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Professional Development on Teacher Strategies™
• Shop Student Engagement on Teacher Strategies™
• https://www.edutopia.org/
• https://www.teachthought.com/
• https://www.learning-theories.com/
• https://www.researchgate.net/

Marti is a seasoned educator and strategist with a passion for fostering inclusive learning environments and empowering students through tailored educational experiences. With her roots as a university tutor—a position she landed during her undergraduate years—Marti has always been driven by the joy of facilitating others' learning journeys.

Holding a Bachelor's degree in Communication alongside a degree in Social Work, she has mastered the art of empathetic communication, enabling her to connect with students on a profound level. Marti’s unique educational background allows her to incorporate holistic approaches into her teaching, addressing not just the academic, but also the emotional and social needs of her students.

Throughout her career, Marti has developed and implemented innovative teaching strategies that cater to diverse learning styles, believing firmly that education should be accessible and engaging for all. Her work on the Teacher Strategies site encapsulates her extensive experience and dedication to education, offering readers insights into effective teaching methods, classroom management techniques, and strategies for fostering inclusive and supportive learning environments.

As an advocate for lifelong learning, Marti continuously seeks to expand her knowledge and skills, ensuring her teaching methods are both evidence-based and cutting edge. Whether through her blog articles on Teacher Strategies or her direct engagement with students, Marti remains committed to enhancing educational outcomes and inspiring the next generation of learners and educators alike.

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Teaching Methods: Definition, Types, Best Teaching Methods For All Levels

Teaching methods, as it pertains to education, are the techniques and strategies teachers use to help students succeed. Teaching methods can be classified into three categories: instructional design (teacher-led), student-centered (learner-directed), and collaborative/cooperative (group-oriented).

Learning is a process that can be assisted by various methods and techniques. The most common and best method of teaching and learning is the lectures method. Lectures are one of the many different teaching methods used to teach students about the course content. This blog post will discuss what teaching methods are, how they work, and other various types of teaching methods!

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What is a Teaching Method?

The teaching method is the strategy used to convey information for students to learn, it involves careful educational evaluation and assessments in ensuring the right knowledge is passed on to the pupils. Teaching methods can vary from institution to institution, but lectures are a standard method used in the classroom. The best method of teaching focuses on the best way to convey information for students of all different types. However, lectures are one of the more effective ways to do this because they allow instructors to use the best teaching method possible by covering a lot of ground for their lessons to be clearly understood!

A teaching method is a specific way in which teachers teach students. There are many different types and styles of education that teachers use when they interact with students. These methods may be used by either private or public school educators depending on their personal preference or state requirements for teacher certification. The type of education title you obtain will also depend upon your choice of educational style since there are several titles associated with each particular method. However, there are certain vital factors that you should consider before selecting your favorite technique for pedagogy, such as:

• What age group will be studying?
• What level of education does everyone have?
• Are they beginners or experts in their field already?
• How much time do I have to work with them, and how long can my attention span last when working individually/in groups?
• Do I want more information about the topic than just the basics. So, is it an educational experience, or do I need something fun and entertaining for people who don’t know anything about the subject matter at hand?

9 Types of Teaching Methods

1. lecture mode.

Lecture learning is one of the most common methods for teaching and learning in higher institutions of seminar. This method involves a teacher standing in front of students and talking about course content they need to know or understand. Some benefits of lectures include: students can ask questions if they do not understand something, teachers have complete control over what information gets shared with students during this type of instruction, and sometimes allow time so students can take notes on important concepts taught by the instructor. However, some challenges are associated with lecture learning, including how it may be boring for students who prefer more hands-on activities and lack engagement between instructors and their learners.

The lecture method help to break the topic into different segments and present them in smaller chunks. Instructors can use PowerPoint slides, videos, or online resources to help teach students about the course content. In addition, lecture methods are best used when instructors need more time to prepare for their lessons . Lectures can also be best used when instructors need to cover a lot of material in the shortest amount of time possible!

How Do Lectures Work?

Lectures work best when instructors have a lot of material to cover in the classroom. This method is best used when there isn’t enough time for students to engage with their course content from other perspectives, such as through group projects, small group activities, or hands-on learning. Lecture methods are best taught by teachers who can keep students’ attention and clearly share information so everyone can understand what is being said.

2. Problem Solving

This method of teaching involves having students work on specific problems or challenges directly related to course content being taught in class. Some benefits include increased engagement, students learning more deeply about the material, and allowing for more hands-on activities with instructors who may be standing at a whiteboard working through solutions together with their learners. However, there are some cons associated with this form, including the time needed for preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts covered during instruction. It can also be challenging to monitor all learners’ progress.

How Does Problem Solving Work?

Problem-solving involves the instructor presenting a problem or challenge to the students and then breaking up into small groups to work together on finding solutions. This method of teaching best suits visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners because it allows students to engage with the material in different ways. During this type of instruction, teachers should closely monitor student progress, so all individuals make significant contributions and stay on task. They should also be engaged throughout each lesson period.

3. Role Playing

This teaching method involves having students dress up as characters and act out different situations/scenarios related to the material being taught at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement, allowing for hands-on activities with instructors who may participate, and opportunities for student practice before applying these newly learned skills outside their classroom. However, role-playing challenges include the time needed for preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts covered during instruction.

How Does Role-Playing Work?

The best way that role-playing can work is by allowing the instructor to present topics or concepts covered during the lecture time frame while also incorporating small groups into acting out scenarios related to these lessons. During this type of instruction, teachers should monitor student progress closely, so all individuals make significant contributions and everyone stays on task.

4. Group Work

Group work involves having students work with their classmates cooperatively on different assignments related to the material they are being taught at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement and learning more deeply about concepts through collaboration. However, there are drawbacks associated with group work, including the time needed for students’ preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts.

How does group work functions best in a learning environment?

First, students must be familiarized beforehand with the concepts and content they will learn. Then instructors must give their students specific instructions on how best to complete an assignment or project so that each student can best participate and contribute to the overall group effort. Students should also be given time for individual learning before applying these newly learned skills during group work.

5. Games Method of Teaching

Another type of teaching method includes games or activities. It involves having students participate in interactive elements such as board games related to the concepts being taught. Some benefits include increased engagement, learning more deeply about the material through hands-on activities with instructors who may actively participate, and shortening lesson times.

Games can be used to reinforce material that students have already learned. For example, after a lecture has been given on the French Revolution and its causes, instructors may choose to play Jeopardy with their classes using terms like “monarchy,” “revolution,” and other concepts discussed in the lecture. It helps students review and retain information from a previous lesson while encouraging them to participate with one another.

How Does The Game Method of Teaching Work?

In this teaching approach, students are divided into groups. Each group has a different task in the game that they must complete before receiving points or “credits” to move on in their games. For example, one group might have to identify specific countries or continents on the board in a geography course while another has to list capital cities. Instructors can incorporate concepts into these games by rewarding groups who correctly answer questions with more credits than other teams.

6. Flipped Classroom

How does flipped classroom work.

The flipped classroom method of teaching has allowed students to familiarize themselves with course materials outside of class time to participate more actively during classroom lectures. Several benefits come along with this form of learning, including increased student engagement and instructor feedback during the lesson itself. This method also provides students more opportunities for practice before applying what they have learned to other tasks outside their classroom environment. However, there are some difficulties associated with using the flipped class model as well. One major drawback is that instructors may not have enough time to prepare for their lectures because they are limited by the amount of preparation they can do before students come into class. Additionally, students may not be as closely monitored by their instructors because they now have the responsibility of completing homework assignments on their own.

7. Self-Paced Learning

In a self-paced learning environment, there is no set time when the class meets. When using this method, students take responsibility for their learning.

In these environments, instructors offer little to no guidance or feedback during instruction, allowing students to learn independently. Some benefits include increased engagement and student independence in terms of doing coursework. It can also be seen as giving self-study opportunities that previously would not have been available due to lack of instructor availability/time. However, some challenges are associated with this form, including less time spent together outside class which could lead to feelings of isolation or loneliness. Students may not always understand the concepts and may have to take time out of their day to seek help from peers. Many examples of student projects completed using self-paced learning include research papers, science fairs, presentations, art projects, etc.

How Does Self-Paced Learning Work?

Instructors create self-paced learning courses to help students complete coursework on their own time. Students work at their own pace and meet with an instructor when they need assistance understanding a concept or completing a major assignment/project.

Self-paced learning is unique in that it doesn’t rely on meetings or set times for students and instructors to meet. Students are responsible for working independently, making this method different from other methods where the instructor schedules classes. This teaching method also allows students with busy schedules more flexibility, as they can work on coursework at their own pace without having to miss class due to conflicting work/school schedules.

8. Student-Centered Learning

Finally, there is another approach called “Student-Centered Learning”. In this environment, instructors are more hands-off during lectures, allowing students to discuss topics at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement among classmates as it creates a classroom community feeling where everyone feels comfortable being themselves. However, some challenges are associated with this form. They include a lack of structure, which can also be seen as overwhelming by some learners who prefer clear guidelines on what needs completing throughout the semester. Also, students may feel as though they have not been given clear instructions on what to do, which may lead them to feelings of confusion or lack of motivation.

How Does Student-Centered Learning Work?

Some instructors may be highly involved in lecture sessions, while others give students more opportunities to work together or ask questions. The latter is generally the case when teaching introductory courses, which require less guidance than advanced topics. In this type of learning environment, students are expected to be active members in learning. The instructor needs to ensure that each student has an equal opportunity to master course content.

9. Montessori Teaching Method

This is the new cool for elementary schools. That is from pre-school to nursery and down to primary school level. It is now the most adopted method of teaching practiced amongst educationists. This method of teaching involves using creative tools that physically and mentally help kids to easily understand and memorize what is being taught. Montessori teachers are highly trained tutors who know how to impart knowledge into the kids using the Montessori teaching materials. Amongst all the teaching methods for Nursery and Primary school level, the Montessori method of teaching is the best.

A typical Montessori class room.

Having defined Teaching method, listed and explained in full, the types of teaching method, we can deduce from above the best method of teaching.

What is Best Method of Teaching?

The best method depends on various factors and circumstances. all teaching methods listed above depends on the institutional grade which in-turn has a direct relationship with the mental capacity of the students or pupils being taught. For example, for nursery and primary school level otherwise known as the elementary of foundational level, the Montessori method of teaching is the best due to the level of assimilation.

Gaming method is another practical method of teaching that best suits primary and secondary school level. The lecture mode of teaching is best suitable for a larger crowd because its conveys the lecturer’s message and students jot down. Lectures are one of the best methods of teaching for higher institution because they allow instructors to convey information quickly and efficiently. There is no better way to explain something than by doing it yourself! Having an instructor explain course content firsthand is beneficial for students who may be visual learners, auditory learners, or any other type of learner.

As said earlier, choosing the best teaching method is relative and it depends on the circumstance and environment that best suits convey seamlessly the message being passed to the students.

Various teaching methods can be used when instructing students at all levels of education, including elementary school through university or college-level courses. We can use lectures, games, activities, demonstrations, and many other teaching methods in the classroom to teach students about concepts and ideas that will hopefully remain for a long time. In addition to these traditional methods, exploring  top masterclass courses  can offer students a unique opportunity to learn from leading experts in various fields, further enriching their educational journey.

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What Is Teaching Methodology?|Types Of Teaching Methodology

Table of Contents

What Is Teaching Methodology?

Teaching methodology refers to the strategies, techniques, and approaches that educators use to facilitate learning. There is no one-size-fits-all methodology, as effective teaching depends on various factors such as the subject matter, the learning styles of students, and the educational context. However, there are some common methodologies and principles that educators often incorporate into their teaching practices. Here are several key teaching methodologies:

key teaching methodologies:

Lecture-based teaching:.

• Involves the teacher presenting information to students in a structured manner.
• Can be effective for delivering large amounts of content in a short period.
• Requires active engagement strategies to keep students involved.

Interactive/Participatory Learning:

• Emphasizes student participation and interaction.
• Includes activities such as discussions, group work, case studies, and role-playing.
• Fosters critical thinking and collaboration skills.

Project-Based Learning (PBL):

• Involves students in real-world projects that require them to apply knowledge and skills.
• Promotes hands-on learning, problem-solving, and teamwork.
• Encourages creativity and innovation.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL):

• Focuses on presenting students with authentic, open-ended problems to solve.
• Encourages independent inquiry, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

Flipped Classroom:

• Involves students engaging with instructional content outside of class (e.g., through videos or readings) and using class time for interactive activities and discussions.
• Shifts the traditional lecture and homework paradigm.

Socratic Method:

• Encourages critical thinking and dialogue through a series of questions and answers.
• Students actively engage in discussions to explore and understand concepts.

Cooperative Learning:

• Involves small groups of students working together to achieve a common goal.
• Promotes teamwork, communication, and social skills.

Inquiry-Based Learning:

• Encourages students to ask questions, explore topics, and seek answers through investigation.
• Fosters curiosity, self-directed learning, and problem-solving skills.

Differentiated Instruction:

• Recognizes and accommodates diverse learning styles, abilities, and interests.
• Tailors instruction to meet the individual needs of students.

Assessment for Learning:

• Involves ongoing assessments and feedback to inform instruction.
• Helps teachers understand student progress and adjust teaching strategies accordingly.

The most effective teaching methodology often involves a combination of these approaches, tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of the students and the subject matter. Flexibility and a willingness to adapt to different situations are key qualities of effective educators.

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Teaching Methodologies

• by teachmint@wp

What is Teaching Method Definition? 

Teaching methodologies refer to a set of practices and principles used by teachers to make the process of teaching and learning highly effective for their students. Teaching methodologies, also known as teaching methods, are usually also based on various beliefs regarding the nature of the language used, and how it is learned.

In a classroom, teachers usually apply a combination of different teaching methods to better fit the needs of that particular batch of students. These methods can be customized to solve problems that are faced specifically by the students in reference. Apart from that, teaching methodologies are also based on different goals that learners may have from that particular course. 

For example, if the goal of an arts and crafts class is to provide refreshments to students, the teaching methodologies will be based on such a goal. Alternately, if the goal of an arts and crafts class is to help students master that particular art/craft form, then the teaching method will change drastically.

Many factors help teachers decide which methodologies to use while conducting their classes. Some of the factors include the age group of the students attending the class, the gender of students, the experience in the said lesson or coursework of the students, as well as their expectations and interests.

Now that you understand what is teaching method let’s know some of its time. Here are some of the teaching methods:

Lecture Method- The teacher presents information to students through oral presentation. This is the traditional method of teaching.

Active Learning- Students participate actively in the learning process through discussions, group activities, and hands-on experiences.

Socratic Method- Involves asking questions to stimulate critical thinking and encourage students to arrive at conclusions independently. This is used to improve independent thinking.

Project-Based Learning – Students engage in extended projects or tasks that require research, problem-solving, and creativity.

Flipped Classroom – Students study the instructional content at home through multimedia resources and use classroom time for discussions and application of knowledge.

Collaborative Learning – In this teaching method definition students learn by working in groups to complete tasks, solve problems, and learn from each other.

Role-Playing – Students act out scenarios or characters to understand complex concepts or practice interpersonal skills.

Demonstration Method: The teacher demonstrates a process or procedure to help students understand practical applications.

The selection of a teaching method depends on the subject matter, the level at which the student wants to engage, the learning objectives, and the overall classroom environment. A skilled teacher will often use a combination of various teaching methods to create an effective and encouraging learning curve for their students. The teacher needs to know what is  teaching method and how it has to be used.

Direct instruction, differentiated instruction, personalized learning, flipped classroom, project-based learning, cooperative learning, gamification, etc. are some of the types of teaching methodologies.

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Teaching Methods and Strategies: The Complete Guide

You’ve completed your coursework. Student teaching has ended. You’ve donned the cap and gown, crossed the stage, smiled with your diploma and went home to fill out application after application.

Suddenly you are standing in what will be your classroom for the next year and after the excitement of decorating it wears off and you begin lesson planning, you start to notice all of your lessons are executed the same way, just with different material. But that is what you know and what you’ve been taught, so you go with it.

After a while, your students are bored, and so are you. There must be something wrong because this isn’t what you envisioned teaching to be like. There is.

Figuring out the best ways you can deliver information to students can sometimes be even harder than what students go through in discovering how they learn best. The reason is because every single teacher needs a variety of different teaching methods in their theoretical teaching bag to pull from depending on the lesson, the students, and things as seemingly minute as the time the class is and the subject.

Using these different teaching methods, which are rooted in theory of different teaching styles, will not only help teachers reach their full potential, but more importantly engage, motivate and reach the students in their classes, whether in person or online.

Teaching Methods

Teaching methods, or methodology, is a narrower topic because it’s founded in theories and educational psychology. If you have a degree in teaching, you most likely have heard of names like Skinner, Vygotsky , Gardner, Piaget , and Bloom . If their names don’t ring a bell, you should definitely recognize their theories that have become teaching methods. The following are the most common teaching theories.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that every learner is essentially a “clean slate” to start off and shaped by emotions. People react to stimuli, reactions as well as positive and negative reinforcement, the site states.

Learning Theories names the most popular theorists who ascribed to this theory were Ivan Pavlov, who many people may know with his experiments with dogs. He performed an experiment with dogs that when he rang a bell, the dogs responded to the stimuli; then he applied the idea to humans.

Other popular educational theorists who were part of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura .

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory is typically spoken about at the early childhood level because it has to do with critical thinking with the biggest concept being the idea of play, according to Edwin Peel writing for Encyclopedia Britannica . Though Bandura and Lev Vygotsky also contributed to cognitive theory, according to Dr. Norman Herr with California State University , the most popular and first theorist of cognitivism is Piaget.

There are four stages to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development that he created in 1918. Each stage correlates with a child’s development from infancy to their teenage years.

The first stage is called the Sensorimotor Stage which occurs from birth to 18 months. The reason this is considered cognitive development is because the brain is literally growing through exploration, like squeaking horns, discovering themselves in mirrors or spinning things that click on their floor mats or walkers; creating habits like sleeping with a certain blanket; having reflexes like rubbing their eyes when tired or thumb sucking; and beginning to decipher vocal tones.

The second stage, or the Preoperational Stage, occurs from ages 2 to 7 when toddlers begin to understand and correlate symbols around them, ask a lot of questions, and start forming sentences and conversations, but they haven’t developed perspective yet so empathy does not quite exist yet, the website states. This is the stage when children tend to blurt out honest statements, usually embarrassing their parents, because they don’t understand censoring themselves either.

From ages 7 to 11, children are beginning to problem solve, can have conversations about things they are interested in, are more aware of logic and develop empathy during the Concrete Operational Stage.

