essay about best friend in nepali

_Multi DropDown
__Nepali Rashifal
__Today's Nepali Date
__Nepali Unicode
Model Questions
NEB CLASS 12

Nepali Essay Topics Lists | Nibandha Lekhan

Here I have put some Nepali essays (nibandha) which are frequently asked in exams:

Here are your tips to write an essay.

Here is the topic list of Nepali Essay :

1 नेपाल

2 मेरो देश

3 सगरमाथा

4 मेरो देश मेरो गौरव

5 नेपालको राष्ट्रिय झण्डा

6 नेपालको राष्ट्रिय जनवार

7 तिज

8 दशैँ

9 तिहार

10 होली

11 नेपाली चाडपर्वहरु

12 नेपालको सस्कृति

13 पुस्तकालय

14 गाउँले जीवन

15 सहरिया जीवन

16 शिक्षाको महत्व

17 मेरि आमा

18 मेरो बुबा

19 मेरो परिवार

20 मेरो मिल्ने साथी

21 मेरो विद्यालय

22 मेरो घर

23 मेरो गाउँ

24 पानीको महत्व

25 हाम्रो स्वास्थ्य

26 स्वास्थ्य नै धन हो

27 वाताबरण

28 विधार्थी जीवन

29 अनुशासन

30 विधार्थी जीवनमा अनुशासनको महत्व

31 भ्रष्टाचार

32 लोकतन्त्र

33 प्राविधिक शिक्षाको महत्व

34 विज्ञान र प्रबिधि

35 संचार प्रविधि

36 सरस्वती पुजा

37 गाईको बारेमा निबन्ध

38 कुकुर बारेमा निबन्ध

39 महिला हिंसा

40 मेरो जन्मस्थान

41 फूलबारी

42 इन्टरनेट

43 मोबाइल

44 टेलिभिजन

45 फुटवल

46 क्रिकेट

47 मेरो जीवनको लक्ष्य

48 नेपालको विकाशमा पर्यटनको महत्व

49 प्राकृतिक स्रोतहरु

50 मनपर्ने खेल

51 मनपर्ने खानेकुरा

52 नेपालको राजनीतिक अवस्था

53 वायु प्रदूषण

54 नेपालको भौगोलिक अवस्था

Also read: मेरो विद्यालय।

मेरो जीवनको लक्ष्य निबन्ध | Mero Jivan ko Lakshya Nibandha |

मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध | Mero Desh Nepal bare Nibandha |

देशप्रतिको मेरो कर्तव्य निबन्ध | Mero Desh Pratiko Mero kartavya |

IOE Entrance (44)
NEB Class 12 (25)
Nepali Nibandha (24)
Class 11 (21)
Model Questions (4)
Date converter
IOE Entrance
NEB Class 12
Nepali Date
Nepali Nibandha
Nepali Rashifal
Nepali Unicode

Random Posts

मेरो जीवनको लक्ष्य निबन्ध | Mero Jivan ko Lakshya Nibandha |

Footer Menu Widget

Writing journeys

13 MIN READ

Excellent essays and outstanding op-eds

Tom Robertson, September 29, 2021, Kathmandu

Share this article

Writing Journeys series editor Tom Robertson provides a list of easy tips on how to write better argumentative essays and opinion pieces for newspapers.

At first, I was surprised that, of the many Nepali-language Youtube videos that I’ve made about writing, the most popular was also the longest — a video called Easy Excellent Essays . Once I thought more, though, it became less surprising; writing essays is important and hard. And in schools, most Nepalis don’t get much hands-on essay writing practice. Fortunately, there are several easy-to-learn principles that make writing excellent essays much easier.

Here are some common questions that people ask me about essays.

How did you learn to write argument essays?

I got a lot of practice in my 11th-grade social studies class. All year, we never faced regular tests, only essay exams. I probably wrote 8 or 10 essays that year and prepared to write three times as many. That gave me a lot of practice with the concise five-paragraph essay: introduction, three body paragraphs, and conclusion.

That model works well with short articles. But I’ve found that the same writing concepts help with longer articles, journal articles, and even whole books (and also with presentations .) My PhD dissertation, which eventually became a published book, is nothing more than a whole lot of five- , six- , and seven-paragraph essays woven together into nine chapters.

What is the best way to start an opinion essay?

The first one or two paragraphs are crucial. With short articles, such as an opinion article for the newspaper, I often read just one or two paragraphs and then ask myself, “Is it worth reading this article?” I’m busy and picky. If I can’t tell what the essay is about, or if I think it’s saying something obvious or not new, or if I think the author is not careful with words, I give up partway and move to another article.

Do you start with your main point right away?

That is one effective approach, either right away or at the end of a paragraph that introduces the main topic. In fact, that’s the classic way to start a short argumentative essay such as an op-ed article — with an intro paragraph highlighting the main argument.

The US military has a term for this: BLUF, or Bottom Line Up Front. Putting the main argument — what you are trying to prove — early makes it much easier for readers. One of the most common mistakes in newspaper op-ed articles is to not make the argument clear early on. Similarly, in an academic article, a big blunder is to jump to the evidence without setting up the question and clarifying the overall argument in an introductory paragraph. For both, I recommend summarizing the main point in a single crystal-clear sentence such as “While X and Y have argued Z, I will argue A and B.”

What about a hook?

I also often start an essay with a ‘hook’ — something to pull in readers — usually an interesting story or a startling statistic or really engaging quotation. But if I do, I’m careful to be concise. Tell your story quickly and clearly, then give the essay’s main topic and your main argument. There’s nothing worse than a long-winded opening to an essay that attempts to be interesting but fails because it doesn’t get to the topic or main argument quickly enough. Unless you are an exceptionally skilled storyteller, hooks must be very clear and very quick. Readers want to know where they are going.

Some people suggest ending the essay similarly to the way you start. What do you think?

That’s effective and easy to do. You can start a personal essay for a college or graduate essay about some life-altering, near-fatal experience you had, move on to other topics in the middle of the essay, and then in the essay’s last sentences, quickly remind readers of the life-altering, near-fatal story again. Doing this can be very powerful. It brings things full circle. It shows how far we’ve come in the essay. It feels elegant. That’s why you see the method often. It works well in op-eds too.

This long-form opinion piece by Sarita Pariyar uses this technique very well: ‘ The old weight of caste ’.

For another example in a long essay, see how I start and end my 5,000-word essay in Nepali Times , ‘ The monsoon, and nature’s arithmetic ’.

This easy and effective writing technique shows a defining feature of essays — that the material in them “holds together.” Everything — the beginning, middle, and end — is somehow connected to a single question or theme. The fancy name for this is ‘coherence’. An essay is not a list — a loosely connected collection of info — but a more focused set of interlinked facts, info, and opinion. The key concept is interconnection. Starting and ending with the same story or theme shows this concept well.

Ok, you’ve got us through the introduction. What then?

Next come body paragraphs or body sections. Generally two-to-four of each but sometimes more. Here, my advice is short paragraphs with the main point at the beginning. A new paragraph signals to readers that a new idea is coming. Don’t keep them guessing what it is. Bottom Line Up Front. BLUF.

When you say short, how short do you mean?

One-to-four sentences for newspaper articles. A little longer for academic writing. Most academic articles have paragraphs that are way too long. Most readers get lost or bored or both. Nothing helped my writing more than learning to write focused paragraphs. One paragraph equals one idea.

How do you order the body paragraphs?

Generally, either thematically or chronologically. Follow the same order as in the introduction — or fix the introduction so it mimics the order of paragraphs. That makes it much easier for readers. Otherwise, it’s like light switches that don’t align with the lights they turn on — it’s counterintuitive and confusing.

The key thing is that there needs to be a logical order and you need to show it to the readers. If your structure is logical but the readers can’t actually see the logic, that’s not very helpful. You want to build your argument, step by step. It’s often effective to use numbers to organize your paragraphs.

I hear you have a good metaphor for thinking about the essay writer’s role.

I find it helpful to think about an essay as a journey or trip for the readers. Readers start in one location and move to three or four other places. Then they arrive at a final location.

Your job, as author, is to be the tour guide. At the beginning, explain where you are going and why. That’s the essay’s introduction. Why should readers care? Then actually take them to several locations and explain what they should be looking at and why. Each stopping point is a body paragraph. Make sure readers don’t get lost. Make sure they know what they are looking at.

The best tour guides know where readers might get confused and so they make the right path very clear. But once readers know where they are, the best tour guides get out of the way, so as not to distract from or block what’s important.

At the end of the trip, the tour guide helps readers make sense of the trip, to find meaning in what they saw. That’s the essay’s conclusion. After a journey, it is often useful to look back to where you started and remind readers of what you talked about at the beginning of the journey, and each step of the way.

What is your approach to transitions?

The most effective transitions involve no special transition words. Instead, they rely upon logic that is so clear that even without help readers can easily see the necessary jumps from topic to topic. Sometimes all they need is the paragraph break that says ‘Hey reader, here comes a new idea’.

But, and this is crucial, especially when there’s a change in time or place or argument, readers need more help. The best transitions provide clarity about the new context and do so quickly: “In nineteenth century France, …” Or, “In India in the 1970s,…” What a great transition! Clear and quick, right at the beginning. Along these lines, I love using the word “but” or “yet” at a paragraph’s beginning as a signpost. One short word says so much.

How do you make an essay interesting? How do you keep readers wanting to read on?

In each and every paragraph I ask myself this question. I’m always thinking about the reader and how to keep him or her interested.

One thing that helps far more than you might realize is keeping things concise. Keep paragraphs short and focused. Cut the unnecessary words. Most first and second drafts are way too loooooong. [See my tips on writing concisely ‘ Less is more ’.]

For content: Don’t state the obvious. Pay attention to what surprises you. If you find it surprising, your readers probably will too. Ask a probing question. Create a mystery or puzzle to solve. Collect startling statistics and powerful quotations. Build paragraphs around them. I often think of my essays as a trip from one juicy quotation to another, from one interesting person’s views to another. My essay is really not much more than several great quotes strung together.

One final note: It’s helpful to pay attention to what makes engaging writing engaging. I love Roy Peter Clark’s advice on this: Whenever you can’t put a book down, put it down and analyze what makes it so interesting.

Is it ok to repeat things?

Except in one situation, repetition is boring, and deadening. Weed it out of every sentence. Adding words that don’t add much — what is called ‘wordiness’ — makes reading your sentences a chore. Inexperienced writers sometimes use two words when one is actually more powerful. Same for sentences. In some drafts, I cut every other sentence because all they do is repeat the previous sentences.

The exception is when you’ve gone on for a while and readers might get confused by all the details and lose track of the larger argument. In those moments, a little repetition from the author — Hey forgetful reader, again, here’s why this long story is so important — can be a lifesaver. I think of this as ‘strategic repetition’. The best writers can do this orienting, reminding work with just a word or two or quick list.

When you sit down to write, do you actually write the way you describe here? Do you really write that way?

No, not at all. What I describe here is how I re-write and re-re-write. When I write, I often have a rough outline, a narrative arc, and several juicy quotes and startling statistics in mind. I turn each quotation or two into a paragraph, then decide the most logical order. Often, it’s not until the end that I realize my overall argument — often, it comes out most clearly in the last few paragraphs. And only then do I go back and write my introduction, making sure my topic and my main argument is clear from the beginning. I usually can’t write that introduction until I’ve done at least a first draft.