The final stage, called the Formal Operational Stage, though by definition ends at age 16, can continue beyond. It involves deeper thinking and abstract thoughts as well as questioning not only what things are but why the way they are is popular, the site states. Many times people entering new stages of their lives like high school, college, or even marriage go through elements of Piaget’s theory, which is why the strategies that come from this method are applicable across all levels of education.

The Multiple Intelligences Theory

The Multiple Intelligences Theory states that people don’t need to be smart in every single discipline to be considered intelligent on paper tests, but that people excel in various disciplines, making them exceptional.

Created in 1983, the former principal in the Scranton School District in Scranton, PA, created eight different intelligences, though since then two others have been debated of whether to be added but have not yet officially, according to the site.

The original eight are musical, spatial, linguistic, mathematical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic and most people have a predominant intelligence followed by others. For those who are musically-inclined either via instruments, vocals, has perfect pitch, can read sheet music or can easily create music has Musical Intelligence.

Being able to see something and rearrange it or imagine it differently is Spatial Intelligence, while being talented with language, writing or avid readers have Linguistic Intelligence. Kinesthetic Intelligence refers to understanding how the body works either anatomically or athletically and Naturalistic Intelligence is having an understanding of nature and elements of the ecosystem.

The final intelligences have to do with personal interactions. Intrapersonal Intelligence is a matter of knowing oneself, one’s limits, and their inner selves while Interpersonal Intelligence is knowing how to handle a variety of other people without conflict or knowing how to resolve it, the site states. There is still an elementary school in Scranton, PA named after their once-principal.

Constructivism

Constructivism is another theory created by Piaget which is used as a foundation for many other educational theories and strategies because constructivism is focused on how people learn. Piaget states in this theory that people learn from their experiences. They learn best through active learning , connect it to their prior knowledge and then digest this information their own way. This theory has created the ideas of student-centered learning in education versus teacher-centered learning.

Universal Design for Learning

The final method is the Universal Design for Learning which has redefined the educational community since its inception in the mid-1980s by David H. Rose. This theory focuses on how teachers need to design their curriculum for their students. This theory really gained traction in the United States in 2004 when it was presented at an international conference and he explained that this theory is based on neuroscience and how the brain processes information, perform tasks and get excited about education.

The theory, known as UDL, advocates for presenting information in multiple ways to enable a variety of learners to understand the information; presenting multiple assessments for students to show what they have learned; and learn and utilize a student’s own interests to motivate them to learn, the site states. This theory also discussed incorporating technology in the classroom and ways to educate students in the digital age.

Teaching Styles

From each of the educational theories, teachers extract and develop a plethora of different teaching styles, or strategies. Instructors must have a large and varied arsenal of strategies to use weekly and even daily in order to build rapport, keep students engaged and even keep instructors from getting bored with their own material. These can be applicable to all teaching levels, but adaptations must be made based on the student’s age and level of development.

Differentiated instruction is one of the most popular teaching strategies, which means that teachers adjust the curriculum for a lesson, unit or even entire term in a way that engages all learners in various ways, according to Chapter 2 of the book Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice by Celal Akdeniz . This means changing one’s teaching styles constantly to fit not only the material but more importantly, the students based on their learning styles.

Learning styles are the ways in which students learn best. The most popular types are visual, audio, kinesthetic and read/write , though others include global as another type of learner, according to Akdeniz . For some, they may seem self-explanatory. Visual learners learn best by watching the instruction or a demonstration; audio learners need to hear a lesson; kinesthetic learners learn by doing, or are hands-on learners; read/write learners to best by reading textbooks and writing notes; and global learners need material to be applied to their real lives, according to The Library of Congress .

There are many activities available to instructors that enable their students to find out what kind of learner they are. Typically students have a main style with a close runner-up, which enables them to learn best a certain way but they can also learn material in an additional way.

When an instructor knows their students and what types of learners are in their classroom, instructors are able to then differentiate their instruction and assignments to those learning types, according to Akdeniz and The Library of Congress. Learn more about different learning styles.

When teaching new material to any type of learner, is it important to utilize a strategy called scaffolding . Scaffolding is based on a student’s prior knowledge and building a lesson, unit or course from the most foundational pieces and with each step make the information more complicated, according to an article by Jerry Webster .

To scaffold well, a teacher must take a personal interest in their students to learn not only what their prior knowledge is but their strengths as well. This will enable an instructor to base new information around their strengths and use positive reinforcement when mistakes are made with the new material.

There is an unfortunate concept in teaching called “teach to the middle” where instructors target their lessons to the average ability of the students in their classroom, leaving slower students frustrated and confused, and above average students frustrated and bored. This often results in the lower- and higher-level students scoring poorly and a teacher with no idea why.

The remedy for this is a strategy called blended learning where differentiated instruction is occurring simultaneously in the classroom to target all learners, according to author and educator Juliana Finegan . In order to be successful at blended learning, teachers once again need to know their students, how they learn and their strengths and weaknesses, according to Finegan.

Blended learning can include combining several learning styles into one lesson like lecturing from a PowerPoint – not reading the information on the slides — that includes cartoons and music associations while the students have the print-outs. The lecture can include real-life examples and stories of what the instructor encountered and what the students may encounter. That example incorporates four learning styles and misses kinesthetic, but the activity afterwards can be solely kinesthetic.

A huge component of blended learning is technology. Technology enables students to set their own pace and access the resources they want and need based on their level of understanding, according to The Library of Congress . It can be used three different ways in education which include face-to-face, synchronously or asynchronously . Technology used with the student in the classroom where the teacher can answer questions while being in the student’s physical presence is known as face-to-face.

Synchronous learning is when students are learning information online and have a teacher live with them online at the same time, but through a live chat or video conferencing program, like Skype, or Zoom, according to The Library of Congress.

Finally, asynchronous learning is when students take a course or element of a course online, like a test or assignment, as it fits into their own schedule, but a teacher is not online with them at the time they are completing or submitting the work. Teachers are still accessible through asynchronous learning but typically via email or a scheduled chat meeting, states the Library of Congress.

The final strategy to be discussed actually incorporates a few teaching strategies, so it’s almost like blended teaching. It starts with a concept that has numerous labels such as student-centered learning, learner-centered pedagogy, and teacher-as-tutor but all mean that an instructor revolves lessons around the students and ensures that students take a participatory role in the learning process, known as active learning, according to the Learning Portal .

In this model, a teacher is just a facilitator, meaning that they have created the lesson as well as the structure for learning, but the students themselves become the teachers or create their own knowledge, the Learning Portal says. As this is occurring, the instructor is circulating the room working as a one-on-one resource, tutor or guide, according to author Sara Sanchez Alonso from Yale’s Center for Teaching and Learning. For this to work well and instructors be successful one-on-one and planning these lessons, it’s essential that they have taken the time to know their students’ history and prior knowledge, otherwise it can end up to be an exercise in futility, Alonso said.

Some activities teachers can use are by putting students in groups and assigning each student a role within the group, creating reading buddies or literature circles, making games out of the material with individual white boards, create different stations within the classroom for different skill levels or interest in a lesson or find ways to get students to get up out of their seats and moving, offers Fortheteachers.org .

There are so many different methodologies and strategies that go into becoming an effective instructor. A consistent theme throughout all of these is for a teacher to take the time to know their students because they care, not because they have to. When an instructor knows the stories behind the students, they are able to design lessons that are more fun, more meaningful, and more effective because they were designed with the students’ best interests in mind.

There are plenty of pre-made lessons, activities and tests available online and from textbook publishers that any teacher could use. But you need to decide if you want to be the original teacher who makes a significant impact on your students, or a pre-made teacher a student needs to get through.

Read Also: – Blended Learning Guide – Collaborative Learning Guide – Flipped Classroom Guide – Game Based Learning Guide – Gamification in Education Guide – Holistic Education Guide – Maker Education Guide – Personalized Learning Guide – Place-Based Education Guide – Project-Based Learning Guide – Scaffolding in Education Guide – Social-Emotional Learning Guide

Similar Posts:

• Discover Your Learning Style – Comprehensive Guide on Different Learning Styles
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Teaching Methods

Choosing optimal methods to support learning outcomes.

On this page:

The importance of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are the broader techniques used to help students achieve learning outcomes, while activities are the different ways of implementing these methods. Teaching methods help students:

• master the content of the course
• learn how to apply the content in particular contexts

Instructors should identify which teaching methods will properly support a particular learning outcome. Its effectiveness depends on this alignment. To make the most appropriate choice, an instructor should consider learning outcomes, student needs and the learning environment.

Consider the following example:

• Learning outcome: Solve a complex math equation.
• Learning environment: An in person, upper-level math course with 20 students.
• Teaching method: Guided instruction. First, the instructor facilitates learning by modeling and scaffolding. Students take time to  ask questions and receive clarifications. Next, students practice applying these skills together and then independently. The instructor uses formative assessment to check for understanding.

This example demonstrates alignment of what the instructor wants students to do, and how they are supported in these tasks. If the instructor choses a different teaching method, such as a traditional lecture, students would need to process the lecture’s content and apply principles simultaneously. This is very difficult to do and would lead to less successful outcomes.

Choosing the appropriate teaching method brings instruction to life while encouraging students to actively engage with content and develop their knowledge and skills.

The chart below provides a number of teaching methods to choose from. Teaching methods vary in their approach, some are more student-centered while others are more instructor centered, and you will see this reflected in the chart. Choose methods that will best guide your students to achieve the learning outcomes you’ve set and remember that your teaching approach, teaching methods and activities all work together.

Table adapted from: Nilson (2016)

Choose Your Methods

Using the Course Design Template   explore the aspects that will likely affect your course.

• Step 1: Review your learning outcomes.
• Step 2: Identify the teaching methods that best align to these learning outcomes and fill in the appropriate column.
• Step 3: Consider possible activities which will next be examined in further detail.

Now that you’ve reviewed a variety of teaching methods and considered which ones align with your learning outcomes, the next step is to consider activities.

• Nilson, L. B. (2016). Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors (Fourth). John Wiley & Sons.

Teaching Methods

Who's doing this at UT?

Ruth Buskirk , Biological Sciences,  designs her courses by thinking about what she wants her students to know and be able to do by the end of the course. She then decides which teaching methods would best help students achieve these learning outcomes. The deeper the understanding, the more active learning she puts into the class. Active learning, she believes, also increases engagement greatly and improves retention.

How Can I Do This?

The teaching methods you choose reflect the type and depth of learning that you want your students to achieve. The deeper the understanding expected from students, the more active they have to be in their learning. When you think about the learning outcomes for your course, module, or lesson, consider which method will help students: 

Most of our courses are content driven, which means students need to get information from various sources. It is important for students to turn this information into their own knowledge for them to be able to retrieve and use it. You can do this through:

• Effective Lectures
• Peer to peer learning 
• Learning from texts and videos 

The one who does the work does the learning. Students need to practice applying their knowledge to have a deeper understanding of the content and to make it more meaningful and transferable. Encouraging analysis and evaluation develops critical thinking. You can do this through:

• Interactive lecture activities
• Problem solving
• Group learning 
• Discussions
• Learn More about Critical Thinking

Students need opportunities to apply their knowledge and critical thinking toward something generative and productive. Guiding students to conduct research, contribute through artistic expression, develop new theories or practical solutions, or present something they’ve put together for themselves develops creative thinking. You can do this through:

• Inquiry/problem-based learning
• Experiential learning

Why Is This Important?

Not all learning opportunities are nails, and therefore not all teaching methods are hammers. It’s easy to fall into an instructional rut based on what we’ve always done or how we were taught. Using the right approach that aligns with your outcomes helps your students reach the targeted level of learning.

Students should be given a variety of ways to learn because it can play to their strengths while also giving them practice with less-developed modes of learning. Variety of instructional strategies not only appeals to a broader range of students, but reinforces learning in multiple ways.

Students aren't the only ones to be motivated by the stimulation of creative class time. Instructors also experience a renewed joy of teaching when a fresh approach gets through to students in new ways, or a clever tweak to a particular lesson unlocks deeper learning. Stoking the coals of teaching will keep the flames of learning burning strong.

Instructional Strategies

Engagement is essential for learning.

Experiential Learning

Any method that supports students in applying their knowledge and conceptual understanding to real-world problems (critical thinking and/or research).

Flipped Classroom

The flipped class reverses the traditional setup: students acquire basic content outside of class, and then work together in class on application-oriented activities.

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Teach.com / What Do Teachers Do? / Teachers Know / Teaching Methods

The term  teaching method  refers to the general principles, pedagogy and management strategies used for classroom instruction.

Your choice of teaching method depends on what fits you—your educational philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area and school mission statement.

Teaching theories can be organized into four categories based on two major parameters: a teacher-centered approach versus a student-centered approach, and high-tech material use versus low-tech material use.

Interested in developing your skills as a teacher?  Explore online education short courses  designed to give you an in depth understanding of various skills in teaching.

The program cards/tables and images featured on this page were last updated in March 2022. For the most current program information, please refer to the official website of the respective school .  

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Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning

Taken to its most extreme interpretation, teachers are the main authority figure in a teacher-centered instruction model.  Students are viewed as “empty vessels” who passively receive knowledge from their teachers through lectures and direct instruction (PDF, 491 KB) , with an end goal of positive results from testing and assessment. In this style, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities; student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments.

Learn more about the different teaching styles that use a teacher-centered approach .

Student-Centered Approach to Learning

While teachers are still an authority figure in a student-centered teaching model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process.

The teacher’s primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material, and to measure student learning through both formal and informal forms of assessment, like group projects, student portfolios and class participation. In the student-centered classroom, teaching and assessment are connected because student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.

Learn more about the different teaching styles that use a student-centered approach .

High-Tech Approach to Learning

Advancements in technology have propelled the education sector in the last few decades. As the name suggests, the high-tech approach to learning utilizes different technology to aid students in their classroom learning. Many educators use computers and tablets in the classroom, and others may use the internet to assign homework. The internet is also beneficial in a classroom setting as it provides unlimited resources. Teachers may also use the internet in order to connect their students with people from around the world.

Below are some tech tools used in classrooms today:

• G Suite (Gmail, Docs, Sheets, Classroom, Drive, and Calendar)
• Tablets/laptops
• Gamification software (such as  Gametize and  Classcraft )
• Education-focused social media platforms (such as  Schoology  and  Seesaw )
• Technology accessibility for students with disabilities

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Low-Tech Approach to Learning

While technology undoubtedly has changed education, many educators opt to use a more traditional, low-tech approach to learning. Some learning styles require a physical presence and interaction between the educator and the student. Additionally, some research has shown that low-tech classrooms may boost learning. For example,  students who take handwritten notes have better recall than students who take typed notes . Another downside of technology in the classroom may be that  students exposed to spell check and autocorrect features at an earlier age may be weaker in spelling and writing skills . Ultimately, tailoring the learning experience to different types of students is incredibly important, and sometimes students work better with a low-tech approach.

Here are some examples of low technology usage in different teaching methodologies:

• Kinesthetic learners have a need for movement when learning. Teachers can allow students to move around, speak with hands and gestures.
• Expeditionary learning involves “learning by doing” and participating in a hands-on experience. Students may participate in fieldwork, learning expeditions, projects or case studies to be able to apply knowledge learned in the classroom to the real world, rather than learning through the virtual world.
• Many types of vocational or practical training cannot be learned virtually, whether it be a laboratory experiment or woodworking.

Through these different approaches to teaching, educators can gain a better understanding of how best to govern their classrooms, implement instruction, and connect with their students. Within each category of teacher and student centeredness and tech usage, there are specific teaching roles or “methods” of instructor behavior that feature their own unique mix of learning and assessment practices. Learn more about each one to find the best fit for your classroom.

Teacher-Centered Methods of Instruction

Direct Instruction (Low-Tech)

Direct instruction is the general term that refers to the traditional teaching strategy that relies on explicit teaching through lectures and teacher-led demonstrations.

In this method of instruction, the teacher might play one or all of the following roles:

Formal Authority

Formal Authority teachers are in a position of power and authority because of their exemplary knowledge and status over their students. Classroom management styles are traditional and focus on rules and expectations.

Expert teachers are in possession of all knowledge and expertise within the classroom. Their primary role is to guide and direct students through the learning process. Students are viewed solely as the receptors of knowledge and information (“empty vessels”).

Personal Model

Teachers who operate under the “personal model’ style are those who lead by example, demonstrating to students how to access and comprehend information. In this teaching model, students learn through observing and copying the teacher’s process.

As the primary teaching strategy under the  teacher-centered approach , direct instruction utilizes passive learning, or the idea that students can learn what they need to through listening and watching very precise instruction. Teachers and professors act as the sole supplier of knowledge, and under the direct instruction model, teachers often utilize systematic, scripted lesson plans. Direct instruction programs include exactly what the teacher should say, and activities that students should complete, for every minute of the lesson.

Because it does not include student preferences or give them opportunities for hands-on or alternative types of learning, direct instruction is extremely teacher-centered. It’s also fairly low-tech, often relying on the use of textbooks and workbooks instead of computers and 1:1 devices.

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Flipped Classrooms (High-Tech)

The idea of  the flipped classroom began in 2007 when two teachers began using software that would let them record their live lectures . By the next school year, they were implementing pre-recorded lectures and sharing the idea of what became known as the flipped classroom.

Broadly, the flipped classroom label describes the teaching structure that has students watching pre-recorded lessons at home and completing in-class assignments, as opposed to hearing lectures in class and doing homework at home. Teachers who implement the flipped classroom model often film their own instructional videos, but many also use pre-made videos from online sources.

A key benefit of the flipped classroom model is that it can allow for students to work at their own pace. In some cases, teachers may assign the same videos to all students, while in others, teachers may choose to allow students to watch new videos as they master topics, taking on a more differentiated approach.

But despite this potential for more student-centeredness, flipped classroom models are still mostly based on a teacher’s idea of how learning should happen and what information students need, making it chiefly teacher-centered. From a technology perspective, the system hinges on pre-recorded lessons and online activities, meaning both students and teachers need a good internet connection and devices that can access it.

Kinesthetic Learning (Low Tech)

Sometimes known as “tactile learning”or “hands-on learning”, kinesthetic learning is based on the idea of  multiple intelligences External link  , requiring students to do, make or create. In a kinesthetic learning environment, students perform physical activities rather than listen to lectures or watch demonstrations. Hands-on experiences, drawing, role-play, building and the use of drama and sports are all examples of kinesthetic classroom activities.

Though a great way to keep students engaged and, at times, simply awake, very few classrooms employ kinesthetic learning activities exclusively. One reason is that, despite the popularity of learning style theories, there is a lack of research-based evidence that shows that  teaching to certain learning styles produces better academic results .

One upside is that kinesthetic learning is rarely based on technology, as the method values movement and creativity over technological skills. That means it’s cheap and fairly low-barrier to adopt, as well as a welcome break from students’ existing screen time. Kinesthetic learning can be more student-centered than teacher-centered when students are given the choice of how to use movement to learn new information or experience new skills, so it’s also adaptable to a teacher’s particular classroom preferences.

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Student-Centered Methods of Instruction

Differentiated Instruction (Low Tech)

Differentiated instruction is the teaching practice of tailoring instruction to meet individual student needs. It initially grew popular with the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which ensured all children had equal access to public education. The Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), which started under IDEA, helped classroom teachers differentiate for students with special needs. Today, differentiated instruction is used to meet the needs of all types of students.

Teachers can differentiate in a number of ways: how students access content, the types of activities students do to master a concept, what the end product of learning looks like and how the classroom is set up. Some examples of differentiation include: having students read books at their own reading levels, offering different spelling lists to students or meeting in small groups to reteach topics.

Though differentiation is focused on individual student needs, it is mostly planned and implemented by the teacher. And technology, though a potential aid, is not a hallmark of the differentiated teaching style, making it a fairly traditional, low-barrier method to adopt.

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Inquiry-based Learning (High Tech)

Based on student investigation and hands-on projects, inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that casts a teacher as a supportive figure who provides guidance and support for students throughout their learning process, rather than a sole authority figure.

Facilitator

Facilitators play a strong emphasis on the teacher-student relationship. Operating under an open classroom model, there is a de-emphasis on teacher instruction, and both student and educator undergo the learning process together. Student learning is loosely guided by the teacher, and is focused on fostering independence, hands-on learning and exploration.

Teachers who operate under the “personal model” style are those who lead by example, demonstrating to students how to access and comprehend information. In this teaching model, students learn through observing and copying the teacher’s process.

Teachers act as a resource to students, answering questions and reviewing their progress as needed. Teachers play a passive role in student’s learning; students are active and engaged participants in their learning. The main goal of a delegator is to foster a sense of autonomy in the learning process.

Teachers encourage students to ask questions and consider what they want to know about the world around them. Students then research their questions, find information and sources that explain key concepts and solve problems they may encounter along the way. Findings might be presented as self-made videos, websites or formal presentations of research results.

Inquiry-based learning falls under the student-centered approach, in that students play an active and participatory role in their own learning. But teacher facilitation is also extremely key to the process. Usually, during the inquiry cycle, every student is working on a different question or topic. In this environment, teachers ask high-level questions and make research suggestions about the process rather than the content. At the end of the inquiry cycle, students reflect on the experience and what they learned. They also consider how it connects to other topics of interest, as an inquiry on one topic often results in more questions and then an inquiry into new fields.

Inquiry-based learning can make great use of technology through online research sites, social media, and the possibility for global connections with people outside of the community. But depending on the subject at hand, it doesn’t necessarily require it.

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Expeditionary Learning (High Tech)

Expeditionary learning is based on the ideas of the educator who founded  Outward Bound , and is a form of project-based learning in which students go on expeditions and engage in in-depth study of topics that impact their schools and communities.

The learning in this model includes multiple content areas so that students can see how problem-solving can happen in the real world—ideally, their own worlds. A student in a big city, for example, might study statistics about pollution, read information about its effects and travel to sites in their city that have been affected by the problem. When they have a good understanding of the circumstances, students and teachers work to find a solution they can actively implement.

Technology-wise, G Suite (Google Docs, Sheets and Drive) and internet access can aid student research, presentation, and implementation of projects. But it’s the hands-on work and getting out into the community that’s the cornerstone of this methodology.

Personalized Learning (High Tech)

Personalized learning  is such a new educational model that its definition is still evolving. At the heart of the model, teachers have students follow personalized learning plans that are specific to their interests and skills. Student self-direction and choice in the curriculum are hallmarks of personalized learning.

Assessment is also tailored to the individual: schools and classrooms that implement personalized learning use competency-based progression, so that students can move onto the next standards or topics when they’ve mastered what they’re currently working on. That way, students in personalized learning classrooms can progress to work beyond their grade level as they master topics, while students who need additional help have that time built into their daily schedules as well.

There’s also room for an emphasis on college and career readiness in personalized learning environments. Students who don’t require remediation or extension work can instead work with teachers to nurture social skills and other or 21st-century skills lessons and receive mentoring.

Personalized learning is extremely student-centered, but teachers are required to teach lessons, look at frequent assessment data and meet with students to make any necessary changes to their learning plans. They’ll also need to have a certain comfort level with technology: the differentiated and personalized instruction that students receive often come in the form of online lessons and programs, so teachers must be able to navigate virtual platforms with ease.

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Game-based Learning (High Tech)

Game-based learning comes from the desire to  engage students in more active learning in the classroom . Because they require students to be problem solvers and use soft skills that they will need as adults, games are a great way to encourage a mastery mindset, rather than a focus on grades.

In a game-based learning environment, students work on quests to accomplish a specific goal (learning objective) by choosing actions and experimenting along the way. As students make certain progress or achievements, they can earn badges and experience points, just like they would in their favorite video games.

Game-based learning requires a lot of time and planning on the teacher’s part. Fortunately, there is software that makes this process much easier, like  Gametize  and  Classcraft . Teachers who use this software may be better at differentiating quests for students because of the data the programs provide.

Because teachers play a big role in planning and creating content under this model, game-based learning isn’t completely student-centered. But it is still very much focused on the student, who works at their own pace and makes independent choices in a gamified environment.

Last Updated June 2024

Teaching Methods Overview

The Faculty Center promotes research-based instructional strategies and classroom techniques that improve student performance and learning. Because instruction at UCF takes place in many formats, environments, and class sizes, there is no single most effective teaching method for all contexts. However, research does support a practical range of methods that can be adapted to the various circumstances in which we teach. These strategies fall somewhere on the continuum illustrated below between teacher- and student-directed. We hope the resources on these pages will help you develop a repertoire of evidence-based instructional strategies that meet your and your students’ needs. Refer also to our Learning Spaces pages for strategies and techniques to implement active learning in various classroom configurations . Finally, a synopsis of teaching and learning principles from various sources helps frame some beneficial strategies to improve student learning.

We have provided short descriptions and links to more information for best practice for some popular teaching methods below. They are presented in order from more teacher-directed to more student-directed. For a video discussion of the above, please view the following brief video:

Lecture—Showing/Telling

Direct instruction is a widely used and effective instructional strategy that is strongly supported by research. In direct instruction, the teacher

• models an interaction with the subject, demonstrates an approach to an issue, or shows example solutions to problems,
• provides opportunities for guided practice, often assigning small group work in class with an emphasis on constructive feedback, and
• assigns independent practice with an emphasis on mastery learning.

Lecture can help students organize extensive readings, but it should not be used to simply duplicate those readings. Because learning results from what students do, lectures should be crafted so that students are intentionally active as much as is reasonable. Direct instruction can be easily combined with other teaching methods and can be transferred to online teaching by using videos for the modeling stage and discussion groups for the guided practice stage.

Worked Examples

Worked examples are step-by-step demonstrations of how to complete a problem or perform a task. Concepts are first introduced in their simplest form, then the teacher gradually progresses from simple to complex procedures. Worked examples are a way to impart information. Therefore, the process is considered a form of lecturing. Worked examples are particularly useful in STEM fields, and are most effective when learners are not already familiar with the processes being presented. Students must actually work their way through the examples, rather than skip over them to homework problems, in order to see real benefit.

This sample video from Khan Academy gives a sense of how worked examples play out in practice.

Interactive Lecture

Many instructors build their lectures around questions that students, individually or in small groups, can answer using colored flashcards or polling technologies like clickers or BYOD apps. The advantage to using polling technologies is their scalability, ease of providing collective feedback on student performance, and integration with the online gradebook for uploading participation or quiz points. Other interactive techniques involve short writing exercises, quick pairings or small group discussions, individual or collaborative problem solving, or drawing for understanding. We also have a list of suggested interactive techniques .

View the following video for some ideas about good practices for lecturing:

Flipped Classroom

In the basic structure of a “flipped classroom,” the students first engage the content online (through readings, video lectures, or podcasts), then come to class for the guided practice. It requires explicit communication of learning objectives, procedures, roles, and assessment criteria. It requires a detailed curriculum design organized around scaffolding learning toward mastery. Some critics equate direct instruction with just lecturing; however, here the term is used as “directing” student learning. In direct instruction, the role of the teacher is similar to that of a coach.

Many faculty opt to create video lectures using PowerPoint. The steps are simple: after the slides are ready, click the Slide Show tab and locate the “Record” icon near the middle. The slideshow will start, and audio will be captured for each slide. Upon completion, click File-SaveAs and switch the filetype from .pptx to .mwv or .mp4. After the video file is created, many faculty upload the video to YouTube for maximum accessibility, and link to it (or embed) from Webcourses.

For a basic introduction and resources on flipped classrooms, see this Edutopia website . For a more theory-based introduction, see Vanderbilt University’s discussion . Finally, please view our brief video:

Socratic Questioning

Socratic questioning involves the teacher’s facilitation of critical thinking in students by dint of carefully designed questions. The classic Greek philosopher, Socrates, believed that thoughtful questioning enabled students to examine questions logically. His technique was to profess ignorance of the topic in order to promote student knowledge. R. W. Paul has suggested six categories of Socratic questions: questions for clarification, questions that probe assumptions, questions that probe evidence and reasoning, questions about viewpoints and perspectives, questions that probe implications and consequences, and questions about the question.

See Intel.com’s article on the topic for a good overview of Socratic questioning, and view our following video:

Discussion-Based Learning

One of the primary purposes of discussion-based learning is to facilitate students’ meaningful transition into the extended conversation that is each academic discipline. Discussions allow students to practice applying their learning and developing their critical-thinking skills in real-time interactions with other viewpoints. Often, the challenge for the teacher is to get students to engage in discussions as opportunities to practice reasoning skills rather than simply exchanging opinions. One tip for addressing this challenge is to create a rubric for assessing the discussion and to assign certain students to act as evaluators who provide feedback at the end of the discussion. Students rotate into this role throughout the semester, which also benefits their development of metacognitive skills.

See the Tip Sheets at Harvard’s Bok Center for practice ideas on discussion questions and discussion leading.

The Faculty Center also offers the following brief video on discussion-based learning:

Case-Based Learning

Case-based learning is used widely across many disciplines, and collections of validated cases are available online, often bundled with handouts, readings, assessments, and tips for the teacher. Cases range from scenarios that can be addressed in a single setting, sometimes within minutes, to sequential or iterative cases that require multiple settings and multiple learning activities to arrive at multiple valid outcomes. They can be taught in a one-to-many format using polling technologies or in small teams with group reports. Ideally, all cases should be debriefed in plenary discussion to help students synthesize their learning.

For discipline-specific case studies repositories, check out the following:

• National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (Science topics)
• Online based-based biology for community colleges (Biology/Ecology topics)
• Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media (History topics)
• Science Case Net (Sciences)
• NASPAA Publicases repository (Public Administration, Public Policy topics)

Collaborative Learning

Learning in groups is common practice across all levels of education. The value of learning in groups is well supported by research and is required in many disciplines. It has strong benefits for at-risk students, especially in STEM subjects. In more structured group assignments, students are often given roles that allow them to focus on specific tasks and then cycle through those roles in subsequent activities. Common classroom activities for groups include: “think-pair-share”, fishbowl debates, case studies, problem solving, jigsaw.

• Center for Teaching at Vanderbilt University website

Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning encompasses a range of question-driven approaches that seek to increase students’ self-direction in their development of critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. As students gain expertise, the instructor decreases guidance and direction and students take on greater responsibility for operations. Effective teaching in this mode requires accurate assessment of prior knowledge and motivation to determine the scaffolding interventions needed to compensate for the increased cognitive demands on novices. This scaffolding can be provided by the instructor through worked scenarios, process worksheets, opportunities for learner-reflection, and consultations with individuals or small groups. Students are generally allowed to practice and fail with subsequent opportunities to revise and improve performance based on feedback from peers and/or the instructor.

For a basic definition and tips about inquiry-based learning, see Teach-nology.com’s resources.

Problem-Based Learning

Often referred to as PBL, this method is similar to the case study method, except the intention is generally to keep the problem, the process, and the outcomes more ambiguous than is comfortable for students. PBL asks students to experience and struggle with radical uncertainty. Your role as the teacher is to create an intentionally ill-structured problem and a deadline for a deliverable, assign small groups (with or without defined roles), optionally offer some preparation, and resist giving clear, comfortable assessment guidance.

To learn more about problem-based learning, go here .

Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learning, and both can be referred to as PBL, but in project-based learning, the student comes up with the problem or question to research. Often, the project’s deliverable is a creative product, which can increase student engagement and long-term learning, but it can also result in the student investing more time and resources into creative production at the expense of the academic content. When assigning projects to groups that include novice students, you should emphasize the need for equitable contributions to the assignment. Assessments should address differences in effort and allow students to contribute to the evaluations of their peers.

Learn more about project-based learning here .

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The Complete List of Teaching Methods

Teaching Methods: Not as Simple as ABC

Teaching methods [teacher-centered], teaching methods [student-centered], what about blended learning and udl, teaching methods: a to z, for the love of teaching.

Whether you’re a longtime educator, preparing to start your first teaching job or mapping out your dream of a career in the classroom, the topic of teaching methods is one that means many different things to different people.

Your individual approaches and strategies to imparting knowledge to your students and inspiring them to learn are probably built on your academic education as well as your instincts and intuition.

Whether you come by your preferred teaching methods organically or by actively studying educational theory and pedagogy, it can be helpful to have a comprehensive working knowledge of the various teaching methods at your disposal.

[Download] Get the Complete List of Teaching Methods PDF Now >>

The teacher-centered approach vs. the student-centered approach. High-tech vs. low-tech approaches to learning. Flipped classrooms, differentiated instruction, inquiry-based learning, personalized learning and more.

Not only are there dozens of teaching methods to explore, it is also important to have a sense for how they often overlap or interrelate. One extremely helpful look at this question is offered by the teacher-focused education website Teach.com.

“Teaching theories can be organized into four categories based on two major parameters: a teacher-centered approach versus a student-centered approach, and high-tech material use versus low-tech material use,” according to the informative Teach.com article , which breaks down a variety of influential teaching methods as follows:

Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning Teachers serve as instructor/authority figures who deliver knowledge to their students through lectures and direct instruction, and aim to measure the results through testing and assessment. This method is sometimes referred to as “sage on the stage.”

Student-Centered Approach to Learning Teachers still serve as an authority figure, but may function more as a facilitator or “guide on the side,” as students assume a much more active role in the learning process. In this method, students learn from and are continually assessed on such activities as group projects, student portfolios and class participation.

High-Tech Approach to Learning From devices like laptops and tablets to using the internet to connect students with information and people from around the world, technology plays an ever-greater role in many of today’s classrooms. In the high-tech approach to learning, teachers utilize many different types of technology to aid students in their classroom learning.

Low-Tech Approach to Learning Technology obviously comes with pros and cons, and many teachers believe that a low-tech approach better enables them to tailor the educational experience to different types of learners. Additionally, while computer skills are undeniably necessary today, this must be balanced against potential downsides; for example, some would argue that over-reliance on spell check and autocorrect features can inhibit rather than strengthen student spelling and writing skills.

Diving further into the overlap between different types of teaching methods, here is a closer look at three teacher-centered methods of instruction and five popular student-centered approaches.

Direct Instruction (Low Tech) Under the direct instruction model — sometimes described as the “traditional” approach to teaching — teachers convey knowledge to their students primarily through lectures and scripted lesson plans, without factoring in student preferences or opportunities for hands-on or other types of learning. This method is also customarily low-tech since it relies on texts and workbooks rather than computers or mobile devices.

Flipped Classrooms (High Tech) What if students did the “classroom” portion of their learning at home and their “homework” in the classroom? That’s an oversimplified description of the flipped classroom approach, in which students watch or read their lessons on computers at home and then complete assignments and do problem-solving exercises in class.

Kinesthetic Learning (Low Tech) In the kinesthetic learning model, students perform hands-on physical activities rather than listening to lectures or watching demonstrations. Kinesthetic learning, which values movement and creativity over technological skills, is most commonly used to augment traditional types of instruction — the theory being that requiring students to do, make or create something exercises different learning muscles.

Differentiated Instruction (Low Tech) Inspired by the 1975 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), enacted to ensure equal access to public education for all children, differentiated instruction is the practice of developing an understanding of how each student learns best, and then tailoring instruction to meet students’ individual needs.

In some instances, this means Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for students with special needs, but today teachers use differentiated instruction to connect with all types of learners by offering options on how students access content, the types of activities they do to master a concept, how student learning is assessed and even how the classroom is set up.

Inquiry-Based Learning (High Tech) Rather than function as a sole authority figure, in inquiry-based learning teachers offer support and guidance as students work on projects that depend on them taking on a more active and participatory role in their own learning. Different students might participate in different projects, developing their own questions and then conducting research — often using online resources — and then demonstrate the results of their work through self-made videos, web pages or formal presentations.

Expeditionary Learning (Low Tech) Expeditionary learning is based on the idea that there is considerable educational value in getting students out of the classroom and into the real world. Examples include trips to City Hall or Washington, D.C., to learn about the workings of government, or out into nature to engage in specific study related to the environment. Technology can be used to augment such expeditions, but the primary focus is on getting out into the community for real-world learning experiences.

Personalized Learning (High Tech) In personalized learning, teachers encourage students to follow personalized, self-directed learning plans that are inspired by their specific interests and skills. Since assessment is also tailored to the individual, students can advance at their own pace, moving forward or spending extra time as needed. Teachers offer some traditional instruction as well as online material, while also continually reviewing student progress and meeting with students to make any needed changes to their learning plans.

Game-Based Learning (High Tech) Students love games, and considerable progress has been made in the field of game-based learning, which requires students to be problem solvers as they work on quests to accomplish a specific goal. For students, this approach blends targeted learning objectives with the fun of earning points or badges, much like they would in a video game. For teachers, planning this type of activity requires additional time and effort, so many rely on software like Classcraft or 3DGameLab to help students maximize the educational value they receive from within the gamified learning environment.