After a draft is complete I look at everything I’ve got again and again from the perspective of the imagined reader to see if it’s clear. I value clarity above all else. I make a new outline (a ‘reverse’ outline) to make sure that what I’m trying to say is clear and where I want it. I always do several drafts and, if it’s important, I always show it to someone else for feedback.

What is your favorite tip for essays?

I think I’ve given most of them: hook, BLUF, short paragraphs, great quotes, remember the reader, cut, cut, cut, and, of course, strategic repetition.

How should you conclude an argument essay?

Because newspaper articles often follow different rules than essays, they often end with a reminder or gesture toward the article’s main point but try to end with a bang — what they call a ‘kicker’ — a powerful quotation or witty line.

But classic essays, op-ed articles, and academic articles need to spotlight the argument. In the conclusion, the main goal is to clearly re-iterate the main argument and show how things fit together. You don’t want readers to leave the article with some confusion about exactly what your main point is. That is the biggest possible blunder.

In my view, with the conclusion, it’s much better to be clear even if a little repetitive. That’s much better than being elegant but confusing. That said, there are ways to remind of your main argument and its importance in artful, elegant, memorable ways.

I recommend studying how authors end their articles and essays in different contexts. Collect and study the best strategies for ending effectively.

Resources and links

See Mitho Lekhai Youtube video: Easy Excellent Essays ( Full and Short versions)
See Mitho Lekhai Youtube video: Juicy Wild Dogs (Analysis of an excellent article)
‘ Man’s Best Friend ’ (Sample 5-paragraph essay)
Macalester College one-minute videos on writing

Recommended Essays

Sarita Pariyar, ‘ The media’s portrayal of Dalits is incomplete ’, The Kathmandu Post , 2020.
Sujeev Shakya, ‘ Change begins at home: The way the government functions is a reflection on Nepali society ’, The Kathmandu Post , 2020.
Kunti Adhikary, ‘ Multiple realities ’, The Kathmandu Post , 2018.
Shradha Ghale, ‘ Men in green ’, The Kathmandu Post , 2018.
Prashanta Khanal, ‘ Rethinking Kathmandu ’, The Record , 2020.
Deepak Thapa, ‘ The eternal dream of self-government ’, The Kathmandu Post, 2020.

Footnote. This article was first published as part of a book.

Tom Robertson Tom Robertson, PhD, is an environmental historian who writes about Kathmandu and Nepali history. His Nepali-language video series on writing, 'Mitho Lekhai', is available on Youtube. His most recent article, 'No smoke without fire in Kathmandu’, appeared on March 5 in Nepali Times.

Get the best of

How to Say Best Friend in Nepali: Formal and Informal Ways

If you’re looking to express the term “best friend” in Nepali, you’ve come to the right place. In this guide, we will explore both formal and informal ways to refer to a best friend in the Nepali language. We will also provide some tips, examples, and regional variations if necessary. So, let’s dive in and learn how to say “best friend” in Nepali!

Formal Ways to Call Your Best Friend in Nepali

In formal settings, such as in professional or official contexts, it is essential to adopt a respectful and polite tone. Here are some formal ways to refer to your best friend in Nepali:

1. Sahayogi

“Sahayogi” is a formal way to express the term “best friend” in Nepali. It denotes someone who provides support, assistance, and shares a strong bond with you. Use this word when you want to convey a sense of professionalism and respect.

Sahayogi is a word that holds immense value and signifies the importance of a best friend who stands with you through thick and thin.

“Sangi” is another formal term used to refer to a best friend in Nepali. It conveys the idea of a companion or comrade who walks alongside you. This word is commonly used in formal conversations and official settings.

Informal Ways to Call Your Best Friend in Nepali

When it comes to informal ways of expressing the term “best friend” in Nepali, you can use more friendly and colloquial words. These terms are commonly used among friends, peers, and in casual conversations. Here are a few informal ways to call your best friend:

1. Jigri Dost

“Jigri Dost” is a popular and widely used term among Nepali friends to refer to a best friend. It portrays a deep bond and signifies a friend who is closer than family. Use this term to express your affection and intimacy with your best friend.

Jigri Dost, a term that goes beyond mere friendship, reflecting the unique connection shared by two individuals who consider each other as soulmates.

2. Ramailo Sathi

“Ramailo Sathi” is an informal term meaning “fun friend.” It emphasizes the enjoyable and lighthearted aspect of a best friendship. This term is suitable for expressing the playful and joyous moments you share with your best friend.

Regional Variations

Nepal is a diverse country with various ethnic groups and regional languages. While the terms mentioned above are widely understood and used across Nepal, there might be some regional variations. Here are a couple of examples:

1. Dhanyabad Sahayogi! (Thank you, friend!)

In some regions, people tend to express their gratitude to close friends or best friends using this term. It signifies the importance of friendship and expresses gratitude for being a supportive friend.

2. Gyani Keta / Gyani Bhauju (Intelligent Boy / Intelligent Sister)

In certain regions of Nepal, friends refer to each other as “Gyani Keta” (for males) or “Gyani Bhauju” (for females) to highlight the intelligence and wisdom shared between them. While these terms reflect a deeper bond, they are regionally specific.

Tips for Using Terms of Endearment

Now that you have learned various ways to say “best friend” in Nepali, here are some tips to keep in mind:

1. Consider the Context

Always consider the context in which you are using these terms. Formal terms are more suitable in professional settings or when addressing someone elder. Informal terms are best used among friends in casual conversations.

2. Express Genuine Emotion

When addressing your best friend, make sure to express genuine emotion and sincerity. These terms of endearment carry deep meaning, so ensure that your words reflect your true feelings.

In Nepali, there are various ways to express the term “best friend” based on the formality of the situation and the level of intimacy. Whether you choose to use the formal terms “Sahayogi” or “Sangi” or the informal terms “Jigri Dost” or “Ramailo Sathi,” remember to convey your true emotions and appreciation for your friend. It’s the warmth and affection behind these words that truly define the bond of a best friendship.

Lastly, it’s important to note that language can vary across different regions of Nepal. While the terms mentioned in this guide are widely understood, some regional variations may exist. So, go ahead, embrace the rich Nepali vocabulary, and celebrate the unique bond you share with your best friend!

How to Say "Best of Luck" in Nepali: A Comprehensive Guide

In this guide, we will explore different ways to say "best of luck" in Nepali, including both formal and informal expressions. Additionally, we will provide regional variations if necessary, along with several tips and examples for better understanding. So, whether you are planning to wish someone luck in Nepal, or simply want to learn a new phrase, read on!

How to Say "Best of the Best": A Comprehensive Guide

When it comes to expressing the idea of "best of the best," there are various ways to convey this concept in both formal and informal settings. Whether you're looking for regional variations or simply want to expand your vocabulary, this guide will provide you with useful tips, examples, and insights. So, let's dive right in!

How to Say "Best of the Best" in Spanish: Formal and Informal Ways

In Spanish, there are several ways to express the concept of "best of the best." Whether you want to use a formal or informal tone, the following guide will provide you with various options to express this phrase correctly. Let's explore different ways to say "best of the best" in Spanish!

How to Say "The Best of the Best"

Welcome to this guide on expressing the concept of "the best of the best"! In this comprehensive guide, we will explore different ways to convey this idea both formally and informally. Whether you're looking to praise someone or discuss exceptional things, we've got you covered. So, let's dive in!

Guide: How to Say "All the Best for Your Exam" to a Friend

Hello there! If you're looking for ways to wish your friend good luck for an upcoming exam, you've come to the right place. Whether you want to sound formal or informal, we've got you covered. In this guide, we'll provide you with various tips, examples, and even regional variations to help you express your well wishes in the best possible way. So let's get started!

How to Say "All the Best" to a Friend: Formal and Informal Ways

When it comes to wishing your friend the best, be it in a formal or informal setting, choosing the right words can make a lasting impact. Whether you want to express your support, wish them luck, or offer encouragement, this guide will provide you with various ways to say "all the best" to a friend, ensuring your message is heartfelt and sincere.

Guide: How to Say "All the Best" to a Friend

When it comes to expressing your well wishes to a friend, using the phrase "all the best" is a universally understood and appreciated sentiment. Whether you want to convey your support, encourage their endeavors, or simply want to wish them luck, this guide will provide you with various ways to say "all the best" to your friend, both formally and informally.

How to Say "All the Best" to Your Friend: A Guide to Formal and Informal Expressions

Giving well-wishes to your friends is a wonderful way to show your support and care. Whether you want to cheer them on for an upcoming event, wish them luck on a new venture, or simply hope for their happiness, knowing how to say "all the best" in different situations can strengthen your bond. In this guide, we'll explore both formal and informal ways to express your heartfelt wishes, along with various examples and helpful tips.

Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Arabic Cantonese Chinese Dutch English Farsi Filipino French German Greek Hawaiian Hebrew Hindi Irish Italian Japan Japanese Korean Latin Mandarin Mexican Navajo Norwegian Polish Portuguese Punjabi Romanian Russian Sanskrit Sign Language Spanish Swahili Swedish Tagalog Tamil Thai Turkish Ukrainian Urdu Vietnamese

hypothesis testing healthcare

Have a language expert improve your writing.

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

Knowledge Base

Hypothesis Testing | A Step-by-Step Guide with Easy Examples

Published on November 8, 2019 by Rebecca Bevans . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics . It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses, that arise from theories.

There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:

State your research hypothesis as a null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis (H o ) and (H a or H 1 ).
Collect data in a way designed to test the hypothesis.
Perform an appropriate statistical test .
Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.
Present the findings in your results and discussion section.

Though the specific details might vary, the procedure you will use when testing a hypothesis will always follow some version of these steps.

Step 1: state your null and alternate hypothesis, step 2: collect data, step 3: perform a statistical test, step 4: decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis, step 5: present your findings, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about hypothesis testing.

After developing your initial research hypothesis (the prediction that you want to investigate), it is important to restate it as a null (H o ) and alternate (H a ) hypothesis so that you can test it mathematically.

The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the variables you are interested in.

H 0 : Men are, on average, not taller than women. H a : Men are, on average, taller than women.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

For a statistical test to be valid , it is important to perform sampling and collect data in a way that is designed to test your hypothesis. If your data are not representative, then you cannot make statistical inferences about the population you are interested in.

There are a variety of statistical tests available, but they are all based on the comparison of within-group variance (how spread out the data is within a category) versus between-group variance (how different the categories are from one another).

If the between-group variance is large enough that there is little or no overlap between groups, then your statistical test will reflect that by showing a low p -value . This means it is unlikely that the differences between these groups came about by chance.

Alternatively, if there is high within-group variance and low between-group variance, then your statistical test will reflect that with a high p -value. This means it is likely that any difference you measure between groups is due to chance.

Your choice of statistical test will be based on the type of variables and the level of measurement of your collected data .

an estimate of the difference in average height between the two groups.
a p -value showing how likely you are to see this difference if the null hypothesis of no difference is true.

Based on the outcome of your statistical test, you will have to decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.

In most cases you will use the p -value generated by your statistical test to guide your decision. And in most cases, your predetermined level of significance for rejecting the null hypothesis will be 0.05 – that is, when there is a less than 5% chance that you would see these results if the null hypothesis were true.

In some cases, researchers choose a more conservative level of significance, such as 0.01 (1%). This minimizes the risk of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis ( Type I error ).

The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your research paper , dissertation or thesis .

In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results of your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p -value). In the discussion , you can discuss whether your initial hypothesis was supported by your results or not.

In the formal language of hypothesis testing, we talk about rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis. You will probably be asked to do this in your statistics assignments.