Blended Learning Blended learning  is another strategy for teachers looking to introduce flexibility into their classroom. This method relies heavily on technology, with part of the instruction taking place online and part in the classroom via a more traditional approach, often leveraging elements of the flipped classroom approach detailed above. At the heart of blended learning is a philosophy of taking the time to understand each student’s learning style and develop strategies to teach to every learner, by building flexibility and choice into your curriculum.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) UDL incorporates both student-centered learning and the “multiple intelligences theory,” which holds that different learners are wired to learn most effectively in different ways (examples of these “intelligences” include visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, musical, etc.). In practice, this could mean that some students might be working on a writing project while others would be more engaged if they created a play or a movie. UDL emphasizes the idea of teaching to every student, special needs students included, in the general education classroom, creating community and building knowledge through multiple means.

In addition to the many philosophical and pedagogical approaches to teaching, classroom educators today employ diverse and sometimes highly creative methods involving specific strategies, prompts and tools that require little explanation. These include:

• Appointments with students
• Art-based projects
• Audio tutorials
• Author’s chair
• Book reports
• Bulletin boards
• Brainstorming
• Case studies
• Chalkboard instruction
• Class projects
• Classroom discussion
• Classroom video diary
• Collaborative learning spaces
• Creating murals and montages
• Current events quizzes
• Designated quiet space
• Discussion groups
• DIY activities
• Dramatization (plays, skits, etc.)
• Educational games
• Educational podcasts
• Essays (Descriptive)
• Essays (Expository)
• Essays (Narrative)
• Essays (Persuasive)
• Exhibits and displays
• Explore different cultures
• Field trips
• Flash cards
• Flexible seating
• Gamified learning plans
• Genius hour
• Group discussion
• Guest speakers
• Hands-on activities
• Individual projects
• Interviewing
• Laboratory experiments
• Learning contracts
• Learning stations
• Literature circles
• Making posters
• Mock conventions
• Motivational posters
• Music from other countries/cultures
• Oral reports
• Panel discussions
• Peer partner learning
• Photography
• Problem solving activities
• Reading aloud
• Readers’ theater
• Reflective discussion
• Research projects
• Rewards & recognition
• Role playing
• School newspapers
• Science fairs
• Sister city programs
• Spelling bees
• Storytelling
• Student podcasts
• Student portfolios
• Student presentations
• Student-conceived projects
• Supplemental reading assignments
• Team-building exercises
• Term papers
• Textbook assignments
• Think-tac-toe
• Time capsules
• Use of community or local resources
• Video creation
• Video lessons
• Vocabulary lists

So, is the teacher the center of the educational universe or the student? Does strong reliance on the wonders of technology offer a more productive educational experience or is a more traditional, lower-tech approach the best way to help students thrive?

Questions such as these are food for thought for educators everywhere, in part because they inspire ongoing reflection on how to make a meaningful difference in the lives of one’s students.

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• Table Of Contents

pedagogy , the study of teaching methods, including the aims of education and the ways in which such goals may be achieved. The field relies heavily on educational psychology , which encompasses scientific theories of learning , and to some extent on the philosophy of education , which considers the aims and value of education from a philosophical perspective.

Teaching methods

The teacher and the learner.

In the act of teaching there are two parties (the teacher and the taught) who work together in some program (the subject matter) designed to modify the learners’ experience and understanding in some way. It is necessary to begin, therefore, with observations about the learner, the teacher, and the subject matter and then to consider the significance of group life and the school. It will then be possible to consider the factors and theories involved in modifying a person’s experience and understanding. They include theories of learning in education, of school and class organization, and of instructional media.

A child enters school with little if any attainment in written expression and leaves it capable of learning much from human culture . It was thought originally that such progress was just a matter of learning, memorizing, associating, and practicing. The work of psychologists has revealed, however, that the growth of the pupil’s intellectual powers must include a large element of development through different phases, beginning with simple sensorimotor coordination ; going on to the beginnings of symbolizing, helped by the growth of language and play ; and then on to logical thought, provided the material is concrete; and, finally, in midadolescence, on to the power to examine problems comprehensively, to grasp their formal structure, and to evoke explanation. Regarding emotional experience, the child progresses from direct, immediate, uninhibited reactions to more complex, less direct, and more circumspect responses. The physical growth of the child is so obvious as to need no comment. Any attempt to educate the child intellectually and emotionally and for action must take account of those characteristics. Education must pace development, not follow it and not ignore it. The components in the child’s overall educational growth are physical and mental maturation, experience, formal teaching through language, and an urge in the learner to resolve discrepancies, anomalies , and dissonances in experience.

What is required of teachers is that they enjoy and be capable of sharing with children work programs designed to modify their experience and understanding. That means making relevant experience available to the student at the right time. The teacher must be mature, have humour with a sense of status, be firm yet unruffled, and be sympathetic but not overpersonal. With large classes, the teacher becomes a leader of a group, providing stimulating learning situations.

The subject matter taught also has a marked influence on the total teaching situation. It may be conveniently divided into the broad headings of languages, humanities , sciences , mathematics , and arts . Although each group of subjects has something in common with others in terms of the demands it makes on the thinker, each area has also something quite specific in its mode of development. Languages call for verbal learning and production based on oral work, particularly during the early phases. The humanities call for an understanding of cause-effect relations of immediate and remote connections between persons and institutions and between human beings and their environment . The sciences call for induction from experience, though deductive processes are required when the laws of science are formalized into mathematical terms. The humanities and sciences both depend on the ability of the learner to hypothesize. Mathematics calls for the ability to abstract, symbolize, and deduce. An interest in the formal and structural properties of the acts of counting and measuring is fundamental. Arts and literature call for a fairly free opportunity to explore and create.

A large part of the teacher’s role is as a group leader, and the group life of the school and the classroom must influence the teaching situation. Group life shows itself in the dynamic structure of the class—including its manner of reaching group decisions, the hierarchy of its members, the existence of cliques and of isolated individuals—and in its morale and overall response to the school and the rest of the staff. Individual pupils also conduct themselves under the influence of the groups to which they belong. Their achievements and attitudes are subject to evaluation by the group, leading to support or ostracism, and they set their standards according to those influences.

In many schools, the range of ages in any class is about one year, and the narrow range makes for some uniformity of subject-matter coverage. But in rural one- and two-teacher schools, groups of children may be heterogeneous by age and ability, and the mode of teaching has to cope with a number of smaller subunits moving along at different rates. The teacher’s problem is to coordinate the work of those small, dissimilar groups in such a way that all get attention. Creative free activity has to be practiced by one group while another has more formal instruction from the teacher.

The effect of “ streaming ,” or “tracking”—that is, selecting homogeneous groups by both age and intellectual ability—has promoted much inquiry. The practice evokes extreme opinions, ardent support, and vociferous condemnation. The case for uniformity is that putting pupils with their intellectual peers makes teaching more effective and learning more acceptable. The case against it draws attention to its bad effects on the morale of those children in the lower streams. That view supports the heterogeneous class on the grounds that the strongest are not overforced and the weakest gain from sharing with their abler fellows. Experimental evidence on the problem is diverse .

The school community is housed in a physical complex, and the conditions of classrooms, assembly places, and play areas and the existence (or nonexistence) of libraries , laboratories , arts-and-crafts rooms, and workshops all play their part in the effectiveness of the teaching-learning situation. Severe restrictions may be caused by the absence of library and laboratory services.

The social forces immediately outside the school community also influence the teaching situation. They emanate from home, neighbourhood, and wider social groupings. Teaching is a compact among several groups, including teachers, students, and parents, in the first place, with youth organizations and civic and sometimes religious groups playing a secondary role. The overall neighbourhood youth subculture also sets standards and attitudes that teachers must take into account in their work.

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What Is a Teaching Methodology?

A teaching methodology is essentially the way in which a teacher chooses to explain or teach material to students so they can learn the material. There are many different methodologies that can be utilized by a teacher, and the methods chosen often depend on the educational philosophy and preferences of a teacher. It is also not uncommon for a teacher to utilize multiple methods within a single lesson or over the course of several lessons. A methodology of teaching can include the use of lecturing, group or small group discussion activities, and engaging students as teachers for their peers.

It is important to understand that a teaching methodology is not the same as an educational philosophy for a teacher, though they can often be related. The philosophy a teacher chooses usually indicates how the teacher believes students can best learn new material, and the ways in which students and teachers should relate and interact in the classroom. This philosophy often impacts the choices a teacher can make regarding which teaching methodology or methodologies he or she chooses to use, but they are not necessarily directly connected. Teachers commonly refer to their preferred teaching methods and philosophies together, to give other teachers or students an understanding of their approach to education.

While a number of different methodologies can be used by a teacher, one common and traditional teaching method is often referred to as lecturing or explaining. This is essentially an approach to education that regards the teacher as an expert on a subject, and he or she provides information to students who are expected to absorb and understand the material. Sometimes derisively referred to as a “sage on the stage” approach, this teaching methodology has lost favor in recent years with many instructors. Even those teachers who do still use this method often supplement it with other methodologies.

Some increasingly popular methodologies focus on the importance of the student in the learning process. One such teaching methodology utilizes group discussions with an entire classroom, or smaller group discussions with numerous small groups at once. Students are encouraged to take responsibility for their education and to be active participants in the learning process.

This can also be utilized with a teaching methodology in which students take on the role of teacher to instruct other students in the class. Small group discussions, for example, are often followed by larger group discussions in which each group presents what they learned or discussed to the rest of the class. Similarly, individual students may be charged with researching a particular subject, and then teaching that material to the other students in the class.

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Pedagogy - Diversifying Your Teaching Methods, Learning Activities, and Assignments

Definition of Pedagogy 

In the most general sense, pedagogy is all the ways that instructors and students work with the course content. The fundamental learning goal for students is to be able to do “something meaningful” with the course content. Meaningful learning typically results in students working in the middle to upper levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy . We sometimes find that novice instructors conflate course content with pedagogy. This often results in “teaching as talking” where the presentation of content by the instructor is confused with the learning of content by the students. Think of your course content as clay and pedagogy as the ways you ask students to make “something meaningful” from that clay. Pedagogy is the combination of teaching methods (what instructors do), learning activities (what instructors ask their students to do), and learning assessments (the assignments, projects, or tasks that measure student learning).

Key Idea for Pedagogy

Diversify your pedagogy by varying your teaching methods, learning activities, and assignments. Critically assess your pedagogy through the lens of BIPOC students’ experiences at a PWI . We visualize these two related practices as a cycle because they are iterative and ongoing. Diversifying your pedagogy likely means shedding some typical ways of teaching in your discipline, or the teaching practices you inherited. It likely means doing more active learning and less traditional lecturing. Transforming good pedagogy into equitable pedagogy means rethinking your pedagogy in light of the PWI context and considering the ways your pedagogy may help or hinder learning for BIPOC students. 

PWI Assumptions for Pedagogy

Understanding where students are on the spectrum of novice to expert learning in your discipline or course is a key challenge to implementing effective and inclusive pedagogy (National Research Council 2000). Instructors are typically so far removed from being a novice learner in their disciplines that they struggle to understand where students are on that spectrum. A key PWI assumption is that students understand how your disciplinary knowledge is organized and constructed . Students typically do not understand your discipline or the many other disciplines they are working in during their undergraduate years. Even graduate students may find it puzzling to explain the origins, methodologies, theories, logics, and assumptions of their disciplines. A second PWI assumption is that students are (or should be) academically prepared to learn your discipline . Students may be academically prepared for learning in some disciplines, but unless their high school experience was college preparatory and well supported, students (especially first-generation college students) are likely finding their way through a mysterious journey of different disciplinary conventions and modes of working and thinking (Nelson 1996).

A third PWI assumption is that instructors may confuse students’ academic underpreparation with their intelligence or capacity to learn . Academic preparation is typically a function of one’s high school experience including whether that high school was well resourced or under funded. Whether or not a student receives a quality high school education is usually a structural matter reflecting inequities in our K12 educational systems, not a reflection of an individual student’s ability to learn. A final PWI assumption is that students will learn well in the ways that the instructor learned well . Actually most instructors in higher education self-selected into disciplines that align with their interests, skills, academic preparation, and possibly family and community support. Our students have broader and different goals for seeking a college education and bring a range of skills to their coursework, which may or may not align with instructors’ expectations of how students learn. Inclusive teaching at a PWI means supporting the learning and career goals of our students.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge as a Core Concept

Kind and Chan (2019) propose that Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is the synthesis of Content Knowledge (expertise about a subject area) and Pedagogical Knowledge (expertise about teaching methods, assessment, classroom management, and how students learn). Content Knowledge (CK) without Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) limits instructors’ ability to teach effectively or inclusively. Novice instructors that rely on traditional lectures likely have limited Pedagogical Knowledge and may also be replicating their own inherited teaching practices. While Kind and Chan (2019) are writing from the perspective of science education, their concepts apply across disciplines. Moreover, Kind and Chan (2019) support van Driel et al.’s assertion that:

high-quality PCK is not characterized by knowing as many strategies as possible to teach a certain topic plus all the misconceptions students may have about it but by knowing when to apply a certain strategy in recognition of students’ actual learning needs and understanding why a certain teaching approach may be useful in one situation (quoted in Kind and Chan 2019, 975). 

As we’ve stressed throughout this guide, the teaching context matters, and for inclusive pedagogy, special attention should be paid to the learning goals, instructor preparation, and students’ point of entry into course content. We also argue that the PWI context shapes what instructors might practice as CK, PK, and PCK. We recommend instructors become familiar with evidence-based pedagogy (or the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning , SoTL) in their fields. Moreover, we advise instructors to find and follow those instructors and scholars that specifically focus on inclusive teaching in their fields in order to develop an inclusive, flexible, and discipline-specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge.

Suggested Practices for Diversifying + Assessing Pedagogy

Although diversifying and critically assessing teaching methods, learning activities, and assignments will vary across disciplines, we offer a few key starting points. Diversifying your pedagogy is easier than critically assessing it through a PWI lens, but both steps are essential. In general, you can diversify your pedagogy by learning about active learning, peer learning, team-based learning, experiential learning, problem-based learning, and case-based learning, among others . There is extensive evidence-based pedagogical literature and practical guides readily available for these methods. And you can also find and follow scholars in your discipline that use these and other teaching methods.

Diversifying Your Pedagogy

Convert traditional lectures into interactive (or active) lectures.

For in-person or synchronous online courses, break a traditional lecture into “mini-lectures” of 10-15 minutes in length. After each mini-lecture, ask your students to process their learning using a discussion or problem prompt, a Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT), a Think-Pair-Share, or another brief learning activity. Read Lecturing from Center for Teaching , Vanderbilt University.

Structure small group discussions

Provide both a process and concrete questions or tasks to guide student learning (for example, provide a scenario with 3 focused tasks such as identify the problem, brainstorm possible solutions, and list the pros/cons for each solution). Read How to Hold a Better Class Discussion , The Chronicle of Higher Education .

Integrate active learning

Integrate active learning, especially into courses that are conceptual, theoretical, or otherwise historically challenging (for example, calculus, organic chemistry, statistics, philosophy). For gateway courses, draw upon the research of STEM and other education specialists on how active learning and peer learning improves student learning and reduces disparities. Read the Association of American Universities STEM Network Scholarship .  

Include authentic learning

Include authentic learning, learning activities and assignments that mirror how students will work after graduation. What does it mean to think and work like an engineer? How do project teams work together? How does one present research in an educational social media campaign? Since most students seeking a college education will not become academic researchers or faculty, what kinds of things will they do in the “real world?” Help students practice and hone those skills as they learn the course content. Read Edutopia’s PBL: What Does It Take for a Project to Be Authentic?

Vary assignments and provide options

Graded assignments should range from low to high stakes. Low stakes assignments allow students to learn from their mistakes and receive timely feedback on their learning. Options for assignments allow students to demonstrate their learning, rather than demonstrate their skill at a particular type of assessment (such as a multiple choice exam or an academic research paper). Read our guide, Create Assessments That Promote Learning for All Students .

Critically Assess Your Pedagogy

Critically assessing your pedagogy through the PWI lens with attention to how your pedagogy may affect the learning of BIPOC students is more challenging and highly contextual. Instructors will want to review and apply the concepts and principles discussed in the earlier sections of this guide on Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs), PWI Assumptions, and Class Climate. 

Reflect on patterns

Reflect on patterns of participation, progress in learning (grade distributions), and other course-related evidence. Look at your class sessions and assignments as experimental data. Who participated? What kinds of participation did you observe? Who didn’t participate? Why might that be? Are there a variety of ways for students to participate in the learning activities (individually, in groups, via discussion, via writing, synchronously/in-person, asynchronously/online)?

Respond to feedback on climate

Respond to feedback on climate from on-going check-ins and Critical Incident Questionnaires (CIQs) as discussed in the Climate Section (Ongoing Practices). Students will likely disengage from your requests for feedback if you do not respond to their feedback. Use this feedback to re-calibrate and re-think your pedagogy. 

Seek feedback on student learning

Seek feedback on student learning in the form of Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs), in-class polls, asynchronous forums, exam wrappers, and other methods.  Demonstrate that you care about your students’ learning by responding to this feedback as well. Here’s how students in previous semesters learned this material … I’m scheduling a problem-solving review session in the next class in response to the results of the exam …

Be diplomatic but clear when correcting mistakes and misconceptions

First-generation college students, many of whom may also identify as BIPOC, have typically achieved a great deal with few resources and significant barriers (Yosso 2005). However, they may be more likely to internalize their learning mistakes as signs that they don’t belong at the university. When correcting, be sure to normalize mistakes as part of the learning process. The correct answer is X, but I can see why you thought it was Y. Many students think it is Y because … But the correct answer is X because … Thank you for helping us understand that misconception.

Allow time for students to think and prepare for participation in a non-stressful setting

This was already suggested in the Climate Section (Race Stressors), but it is worth repeating. BIPOC students and multilingual students may need more time to prepare, not because of their intellectual abilities, but because of the effects of race stressors and other stressors increasing their cognitive load. Providing discussion or problem prompts in advance will reduce this stress and make space for learning. Additionally both student populations may experience stereotype threat, so participation in the “public” aspects of the class session may be stressful in ways that are not true for the majority white and domestic students. If you cannot provide prompts in advance, be sure to allow ample individual “think time” during a synchronous class session.

Avoid consensus models or majority rules processes

This was stated in the Climate Section (Teaching Practices to Avoid), but it’s such an entrenched PWI practice that it needs to be spotlighted and challenged. If I am a numerical “minority” and I am asked to come to consensus or agreement with a numerical “majority,” it is highly likely that my perspective will be minimized or dismissed. Or, I will have to expend a lot of energy to persuade my group of the value of my perspective, which is highly stressful. This is an unacceptable burden to put on BIPOC students and also may result in BIPOC students being placed in the position of teaching white students about a particular perspective or experience. The resulting tensions may also damage BIPOC students’ positive relationships with white students and instructors. When suitable for your content, create a learning experience that promotes seeking multiple solutions to problems, cases, or prompts. Rather than asking students to converge on one best recommendation, why not ask students to log all possible solutions (without evaluation) and then to recommend at least two solutions that include a rationale? Moreover, for course content dealing with policies, the recommended solutions could be explained in terms of their possible effects on different communities. If we value diverse perspectives, we need to structure the consideration of those perspectives into our learning activities and assignments. 

We recognize the challenges of assessing your pedagogy through the PWI lens and doing your best to assess the effects on BIPOC student learning. This is a complex undertaking. But we encourage you to invite feedback from your students as well as to seek the guidance of colleagues, including advisors and other student affairs professionals, to inform your ongoing practices of teaching inclusively at a PWI. In the next section, we complete our exploration of the Inclusive Teaching at a PWI Framework by exploring the importance of auditing, diversifying, and critically assessing course content.

Pedagogy References

Kind, Vanessa and Kennedy K.H. Chan. 2019. “Resolving the Amalgam: Connecting Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Knowledge.” International Journal of Science Education . 41(7): 964-978.

Howard, Jay. N.D. “How to Hold a Better Class Discussion: Advice Guide.” The Chronicle of Higher Education . https://www.chronicle.com/article/how-to-hold-a-better-class-discussion/#2 

National Research Council. 2000. “How Experts Differ from Novices.” Chap 2 in How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition . Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/9853/how-people-learn-brain-mind-experience-and-school-expanded-edition

Nelson, Craig E. 1996. “Student Diversity Requires Different Approaches to College Teaching, Even in Math and Science.” The American Behavioral Scientist . 40 (2): 165-175.

Sathy, Viji and Kelly A. Hogan. N.D.  “How to Make Your Teaching More Inclusive: Advice Guide.” The Chronicle of Higher Education . https://www.chronicle.com/article/how-to-make-your-teaching-more-inclusive/?cid=gen_sign_in

Yosso, Tara J. 2005. “Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community Cultural Wealth.” Race, Ethnicity and Education . 8 (1): 69-91.

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8 Innovative Teaching Methodologies

It is rightly said teaching is the one profession that creates all other professions. Undoubtedly, teaching is the art of imparting values and knowledge to students. This art is, to a great extent, based on various Teaching Methods. We are living in the 21st century where new Teaching Methodologies are changing the traditional teaching techniques.

It is a well-known fact that students like to study only when that subject interests them. So, it becomes crucial that teachers should try to explain concepts in such a way that students understand them easily without getting bored. But, before that, it is significant for teachers to know various innovative teaching methodologies that they should implement in the classroom . In this article, we have discussed a few innovative teaching methods to aid you in teaching your students comfortably.

During this pandemic, the education sector has been affected a lot. It becomes quite important to use innovative Teaching Methodologies so that the teaching and learning process should not be negatively affected. Teachers can use the below mentioned techniques to help their students to learn concepts without any hurdles.

Innovative Teaching Methodologies

A classroom is a place where understudies from various backgrounds with different capacities and characters come to learn. To be a successful educator, you are required to execute imaginative and inventive teaching methodologies to meet students' necessities. Some of the highly useful teaching methods are mentioned below:

1. Learning through creative projects

Learning by doing is one of the best methods of teaching something to students. Giving long lectures may be less effective. Instead, assign your students creative project work. It will be beneficial for them to retain knowledge for a long time. The use of project-based teaching is the best pedantic assurance for a viable improvement of key abilities such as creativity. It permits a student to show their capacities while working freely. It fosters a student's capacity to work with their fellow classmates, building cooperation and teamwork. Try to keep a balance between lectures and creative projects. Frequently, give your students some creative projects to work on.

2. Cooperative learning

It is a technique in which teachers group students and ask them to perform a particular task collectively through cooperation. This teaching methodology has been proven to be very effective in enhancing the concentration, association, and acquisition of knowledge in students. It makes learning interesting for students and teaches them how to work with others easily. When compared to individual learning where students focus on themselves solely.

3. Problem-based learning

It is a dominant teaching methodology where a student's critical thinking ability is improved. Under this teaching method, students are required to solve their problems themselves. This is how they develop problem-solving abilities and ultimately gain confidence. The main purpose of this type of teaching is to make each individual student strong.

4. Teaching through Design

It is one of the popular methods of teaching. It is a solution-based technique where teachers use designs to teach their students various technical concepts. The teacher solves a problem through a design that not only makes a concept easy for the students to understand but at the same time makes it enjoyable.

5. Competency-Based learning

As the name suggests, this method develops competencies among students. This method focuses on the individual student and inculcates real-time skills that are paramount for their future. Apart from teaching them from the regular syllabus, teach your students something new every day that will help them in their professional lives and answer individual queries. Ensure that every student gets equal attention.

6. Thinking-based learning

Many educational stakeholders have emphasized this teaching methodology. Under this method, teachers not only impart critical and innovative skills but also teach them strategically how to use skillful thinking techniques in the context of learning. It is highly recommended that this method should be adopted into the current classroom pedology.

7. Utilize Technology

Involving technology in your teaching is an incredible method to effectively draw your students attention toward studies. Try to use as much technology as possible such as videos and interactive boards. Learning can turn out to be more interactive when technology is utilized in the right quantity. It becomes engaging, interactive, and easy for students to conceptualize better. After all, visual stimulation attracts our attention more.

Most importantly, during these times it will be really useful to use technology in online classes. Late President Dr. Abdul Kalam said, “The aim of the teacher should be to build character; human values enhance the learning capacity of children through technology and build the confidence among children to be innovative and creative which in turn will make them competitive to face the future.”

8. Non-Academic Talk

Students sometimes get bored because of their monotonous studying schedule. This affects their learning and diverts their attention. To retain their interest in studies it is important to give them a break. So, try to talk to your students about non-academic issues concerning their careers and any other topic of interest to them. Education experts have stressed non-academic talks as it motivates students and brings new energy to them. It is very great to have a non-academic talk every week.

Teaching isn’t just a profession; it is a service to the country. With the changing times, it is paramount to adopt a new teaching methodology that will provide good results and will help students to learn and grow. There are countless teaching methods and techniques.

A reliable teaching method can be discovered when a teacher tries to get to know their students. At this point, when an educator knows his or her students well, they or can plan exercises that are more enjoyable, significant, and viable. Especially, during this pandemic when teachers and students have lost their personal touch. Adopting new and innovative methods of teaching will be useful in retaining students’ interest in studies.

To bring ease and efficiency to the table, it is of utmost importance to digitize your school. With a brilliant suite of features, the Teachmint Integrated School Platform makes the process of management, teaching, learning, and analysis- easy, effective, and practically consolidated with one another. Check out the features here .

8 methodologies that every 21st century teacher should know

New teaching methodologies are changing the educational environments around the world and driving better academic performance among students. We go over some of the main innovative approaches that educators have forged over the last few years and that every 21st century teacher should be acquainted with.

Flipped Classroom

One of the modern methodologies that has gained more popularity in recent years, Flipped Classroom is a pedagogical approach in which the traditional elements of the lesson taught by the teacher are reversed – the primary educational materials are studied by the students at home and, then, worked on in the classroom.

The main objective of this methodology is to optimize time in class by dedicating it, for example, to meet the special needs of each individual student, develop cooperative projects or work on specific tasks.

Project-Based Learning

With the arrival of new information and communication technologies to schools, both new teaching methodologies as well as  new versions of existing methodologies , now revised and updated for the digital generation, have emerged. One of the most used in class at present is Project-Based Learning (PBL).

In its essence, PBL allows students to acquire key knowledge and skills through the development of projects that respond to real-life problems.

The teaching based on projects or integrated tasks, is today the best didactic guarantee for an effective development of key skills while also acquiring the knowledge of the curriculum’s content.

Starting from a concrete problem, instead of the traditional theoretical and abstract model,  sees notable improvements in students’ ability to retain knowledge as well as the opportunity to develop complex competencies such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration or the problem solving.

Cooperative Learning

“Stronger together”. This concept in a simple way cooperative learning, a methodology that teachers use to group students together and, thus, impact on learning in a positive way.

The proponents of this model theorize that working in a group improves the attention, involvement and acquisition of knowledge by students.

The final goal is always group-oriented and will be achieved if each of the members successfully perform their tasks.

The main characteristic is that it is structured based on the formation of groups of 3-6 people, where each member has a specific role and to reach the objectives it is necessary to interact and work in a coordinated manner.

In a cooperative learning context, the final goal is always common and will be achieved if each of the members successfully performs their tasks. On the other hand, individual learning has students focusing on achieving their objectives without having to depend on the rest of their classmates.

Gamification

The integration of game mechanics and dynamics in non-ludic environments, or gamification, has been practiced for a long time. Over the past few years, however, and particularly due to the evolution of videogames, the phenomenon has gathered unprecedented dimension, and is one of the most talked about as a current and future trend of the EdTech industry.

Since, in the 80’s, games with an international vocation such as the “Carmen Sandiego” series or “Reader Rabbit” (see infographic below) have gained worldwide popularity, the development of educational titles has increased consistently. Not only those aimed at the general public but, ever more often, those specifically designed for students and particular courses.

This trend was consolidated with the increasing inclusion of gamification in school curricula and it is estimated that this inclusion will continue to grow in the future.

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Problem-Based Learning

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a cyclic learning process composed of many different stages, starting with asking questions and acquiring knowledge that, in turn, leads to more questions in a growing complexity cycle.

Putting this methodology into practice does not only mean the exercise of inquiry by students, but convert it into useful data and information. According to several educators , the four great advantages observed with the use of this methodology are:

• The development of critical thinking and creative skills
• The improvement of problem solving abilities
• Increased student motivation
• Better knowledge sharing in challenging situations

Design Thinking

Education has always been a prolific space for innovation. Teachers all over the world are constantly coming up with new ideas and methodologies to introduce in the classroom making the best of the tools at their disposal.

Design Thinking (DT) applied stems from industrial designers and their unique method to solve problems and satisfy the needs of their clients. Applied to education, this model makes possible to identify with greater accuracy the individual problems of each student and generate in their educational experience the creation and innovation towards the satisfaction of others, which then becomes symbiotic.

Thinking-Based Learning

Beyond the debate around the effectiveness of learning by memorizing facts and data when discussing education, one of the most talked about aspects is the need to show students how to work with the information they receive at school. Teach them to contextualize, analyze, relate, argue… In short, convert information into knowledge.

This is the goal of Thinking-Based Learning (TBL), developing thinking skills beyond memorization and, in doing so, developing effective thinking on part of the students.

Competency-Based Learning

By definition, all learning methodologies have the acquisition of knowledge, the development of skills and the establishment of work habits as their main goals. Competency-Based Learning (CBL) represents a set of strategies to achieve this.

Through assessment tools such as rubrics, teachers can go through the academic curriculum without significant deviations but focusing it in a different way, putting into practice real examples and, thus, transmitting to their students a more tangible dimension of the lessons.

Photo:   VFS Digital Design

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Home > Books > Bridging the Future - STEM Education Across the Globe [Working Title]

Perspective Chapter: Mathematics for Teaching – It’s Not (Just) Pedagogy

Submitted: 17 June 2024 Reviewed: 25 June 2024 Published: 02 September 2024

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1006626

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Bridging the Future - STEM Education Across the Globe [Working Title]

Prof. Irene Govender and Dr. Desmond Wesley Govender

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The specialized mathematics content knowledge that is required for effective teaching is multidisciplinary and non-trivial, and the subject of multiple, typically nonspecific interpretations. The purpose of this chapter is twofold: to provide a scalable definition of mathematics knowledge for teaching (and learning), and posit a new conceptual framework, informed by the constructs, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that differentiate the distinctly mathematical aspects of this type of teacher knowledge. To do so, we build on Shulman’s original conception of pedagogical content knowledge . By using a lens drawn from our own critical practice as mathematics educators, we articulate a working definition which is clear enough to catalyze the development of re-imagined and robust mathematics teacher education standards, programs and courses. By extension, we call upon post-secondary institutions to provide interdisciplinary environments in which “translational” skills and processes are nurtured and developed. We adapt the term “translational” from healthcare to describe an integrated teacher education program that would aim to train a new generation of “hybrid” mathematician/educators to be effective translators of mathematics; mathematics education research; and their intersection across audiences. By experiencing how classroom-focused mathematics and cognitive/pedagogical sciences intersect, the graduates of translational mathematics education programs will be uniquely equipped to deliver improved instruction resulting in increased student achievement.

• mathematics for teaching
• teacher mathematics knowledge
• mathematics teacher education
• pedagogical content knowledge
• specialized content knowledge

Author Information

Ann kajander *.

• Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada

Lynda Colgan

• Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

This chapter is offered as part of the on-going efforts in teacher education to determine teachers’ needs related to their mathematical understanding as needed for effective teaching. In our own work, we have encountered conflicting views on what background and course work are needed in the preparation of effective elementary and secondary teachers of mathematics, and confusion as to what aspects are seen as “mathematical” and what aspects are “pedagogical,” “cognitive,” “instructional” or “developmental.” And if indeed, as is now generally recognized, that teachers’ understandings of mathematics for the purposes of teaching are indeed specialized, how can such aspects be more precisely described and defined, other than by saying that content knowledge is special or distinct and requires focused preparation programs centered around specific knowledge and competencies. What are these mathematical competencies?

2. Rationale

Our reasons for focusing on a re-examination of the mathematics and mathematical processes (such as reasoning and representation) inherent in Kindergarten to Grade 12 mathematics curricula; how these should be understood by teachers; and, the implications for teacher education programs, stem from one local factor and one broader, international phenomenon.

As of February 1, 2025, all teacher applicants and internationally educated teacher applicants seeking certification in our Canadian province of Ontario will be required to pass a Math Proficiency Test (MPT) in order to apply for licensure through the Ontario College of Teachers (OCT) 1 . Any individual seeking certification to teach in Primary (K-Grade 3), Junior (Grades 4–6), Intermediate (Grades 7–9) or Senior (Grades 10–12) curricular divisions (including those with ‘teachable’ subjects which do not include mathematics), will need to pass this test of fundamental mathematics skills (including content up to Grade 9) and curricular components (instruction, differentiation and assessment). The motivation for the mandatory mathematics test for new teachers is not only to improve Grade 3, 6 and 9 students’ achievement on annual standards-based mathematics evaluations, but also because all certified teachers in Ontario, regardless of their teacher education program (Primary/Junior, Junior/Intermediate or Intermediate/Senior) could possibly be assigned to teach mathematics to students in Grade 6 or below and in some cases, assigned to teach Grade 7 to 12 mathematics [ 1 ] 2 . While we agree with the principles of credentialling mathematics teachers, echoing the sentiment of Deborah Ball who once said “teachers must know the subject they teach. Indeed, there may be nothing more foundational to teacher competency,” [ 2 ] we, like others in agreement, have been harshly criticized, finding ourselves amid enormous controversy surrounding this new policy [ 3 ] 3 . The vocal backlash and harsh criticism arguing against the test has been, most notably, from teacher candidates, teacher unions and Faculties of Education. Loud support for the test has been voiced by other stakeholders (including parents and the Ministry of Education 4 ) looking for greater public accountability and teacher professionalism. As provincial assessments by the Education, Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO) 5 continue to report unsatisfactory student achievement scores in meeting the provincial standard over the last few years (about 60, 50 and 54% of Grade 3, 6 and 9 students, respectively), multiple invested parties have demanded swift action and scalable solutions to improve student achievement. Curricula at multiple grade levels are being hastily rewritten and mandated. In other words, new learning for teachers and students, predicated on immediate reforms to pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes to provide timely and relevant teacher preparation for the new content is required.

In trying to formulate arguments to support measurements of mathematics teacher competency, we have found ourselves recurrently struggling to articulate or find satisfactory definitions of what is meant by knowing ‘mathematics’ in the context of teacher education and classroom practice. In terms of course design, we have argued that mathematics courses for teachers must contain more than standard mathematics courses. But what is the “more?” Mathematician Hyman Bass, who by his own admission, has become significantly engaged in school mathematics, states that the “more” is strictly mathematical knowledge (not about students or about pedagogy) that proficient teachers need and use, yet is distinct and thus not known by many other mathematically trained professionals, for example, research mathematicians [ 4 ]. Like us, Bass argues that this uniquely distinct type of knowledge required by teachers is not something likely to be part of the instruction in content courses for teachers situated in mathematics departments. For example, multiple representations and their associated reasoning is mathematics, and yet most research mathematicians would dismiss such content as being “school math,” not “deep math,” and thus better left to the pedagogues.

These false impressions and egregious simplifications underscore the fundamental, yet elusive distinction between the mathematical knowledge needed for teaching and the mathematical knowledge needed for other occupations or professions in which mathematics is used. The goal of academic mathematics courses taught by research mathematicians seems to be immediate and insular, i.e., individuals in the class need to “know” the content solely for their own understanding and its applications to other domains in science, technology, engineering and beyond. In sharp contrast, the goal of mathematics courses for teachers is for the candidates not only to “know” mathematics for themselves, but to be nimble in situating and sequencing the content along a K-Grade 12 continuum (i.e., what concepts came before and what comes after); agile in deconstructing the content in order to present it to students in multiple ways using age- and mathematical/developmentally-appropriate approaches and representations together with the associated reasoning; and, anticipate (with the goal of pre-empting) well-documented student misconceptions by calling upon firm foundations in how learning happens. Bass reminds us that novice mathematics teachers’ “self-talk” must focus on mathematics, responding to classroom discourse [ 4 ], by first asking oneself “What is the significant mathematics happening in my classroom right now?” “What should I be looking for, and be sensitive to, mathematically, in this situation?” and “What are the instructional moves I need to make to shepherd this discussion back to the important mathematics that is the goal of this lesson?” It goes without saying that the elephant in the room is that this specialized, multi- and interdisciplinary content knowledge requires both a highly specialized teaching context and instructor—one who knows and can create experiential opportunities to concretize the intersection of mathematics content, cognition, curriculum, pedagogy and developmental trajectories—and ones unlikely to be found in or the result of current pre-service (or in-service) education programs.

Our second concern arises from the ever-widening net that is used to capture all that falls under mathematics “curriculum.” With the explicit inclusion of arguably important issues such as diversity and inclusion; topics such as culturally-relevant mathematics; socio-emotional learning (e.g., foci on mindset, perseverance, risk-taking, relationships, and attitude); and, rapidly-changing recommendations around how to teach (e.g., intentional instruction versus inquiry-based learning), we note two distinctly negative trends: the diminishing focus on and elimination of mathematics content itself, and the failure to differentiate teaching mathematics from teaching in general. We argue that teaching mathematics is distinct from teaching in other subject areas, and that student learning of mathematics cannot be achieved unless mathematics content, developmental and pedagogical principles, and research-based practices in mathematics teaching are inseparable in the learning trajectory of mathematics from Kindergarten to Grade 12. By stretching the curriculum to include financial, data and information literacy, coding and other tangential topics, less time, in an already over-crowded curriculum, can be dedicated to the types of experiences that could improve both the teaching and learning of mathematics.