However, when presenting research results in academic papers we rarely talk this way. Instead, we go back to our alternate hypothesis (in this case, the hypothesis that men are on average taller than women) and state whether the result of our test did or did not support the alternate hypothesis.

If your null hypothesis was rejected, this result is interpreted as “supported the alternate hypothesis.”

These are superficial differences; you can see that they mean the same thing.

You might notice that we don’t say that we reject or fail to reject the alternate hypothesis . This is because hypothesis testing is not designed to prove or disprove anything. It is only designed to test whether a pattern we measure could have arisen spuriously, or by chance.

If we reject the null hypothesis based on our research (i.e., we find that it is unlikely that the pattern arose by chance), then we can say our test lends support to our hypothesis . But if the pattern does not pass our decision rule, meaning that it could have arisen by chance, then we say the test is inconsistent with our hypothesis .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Descriptive statistics
Measures of central tendency
Correlation coefficient

Methodology

Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling
Types of interviews
Cohort study
Thematic analysis

Research bias

Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Survivorship bias
Availability heuristic
Nonresponse bias
Regression to the mean

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing . The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bevans, R. (2023, June 22). Hypothesis Testing | A Step-by-Step Guide with Easy Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/hypothesis-testing/

Is this article helpful?

Rebecca Bevans

Other students also liked, choosing the right statistical test | types & examples, understanding p values | definition and examples.

Hypothesis Testing, P Values, Confidence Intervals, and Significance

Affiliations.

1 University of Louisville School of Medicine
2 University of Louisville
PMID: 32491353
Bookshelf ID: NBK557421

Medical providers often rely on evidence-based medicine to guide decision-making in practice. Often a research hypothesis is tested with results provided, typically with p values, confidence intervals, or both. Additionally, statistical or research significance is estimated or determined by the investigators. Unfortunately, healthcare providers may have different comfort levels in interpreting these findings, which may affect the adequate application of the data.

Definition/Introduction
Issues of Concern
Clinical Significance
Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions
Review Questions

Publication types

Study Guide
Hypothesis Testing: Definition, Uses, Limitations + Examples

Hypothesis testing is as old as the scientific method and is at the heart of the research process.

Research exists to validate or disprove assumptions about various phenomena. The process of validation involves testing and it is in this context that we will explore hypothesis testing.

What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a calculated prediction or assumption about a population parameter based on limited evidence. The whole idea behind hypothesis formulation is testing—this means the researcher subjects his or her calculated assumption to a series of evaluations to know whether they are true or false.

Typically, every research starts with a hypothesis—the investigator makes a claim and experiments to prove that this claim is true or false . For instance, if you predict that students who drink milk before class perform better than those who don’t, then this becomes a hypothesis that can be confirmed or refuted using an experiment.

Read: What is Empirical Research Study? [Examples & Method]

What are the Types of Hypotheses?

1. simple hypothesis.

Also known as a basic hypothesis, a simple hypothesis suggests that an independent variable is responsible for a corresponding dependent variable. In other words, an occurrence of the independent variable inevitably leads to an occurrence of the dependent variable.

Typically, simple hypotheses are considered as generally true, and they establish a causal relationship between two variables.

Examples of Simple Hypothesis

Drinking soda and other sugary drinks can cause obesity.
Smoking cigarettes daily leads to lung cancer.

2. Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis is also known as a modal. It accounts for the causal relationship between two independent variables and the resulting dependent variables. This means that the combination of the independent variables leads to the occurrence of the dependent variables .

Examples of Complex Hypotheses

Adults who do not smoke and drink are less likely to develop liver-related conditions.
Global warming causes icebergs to melt which in turn causes major changes in weather patterns.

3. Null Hypothesis

As the name suggests, a null hypothesis is formed when a researcher suspects that there’s no relationship between the variables in an observation. In this case, the purpose of the research is to approve or disapprove this assumption.

Examples of Null Hypothesis

This is no significant change in a student’s performance if they drink coffee or tea before classes.
There’s no significant change in the growth of a plant if one uses distilled water only or vitamin-rich water.

Read: Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

4. Alternative Hypothesis

To disapprove a null hypothesis, the researcher has to come up with an opposite assumption—this assumption is known as the alternative hypothesis. This means if the null hypothesis says that A is false, the alternative hypothesis assumes that A is true.

An alternative hypothesis can be directional or non-directional depending on the direction of the difference. A directional alternative hypothesis specifies the direction of the tested relationship, stating that one variable is predicted to be larger or smaller than the null value while a non-directional hypothesis only validates the existence of a difference without stating its direction.

Examples of Alternative Hypotheses

Starting your day with a cup of tea instead of a cup of coffee can make you more alert in the morning.
The growth of a plant improves significantly when it receives distilled water instead of vitamin-rich water.

5. Logical Hypothesis

Logical hypotheses are some of the most common types of calculated assumptions in systematic investigations. It is an attempt to use your reasoning to connect different pieces in research and build a theory using little evidence. In this case, the researcher uses any data available to him, to form a plausible assumption that can be tested.

Examples of Logical Hypothesis

Waking up early helps you to have a more productive day.
Beings from Mars would not be able to breathe the air in the atmosphere of the Earth.

6. Empirical Hypothesis

After forming a logical hypothesis, the next step is to create an empirical or working hypothesis. At this stage, your logical hypothesis undergoes systematic testing to prove or disprove the assumption. An empirical hypothesis is subject to several variables that can trigger changes and lead to specific outcomes.

Examples of Empirical Testing

People who eat more fish run faster than people who eat meat.
Women taking vitamin E grow hair faster than those taking vitamin K.

7. Statistical Hypothesis

When forming a statistical hypothesis, the researcher examines the portion of a population of interest and makes a calculated assumption based on the data from this sample. A statistical hypothesis is most common with systematic investigations involving a large target audience. Here, it’s impossible to collect responses from every member of the population so you have to depend on data from your sample and extrapolate the results to the wider population.

Examples of Statistical Hypothesis

45% of students in Louisiana have middle-income parents.
80% of the UK’s population gets a divorce because of irreconcilable differences.

What is Hypothesis Testing?

Hypothesis testing is an assessment method that allows researchers to determine the plausibility of a hypothesis. It involves testing an assumption about a specific population parameter to know whether it’s true or false. These population parameters include variance, standard deviation, and median.

Typically, hypothesis testing starts with developing a null hypothesis and then performing several tests that support or reject the null hypothesis. The researcher uses test statistics to compare the association or relationship between two or more variables.

Explore: Research Bias: Definition, Types + Examples

Researchers also use hypothesis testing to calculate the coefficient of variation and determine if the regression relationship and the correlation coefficient are statistically significant.

How Hypothesis Testing Works

The basis of hypothesis testing is to examine and analyze the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis to know which one is the most plausible assumption. Since both assumptions are mutually exclusive, only one can be true. In other words, the occurrence of a null hypothesis destroys the chances of the alternative coming to life, and vice-versa.

Interesting: 21 Chrome Extensions for Academic Researchers in 2021

What Are The Stages of Hypothesis Testing?

To successfully confirm or refute an assumption, the researcher goes through five (5) stages of hypothesis testing;

Determine the null hypothesis
Specify the alternative hypothesis
Set the significance level
Calculate the test statistics and corresponding P-value
Draw your conclusion
Determine the Null Hypothesis

Like we mentioned earlier, hypothesis testing starts with creating a null hypothesis which stands as an assumption that a certain statement is false or implausible. For example, the null hypothesis (H0) could suggest that different subgroups in the research population react to a variable in the same way.

Specify the Alternative Hypothesis

Once you know the variables for the null hypothesis, the next step is to determine the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis counters the null assumption by suggesting the statement or assertion is true. Depending on the purpose of your research, the alternative hypothesis can be one-sided or two-sided.

Using the example we established earlier, the alternative hypothesis may argue that the different sub-groups react differently to the same variable based on several internal and external factors.

Set the Significance Level

Many researchers create a 5% allowance for accepting the value of an alternative hypothesis, even if the value is untrue. This means that there is a 0.05 chance that one would go with the value of the alternative hypothesis, despite the truth of the null hypothesis.

Something to note here is that the smaller the significance level, the greater the burden of proof needed to reject the null hypothesis and support the alternative hypothesis.

Explore: What is Data Interpretation? + [Types, Method & Tools]

Calculate the Test Statistics and Corresponding P-Value

Test statistics in hypothesis testing allow you to compare different groups between variables while the p-value accounts for the probability of obtaining sample statistics if your null hypothesis is true. In this case, your test statistics can be the mean, median and similar parameters.

If your p-value is 0.65, for example, then it means that the variable in your hypothesis will happen 65 in100 times by pure chance. Use this formula to determine the p-value for your data:

Draw Your Conclusions

After conducting a series of tests, you should be able to agree or refute the hypothesis based on feedback and insights from your sample data.

Applications of Hypothesis Testing in Research

Hypothesis testing isn’t only confined to numbers and calculations; it also has several real-life applications in business, manufacturing, advertising, and medicine.

In a factory or other manufacturing plants, hypothesis testing is an important part of quality and production control before the final products are approved and sent out to the consumer.

During ideation and strategy development, C-level executives use hypothesis testing to evaluate their theories and assumptions before any form of implementation. For example, they could leverage hypothesis testing to determine whether or not some new advertising campaign, marketing technique, etc. causes increased sales.

In addition, hypothesis testing is used during clinical trials to prove the efficacy of a drug or new medical method before its approval for widespread human usage.

What is an Example of Hypothesis Testing?

An employer claims that her workers are of above-average intelligence. She takes a random sample of 20 of them and gets the following results:

Mean IQ Scores: 110

Standard Deviation: 15

Mean Population IQ: 100

Step 1: Using the value of the mean population IQ, we establish the null hypothesis as 100.

Step 2: State that the alternative hypothesis is greater than 100.

Step 3: State the alpha level as 0.05 or 5%

Step 4: Find the rejection region area (given by your alpha level above) from the z-table. An area of .05 is equal to a z-score of 1.645.

Step 5: Calculate the test statistics using this formula

Z = (110–100) ÷ (15÷√20)

10 ÷ 3.35 = 2.99

If the value of the test statistics is higher than the value of the rejection region, then you should reject the null hypothesis. If it is less, then you cannot reject the null.

In this case, 2.99 > 1.645 so we reject the null.

Importance/Benefits of Hypothesis Testing

The most significant benefit of hypothesis testing is it allows you to evaluate the strength of your claim or assumption before implementing it in your data set. Also, hypothesis testing is the only valid method to prove that something “is or is not”. Other benefits include:

Hypothesis testing provides a reliable framework for making any data decisions for your population of interest.
It helps the researcher to successfully extrapolate data from the sample to the larger population.
Hypothesis testing allows the researcher to determine whether the data from the sample is statistically significant.
Hypothesis testing is one of the most important processes for measuring the validity and reliability of outcomes in any systematic investigation.
It helps to provide links to the underlying theory and specific research questions.

Criticism and Limitations of Hypothesis Testing

Several limitations of hypothesis testing can affect the quality of data you get from this process. Some of these limitations include:

The interpretation of a p-value for observation depends on the stopping rule and definition of multiple comparisons. This makes it difficult to calculate since the stopping rule is subject to numerous interpretations, plus “multiple comparisons” are unavoidably ambiguous.
Conceptual issues often arise in hypothesis testing, especially if the researcher merges Fisher and Neyman-Pearson’s methods which are conceptually distinct.
In an attempt to focus on the statistical significance of the data, the researcher might ignore the estimation and confirmation by repeated experiments.
Hypothesis testing can trigger publication bias, especially when it requires statistical significance as a criterion for publication.
When used to detect whether a difference exists between groups, hypothesis testing can trigger absurd assumptions that affect the reliability of your observation.

Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!

alternative hypothesis
alternative vs null hypothesis
complex hypothesis
empirical hypothesis
hypothesis testing
logical hypothesis
simple hypothesis
statistical hypothesis
busayo.longe

Alternative vs Null Hypothesis: Pros, Cons, Uses & Examples

We are going to discuss alternative hypotheses and null hypotheses in this post and how they work in research.

Type I vs Type II Errors: Causes, Examples & Prevention

This article will discuss the two different types of errors in hypothesis testing and how you can prevent them from occurring in your research

Internal Validity in Research: Definition, Threats, Examples

In this article, we will discuss the concept of internal validity, some clear examples, its importance, and how to test it.

What is Pure or Basic Research? + [Examples & Method]

Simple guide on pure or basic research, its methods, characteristics, advantages, and examples in science, medicine, education and psychology

Formplus - For Seamless Data Collection

Collect data the right way with a versatile data collection tool. try formplus and transform your work productivity today..

User Preferences

Content preview.

Arcu felis bibendum ut tristique et egestas quis:

Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris
Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate
Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident

Keyboard Shortcuts

6.6 - confidence intervals & hypothesis testing.

Confidence intervals and hypothesis tests are similar in that they are both inferential methods that rely on an approximated sampling distribution. Confidence intervals use data from a sample to estimate a population parameter. Hypothesis tests use data from a sample to test a specified hypothesis. Hypothesis testing requires that we have a hypothesized parameter.

The simulation methods used to construct bootstrap distributions and randomization distributions are similar. One primary difference is a bootstrap distribution is centered on the observed sample statistic while a randomization distribution is centered on the value in the null hypothesis.

In Lesson 4, we learned confidence intervals contain a range of reasonable estimates of the population parameter. All of the confidence intervals we constructed in this course were two-tailed. These two-tailed confidence intervals go hand-in-hand with the two-tailed hypothesis tests we learned in Lesson 5. The conclusion drawn from a two-tailed confidence interval is usually the same as the conclusion drawn from a two-tailed hypothesis test. In other words, if the the 95% confidence interval contains the hypothesized parameter, then a hypothesis test at the 0.05 $\alpha$ level will almost always fail to reject the null hypothesis. If the 95% confidence interval does not contain the hypothesize parameter, then a hypothesis test at the 0.05 $\alpha$ level will almost always reject the null hypothesis.

Example: Mean Section

This example uses the Body Temperature dataset built in to StatKey for constructing a bootstrap confidence interval and conducting a randomization test .

Let's start by constructing a 95% confidence interval using the percentile method in StatKey:

The 95% confidence interval for the mean body temperature in the population is [98.044, 98.474].

Now, what if we want to know if there is enough evidence that the mean body temperature is different from 98.6 degrees? We can conduct a hypothesis test. Because 98.6 is not contained within the 95% confidence interval, it is not a reasonable estimate of the population mean. We should expect to have a p value less than 0.05 and to reject the null hypothesis.

$H_0: \mu=98.6$

$H_a: \mu \ne 98.6$

$p = 2*0.00080=0.00160$

$p \leq 0.05$, reject the null hypothesis

There is evidence that the population mean is different from 98.6 degrees.

Selecting the Appropriate Procedure Section

The decision of whether to use a confidence interval or a hypothesis test depends on the research question. If we want to estimate a population parameter, we use a confidence interval. If we are given a specific population parameter (i.e., hypothesized value), and want to determine the likelihood that a population with that parameter would produce a sample as different as our sample, we use a hypothesis test. Below are a few examples of selecting the appropriate procedure.

Example: Cheese Consumption Section

Research question: How much cheese (in pounds) does an average American adult consume annually?

What is the appropriate inferential procedure?

Cheese consumption, in pounds, is a quantitative variable. We have one group: American adults. We are not given a specific value to test, so the appropriate procedure here is a confidence interval for a single mean .

Example: Age Section

Research question: Is the average age in the population of all STAT 200 students greater than 30 years?

There is one group: STAT 200 students. The variable of interest is age in years, which is quantitative. The research question includes a specific population parameter to test: 30 years. The appropriate procedure is a hypothesis test for a single mean .

Try it! Section

For each research question, identify the variables, the parameter of interest and decide on the the appropriate inferential procedure.

Research question: How strong is the correlation between height (in inches) and weight (in pounds) in American teenagers?

There are two variables of interest: (1) height in inches and (2) weight in pounds. Both are quantitative variables. The parameter of interest is the correlation between these two variables.

We are not given a specific correlation to test. We are being asked to estimate the strength of the correlation. The appropriate procedure here is a confidence interval for a correlation .

Research question: Are the majority of registered voters planning to vote in the next presidential election?

The parameter that is being tested here is a single proportion. We have one group: registered voters. "The majority" would be more than 50%, or p>0.50. This is a specific parameter that we are testing. The appropriate procedure here is a hypothesis test for a single proportion .

Research question: On average, are STAT 200 students younger than STAT 500 students?

We have two independent groups: STAT 200 students and STAT 500 students. We are comparing them in terms of average (i.e., mean) age.

If STAT 200 students are younger than STAT 500 students, that translates to $\mu_{200}<\mu_{500}$ which is an alternative hypothesis. This could also be written as $\mu_{200}-\mu_{500}<0$, where 0 is a specific population parameter that we are testing.

The appropriate procedure here is a hypothesis test for the difference in two means .

Research question: On average, how much taller are adult male giraffes compared to adult female giraffes?

There are two groups: males and females. The response variable is height, which is quantitative. We are not given a specific parameter to test, instead we are asked to estimate "how much" taller males are than females. The appropriate procedure is a confidence interval for the difference in two means .

Research question: Are STAT 500 students more likely than STAT 200 students to be employed full-time?

There are two independent groups: STAT 500 students and STAT 200 students. The response variable is full-time employment status which is categorical with two levels: yes/no.

If STAT 500 students are more likely than STAT 200 students to be employed full-time, that translates to $p_{500}>p_{200}$ which is an alternative hypothesis. This could also be written as $p_{500}-p_{200}>0$, where 0 is a specific parameter that we are testing. The appropriate procedure is a hypothesis test for the difference in two proportions.

Research question: Is there is a relationship between outdoor temperature (in Fahrenheit) and coffee sales (in cups per day)?

There are two variables here: (1) temperature in Fahrenheit and (2) cups of coffee sold in a day. Both variables are quantitative. The parameter of interest is the correlation between these two variables.

If there is a relationship between the variables, that means that the correlation is different from zero. This is a specific parameter that we are testing. The appropriate procedure is a hypothesis test for a correlation .

Lab 7 – Hypothesis Testing

Introduction.

This lab is intended to serve as an introduction to hypothesis testing. Where available, we will use built-in functions in R to find and report p-values. In particular, we will investigate the finding of p-values for proportions, differences in proportions, odds ratios, means, and differences of means

Hypothesis Testing

Testing proportions.

While we are able to use our normality assumptions in constructing confidence intervals and p-values for single proportions, we are also able to compute them exactly using the theoretical properties of a true distribution. That is, while counting the number of heads in successive coin flips will become approximately normal as the number of flips increases, we can also utilize the fact that coin flipping follows a binomial distribution . As such, we can use an exact binomial to compute our confidence intervals and p-values rather than relying a normal approximations. This is done with the R function binom.test() . This function takes several arugments which you can learn more about with ?binom.test .

For now, let’s consider again the Johns Hopkins study that found 31 of 39 infants born preterm survived to 6 months. Here, we are wanting to check the hypothesis $H_0: p_0 = 0.7$ . To do this, we will use binom.test() with the arguments:

x – the number of “successes” we observed
n – the total number of observations
p – our hypothesized proportion

The function will print out a litany of useful information

First, observed the bottom line, “probability of success” which is simply our observed test statistic, $\hat{p} = 31/39$ . Note, however, that the $p$ -value found here is not the same as what we found in the slides. This is a consequence of the fact that here we are utilizing assumptions from the binomial distribution rather than our normal approximation.

Just as the $p$ -values change, so too do our confidence intervals. For example, in our slides Wednesday we found a 95% confidence interval to be (0.668, 0.922), while here they are slightly different, being (0.635, 0.907).

It is worth noting that we can also use binom.test() for the construction of confidence intervals. By default, the interval printed out is 95%, but we could just as well find an 80% confidence interval using the argument conf.level

Question 1: We see above that changing our confidence interval to 80% from 95% changed the interval, but not the resulting p-value. Why is this the case?

Question 2: You might also notice that the confidence interval we found using binom.test() is no longer symmetric around the estimate $\hat{p}$ . Why is this the case?

Question 3: There is an intimate relationship between p-values and confidence intervals in that the exact same attributes of our sample data are used to construct each. Presented below are two scenarios:

We flipped a coin 5 times and it landed on head 4 times
We flipped a coin 50 times and it landed on head 40 times

Using the binom.test() function, create 95% confidence intervals and construct a $p$ -value for the null hypothesis $p_0 = 0.5$ . Then answer the following:

What is our estimate of $\hat{p}$ for each of these scenarios?
What changed in our $p$ -values and confidence intervals?
Which of these scenarios provides more evidence against the null hypothesis? Why?

Testing means

Testing odds ratios, testing things beyond our wildest dreams.

Advanced analytics for yield improvement and zero defect in semiconductors

Machine learning based advanced analytics for anomaly detection offers powerful techniques that can be used to achieve breakthroughs in yield and field defect rates.

BY ANIL GANDHI, PH. D. and JOY GANDHI, Qualicent Analytics, Inc., Santa Clara, CA

In the last few decades, the volume of data collected in semiconductor manufacturing has grown steadily. Today, with the rapid rise in the number of sensors in the fab, the industry is facing a huge torrent of data that presents major challenges for analysis. Data by itself isn’t useful; for it to be useful it must be converted into actionable information to drive improvements in factory performance and product quality. At the same time, product and process complexities have grown exponentially requiring new ways to analyze huge datasets with thousands of variables to discover patterns that are otherwise undetected by conventional means.

In other industries such as retail, finance, telecom and healthcare where big data analytics is becoming routine, there is widespread evidence of huge dollar savings from application of these techniques. These advanced analytics techniques have evolved through computer science to provide more powerful computing that complements conventional statistics. These techniques are revolutionizing the way we solve process and product problems in the semiconductor supply chain and throughout the product lifecycle. In this paper, we provide an overview of the application of these advanced analytics techniques towards solving yield issues and preventing field failures in semiconductors and electronics.

Advanced data analytics boosts prior methods in achieving breakthrough yields, zero defect and optimizing product and process performance. The techniques can be used as early as product development and all the way through high volume manufacturing. It provides a cost effective observational supplement to expensive DOEs. The techniques include machine learning algorithms that can handle hundreds to thousands of variables in big or small datasets. This capability is indispensable at advanced nodes with complex fab process technologies and product functionalities where defects become intractable.

Modeling target parameters

Machine learning based models provide a predictive model of targets such as yield and field defect rates as functions of process, PCM, sort or final test variables as predictors. In the development phase, the challenge is to eliminate major systematic defect mechanisms and optimize new processes or products to ensure high yields during production ramp. Machine learning algorithms reduce the number of variables from hundreds to thousands to the few key variables of importance; this reduction is just sufficient to allow nonlinear models to be built without over fitting. Using the model, a set of rules involving these key variables are derived. These rules provide the best operating conditions to achieve the target yield or defect rate. FIGURE 1 shows an example non-linear predictive model.