To address the need for a common understanding of what it means to be a “mathematically qualified educator,” we offer an over-arching model for the cumulate body of mathematics knowledge uniquely needed for teaching the K-Grade 12 curriculum. By extension, we argue that by developing an easily interpretable and implementable definition, the need for significant, specific and rigorous learning goals (including standards) for mathematics teacher education programs may lead, not only to more deliberate and appropriate mathematics teacher education course design and implementation, but also to improved outcomes for students along the elementary to secondary continuum, a connection that is well-established in the literature [ 5 ].

Both our definition and our recommendations for mathematics teacher education programs are drawn from our own critical practice with individuals—teachers, parents, mathematics educators, mathematicians, administrators, researchers in fields beyond mathematics and students—representing a wide range of perspectives on what change is needed and why. We are advocating for dramatic changes to what is considered to be mathematics knowledge unique to teaching as well as teacher preparation. These proposed changes are not abstract, but rooted in the intersection of our own work with and research involving multiple stakeholders who are impacted by current classrooms and contexts. We propose that the ideas proffered in this chapter are the outcomes of genuine critical practice based on the analysis of our own communities of practice and research. By synthesizing the perspectives of a diverse network who have been trying to transform mathematics education practically, but separately, we integrate many voices collectively.

3. Background

We are mathematics educators, one with a secondary mathematics classroom teaching background and one whose focus has been on elementary mathematics education, respectively. We bring disparate, yet rich and formal knowledge of mathematics content, mathematics education research and a shared belief that higher expectations bring higher achievement, regardless of the age of the learner. Separately, in the context of multiple studies and professional self-assessments, we have amassed data in the form of qualitative and quantitative surveys, individual and group interviews, paper and pencil tests, and annotated observations, of over 1000 prospective teachers as they work to understand the mathematics that we believe they will need for effective teaching.

Advocating for required coursework has been a career-long endeavor for the first author in particular, having begun teaching mathematics courses for prospective elementary teachers in 1989— in a mathematics department—and continuing to do so to the present time in a faculty of education. Similarly, in her first year as a Primary/Junior instructor at a Faculty of Education—1998—the second author was allotted 12 course hours in which to “prepare” teacher candidates to teach and assess students using the mathematics curriculum policy document required for Kindergarten to Grade 6. With her influence, by 2021, the course was increased to 60 hours over three academic terms. As professional colleagues, we have long reflected on and discussed the benefits and detriments of mathematics “education” courses, when some are offered by mathematics departments in Faculties of Arts and Science, and others, by Faculties of Education [ 6 ].

With courses commonly offered in two different faculties by different categories of scholars, i.e., research mathematicians versus education staff (ranging from tenured faculty members to graduate teaching fellows with no classroom experience and no mathematics education specialization), it is not surprising that there has been and continues to be confusion at the institutional level about who “owns” mathematics education, decisions around what it should comprise, and why . Moreover, there is no agreement on precisely what constitutes “mathematics education” in the context of teacher preparation and professional development over the long course of educators’ careers. Over many years and in multiple contexts, including local, national and international mathematics education conferences, when the topic of mathematics for teaching arises, we have encountered a common barrier: there is a pervasive perception that the mathematical knowledge, problem solving, reasoning, perspectives, and resources that we, as mathematics educators with strong mathematics backgrounds, deem to be most important for mathematics teacher education courses, are looked down upon and dismissed as mere ‘instructional pedagogy topics’ by both institutional administrators and research mathematicians (even some who purport to have an interest in mathematics education). The content of the highly specialized mathematics course work foundational to and essential for mathematics teacher preparation is not recognized as an aspect of mathematics, valued for being rich and multidisciplinary, nor considered to be complex and interdisciplinary to teach. Furthermore, the defining qualities of the rare instructor who can teach such courses effectively, continue to be unspecified by hiring teams in Education and Arts & Science, resulting in increasing numbers of new mathematics education faculty who have a targeted interest in topics like children’s literature with a mathematics theme, “unplugged coding,” or diversity, (the list goes on), but lack mathematics, developmental psychology, cognitive science and pedagogy, or are research mathematicians who “dabble in education” but lack the strong interdisciplinary background needed to prepare and support teachers.

Our goal here then, is to adapt the Translational Institute in Medicine (TIME) model. The mission of TIME is to enhance collaboration and optimize communication by sharing expertise. This is achieved by offering a curriculum that interweaves rigorous research with authentic “clinical” experiences in a multidisciplinary environment that crosses departments and disciplines.

Notwithstanding the important contribution of the rich “mathematics for teaching” framework described by Ball and colleagues [ 2 ], our focus is to drill down deeper into particularly the specialized content knowledge aspect of the Ball et al. model, using the original Shulman conception of pedagogical content knowledge [ 7 ] as the framework to posit a Translational Institute in Mathematics Education curriculum for mathematics teacher education.

4. Framework

Perhaps the most oft-cited model of mathematics for teaching was created by Ball and colleagues [ 2 ]. These authors identify a number of sub-domains that fall under two main headings, i.e., subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. While we appreciate the model’s comprehensiveness, the two major domains and their respective subdivisions can be overwhelming and may contribute to a lack of clarity in designing mathematics courses for educators. For example, the “subject matter knowledge” domain is further distributed across three subdomains, namely common content knowledge, specialized content knowledge, and horizon knowledge. Of particular interest to us is the “specialized content knowledge” piece of the model. While we realize that the other category in the model, “pedagogical content knowledge” (to use its terminology) still draws heavily on mathematics in lesson design, responses to students and so on, our goal is to add clarity to what content mathematics courses for teachers, framed in the subject matter knowledge part of the model, should constitute, and hence we draw particularly from the specialized content knowledge category, and attempt to further articulate its description.

The most useful forms of representation of the concepts and topics.

The most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations of those topics and concepts.

The ways of representing and formulating the content that make it comprehensible to others [ 7 ].

Shulman continues by saying that “since there are no single most powerful forms of representation, the teacher must have at hand a veritable armamentarium of alternative forms of representation” ([ 7 ], p. 9). Importantly, the reference to the key roles played by mathematical representation appears over and over in the Shulman description above, and in fact, throughout his 1986 paper. Indeed, the knowledge of representations and their associated mathematical reasoning is a particularly important, but often weak, area of understanding for prospective teachers [ 8 ].

A challenge we have encountered repeatedly, is the (mis)interpretation of the mathematical ideas of representation and reasoning, and the (mis)perception that these ideas are really ‘pedagogy,’ and should thus be housed in education curriculum and instruction courses for teachers. We fundamentally disagree.

To follow we illustrate and describe the rich mathematical nature of the representations repeatedly mentioned by Shulman [ 7 ], and the deep (and developmental) reasoning which ensues, using several examples. We further argue, based on a large dataset, that while such mathematics has to be provided during curriculum and instruction courses if no other mathematical course options for teachers are available, that much better results can be obtained if prospective teachers have the opportunity to focus on these particularly mathematical concepts, either prior to or concurrently with curriculum and instruction (informally, ‘methods’) courses. Prospective teachers viewing a sample lesson, for example, who do not have the required knowledge of the representations and models involved, will typically miss many of the important pedagogical aspects in their quest to sort out the mathematics [ 9 ]. This contrasts with participants who are already familiar with the mathematical ideas who can focus on the lesson itself at a higher level.

To avoid confusion with existing models, we will term the specialized mathematics concepts needed by teachers for effective teaching as specialized mathematics for teaching , or SMT. To follow, we attempt to problematize, illustrate, and define this term in a useable way. We begin with addressing some preconceived notions and common problems, first by offering a series of vignettes drawn from our research and other experiences.

6. Math for teaching: what’s the problem?

To follow are several scenarios illustrating some of the challenges in describing and understanding SMT, which also illustrate the perceptions of some sample stakeholders. They are offered as a collective, with discussion to follow. In each case, the reader is invited to ponder the problem illustrated. Each vignette has been chosen to illustrate a particular challenge with the conceptualization of the field of specialized mathematical content knowledge for teaching.

6.1 Story one

A research mathematician and mathematics educator are chatting at a conference, looking at new mathematics manipulatives. The manipulatives in question were rectangular prisms made of plastic to represent base ten blocks. The mathematics educator is quite excited by these, as the shapes are exactly proportional – a tray of ten ‘ones’ is used to illustrate 10, and the tens tray is proportional to the unit piece. Similarly, a tray of ten 10’s, the hundreds tray, is proportional to both ones and tens. Commonly used base ten blocks do not have this self-similar property.

The mathematician is unable to understand why the mathematics educator is excited … and after an explanation of the need to represent multidigit numbers in concrete, highly visual, accessible and accurate ways to preservice teachers by the mathematics educator, the mathematician comments “but cannot they just see these things in their head?”

6.2 Story two

An important representation of the operation of multiplication is the area model. The area model can be used in elementary grades to develop whole number products, such as 12 × 13, with flexible understanding. We take it as a given that this model is an example of the kind of specialized mathematics for teaching, SMT, that we are describing here. Having said that, we have observed that teacher candidates with formal post-secondary mathematics backgrounds know a ‘rule’ for simplifying the product of two binomials such as ( x  + 2)( x  + 3), yet are unable to explain developmentally why this method—as well as the other possible simplification methods—make sense and could contribute to children’s computational fluency and calculational flexibility. In fact, many seem to be unaware of the area model for whole number multiplication.

6.3 Story three

This story took place in a grade 2/3 classroom. The teacher was providing examples of division questions on a smart board to the children. All the examples presented by the teacher were of the style “a case of 24 apples is divided equally between 4 charity baskets. How many apples should go in each basket?” The children were given about six such examples, all using this same model of division (sometimes called ‘equal sharing’ or the ‘partitive’ model of division).

This was followed by a worksheet. The first question on the worksheet asked the children to use a drawing of 12 circles to illustrate 12 ÷ 6.

First, the teacher was approached by two boys who had drawn the following ( Figure 1 ):

The boys’ model drawn to illustrate 12 ÷ 6.

The teacher told the boys they were correct.

Next, a pair of girls showed her their picture, as below: ( Figure 2 )

The girls’ model drawn to illustrate 12 ÷ 6.

The teacher ‘corrected’ the girls’ picture to look like the boys’ picture. One of the girls began to cry, in obvious frustration.

6.4 Discussion of the stories

The first story illustrates a situation which is deeply problematic but often disregarded in course development. Understanding the starting point and needs of teacher candidates is crucially important. A “top down” approach in which it is assumed that candidates have experienced their own K-Grade 12 mathematics education in conceptual ways, and can call upon ‘learned’ visualizations illuminating the reasoning behind the ideas to lead the kind of instruction in which children develop mathematical ideas using concrete tools and other representations, is neither realistic nor helpful. Indeed, such an approach can further exacerbate the pervasive sense of elementary teachers that they aren’t good” at mathematics [ 6 ]. And even teacher candidates who do have significant mathematical background often are unaware of suitable developmental progressions for learning, or in this case, the uses, benefits, pitfalls, and overall nuances of classroom manipulatives and other representations, and how these connect to, and support, developmental reasoning [ 10 ].

The second story further illustrates how easy is it to overlook the developmental thread of an idea, when approaching it from a more abstract perspective as well as the idea that post-secondary mathematics courses can replace the need for SMT. Our data consistently illustrate that the conceptual underpinnings of typical procedural calculations are poorly understood by many prospective teachers [ 11 ], even those with strong mathematics backgrounds [ 12 ], and that exploring with manipulatives is often an important key to progress [ 9 ]. The related problem is the difficulty, especially for a more sophisticated mathematical knower, to unpack the levels of understanding and abstraction needed to prompt developmental understanding. For example, we have heard teacher candidates with post-secondary mathematics backgrounds, who are asked to explain an idea conceptually, claim that a higher-order (typically formulaic) algebraic ‘explanation’ is how they ‘understand’ an idea.

Specifically in the case of the mathematics in Story Two, both whole number products, and binomial products, can be understood and connected using the area model. Yet the traditionally-taught algorithm for whole number multiplication begins with the units, for example the ‘2 × 3’ sub-product in an example such as 12 × 13, while the typical North American algorithm for binomials, ‘FOIL’ begins with the left-most quantity, so for the example provided here, ( x  + 2)( x  + 3), it leaves the ‘2 × 3’ calculation to the last. An ‘aha’ moment often comes when teacher candidates realize these methods rely on the same representation, and either one can proceed in any order. Once again, we emphasize that this is a mathematical realization.

Furthermore, teacher candidates subsequently begin to see that allowing students to construct, discuss, and then adapt these models to develop their own computational methods can later result in an understanding of an abstraction of the initial idea (in this case, abstracting the whole number area model to one showing multiplying expressions with variables) as a generalization of something they already understand. Such opportunities may also open the door to respecting that the traditional algorithm used in North America is merely one of many “non-standard” models developed by different cultures to calculate the products of multidigit numbers. Ultimately, the same area model can be further exploited to develop factoring techniques, and even the quadratic formula [ 13 ], and these constructs are often “newsflashes” to intermediate–senior teacher candidates taking mathematics courses for prospective high school teachers.

Story three is disheartening, yet sadly representative of similar events played out over and over in classrooms we have observed. The girls’ model was in fact the ‘correct’ representation of 12 ÷ 6, based on the model of the division operation illustrated by the contextual examples provided by the teacher earlier. The examples shown by the teacher used the ‘equal sharing’ or ‘partitive’ model of division, i.e., the idea of evenly dividing an amount into equal groups. The boys, on the other hand, were using a different interpretation of division, sometimes called the measurement or quotative model, in which the second number refers to the size of each group (not the number of groups). We are not clear (unless due to gender bias) as to why the teacher also switched her understanding from partitive to measurement along with the boys—at any rate she seemed totally unaware she had done so. Another explanation is that perhaps the teacher subconsciously assumed that circling two groups of 6 dots was quicker than circling six sets of 2 dots. At any rate, both sets of students’ representations were ‘correct’ but in fact the girls’ model adhered more closely to the provided classroom examples—it certainly wasn’t ‘wrong’ as the teacher indicated to them.

The point here is that SMT is rich, subtle, contextual, developmental, and non-trivial. It needs to be explicitly studied and learned, in order to be used effectively in classroom teaching; moreover, the higher level of mathematical learning an individual has attained, may require more unpacking and purposeful developmental reconstruction of concepts.

7. Discussion of the construct of SMT

The three chosen vignettes illustrate several aspects of SMT. The first is that SMT is fundamentally based on representation and reasoning , as initially posited by Shulman. Often, suitable representations need to be specifically learned and studied, especially in cases where prospective teachers’ backgrounds are very traditional and procedurally-based. As well, teachers often need a range of representations in their toolkit, not all of which they have necessarily seen before.

Secondly, as discussed, SMT is deeply developmental in a mathematical sense. That is, the knowledge of what concepts and representations must already be in place, and how to build on these, is critical. Jumping steps, without attention to the connections and abstractions needed, is not helpful. Nor is using a higher-order abstraction to define a lower order concept [ 14 ]. Since multiple representations and various pathways are often possible, teachers need to be aware of these. Seeing the developmental progression from a vantage point of a strong mathematical background adds another layer, in that more and more unpacking is needed, as well as attention to what (mathematical) building blocks are needed.

The third example illustrates just how rich, complex and nuanced such understanding of mathematics must be. While many pedagogical factors might also be drawn from the last example, the fact remains that it was the teacher’s narrow mathematical understanding of division models that derailed the interaction with the girls; sadly, such experiences, felt over and over by students, can not only powerfully sow the seeds of mathematics anxiety, but result in enduring misconceptions.

8. Defining SMT

According to the Purdue University online Writing Lab, we use definitions to avoid misunderstanding with our audience by introducing the term; then stating the class or object to which the term belongs; and, finally, expanding on the differentiating characteristics that distinguish it from all others of its class. As an illustration of this three-step process, they provide this example: Astronomy (term) is a branch of scientific study (class) primarily concerned with celestial objects inside and outside of the earth’s atmosphere (differentiating characteristics).

Defining the “term” specialized mathematics knowledge for teaching does not fall neatly into the three-step method because although the term is familiar to most mathematics educators and many mathematicians, it is opaque because of subjective interpretations and evaluations, and in fact, many of the personal definitions that have been posited have only served to increase misinterpretations about what SMT is.

The first step in defining specialized mathematics knowledge for teaching is to establish that it is a distinct and multifactorial body of mathematical knowledge that stands alone. Although the term contains the words mathematics and teaching , it involves many more elements than the two italicized words, which in combination bring us closer to a shared understanding—the true purpose of a definition. If we follow the writing centre examples above, we will say that SMT is a branch of scientific study that encapsulates the mathematical, pedagogical, cognitive and developmental knowledge required by educators in order for students to receive a mathematics education that upholds the integrity of both mathematics and the learner.

SMT begins by valuing and knowing how mathematics understanding develops beginning with quantity and counting, the underlying structures of numbers, through to operations, and their physical and mental images. Beginning with our youngest learners, and continuing throughout the school years including the secondary grades, SMT prioritizes knowledge of appropriate representations and models, and their associated reasoning, as a fundamental factor in SMT. Similarly, while young children perceive shape and space from the world around them, it is the role of the teacher is to advance those perceptions by modeling and providing opportunities for students to mathematize and formalize their earlier knowledge and communicate it with precision. In order for students to transfer lower-order mathematical ideas from one context to another and recognize the connections/relationships that result in a “bigger picture,” they must build upon carefully orchestrated prior knowledge then begin gradually to construct the higher order ideas we call mathematical generalizations. This is what is meant by “mathematically developmental.” The teacher must carefully negotiate the trajectory towards higher-order mathematical constructs, by calling upon and offering concrete models, illustrations and related explanations that bridge to more abstract representations, and lead, ultimately to a generalization. The reasoning involved must rely only on constructs students already are comfortable with, not, as is often unwittingly done in mathematics, by drawing upon unfamiliar higher-order ideas. Without knowing how, when, and with what representations mathematics learning happens in the students’ minds, the introduction of new mathematical content/concepts is futile.