FIGURE 1. Predictive model example.

FIGURE 2 is another example of rules extracted from a model, showing that when all conditions of the rule are valid across the three predictors simultaneously, then this results in lower yield. Discovering this signal with standard regression techniques failed because of the influence of a large number of manufacturing variables. Each of these large number of variables has a small and negligible influence individually, however they all combine to create noise and thus masking the signal. Standard regression techniques, available in commercial software, therefore are unable to detect the signal in these instances and therefore are not of practical use for process control. So how do we discover the rules such as the ones shown in Fig. 2?

FIGURE 2. Individual parameters M, Q and T do not exert influence while collectively they create conditions that destroy yield. Machine learning methods help discover these conditions.

Rules discovery

Conventionally, a parametric hypothesis is made based on prior knowledge (process domain knowledge) and then the hypothesis is tested. For example to improve an etest metric such as threshold voltage one could start with a hypothesis that connects this backend parameter with RF power on an etch process in the frontend. However many times it is impossible to make a hypothesis based on domain knowledge because of the complexity of the processes and the variety of possible interactions, especially across several steps. So alternatively, a generalized model with cross terms is proposed and then significant coefficients are picked and the rest are discarded. This works if the number of variables is small but fails with large number of variables. With 1100 variables (a very conservative number for fabs) there are 221 million possible 3-way interactions, and 60 million 2-way cross terms on top of the linear coefficients!

Fitting these coefficients would require a number of samples or records that are clearly not available in the fab. Recognizing that most of the variables and interactions have no bearing on yield, we must then reduce the feature set size (i.e. number of predictors) within a healthy manageable limit (< 15) before we apply any model to it; several machine learning techniques based on derivatives of decision trees are available for feature reduction. Once the feature set is reduced then exact models are developed using a palette of techniques such as those based on advanced variants of piece-wise regression.

In essence, what we have described above is discovery of the hypothesis, while more traditionally one starts with a hypothesis…to be tested. The example in Fig. 2 had 1100 variables most of which had no influence, six of them have measurable influence (three of them are shown), all of these were hard to detect because of dimensional noise.

The above type of technique is part of a group of methods classified as supervised learning. In this type of machine learning, one defines the predictors and target variables and the technique finds the complex relationships or rules governing how the predictors influence the target. In the next example we include the use of unsupervised learning which allows us to discover clusters that reveal patterns and relationships between predictors which can then be connected to the target variables.

FIGURE 3. Solar manufacturing line conveyor, sampled at four points for colorimetry.

FIGURE 3 shows a solar manufacturing line with four panels moving on a conveyor. The end measure of interest that needed improvement was cell efficiency. Measurements are made at the anneal step for each panel as shown at locations 1, 2, 3, 4 in FIGURE 4 . The ratio between measurement sites with respect to a key metric called Colorimetry, was discovered to important; the way this was discovered was by employing clustering algorithms, which are part unsupervised learning. This ratio was found in subsequent supervised model to influence PV solar efficiency as part of a 3-way interaction.

FIGURE 4: The ratios between 1, 2, 3, 4 colorimetry were found to have clusters and the clusters corresponded to date separation.

In this case, without the use of unsupervised machine learning methods, it would have been impossible to identify the ratio between two predictors as an important variable affecting the target because this relationship was not known and therefore no hypothesis could be made for testing it among the large number of metrics and associated statistics that were gathered. Further investigation led to DATE as the determining variable for the clusters.

Ultimately the goal was to create a model for cell efficiency. Feature reduction described earlier is performed followed by advanced piecewise regression and the resulting model based on 10 fold cross validation (build model on 80% of data and test against rest 20% and do this 10 times with a different random sample each time) results in a complex non-linear model with key element that includes a 3 way interaction as shown in FIGURE 5 , where the dark green area represents the condition that drops the median efficiency by 30% from best case levels. This condition Colorimetry < 81, Date > X and N2 < 23.5 creates the exclusion zone that should be avoided to improve cell efficiency.

FIGURE 5. N2 (x-axis) X represent the “bad” condition (dark green) where the median cell efficiency drops by 30% from best case levels.

FIGURE 5. N2 (x-axis) < 23.5, colorimetry < 81 and Date > X represent the “bad” condition (dark green) where the median cell efficiency drops by 30% from best case levels.

Advanced anomaly detection for zero defect

Throughout the production phase, process control and maverick part elimination are key to preventing failures in the field at early life and the rest of the device operating life. This is particularly crucial for automotive, medical device and aerospace applications where field failures can result in loss of life or injury and associated liability costs.

The challenge in screening potential field failures is that these are typically marginal parts that pass individual parameter specifications. With increased complexity and hundreds to thousands of variables, monitoring a handful of parameters individually is clearly insufficient. We present a novel machine learning-based approach that uses a composite parameter that includes the key variables of importance.

Conventional single parameter maverick part elimination relies on robust statistics for single parameter distributions. Each parameter control chart detects and eliminates the outliers but may eliminate good parts as well. Single parameter control charts are found to have high false alarm rates resulting in significant scrap rates of good material.

In this novel machine learning based method, the composite parameter uses a distance measure from the centroid in multidimensional space. Just as in single parameter SPC charts, data points that are farthest from the distribution that cross the limits are maverick and are eliminated. In that sense the implementation of this method is very similar to the conventional SPC charts, while the algorithm complexity is hidden from the user.

FIGURE 6. Comparison of single parameter control chart for the top parameter in the model and Composite Distance Control Chart. The composite distance method detected almost all field failures without sacrificing good parts whereas the top parameter alone is grossly insufficient.

See FIGURE 6 for a comparison of the single parameter control chart of the top variable of importance versus the composite distance chart. TABLES 1 and 2 show the confusion matrix for these charts. With the single parameter approach, the topmost contributing parameter is able to detect 1 out of 7 field failures. We call this accuracy. However only one out of 21 declared fails is actually a fail – we call this purity of the fail class. Potentially more failures can be detected by lowering the limit somewhat, in the top chart however in that case the purity of the fail class which was already bad now balloons rapidly to unacceptable levels.

TABLE 1. Top Parameter

TABLE 2. Composite Parameter

In the composite distance method, on the other hand 6 out of 7 fails are detected – good accuracy. The cost of this detection is also low (high purity) because 6 of 10 declared fails are actually field failures – which is a lot better than 1 out of 21 in the incumbent case and significantly better if the limit in the single top parameter chart was lowered even a little.

We emphasize 2 key advantages of this novel anomaly detection technique. First, the multi-variate nature enables detection of marginal parts that not only pass the specification limits for individual parameters but also are within distribution for all of the parameters taken individually. The composite distance successfully identifies marginal parts that fail in the field. Second, this method significantly reduces the false alarm risk compared to single parameter techniques. This leads to reduction of the cost associated with the “producer’s risk” or beta risk of rejecting good units. In short, better detection of maverick material at lower cost.

Summary and conclusion

Machine learning based advanced analytics for anomaly detection offers powerful techniques that can be used to achieve breakthroughs in yield and field defect rates. These techniques are able to crunch large data sets and hundreds to thousands of variables, overcoming a major limitation with conventional techniques. The two key methods that were explored in this paper key are as follows:

Discovery – This set of techniques provides a predictive model that contains the key variables of importance affecting target metrics such as yield or field defect levels. Rules discovery (a supervised learning technique) among many other methods that we employ, discovers rules that provide the best operating or process conditions to achieve the targets. Or alternatively it identifies exclusion zones that should be avoided to prevent loss of yield and performance. Discovery techniques can be used during early production phase when there is greatest need to eliminate major yield or defect mechanisms to protect the high volume ramp. And of course the techniques are equally applicable in high volume production.

Anomaly Detection – This method based on the unsupervised learning class of techniques, is an effective tool for maverick part elimination. The composite distance process control based on Quali- cent’s proprietary distance analysis method provides a cost effective way for preventing field failures. At leading semiconductor and electronics manufacturers, the method has predicted actual automotive field failures that occurred in top carmakers.

Introduction

This is the first of three modules that will addresses the second area of statistical inference, which is hypothesis testing, in which a specific statement or hypothesis is generated about a population parameter, and sample statistics are used to assess the likelihood that the hypothesis is true. The hypothesis is based on available information and the investigator's belief about the population parameters. The process of hypothesis testing involves setting up two competing hypotheses, the null hypothesis and the alternate hypothesis. One selects a random sample (or multiple samples when there are more comparison groups), computes summary statistics and then assesses the likelihood that the sample data support the research or alternative hypothesis. Similar to estimation, the process of hypothesis testing is based on probability theory and the Central Limit Theorem.

This module will focus on hypothesis testing for means and proportions. The next two modules in this series will address analysis of variance and chi-squared tests.

Learning Objectives

After completing this module, the student will be able to:

Define null and research hypothesis, test statistic, level of significance and decision rule
Distinguish between Type I and Type II errors and discuss the implications of each
Explain the difference between one and two sided tests of hypothesis
Estimate and interpret p-values
Explain the relationship between confidence interval estimates and p-values in drawing inferences
Differentiate hypothesis testing procedures based on type of outcome variable and number of sample

Introduction to Hypothesis Testing

Techniques for hypothesis testing .

The techniques for hypothesis testing depend on

the type of outcome variable being analyzed (continuous, dichotomous, discrete)
the number of comparison groups in the investigation
whether the comparison groups are independent (i.e., physically separate such as men versus women) or dependent (i.e., matched or paired such as pre- and post-assessments on the same participants).

In estimation we focused explicitly on techniques for one and two samples and discussed estimation for a specific parameter (e.g., the mean or proportion of a population), for differences (e.g., difference in means, the risk difference) and ratios (e.g., the relative risk and odds ratio). Here we will focus on procedures for one and two samples when the outcome is either continuous (and we focus on means) or dichotomous (and we focus on proportions).

General Approach: A Simple Example

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reported on trends in weight, height and body mass index from the 1960's through 2002. 1 The general trend was that Americans were much heavier and slightly taller in 2002 as compared to 1960; both men and women gained approximately 24 pounds, on average, between 1960 and 2002. In 2002, the mean weight for men was reported at 191 pounds. Suppose that an investigator hypothesizes that weights are even higher in 2006 (i.e., that the trend continued over the subsequent 4 years). The research hypothesis is that the mean weight in men in 2006 is more than 191 pounds. The null hypothesis is that there is no change in weight, and therefore the mean weight is still 191 pounds in 2006.

In order to test the hypotheses, we select a random sample of American males in 2006 and measure their weights. Suppose we have resources available to recruit n=100 men into our sample. We weigh each participant and compute summary statistics on the sample data. Suppose in the sample we determine the following:

Do the sample data support the null or research hypothesis? The sample mean of 197.1 is numerically higher than 191. However, is this difference more than would be expected by chance? In hypothesis testing, we assume that the null hypothesis holds until proven otherwise. We therefore need to determine the likelihood of observing a sample mean of 197.1 or higher when the true population mean is 191 (i.e., if the null hypothesis is true or under the null hypothesis). We can compute this probability using the Central Limit Theorem. Specifically,

(Notice that we use the sample standard deviation in computing the Z score. This is generally an appropriate substitution as long as the sample size is large, n > 30. Thus, there is less than a 1% probability of observing a sample mean as large as 197.1 when the true population mean is 191. Do you think that the null hypothesis is likely true? Based on how unlikely it is to observe a sample mean of 197.1 under the null hypothesis (i.e., <1% probability), we might infer, from our data, that the null hypothesis is probably not true.

Suppose that the sample data had turned out differently. Suppose that we instead observed the following in 2006:

How likely it is to observe a sample mean of 192.1 or higher when the true population mean is 191 (i.e., if the null hypothesis is true)? We can again compute this probability using the Central Limit Theorem. Specifically,

There is a 33.4% probability of observing a sample mean as large as 192.1 when the true population mean is 191. Do you think that the null hypothesis is likely true?

Neither of the sample means that we obtained allows us to know with certainty whether the null hypothesis is true or not. However, our computations suggest that, if the null hypothesis were true, the probability of observing a sample mean >197.1 is less than 1%. In contrast, if the null hypothesis were true, the probability of observing a sample mean >192.1 is about 33%. We can't know whether the null hypothesis is true, but the sample that provided a mean value of 197.1 provides much stronger evidence in favor of rejecting the null hypothesis, than the sample that provided a mean value of 192.1. Note that this does not mean that a sample mean of 192.1 indicates that the null hypothesis is true; it just doesn't provide compelling evidence to reject it.

In essence, hypothesis testing is a procedure to compute a probability that reflects the strength of the evidence (based on a given sample) for rejecting the null hypothesis. In hypothesis testing, we determine a threshold or cut-off point (called the critical value) to decide when to believe the null hypothesis and when to believe the research hypothesis. It is important to note that it is possible to observe any sample mean when the true population mean is true (in this example equal to 191), but some sample means are very unlikely. Based on the two samples above it would seem reasonable to believe the research hypothesis when x̄ = 197.1, but to believe the null hypothesis when x̄ =192.1. What we need is a threshold value such that if x̄ is above that threshold then we believe that H 1 is true and if x̄ is below that threshold then we believe that H 0 is true. The difficulty in determining a threshold for x̄ is that it depends on the scale of measurement. In this example, the threshold, sometimes called the critical value, might be 195 (i.e., if the sample mean is 195 or more then we believe that H 1 is true and if the sample mean is less than 195 then we believe that H 0 is true). Suppose we are interested in assessing an increase in blood pressure over time, the critical value will be different because blood pressures are measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) as opposed to in pounds. In the following we will explain how the critical value is determined and how we handle the issue of scale.

First, to address the issue of scale in determining the critical value, we convert our sample data (in particular the sample mean) into a Z score. We know from the module on probability that the center of the Z distribution is zero and extreme values are those that exceed 2 or fall below -2. Z scores above 2 and below -2 represent approximately 5% of all Z values. If the observed sample mean is close to the mean specified in H 0 (here m =191), then Z will be close to zero. If the observed sample mean is much larger than the mean specified in H 0 , then Z will be large.

In hypothesis testing, we select a critical value from the Z distribution. This is done by first determining what is called the level of significance, denoted α ("alpha"). What we are doing here is drawing a line at extreme values. The level of significance is the probability that we reject the null hypothesis (in favor of the alternative) when it is actually true and is also called the Type I error rate.

α = Level of significance = P(Type I error) = P(Reject H 0 | H 0 is true).

Because α is a probability, it ranges between 0 and 1. The most commonly used value in the medical literature for α is 0.05, or 5%. Thus, if an investigator selects α=0.05, then they are allowing a 5% probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative when the null is in fact true. Depending on the circumstances, one might choose to use a level of significance of 1% or 10%. For example, if an investigator wanted to reject the null only if there were even stronger evidence than that ensured with α=0.05, they could choose a =0.01as their level of significance. The typical values for α are 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10, with α=0.05 the most commonly used value.

Suppose in our weight study we select α=0.05. We need to determine the value of Z that holds 5% of the values above it (see below).

Standard normal distribution curve showing an upper tail at z=1.645 where alpha=0.05

The critical value of Z for α =0.05 is Z = 1.645 (i.e., 5% of the distribution is above Z=1.645). With this value we can set up what is called our decision rule for the test. The rule is to reject H 0 if the Z score is 1.645 or more.

With the first sample we have

Because 2.38 > 1.645, we reject the null hypothesis. (The same conclusion can be drawn by comparing the 0.0087 probability of observing a sample mean as extreme as 197.1 to the level of significance of 0.05. If the observed probability is smaller than the level of significance we reject H 0 ). Because the Z score exceeds the critical value, we conclude that the mean weight for men in 2006 is more than 191 pounds, the value reported in 2002. If we observed the second sample (i.e., sample mean =192.1), we would not be able to reject the null hypothesis because the Z score is 0.43 which is not in the rejection region (i.e., the region in the tail end of the curve above 1.645). With the second sample we do not have sufficient evidence (because we set our level of significance at 5%) to conclude that weights have increased. Again, the same conclusion can be reached by comparing probabilities. The probability of observing a sample mean as extreme as 192.1 is 33.4% which is not below our 5% level of significance.

Hypothesis Testing: Upper-, Lower, and Two Tailed Tests

The procedure for hypothesis testing is based on the ideas described above. Specifically, we set up competing hypotheses, select a random sample from the population of interest and compute summary statistics. We then determine whether the sample data supports the null or alternative hypotheses. The procedure can be broken down into the following five steps.

Step 1. Set up hypotheses and select the level of significance α.

H 0 : Null hypothesis (no change, no difference);

H 1 : Research hypothesis (investigator's belief); α =0.05

Step 2. Select the appropriate test statistic.

The test statistic is a single number that summarizes the sample information. An example of a test statistic is the Z statistic computed as follows:

When the sample size is small, we will use t statistics (just as we did when constructing confidence intervals for small samples). As we present each scenario, alternative test statistics are provided along with conditions for their appropriate use.

Step 3. Set up decision rule.

The decision rule is a statement that tells under what circumstances to reject the null hypothesis. The decision rule is based on specific values of the test statistic (e.g., reject H 0 if Z > 1.645). The decision rule for a specific test depends on 3 factors: the research or alternative hypothesis, the test statistic and the level of significance. Each is discussed below.

The decision rule depends on whether an upper-tailed, lower-tailed, or two-tailed test is proposed. In an upper-tailed test the decision rule has investigators reject H 0 if the test statistic is larger than the critical value. In a lower-tailed test the decision rule has investigators reject H 0 if the test statistic is smaller than the critical value. In a two-tailed test the decision rule has investigators reject H 0 if the test statistic is extreme, either larger than an upper critical value or smaller than a lower critical value.
The exact form of the test statistic is also important in determining the decision rule. If the test statistic follows the standard normal distribution (Z), then the decision rule will be based on the standard normal distribution. If the test statistic follows the t distribution, then the decision rule will be based on the t distribution. The appropriate critical value will be selected from the t distribution again depending on the specific alternative hypothesis and the level of significance.
The third factor is the level of significance. The level of significance which is selected in Step 1 (e.g., α =0.05) dictates the critical value. For example, in an upper tailed Z test, if α =0.05 then the critical value is Z=1.645.

The following figures illustrate the rejection regions defined by the decision rule for upper-, lower- and two-tailed Z tests with α=0.05. Notice that the rejection regions are in the upper, lower and both tails of the curves, respectively. The decision rules are written below each figure.

Standard normal distribution with lower tail at -1.645 and alpha=0.05

Rejection Region for Lower-Tailed Z Test (H 1 : μ < μ 0 ) with α =0.05

The decision rule is: Reject H 0 if Z < 1.645.

Standard normal distribution with two tails

Rejection Region for Two-Tailed Z Test (H 1 : μ ≠ μ 0 ) with α =0.05

The decision rule is: Reject H 0 if Z < -1.960 or if Z > 1.960.

The complete table of critical values of Z for upper, lower and two-tailed tests can be found in the table of Z values to the right in "Other Resources."

Critical values of t for upper, lower and two-tailed tests can be found in the table of t values in "Other Resources."

Step 4. Compute the test statistic.

Here we compute the test statistic by substituting the observed sample data into the test statistic identified in Step 2.

Step 5. Conclusion.

The final conclusion is made by comparing the test statistic (which is a summary of the information observed in the sample) to the decision rule. The final conclusion will be either to reject the null hypothesis (because the sample data are very unlikely if the null hypothesis is true) or not to reject the null hypothesis (because the sample data are not very unlikely).

If the null hypothesis is rejected, then an exact significance level is computed to describe the likelihood of observing the sample data assuming that the null hypothesis is true. The exact level of significance is called the p-value and it will be less than the chosen level of significance if we reject H 0 .

Statistical computing packages provide exact p-values as part of their standard output for hypothesis tests. In fact, when using a statistical computing package, the steps outlined about can be abbreviated. The hypotheses (step 1) should always be set up in advance of any analysis and the significance criterion should also be determined (e.g., α =0.05). Statistical computing packages will produce the test statistic (usually reporting the test statistic as t) and a p-value. The investigator can then determine statistical significance using the following: If p < α then reject H 0 .

Step 1. Set up hypotheses and determine level of significance

H 0 : μ = 191 H 1 : μ > 191 α =0.05

The research hypothesis is that weights have increased, and therefore an upper tailed test is used.

Step 2. Select the appropriate test statistic.

Because the sample size is large (n > 30) the appropriate test statistic is

Step 3. Set up decision rule.

In this example, we are performing an upper tailed test (H 1 : μ> 191), with a Z test statistic and selected α =0.05. Reject H 0 if Z > 1.645.

We now substitute the sample data into the formula for the test statistic identified in Step 2.

We reject H 0 because 2.38 > 1.645. We have statistically significant evidence at a =0.05, to show that the mean weight in men in 2006 is more than 191 pounds. Because we rejected the null hypothesis, we now approximate the p-value which is the likelihood of observing the sample data if the null hypothesis is true. An alternative definition of the p-value is the smallest level of significance where we can still reject H 0 . In this example, we observed Z=2.38 and for α=0.05, the critical value was 1.645. Because 2.38 exceeded 1.645 we rejected H 0 . In our conclusion we reported a statistically significant increase in mean weight at a 5% level of significance. Using the table of critical values for upper tailed tests, we can approximate the p-value. If we select α=0.025, the critical value is 1.96, and we still reject H 0 because 2.38 > 1.960. If we select α=0.010 the critical value is 2.326, and we still reject H 0 because 2.38 > 2.326. However, if we select α=0.005, the critical value is 2.576, and we cannot reject H 0 because 2.38 < 2.576. Therefore, the smallest α where we still reject H 0 is 0.010. This is the p-value. A statistical computing package would produce a more precise p-value which would be in between 0.005 and 0.010. Here we are approximating the p-value and would report p < 0.010.

Type I and Type II Errors

In all tests of hypothesis, there are two types of errors that can be committed. The first is called a Type I error and refers to the situation where we incorrectly reject H 0 when in fact it is true. This is also called a false positive result (as we incorrectly conclude that the research hypothesis is true when in fact it is not). When we run a test of hypothesis and decide to reject H 0 (e.g., because the test statistic exceeds the critical value in an upper tailed test) then either we make a correct decision because the research hypothesis is true or we commit a Type I error. The different conclusions are summarized in the table below. Note that we will never know whether the null hypothesis is really true or false (i.e., we will never know which row of the following table reflects reality).

Table - Conclusions in Test of Hypothesis

In the first step of the hypothesis test, we select a level of significance, α, and α= P(Type I error). Because we purposely select a small value for α, we control the probability of committing a Type I error. For example, if we select α=0.05, and our test tells us to reject H 0 , then there is a 5% probability that we commit a Type I error. Most investigators are very comfortable with this and are confident when rejecting H 0 that the research hypothesis is true (as it is the more likely scenario when we reject H 0 ).