The selection and use of representations is much more than the mere drawing of an outcome—these skills and processes are part of the tangible and cognitive toolkit learners acquire, then use, to explore, reason, and abstract. Teachers must be deeply aware of the suitability of a range of such tools for a given task, as well as the mathematical appropriateness and possible uses and pitfalls. Often teachers need variety of representations, including drawings and manipulatives, and an awareness of the characteristics of each for different purposes. For example, why is the Soroban (Japanese Abacus) a powerful extension of finger-counting, and five- and ten-frames? Why is the Soroban a powerful tool for concretizing place value beyond base ten blocks? When is the number line more useful in exploring integer operations and when are integer counters a safer choice? What are the benefits of using different fraction manipulatives (ranging from fraction strips to grid paper) for exploring different operations? When are concrete algebra tiles most useful and when are online options helpful?

Teachers also need an understanding of the various interpretations and models of the fundamental operations (for example, the partitive versus the measurement model of division) and how and where these interpretations are relevant, as well as which of these models must be in place before proceeding with a new idea. As an example, teachers interested in having students explore the results of dividing by a unit fraction such as in 2 ÷ 1/4 need to ensure students already are familiar with the measurement model of division (“I have to measure two cups of flour but only have a 1/4 cup scoop, how many scoopfuls do I need?”), while exploring a calculation such as 1/4 ÷ 2 (“I want to share the remaining 1/4 of a pizza with my friend”), requires familiarity with the partitive model. Similarly, exploring (−6)÷(−2) is very straightforward if one is familiar with the measurement model of division but nearly impenetrable without it.

This knowledge is rich, complex, nuanced, connected, flexible, deeply mathematical, and non-trivial, usually contextualized in the business of teaching, yet learnable as a discipline in its own right. While such knowledge enables good pedagogy, it is deeply mathematical.

Knowledge of possible connections should extend up to as well as beyond the relevant grade level, as some students may be working at differing levels of generality and formality of a mathematical concept. It is also important that teachers have a sense of what is to come in terms of how some ideas are approached. For example, exploring division by zero as a process is much more productive when the student is at an appropriate developmental age for contemplating the complexity and has not, at a younger age, been “brushed off” by brusque ‘rules’ such as, “You cannot do it. It’s undefined.” Such deep knowledge of specialized mathematics for teaching includes not only an understanding of the related horizon knowledge, but also the mathematical underpinnings upon which understanding is constructed. Thus, horizon knowledge should extend to grades previously as well as those to come.

Knowledge of the mathematically conceptual building blocks of an idea is a critical component of SMT. Yet again we emphasize that this is mathematical knowledge, but of a distinct nature, although certainly fundamentally important for good pedagogy.

9. Assessment

We often hear that such specialized knowledge of mathematics would be difficult to assess, particularly in large-scale tests. Ball and her colleagues have created a wealth of multiple-choice items mainly for elementary level teachers, some of which attempt to measure aspects of what we are terming SMT. We have, over the years, crafted a wealth of such items as well (e.g. [ 9 , 11 ]), both open-ended and multiple choice, spanning a range of grades. For illustrative purposes in the current discussion, a set of examples of assessment items is provided to follow, crafted to span a range of grades and question styles.

9.1 Examples of assessment items

The figures that follow are simply illustrative, offered to dispel arguments that SMT is too “hard” to assess. Further items have been used and studied in our other work ( Figures 3 – 5 ) [ 9 , 11 ].

Sample of a multiple choice assessment item to assess SMT.

Sample short response assessment item to assess SMT.

Sample extended response item to assess SMT.

We have, in our work [ 9 ] seen the connection between deeper understanding of SMT as measured by items such as the samples provided above, and higher-quality mathematics teaching. Hence we suggest that SMT can both be improved with suitably focused coursework, which is critically necessary for all prospective teachers of mathematics including those with formal mathematics backgrounds, and it can also be measured and assessed with reasonable effectiveness.

10. Implications for courses for teachers

In 1986, Shulman queried educational researchers about why it was that “no one asked how subject matter was transformed from the knowledge of the teacher into the content of instruction” ([ 7 ], p. 6). Now, almost 40 years later, that question remains unanswered and the absence of subject matter in the study of teaching and learning remains what he labeled “the missing paradigm” ([ 7 ], p. 6).

Shulman reminds us that the educator must know the “most useful forms of representation of those ideas, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations—in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” ([ 7 ], p. 6).

There is abundant research to prove that an undergraduate degree is an inadequate pre-requisite for the classroom [ 15 ]. Were that true, then every graduate with a mathematics degree should be able to demonstrate the highest levels of subject matter competence, argues Shulman, which is, to teach the subject [ 7 ]. The truth is that a post-secondary education in mathematics is about the subject of mathematics, not education.

As a profession, education, specifically mathematics education, must then deliver a program that bridges the chasm between knowing mathematics oneself and knowing it for teaching: holding as its standard the fundamental principle that the defining characteristic of pedagogical accomplishment is knowledge of content [ 7 ]. This will require a major pivot because the culture of most mathematics education courses is not to concentrate on mathematics content—numbers and operations (including place value and fractions), algebra, geometry, and data and probability. While true in our home province of Ontario, the phenomenon is widespread. In fact, two studies by the National Council on Teacher Quality (a US body) found

…that just 13 percent of the 860 undergraduate elementary teacher preparation programs reviewed covered critical math topics, including numbers and operations, algebra, geometry, and data and probability [ 16 ]. And in 2018, a similar review of graduate programs by NCTQ found that just 1 percent of 201 programs covered these topics [ 17 ]

Much of what we have defined as specialized mathematics content knowledge is what Dan Lortie called the crucial “backstage” skill set that teachers possess and apply on the “frontstage” known as the classroom [ 18 ]. By this, Lortie meant having the knowledge and schemata that transform a person from being a subject matter “knower” to a subject matter “teacher.”

If we agree with educational psychologists like David Berliner, then we must acknowledge that domain-specific knowledge is a characteristic of an expert in any field [ 19 ], including the mathematics teaching profession. The development of expertise requires time, appropriate mentorship, and the integration of disciplines and “laboratories” across which and in which knowledge translation occurs. This last sentence clearly describes the rich preparatory program that already exists in the innovative Translational Institute in Medicine (TIME) model, and one upon which the criteria proffered by Shulman, Berliner, Ball, Bass and others could be actualized given its interdisciplinary nature of linking coursework from multiple specializations with periods of formal observation to enhance the development of professional thinking and action.

Although the TIME model is currently aimed at graduate (M.Sc. and Ph.D. students), the program of 12 courses (three of which are mandatory and three of which are elective), could be adapted to a 3-or 4 year Translational Institute in Mathematics Education program that “packages” courses that would include mathematicians, pedagogues, psychologists, cognitive scientists, neuroscientists, qualitative researchers and experienced mathematics classroom teachers. By so doing, pre-service students would develop, over a rigorous, research-based and holistic preparatory experience, the foundational knowledge and practical experiences that are pre-requisite for the mathematics classroom.

As with the TIME program in medicine, over an extended professional program, in the mathematics education derivative program, novice teachers will find themselves in focused seminars with expert academics from multiple fields whose research illuminates mathematics as well as its teaching and learning. They will then be tasked with integrating constructs, theories and content by reporting back and reflecting on the immersive observational opportunities where they experienced expert teachers engaged in the complex exercise of “teaching” while novice elementary and secondary school-aged students endeavor to “learn.” Unlike many current teacher education programs, in which learning to teach is the cursory “add on” after graduating with a general undergraduate degree, in a Translational Institute in Mathematics Education program, teacher candidates’ learning would be unified and purposeful from the start. All classes, whether in geometry or child development, will be conducted with complementarity 6 , not in parallel stream, so that future educators learn not only about mathematical content but experience, from the “other side of the desk,” the mathematical trajectories, advantages and pitfalls of lessons taught with concrete materials during authentic activities and lessons with peers and school-aged students. They will experience and in turn, acquire, techniques to formulate questions that will prompt mathematizing of content. They will “play” with the “thinker tools” commonly called manipulatives to see how mathematical explanations using multiple representations move from concrete to abstract. Through careful monitoring and questioning by the instructor, and in-depth sharing with peers, both the developmental progression of the mathematical ideas, and the alternate routes for these to emerge, will be explored and unpacked. Through this process, candidates will encounter their own misconceptions or gaps in understanding the mathematical development process and apply their problem solving through the hard task of promoting students’ understanding, learning to orchestrate their way through children’s misconstructions and remediating accordingly.

Such outcomes are not achievable given the typical requirement of one or two courses in mathematics education offered in our province’s consecutive (post-degree) teacher certification program. We argue, that in their current format of generic “education” courses, “concurrent” education programs, running in a totally disconnected stream from Arts & Science or Engineering degree requirements, for example, are also largely inadequate.

We have had good results from offering at least one course in mathematics for teachers (using our SMT definition) prior to explicitly focusing on more typical pedagogical topics such as lesson design and assessment. We have found [ 9 ], that even short content-rich, representation-focused experiences are effective in influencing the values of prospective teachers [ 11 ] in terms of what is important for students to know, and how they might begin to nurture such student understanding. Imagine, then, the impact of an extended, immersive TIME program.

11. Conclusions

Given that teachers’ knowledge of the conceptual underpinnings of mathematical concepts has a direct influence on student achievement [ 5 ], a concerted effort to define more clearly and articulate SMT has been the purpose of this chapter. Unclear articulation and ongoing (mis)understandings of prospective teachers’ mathematical needs has been a problematic theme throughout both of our careers and continues virulently in our region. Inadequate teacher preparation in mathematics can only result in unsatisfactory mathematical learning by students, ultimately giving rise to what is commonly referred to as “math anxiety” in both students, and eventually their teachers. In our experience, prospective teachers who define themselves as “anxious” about mathematics are adamant and rational about the issue: they know they do not understand mathematics well enough to teach it, and they are fully aware of this problem yet are prepared to head into a classroom where they will be solely responsible for teaching mathematics, after the most cursory preparation. Fortunately, when supported in developing a fuller understanding of mathematics (at least of a few overarching concepts), such conceptions of themselves can change greatly. Indeed, the positive transformation, both mathematically and in terms of self-efficacy, can be quite remarkable, but is unfortunately limited to only a few teacher education faculties who have SMT as a focus and thus, beneficial to only a handful of graduates. The “anxious” students become the new “anxious” in-take in education programs, i.e., the ones who ask, “I’m going to be in your mathematics education course starting in September. We’re just going to learn how to teach math, right? We’re not going to have to do math are we?” Sadly, it is not an exaggeration to say that we both keep tissue boxes on our desks.

We can break the cycle but only if we give teachers the confidence to assume their roles in the mathematics classroom—in other words, beginning with the end in mind, which is, in our opinion, a teacher whose SMT is not in question. A teacher who understands how representations—including manipulatives, drawings, other models, virtual environments, or even at times, movement or hand motions—can be used to support the development of particular mathematical ideas. A teacher who understands how mathematical ideas themselves evolve and require different tools across the grades, yet build upon each other in increasingly sophisticated and ultimately abstract ways. And a teacher who understands that supporting the learning of this content requires new types of problem-solving strategies and reasoning.

We offer our conception of SMT to define the “vision of the mathematics teacher,” by describing the skills and knowledge teachers should embody and exemplify on graduation from a mathematics education program. We believe that this will be useful in the promotion and creation of better program design, and course design, particularly mathematics for teachers’ course content, all of which would ultimately result in improved mathematical understanding for students from Kindergarten to Grade 12.

Based on earlier concepts of Shulman, and further articulated by Bass and colleagues, we have described specialized mathematical content for teaching as a distinct mathematical domain, with unique requirements, which are tied directly to the student learning process and informed by multiple fields of academic study.

It’s about TIME (literally and figuratively) for SMT to be an important requirement in mathematics teacher education. As we have argued above, such teacher knowledge is a critical component of classroom mathematics learning for students. If the academic and “clinical” standards for and preparation to be a mathematics teacher—a highly specialized profession regardless of the grade and age of the students—are to shape positive change in the post-secondary education lecture hall or Grade 3 classroom, there is no time to waste.

• 1. Jones A. Ontario Court Upholds Mandatory Math Test for New Teachers. The Canadian Press; 2023. Available from: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-court-mandatory-teacher-math-test-1.7042352 [Accessed: November 28, 2023]
• 2. Ball D, Thames M, Phelps G. Content knowledge for teaching: What makes it special? Journal of Teacher Education. 2008; 59 :389-407
• 3. Kajander A, Holm J. Mathematics education under the gavel: Who controls the minimum competency standards? Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education. 2022; 22 :959-973. DOI: 10.1007/s42330-022-00255-w
• 4. Bass H. Mathematics, mathematicians, and mathematics education. Bulletin (New Series) of the American Mathematical Society. 2005; 42 :417-430. DOI: 10.1090/S0273-0979-05-01072-4
• 5. Baumert J, Kunter M, Blum W, Brunner M, Voss T, Jordan A, et al. Teachers’ mathematical knowledge, cognitive activation in the classroom, and student progress. American Educational Research Journal. 2010; 47 :133-180
• 6. Hart L, Oesterle S, Swars S, Kajander A, editors. The Mathematics Education of Elementary Teachers: Issues and Strategies for Content Courses. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing; 2016. 127 p
• 7. Shulman L. Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher. 1986; 15 :4-14
• 8. Mitchell R, Charalambous C, Hill H. Examining the task and knowledge demands needed to teach with representations. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 2014; 17 :37-60
• 9. Kajander A, Holm J. What math matters? Types of mathematics knowledge and relationships to methods course performance. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education. 2016; 16 :273-283. DOI: 10.1080/14926156.2016.1183837
• 10. Willingham D. Ask the cognitive scientist: Do manipulatives help students learn? American Educator. 2017. Available from: https://www.aft.org/ae/fall2017/willingham
• 11. Kajander A. Mathematics teacher preparation in an era of curriculum change: The development of mathematics for teaching. Canadian Journal of Education. 2010; 33 :228-255
• 12. Holm J, Kajander A. Seeking intersections: Math degrees, beliefs, and elementary teacher knowledge. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education. 2020; 20 :27-41. DOI: 10.1007/s42330-019-00069-3
• 13. Kajander A. Mathematics for Intermediate Teachers: From Models to Methods. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2023. 164 p
• 14. Skemp R. The Psychology of Learning Mathematics. New York, NY: Penguin; 1986. 295 p
• 15. Ginsburg H, Sun Lee J, Boyd J. Mathematics education for young children: What it is and how to promote it. Social Policy Report: Giving Child and Youth Development Knowledge Away. 2008; XXII :1-24
• 16. Greenberg J, Walsh K. No Common Denominator: The Preparation of Elementary Teachers in Mathematics by America’s Education Schools. National Council on Teacher Quality; 2008. 122 p
• 17. Durrance S. Giving Elementary Teachers the Tools to Teach Math Well. Southern Region Education Board; 2019
• 18. Lortie D. Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study. Chicago: IL, The University of Chicago Press; 1975. 308 p
• 19. Berliner D. In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. Educational Researcher. 1986; 15 :5-13
• Although new to Ontario, Canada, passing a standardized test of reading, writing and mathematics is a basic requirement for teacher certification in almost all 50 states in the USA. These qualifying tests attempt to measure a prospective teacher’s knowledge and skills and are used by most public schools in the United States to ensure that educators are qualified to teach. It should be noted that because each individual state sets its own standards, testing requirements vary on a state-by-state basis. In Canada, no other province has a qualifying test as a requirement for teacher certification; however, a few universities (Lakehead University (Ontario) and Memorial University (Newfoundland and Labrador) do have “Math Competency Assessments” or “Math Placement Tests” that are diagnostic evaluations of basic skills in mathematics that must be completed as a condition for graduation or for registering for particular mathematics or mathematics education courses.
• Ontario court upholds mandatory math test for new teachers Province initially introduced test in effort to help improve students’ math test scores Allison Jones · The Canadian Press · Posted: Nov 28, 2023 1:15 PM EST | Last Updated: November 28, 2023
• While the first Math Proficiency Test (MPT) was administered in 2021, it was challenged in court as being unfair to racialized teacher candidates and therefore infringed on equality rights under the Canada Charter of Rights and Freedom. In November 2023, an appeal court ruled that the test was not unconstitutional and the plans for administering the test could go ahead. The Proposed Regulatory Amendments related to Proficiency in Mathematics received approval and came into effect on filing on May 30, 2024. The date for the new MPT is effective on February 1, 2025. The Education, Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO) will develop, administer, mark and report on the test results to test takers and OCT.
• https://news.ontario.ca/en/release/1002939/province-improving-accountability-and-transparency-in-ontario-schools
• EQAO is an arm’s length government agency that develops, administers and reports on annual province-wide assessments of Grades 3 and 6 Literacy and Numeracy; Grade 9 Mathematics; and Grade 10 Literacy
• The notion of complementarity comes from Physics. The term was coined by Neils Bohr to explain that some phenomena can only be understood when one considers more than one description of that phenomenon using different lenses because the characteristics cannot be observed simultaneously using one definition. It is only when the differences in perspectives and definitions are combined, that the phenomenon can be fully accounted for.

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• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

The right care in the right place: a scoping review of digital health education and training for rural healthcare workers

• Leanna Woods 1 , 2 ,
• Priya Martin 3 ,
• Johnson Khor 1 , 4 ,
• Lauren Guthrie 1 &
• Clair Sullivan 1 , 2 , 5  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  1011 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Digital health offers unprecedented opportunities to enhance health service delivery across vast geographic regions. However, these benefits can only be realized with effective capabilities and clinical leadership of the rural healthcare workforce. Little is known about how rural healthcare workers acquire skills in digital health, how digital health education or training programs are evaluated and the barriers and enablers for high quality digital health education and training.

To conduct a scoping review to identify and synthesize existing evidence on digital health education and training of the rural healthcare workforce.

Inclusion criteria

Sources that reported digital health and education or training in the healthcare workforce in any healthcare setting outside metropolitan areas.

We searched for published and unpublished studies written in English in the last decade to August 2023. The databases searched were PubMed, Embase, Scopus, CINAHL and Education Resources Information Centre. We also searched the grey literature (Google, Google Scholar), conducted citation searching and stakeholder engagement. The JBI Scoping Review methodology and PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews were used.

Five articles met the eligibility criteria. Two case studies, one feasibility study, one micro-credential and one fellowship were described. The mode of delivery was commonly modular online learning. Only one article described an evaluation, and findings showed the train-the-trainer model was technically and pedagogically feasible and well received. A limited number of barriers and enablers for high quality education or training of the rural healthcare workforce were reported across macro (legal, regulatory, economic), meso (local health service and community) and micro (day-to-day practice) levels.

Conclusions

Upskilling rural healthcare workers in digital health appears rare. Current best practice points to flexible, blended training programs that are suitably embedded with interdisciplinary and collaborative rural healthcare improvement initiatives. Future work to advance the field could define rural health informatician career pathways, address concurrent rural workforce issues, and conduct training implementation evaluations.