When we run a test of hypothesis and decide not to reject H 0 (e.g., because the test statistic is below the critical value in an upper tailed test) then either we make a correct decision because the null hypothesis is true or we commit a Type II error. Beta (β) represents the probability of a Type II error and is defined as follows: β=P(Type II error) = P(Do not Reject H 0 | H 0 is false). Unfortunately, we cannot choose β to be small (e.g., 0.05) to control the probability of committing a Type II error because β depends on several factors including the sample size, α, and the research hypothesis. When we do not reject H 0 , it may be very likely that we are committing a Type II error (i.e., failing to reject H 0 when in fact it is false). Therefore, when tests are run and the null hypothesis is not rejected we often make a weak concluding statement allowing for the possibility that we might be committing a Type II error. If we do not reject H 0 , we conclude that we do not have significant evidence to show that H 1 is true. We do not conclude that H 0 is true.

The most common reason for a Type II error is a small sample size.

Tests with One Sample, Continuous Outcome

Hypothesis testing applications with a continuous outcome variable in a single population are performed according to the five-step procedure outlined above. A key component is setting up the null and research hypotheses. The objective is to compare the mean in a single population to known mean (μ 0 ). The known value is generally derived from another study or report, for example a study in a similar, but not identical, population or a study performed some years ago. The latter is called a historical control. It is important in setting up the hypotheses in a one sample test that the mean specified in the null hypothesis is a fair and reasonable comparator. This will be discussed in the examples that follow.

Test Statistics for Testing H 0 : μ= μ 0

if n > 30
if n < 30

Note that statistical computing packages will use the t statistic exclusively and make the necessary adjustments for comparing the test statistic to appropriate values from probability tables to produce a p-value.

The National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) published a report in 2005 entitled Health, United States, containing extensive information on major trends in the health of Americans. Data are provided for the US population as a whole and for specific ages, sexes and races. The NCHS report indicated that in 2002 Americans paid an average of $3,302 per year on health care and prescription drugs. An investigator hypothesizes that in 2005 expenditures have decreased primarily due to the availability of generic drugs. To test the hypothesis, a sample of 100 Americans are selected and their expenditures on health care and prescription drugs in 2005 are measured. The sample data are summarized as follows: n=100, x̄

=$3,190 and s=$890. Is there statistical evidence of a reduction in expenditures on health care and prescription drugs in 2005? Is the sample mean of $3,190 evidence of a true reduction in the mean or is it within chance fluctuation? We will run the test using the five-step approach.

Step 1. Set up hypotheses and determine level of significance

H 0 : μ = 3,302 H 1 : μ < 3,302 α =0.05

The research hypothesis is that expenditures have decreased, and therefore a lower-tailed test is used.

This is a lower tailed test, using a Z statistic and a 5% level of significance. Reject H 0 if Z < -1.645.

Step 4. Compute the test statistic.

We do not reject H 0 because -1.26 > -1.645. We do not have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that the mean expenditures on health care and prescription drugs are lower in 2005 than the mean of $3,302 reported in 2002.

Recall that when we fail to reject H 0 in a test of hypothesis that either the null hypothesis is true (here the mean expenditures in 2005 are the same as those in 2002 and equal to $3,302) or we committed a Type II error (i.e., we failed to reject H 0 when in fact it is false). In summarizing this test, we conclude that we do not have sufficient evidence to reject H 0 . We do not conclude that H 0 is true, because there may be a moderate to high probability that we committed a Type II error. It is possible that the sample size is not large enough to detect a difference in mean expenditures.

The NCHS reported that the mean total cholesterol level in 2002 for all adults was 203. Total cholesterol levels in participants who attended the seventh examination of the Offspring in the Framingham Heart Study are summarized as follows: n=3,310, x̄ =200.3, and s=36.8. Is there statistical evidence of a difference in mean cholesterol levels in the Framingham Offspring?

Here we want to assess whether the sample mean of 200.3 in the Framingham sample is statistically significantly different from 203 (i.e., beyond what we would expect by chance). We will run the test using the five-step approach.

H 0 : μ= 203 H 1 : μ≠ 203 α=0.05

The research hypothesis is that cholesterol levels are different in the Framingham Offspring, and therefore a two-tailed test is used.

Step 3. Set up decision rule.

This is a two-tailed test, using a Z statistic and a 5% level of significance. Reject H 0 if Z < -1.960 or is Z > 1.960.

We reject H 0 because -4.22 ≤ -1. .960. We have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that the mean total cholesterol level in the Framingham Offspring is different from the national average of 203 reported in 2002. Because we reject H 0 , we also approximate a p-value. Using the two-sided significance levels, p < 0.0001.

Statistical Significance versus Clinical (Practical) Significance

This example raises an important concept of statistical versus clinical or practical significance. From a statistical standpoint, the total cholesterol levels in the Framingham sample are highly statistically significantly different from the national average with p < 0.0001 (i.e., there is less than a 0.01% chance that we are incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis). However, the sample mean in the Framingham Offspring study is 200.3, less than 3 units different from the national mean of 203. The reason that the data are so highly statistically significant is due to the very large sample size. It is always important to assess both statistical and clinical significance of data. This is particularly relevant when the sample size is large. Is a 3 unit difference in total cholesterol a meaningful difference?

Consider again the NCHS-reported mean total cholesterol level in 2002 for all adults of 203. Suppose a new drug is proposed to lower total cholesterol. A study is designed to evaluate the efficacy of the drug in lowering cholesterol. Fifteen patients are enrolled in the study and asked to take the new drug for 6 weeks. At the end of 6 weeks, each patient's total cholesterol level is measured and the sample statistics are as follows: n=15, x̄ =195.9 and s=28.7. Is there statistical evidence of a reduction in mean total cholesterol in patients after using the new drug for 6 weeks? We will run the test using the five-step approach.

H 0 : μ= 203 H 1 : μ< 203 α=0.05

Step 2. Select the appropriate test statistic.

Because the sample size is small (n<30) the appropriate test statistic is

This is a lower tailed test, using a t statistic and a 5% level of significance. In order to determine the critical value of t, we need degrees of freedom, df, defined as df=n-1. In this example df=15-1=14. The critical value for a lower tailed test with df=14 and a =0.05 is -2.145 and the decision rule is as follows: Reject H 0 if t < -2.145.

We do not reject H 0 because -0.96 > -2.145. We do not have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that the mean total cholesterol level is lower than the national mean in patients taking the new drug for 6 weeks. Again, because we failed to reject the null hypothesis we make a weaker concluding statement allowing for the possibility that we may have committed a Type II error (i.e., failed to reject H 0 when in fact the drug is efficacious).

This example raises an important issue in terms of study design. In this example we assume in the null hypothesis that the mean cholesterol level is 203. This is taken to be the mean cholesterol level in patients without treatment. Is this an appropriate comparator? Alternative and potentially more efficient study designs to evaluate the effect of the new drug could involve two treatment groups, where one group receives the new drug and the other does not, or we could measure each patient's baseline or pre-treatment cholesterol level and then assess changes from baseline to 6 weeks post-treatment. These designs are also discussed here.

Video - Comparing a Sample Mean to Known Population Mean (8:20)

Link to transcript of the video

Tests with One Sample, Dichotomous Outcome

Hypothesis testing applications with a dichotomous outcome variable in a single population are also performed according to the five-step procedure. Similar to tests for means, a key component is setting up the null and research hypotheses. The objective is to compare the proportion of successes in a single population to a known proportion (p 0 ). That known proportion is generally derived from another study or report and is sometimes called a historical control. It is important in setting up the hypotheses in a one sample test that the proportion specified in the null hypothesis is a fair and reasonable comparator.

In one sample tests for a dichotomous outcome, we set up our hypotheses against an appropriate comparator. We select a sample and compute descriptive statistics on the sample data. Specifically, we compute the sample size (n) and the sample proportion which is computed by taking the ratio of the number of successes to the sample size,

We then determine the appropriate test statistic (Step 2) for the hypothesis test. The formula for the test statistic is given below.

Test Statistic for Testing H 0 : p = p 0

if min(np 0 , n(1-p 0 )) > 5

The formula above is appropriate for large samples, defined when the smaller of np 0 and n(1-p 0 ) is at least 5. This is similar, but not identical, to the condition required for appropriate use of the confidence interval formula for a population proportion, i.e.,

Here we use the proportion specified in the null hypothesis as the true proportion of successes rather than the sample proportion. If we fail to satisfy the condition, then alternative procedures, called exact methods must be used to test the hypothesis about the population proportion.

Example:

The NCHS report indicated that in 2002 the prevalence of cigarette smoking among American adults was 21.1%. Data on prevalent smoking in n=3,536 participants who attended the seventh examination of the Offspring in the Framingham Heart Study indicated that 482/3,536 = 13.6% of the respondents were currently smoking at the time of the exam. Suppose we want to assess whether the prevalence of smoking is lower in the Framingham Offspring sample given the focus on cardiovascular health in that community. Is there evidence of a statistically lower prevalence of smoking in the Framingham Offspring study as compared to the prevalence among all Americans?

H 0 : p = 0.211 H 1 : p < 0.211 α=0.05

We must first check that the sample size is adequate. Specifically, we need to check min(np 0 , n(1-p 0 )) = min( 3,536(0.211), 3,536(1-0.211))=min(746, 2790)=746. The sample size is more than adequate so the following formula can be used:

This is a lower tailed test, using a Z statistic and a 5% level of significance. Reject H 0 if Z < -1.645.

We reject H 0 because -10.93 < -1.645. We have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that the prevalence of smoking in the Framingham Offspring is lower than the prevalence nationally (21.1%). Here, p < 0.0001.

The NCHS report indicated that in 2002, 75% of children aged 2 to 17 saw a dentist in the past year. An investigator wants to assess whether use of dental services is similar in children living in the city of Boston. A sample of 125 children aged 2 to 17 living in Boston are surveyed and 64 reported seeing a dentist over the past 12 months. Is there a significant difference in use of dental services between children living in Boston and the national data?

Calculate this on your own before checking the answer.

Video - Hypothesis Test for One Sample and a Dichotomous Outcome (3:55)

Tests with Two Independent Samples, Continuous Outcome

There are many applications where it is of interest to compare two independent groups with respect to their mean scores on a continuous outcome. Here we compare means between groups, but rather than generating an estimate of the difference, we will test whether the observed difference (increase, decrease or difference) is statistically significant or not. Remember, that hypothesis testing gives an assessment of statistical significance, whereas estimation gives an estimate of effect and both are important.

Here we discuss the comparison of means when the two comparison groups are independent or physically separate. The two groups might be determined by a particular attribute (e.g., sex, diagnosis of cardiovascular disease) or might be set up by the investigator (e.g., participants assigned to receive an experimental treatment or placebo). The first step in the analysis involves computing descriptive statistics on each of the two samples. Specifically, we compute the sample size, mean and standard deviation in each sample and we denote these summary statistics as follows:

for sample 1:

for sample 2:

The designation of sample 1 and sample 2 is arbitrary. In a clinical trial setting the convention is to call the treatment group 1 and the control group 2. However, when comparing men and women, for example, either group can be 1 or 2.