Review registration number

Open Science Framework: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/N2RMX .

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Globally, healthcare workers (HCWs) face multiple pressures simultaneously: increasing demand for care, co-morbidities and condition complexity, budget pressures, and rapid digital disruption [ 1 ]. The digital disruption in healthcare promises an unprecedented circumstance to improve outcomes and strengthen health systems [ 2 ]. However, this opportunity depends on a capable healthcare workforce with adequate skills and knowledge in data and emerging technologies [ 3 ]. HCW capability in digital health and clinical informatics is increasingly acknowledged as an essential component to the delivery of high-quality patient care [ 4 ]. Universities do not yet routinely teach these curricula in clinical degrees, and the capability gap in the current workforce is often filled by brief, reactive, and on-the-job training [ 5 ]. Sustainability of healthcare includes developing a skilled healthcare workforce educated and competent in digital health [ 6 ].

The rural healthcare workforce is faced with the location-based issues of resource constraints, workforce shortages, high staff turnover rates, stress, burnout, and an ageing workforce [ 7 ]. The World Health Organization has acknowledged in a recent report (2021) the complex challenge of shortage of healthcare workers globally in rural areas [ 7 ]. This report has acknowledged that the workforce density is lower than national averages in most of these areas. In places where there isn’t a national shortage, maldistribution of the workforce has been noted [ 7 ]. Digitally enabled models of care are well placed to enhance health service delivery across vast and distributed geographic regions. However, rural health service organizations require uplift to align with their metropolitan counterparts in workforce digital readiness [ 8 ]. Building digital health capability in rural settings is critical because higher digital health capability is associated with better outcomes, including the ability to maintain an accurate patient health record, track patient experience data, track the patient journey, and mitigate clinical risks [ 9 ]. Rurality is contributing to widening digital health inequities [ 10 ] with significant efforts required to adequately manage the rural digital divide [ 11 , 12 ]. Building digital capabilities of healthcare providers in rural and remote settings through education, training and support is needed [ 13 ].

Existing evidence on the education and training the rural healthcare workforce is limited. Firstly, while health science faculties are progressively integrating digital health into the undergraduate curricula for the future workforce [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], it is unclear how the education of current HCW is approached [ 14 ]. Despite global exemplars such as fellowship training for physicians [ 17 ], certification for nurses [ 18 ], and advanced education for clinical and non-clinical professionals [ 19 ], limited evidence of successful workforce programs to build digital health skills exist [ 4 ]. None focus on the rural healthcare setting.

Secondly, in literature reporting digital health in rural settings, there is a notable scarcity on workforce training programs. Existing studies focus on efficacy of delivered healthcare [ 20 , 21 ], workforce perceptions of digital health tool implementation [ 22 , 23 ] or are limited to training of specific interventions (e.g., clinical telehealth [ 24 ]). This review sought to explore the literature where these two gaps coexist, the intersection of digital health education and training and the rural healthcare workforce, and synthesize the available evidence on digital health education and training for the rural healthcare workforce.

Review question

The research questions for this review were:

What are the existing practices and approaches to digital health education and training for rural HCWs?

How has digital health education and training been evaluated following implementation?

What are the barriers and enablers for high quality digital health education and training in the rural healthcare workforce?

Participants

The review considered studies and reports on any members of the workforce in healthcare settings outside of metropolitan areas. The healthcare workforce refers to ‘all individuals who deliver or assist in the delivery of health services or support the operation of health care facilities’ [ 3 ]. All clinical (e.g., medical doctors, nurses, allied health professionals, pharmacists, Indigenous HCWs, pre-registration/qualification students undertaking placements in health care facilities) and non-clinical workers (e.g., administration, executive and management, clinical support, and volunteers) were considered regardless of professional body or government registration status. Patients, healthcare consumers, and the public were excluded.

The core concepts of digital health and training were combined in this review. Digital health and clinical informatics are often used interchangeably, and both were considered in this review. While digital health refers to the use of digital technologies for health [ 25 ], clinical informatics refers to more specialized practice of analyzing, designing, implementing and evaluating information and communication systems [ 26 ]. Specific digital health systems (e.g., IT infrastructure, telehealth, electronic medical records) were included. Training relates to the education or training initiatives (e.g., programs, curriculum, course) that build an individuals’ digital health capability to confidently use technologies to respond to the needs of consumers now and into the future [ 1 ]. Both education and training activities were considered. Education often refers to theoretical learning (e.g., by an academic institution, qualification), and training often teaches practical skills (e.g., employer-provided professional development, ‘just-in-time’ training) [ 3 , 24 ]. This review did not consider HCW education delivered at a distance through technologies (e.g., telesupervision for clinical skills training).

This review considered studies and reports from rural healthcare settings defined as outside metropolitan cities, inclusive of regional, rural, remote, and very remote settings. When the term ‘rural’ is used in this review, it refers to all areas outside major metropolitan cities as described by authors of individual studies and reports. All healthcare facilities across primary, secondary, and tertiary care settings were included in any country.

Types of sources

All research studies, irrespective of the study design, were considered. Reviews, conference abstracts and non-research sources (e.g., policy documents, program or course curriculum) were considered. The grey literature was included to capture reactionary training developed by rural health services that were not published as peer-reviewed research studies.

This review was conducted in accordance with the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology for scoping reviews [ 27 ] and reported as per the Preferred Reporting of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR) [ 28 ] (Additional file 1 ). The review protocol was registered in Open Science Framework [ https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/N2RMX ].

A scoping review approach was chosen over a systematic review to address a general, formative review question on this topic that is emerging in the literature and where the literature is complex and heterogenous [ 29 ]. An initial preliminary search of the topic in the academic databases, Cochrane Library, Open Science Framework and Prospero registry resulted in a very small number of relevant articles. It was determined that a broader search strategy and inclusion of non-research sources was required, consistent with the scoping review methodology [ 29 ]. Scoping review format is also well suited to the vast, diverse healthcare education topic across different disciplines, interventions and outcomes realised [ 30 ]. Mapping and synthesis across sources in this scoping review aims to inform research agendas and identify implications for policy and practice [ 31 ].

Deviations from the protocol

There were no deviations to the protocol.

Search strategy

The three phase JBI search process was followed. An initial limited search of PubMed was performed to identify keywords on the topic, followed by an analysis of the text words and index terms contained in the title and abstract. A subsequent preliminary search in Prospero registry, Cochrane Library and Open Science Framework informed the development of a full search strategy in PubMed. The search strategy, including all identified keyworks and index terms, was adapted for each included database and information source after refining the strategy with an information specialist. The reference lists of all included sources of evidence were screened for additional studies.

The review included only studies and reports in English (due to translation resourcing limitations) in the last 10 years (due to the relative novelty of the digital transformation of healthcare). The search was conducted in August 2023. The databases searched included PubMed, Scopus, Cumulative Index for Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Embase, and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). Scopus was chosen over Web of Science as it provides 20% more coverage and the relative recency of articles indexed (publish date after 1995 [ 32 ]) was not a concern for our research question. The search for unpublished studies and grey literature included Google and Google Scholar, using a modified search strategy as required. In addition, national and international stakeholders ( n  = 29) from Asia, the Pacific Islands, Australia, USA and the UK known to have subject matter expertise on the topic were contacted via direct email. Stakeholders were asked to share any relevant work underway or otherwise undiscoverable using our scoping review methods. The full search strategy for each information source is provided in Additional file 2 .

Study selection

Following the search, identified articles were collated and uploaded into Covidence review software (Veritas Health Innovation Ltd; Melbourne, Australia) and duplicates removed. Two reviewers (among LW, JK and LG) then independently screened the title and abstract of each citation and selected studies that met the inclusion criteria. The full text articles were retrieved and uploaded into Covidence. These studies and reports were assessed independently by two reviewers (listed previously) for full assessment against the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers at each stage of the selection process were resolved through discussion or with an additional reviewer (among LG and PM). Three meetings occurred to discuss any voting conflicts that occurred during title and abstract screening and full-text screening. Articles that did not satisfy the criteria were excluded with reasons for exclusion recorded. Search results and study selection process is presented in accordance to the PRISMA-ScR flow diagram (Fig. 1 ) [ 28 ]. Quality appraisal of selected studies was not conducted, consistent with scoping reviews methods [ 33 ].

Search results and source selection and inclusion process

Data extraction

Extracted data included the specific details about the participants, concept, context, study methods and key findings relevant to each review question. Data was extracted by one reviewer (JK) and checked by a second reviewer (LW). Data were extracted using the data extraction tool developed and piloted by the team (Additional file 3 ).

Data synthesis and presentation

The characteristics of the included studies were analyzed and organized in tabular format, accompanied by a narrative summary. Results of each research question was presented under separate headings. The data analysis for research question three (barriers and enablers of high-quality digital health education and training) was enhanced. We adopted the socio-institutional framework described by Smith et al [ 34 ] and used in education research [ 35 ] to classify macro, meso, micro level enablers and barriers to help improve the generalizability of the synthesized insights and identify stakeholders that are able to influence change. Gaps and limitations of the current literature were discovered from the evidence with recommendations for policy, practice and future research provided.

Study inclusion

Database searching yielded 1005 articles and stakeholder engagement yielded two articles. After removing duplicates, 660 articles were screened for title and abstract, after which 29 articles underwent full text review. Of the 29 articles, 24 articles were excluded: the setting was metropolitan or otherwise inadequately described as non-metropolitan ( n  = 6); the intervention was not a training or education initiative for digital health or clinical informatics ( n  = 16), or the population was not rural healthcare workers ( n  = 2). In total, following full-text screening, five articles were included in the final review (Fig.  1 ).

Characteristics of included studies

Of the five included articles, three were academic publications including two case studies [ 36 , 37 ] and one feasibility study [ 38 ] (Table 1 ). The two articles identified through stakeholder engagement presented course summaries [ 39 , 40 ] where one described a micro-credential [ 40 ] and the other described a fellowship [ 39 ]. Most articles ( n  = 3) were published recently between 2021 and 2023 [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Healthcare workforce settings were distributed across the continents of the United States of America [ 36 ], Asia [ 37 ], Africa [ 38 ] and Australia [ 39 , 40 ], with no articles reporting a setting in the European continent. Further study characteristics are available in Table 1 .

Review findings

What are the existing approaches to digital health education and training for rural hcws.

Training and education programs were needed due to identified gaps in knowledge, skills and expertise to support healthcare delivery in rural contexts with digital health [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], [ 40 ]. One article reported the target learners as village doctors, who may have “limited training and inadequate medical knowledge, yet they are generally the mainstay of health services” [ 37 ]. The mode of teaching in the included studies were four modular online learning courses [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], [ 40 ] and one fellowship [ 39 ]. Of the four modular online learning courses, one was supplemented by a facilitator-led train-the-trainer model [ 38 ], informed by an academic framework [ 41 ], with cohort-based discussion via a social media platform. The second was a certification in the form of a self-paced micro-credential completed individually [ 40 ]. Of the four modular online learning courses, the number of modules ranged from three to eight and covered a variety of digital health topics including innovation, commercialization, bioinformatics, technology use, data and information, professionalism, implementation and evaluation. One had a particular focus on information and communication technology tool use [ 37 ] while another focused on remote consulting [ 38 ]. The mode of delivery of the fellowship was not reported in the article.

Four [ 36 , 37 , 39 , 40 ] of the five included articles did not report an evaluation. One article in rural Tanzania described the evaluation of the train-the-trainer digital health training program using a mixed-method design [ 38 ]: (1) questionnaire informed by Kirkpatrick’s model of evaluation to capture knowledge gained and perceived behavior change on a Likert scale, (2) qualitative interviews to explore training experiences and views of remote consulting, and (3) document analysis from texts, emails and training reports [ 38 ]. Of the tier 1 trainees (senior medical figure trainers who were trained to educate their peers) that completed the questionnaire ( n  = 10, 83%), nine (90%) recommended the training program and reported receiving relevant skills and applying learning to daily work, demonstrating satisfaction, learning and perceived behavior change [ 38 ]. Overall, the feasibility study confirmed that remotely delivered training supported by cascade training was technically and pedagogically feasible and well received in rural Tanzania [ 38 ].

What are the barriers and enablers for high quality digital health education and training of the rural healthcare workforce?

Reported enablers and barriers are presented using the macro, meso, micro framework [ 34 ] (Table 2 ).

This scoping review reflects the scarcity of reported digital health education and training programs in existence for rural HCWs globally. This review responds to the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation to design and enable access to continuing education and professional development programs that meet the needs of rural HCWs [ 7 ], and the Sustainable Development Goal for inclusive and equitable quality education [ 42 ].

Concurrent challenges of people (workforce), setting (rural) and content (digital health) are reported in included articles alongside enablers and barriers to education and training programs. Included studies reported a shortage of doctors and specialists [ 36 ], lack of technical knowledge [ 36 ] (people); higher cost of delivering rural healthcare, high burden of illness [ 40 ], medically underserved population due to rural hospital closures [ 36 ] (setting); and limited use of digital health tools due to coordination challenges among non-government organisations [ 37 ] (content). These additional macro, meso and micro level factors are described by authors firstly as influencing the need for digital health programs in rural settings, and secondly, as contributing to the challenges of implementing effective programs. The rural health workforce challenges in digital health education and training reflect the broader workforce development issues experienced globally [ 7 ]. While this review sought to identify workforce development programs, the WHO model indicates the need for attractiveness, recruitment and retention to enable workforce performance (i.e., appropriate and competent multidisciplinary teams providing care) and health system performance (i.e., improving universal health coverage) [ 7 ].

In low-resource settings such as rural areas, education and training may not be prioritized among other competing workload demands. As the value of digital health transformations are realized for strengthening healthcare systems [ 25 , 43 ], the value of digital health education or training programs may become realized. This value was evidenced in the implementation of the teleconsulting training intervention in rural Tanzania [ 38 ] in rapid response to supporting care delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic period. With evaluations of programs largely absent from an already small number of programs globally, it will be important for future research to focus on implementation evaluation studies. As Table 2 presents only limited enablers and barriers, more evidence is needed to build on the findings from this scoping review to inform strategies for policy and practice.

The interdisciplinarity of digital health presents challenges and opportunities for nurturing digital health expertise across the rural healthcare workforce. Included articles largely described the target learners of education and training programs as clinicians, practitioners and healthcare workforce. Walden et al. further indicated that users of online content may extend beyond rural health clinicians to healthcare administrators, researchers and providers relevant to address the regulatory factors of clinical validation and implementation [ 36 ]. Therefore, for their program of work, the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences identified and fostered collaboration with an interprofessional team of clinicians, researchers, informaticists, a bioethicist, lawyers, technology investment experts, and educators [ 36 ]. No articles in the review described education or training health informaticians or similar digital health leadership role types, yet building defined career pathways for health informaticians is recommended [ 4 ]. Existing pedagogy shows that the learning principles of interprofessional practice is grounded in understanding one’s own practice as well as the practice of other health professionals and remains aligned to the educational needs of specific professions [ 44 ] (i.e., medicine, nursing, pharmacy). Defining new career pathways for interdisciplinary leaders in digital health within a specific clinical context, like the ‘rural health informatician’, will be important to identify or define the (hidden) specialized workforce.

Local, informal organizational initiatives for digital health learning were discovered alongside formal education or training programs in included studies. Programs were often reported in articles alongside concurrent digital health implementation or healthcare improvement programs, sometimes referred to as ‘outreach’ [ 36 ] activities. These informal initiatives included special interest groups, in-person conferences, networking events, working groups [ 36 ] and seminars [ 37 ]. Current evidence from this scoping review suggests that the efficacy and sustainability of education or training programs are reliant on integrated approaches, like the train-the-trainer [ 38 ] or academic organization approach [ 36 ], that foster translational research for rural healthcare improvement. As illustrated by Walden et al., success in digital health is likely to require a foundational environment where technologies can be discussed, developed and deployed [ 36 ]. Success in rural digital health skills acquisition likely requires a similar, longitudinal and collaborative approach beyond the confines of an online course completed individually. Previous research shows us that blended learning, which merges face-to-face with online learning, translates to better knowledge outcomes [ 44 ]. Blended learning can also overcome the barrier of rural HCWs travelling large distances to attend face-to-face training that comes at a great cost to themselves and the work unit. A key recommendation to improve the digital health training program described by Downie et al. was more face-to-face time with trainers, from the perspective of both trainee and facilitator [ 38 ]. This, however, can only be realized with targeted planning and budgeting of such offerings by involved rural healthcare organizations.

The opportunities to advance digital health education and training for rural HCWs are presented across the macro, meso and micro levels in the socio-institutional framework, with suggested relevant stakeholders suited to actioning the recommendations (Table  3 ). While the context for this is likely to vary across the globe, these recommendations and stakeholders are expected to provide a starting point to initiate a dialogue that can influence change. These recommendations are not meant to be prescriptive or rigid, but rather meant to flag actionable solutions that can be contextualized for any given setting.

Strengths and limitations

It is possible that there is a greater number of published educational and training programs than those reported in this review (i.e., publication bias). To mitigate this, we used a scoping review methodology and stakeholder engagement activity to identify unpublished or emerging programs that answer the review question but may not be discoverable in the academic databases. The review is limited to articles available in the English language. The small number of programs, heterogeneity of programs and limited evaluation of programs significantly limit generalizability of findings. Due to data availability, the barriers and enablers findings summary contain an overrepresentation from a small number of studies limiting conclusions that can be drawn.

Digital health offers the best opportunity for innovative sustainable change to address critical issues in health and care in rural settings. Workforce education and training initiatives in rural healthcare settings are scarce, largely delivered via online training, and are rarely evaluated. Current best practice points to flexible, blended (online and face-to-face) training programs that are suitably embedded with interdisciplinary, collaborative rural healthcare improvement initiatives. More research will expand the evidence base to deliver high-quality digital health education to strengthen rural healthcare delivery. Future work to advance the field could define rural health informatician career pathways, address concurrent rural workforce issues, and conduct implementation evaluations.

Availability of data and materials

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Cumulative Index for Nursing and Allied Health Literature

Education Resources Information Centre

Healthcare worker

Joanna Briggs Institute

Preferred Reporting of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses for scoping reviews

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LW, PM and CS designed the study. LW, PM, JK and LG acquired data; analyzed and interpreted results and drafted the manuscript and all subsequent drafts. CS read and contributed to manuscript drafts. All authors read and approved the final manuscript draft.

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Additional File 1. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist.

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Woods, L., Martin, P., Khor, J. et al. The right care in the right place: a scoping review of digital health education and training for rural healthcare workers. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 1011 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11313-4

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11313-4

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