In the two independent samples application with a continuous outcome, the parameter of interest in the test of hypothesis is the difference in population means, μ 1 -μ 2 . The null hypothesis is always that there is no difference between groups with respect to means, i.e.,

The null hypothesis can also be written as follows: H 0 : μ 1 = μ 2 . In the research hypothesis, an investigator can hypothesize that the first mean is larger than the second (H 1 : μ 1 > μ 2 ), that the first mean is smaller than the second (H 1 : μ 1 < μ 2 ), or that the means are different (H 1 : μ 1 ≠ μ 2 ). The three different alternatives represent upper-, lower-, and two-tailed tests, respectively. The following test statistics are used to test these hypotheses.

Test Statistics for Testing H 0 : μ 1 = μ 2

if n 1 > 30 and n 2 > 30
if n 1 < 30 or n 2 < 30

NOTE: The formulas above assume equal variability in the two populations (i.e., the population variances are equal, or s 1 2 = s 2 2 ). This means that the outcome is equally variable in each of the comparison populations. For analysis, we have samples from each of the comparison populations. If the sample variances are similar, then the assumption about variability in the populations is probably reasonable. As a guideline, if the ratio of the sample variances, s 1 2 /s 2 2 is between 0.5 and 2 (i.e., if one variance is no more than double the other), then the formulas above are appropriate. If the ratio of the sample variances is greater than 2 or less than 0.5 then alternative formulas must be used to account for the heterogeneity in variances.

The test statistics include Sp, which is the pooled estimate of the common standard deviation (again assuming that the variances in the populations are similar) computed as the weighted average of the standard deviations in the samples as follows:

Because we are assuming equal variances between groups, we pool the information on variability (sample variances) to generate an estimate of the variability in the population. Note: Because Sp is a weighted average of the standard deviations in the sample, Sp will always be in between s 1 and s 2 .)

Data measured on n=3,539 participants who attended the seventh examination of the Offspring in the Framingham Heart Study are shown below.

Suppose we now wish to assess whether there is a statistically significant difference in mean systolic blood pressures between men and women using a 5% level of significance.

H 0 : μ 1 = μ 2

H 1 : μ 1 ≠ μ 2 α=0.05

Because both samples are large ( > 30), we can use the Z test statistic as opposed to t. Note that statistical computing packages use t throughout. Before implementing the formula, we first check whether the assumption of equality of population variances is reasonable. The guideline suggests investigating the ratio of the sample variances, s 1 2 /s 2 2 . Suppose we call the men group 1 and the women group 2. Again, this is arbitrary; it only needs to be noted when interpreting the results. The ratio of the sample variances is 17.5 2 /20.1 2 = 0.76, which falls between 0.5 and 2 suggesting that the assumption of equality of population variances is reasonable. The appropriate test statistic is

We now substitute the sample data into the formula for the test statistic identified in Step 2. Before substituting, we will first compute Sp, the pooled estimate of the common standard deviation.

Notice that the pooled estimate of the common standard deviation, Sp, falls in between the standard deviations in the comparison groups (i.e., 17.5 and 20.1). Sp is slightly closer in value to the standard deviation in the women (20.1) as there were slightly more women in the sample. Recall, Sp is a weight average of the standard deviations in the comparison groups, weighted by the respective sample sizes.

Now the test statistic:

We reject H 0 because 2.66 > 1.960. We have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that there is a difference in mean systolic blood pressures between men and women. The p-value is p < 0.010.

Here again we find that there is a statistically significant difference in mean systolic blood pressures between men and women at p < 0.010. Notice that there is a very small difference in the sample means (128.2-126.5 = 1.7 units), but this difference is beyond what would be expected by chance. Is this a clinically meaningful difference? The large sample size in this example is driving the statistical significance. A 95% confidence interval for the difference in mean systolic blood pressures is: 1.7 + 1.26 or (0.44, 2.96). The confidence interval provides an assessment of the magnitude of the difference between means whereas the test of hypothesis and p-value provide an assessment of the statistical significance of the difference.

Above we performed a study to evaluate a new drug designed to lower total cholesterol. The study involved one sample of patients, each patient took the new drug for 6 weeks and had their cholesterol measured. As a means of evaluating the efficacy of the new drug, the mean total cholesterol following 6 weeks of treatment was compared to the NCHS-reported mean total cholesterol level in 2002 for all adults of 203. At the end of the example, we discussed the appropriateness of the fixed comparator as well as an alternative study design to evaluate the effect of the new drug involving two treatment groups, where one group receives the new drug and the other does not. Here, we revisit the example with a concurrent or parallel control group, which is very typical in randomized controlled trials or clinical trials (refer to the EP713 module on Clinical Trials).

A new drug is proposed to lower total cholesterol. A randomized controlled trial is designed to evaluate the efficacy of the medication in lowering cholesterol. Thirty participants are enrolled in the trial and are randomly assigned to receive either the new drug or a placebo. The participants do not know which treatment they are assigned. Each participant is asked to take the assigned treatment for 6 weeks. At the end of 6 weeks, each patient's total cholesterol level is measured and the sample statistics are as follows.

Is there statistical evidence of a reduction in mean total cholesterol in patients taking the new drug for 6 weeks as compared to participants taking placebo? We will run the test using the five-step approach.

H 0 : μ 1 = μ 2 H 1 : μ 1 < μ 2 α=0.05

Because both samples are small (< 30), we use the t test statistic. Before implementing the formula, we first check whether the assumption of equality of population variances is reasonable. The ratio of the sample variances, s 1 2 /s 2 2 =28.7 2 /30.3 2 = 0.90, which falls between 0.5 and 2, suggesting that the assumption of equality of population variances is reasonable. The appropriate test statistic is:

This is a lower-tailed test, using a t statistic and a 5% level of significance. The appropriate critical value can be found in the t Table (in More Resources to the right). In order to determine the critical value of t we need degrees of freedom, df, defined as df=n 1 +n 2 -2 = 15+15-2=28. The critical value for a lower tailed test with df=28 and α=0.05 is -1.701 and the decision rule is: Reject H 0 if t < -1.701.

Now the test statistic,

We reject H 0 because -2.92 < -1.701. We have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that the mean total cholesterol level is lower in patients taking the new drug for 6 weeks as compared to patients taking placebo, p < 0.005.

The clinical trial in this example finds a statistically significant reduction in total cholesterol, whereas in the previous example where we had a historical control (as opposed to a parallel control group) we did not demonstrate efficacy of the new drug. Notice that the mean total cholesterol level in patients taking placebo is 217.4 which is very different from the mean cholesterol reported among all Americans in 2002 of 203 and used as the comparator in the prior example. The historical control value may not have been the most appropriate comparator as cholesterol levels have been increasing over time. In the next section, we present another design that can be used to assess the efficacy of the new drug.

Video - Comparison of Two Independent Samples With a Continuous Outcome (8:02)

Tests with Matched Samples, Continuous Outcome

In the previous section we compared two groups with respect to their mean scores on a continuous outcome. An alternative study design is to compare matched or paired samples. The two comparison groups are said to be dependent, and the data can arise from a single sample of participants where each participant is measured twice (possibly before and after an intervention) or from two samples that are matched on specific characteristics (e.g., siblings). When the samples are dependent, we focus on difference scores in each participant or between members of a pair and the test of hypothesis is based on the mean difference, μ d . The null hypothesis again reflects "no difference" and is stated as H 0 : μ d =0 . Note that there are some instances where it is of interest to test whether there is a difference of a particular magnitude (e.g., μ d =5) but in most instances the null hypothesis reflects no difference (i.e., μ d =0).

The appropriate formula for the test of hypothesis depends on the sample size. The formulas are shown below and are identical to those we presented for estimating the mean of a single sample presented (e.g., when comparing against an external or historical control), except here we focus on difference scores.

Test Statistics for Testing H 0 : μ d =0

A new drug is proposed to lower total cholesterol and a study is designed to evaluate the efficacy of the drug in lowering cholesterol. Fifteen patients agree to participate in the study and each is asked to take the new drug for 6 weeks. However, before starting the treatment, each patient's total cholesterol level is measured. The initial measurement is a pre-treatment or baseline value. After taking the drug for 6 weeks, each patient's total cholesterol level is measured again and the data are shown below. The rightmost column contains difference scores for each patient, computed by subtracting the 6 week cholesterol level from the baseline level. The differences represent the reduction in total cholesterol over 4 weeks. (The differences could have been computed by subtracting the baseline total cholesterol level from the level measured at 6 weeks. The way in which the differences are computed does not affect the outcome of the analysis only the interpretation.)

Because the differences are computed by subtracting the cholesterols measured at 6 weeks from the baseline values, positive differences indicate reductions and negative differences indicate increases (e.g., participant 12 increases by 2 units over 6 weeks). The goal here is to test whether there is a statistically significant reduction in cholesterol. Because of the way in which we computed the differences, we want to look for an increase in the mean difference (i.e., a positive reduction). In order to conduct the test, we need to summarize the differences. In this sample, we have

The calculations are shown below.

Is there statistical evidence of a reduction in mean total cholesterol in patients after using the new medication for 6 weeks? We will run the test using the five-step approach.

H 0 : μ d = 0 H 1 : μ d > 0 α=0.05

NOTE: If we had computed differences by subtracting the baseline level from the level measured at 6 weeks then negative differences would have reflected reductions and the research hypothesis would have been H 1 : μ d < 0.

Step 2 . Select the appropriate test statistic.

This is an upper-tailed test, using a t statistic and a 5% level of significance. The appropriate critical value can be found in the t Table at the right, with df=15-1=14. The critical value for an upper-tailed test with df=14 and α=0.05 is 2.145 and the decision rule is Reject H 0 if t > 2.145.

We now substitute the sample data into the formula for the test statistic identified in Step 2.

We reject H 0 because 4.61 > 2.145. We have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that there is a reduction in cholesterol levels over 6 weeks.

Here we illustrate the use of a matched design to test the efficacy of a new drug to lower total cholesterol. We also considered a parallel design (randomized clinical trial) and a study using a historical comparator. It is extremely important to design studies that are best suited to detect a meaningful difference when one exists. There are often several alternatives and investigators work with biostatisticians to determine the best design for each application. It is worth noting that the matched design used here can be problematic in that observed differences may only reflect a "placebo" effect. All participants took the assigned medication, but is the observed reduction attributable to the medication or a result of these participation in a study.

Video - Hypothesis Testing With a Matched Sample and a Continuous Outcome (3:11)

Tests with Two Independent Samples, Dichotomous Outcome

There are several approaches that can be used to test hypotheses concerning two independent proportions. Here we present one approach - the chi-square test of independence is an alternative, equivalent, and perhaps more popular approach to the same analysis. Hypothesis testing with the chi-square test is addressed in the third module in this series: BS704_HypothesisTesting-ChiSquare.

In tests of hypothesis comparing proportions between two independent groups, one test is performed and results can be interpreted to apply to a risk difference, relative risk or odds ratio. As a reminder, the risk difference is computed by taking the difference in proportions between comparison groups, the risk ratio is computed by taking the ratio of proportions, and the odds ratio is computed by taking the ratio of the odds of success in the comparison groups. Because the null values for the risk difference, the risk ratio and the odds ratio are different, the hypotheses in tests of hypothesis look slightly different depending on which measure is used. When performing tests of hypothesis for the risk difference, relative risk or odds ratio, the convention is to label the exposed or treated group 1 and the unexposed or control group 2.

For example, suppose a study is designed to assess whether there is a significant difference in proportions in two independent comparison groups. The test of interest is as follows:

H 0 : p 1 = p 2 versus H 1 : p 1 ≠ p 2 .

The following are the hypothesis for testing for a difference in proportions using the risk difference, the risk ratio and the odds ratio. First, the hypotheses above are equivalent to the following:

For the risk difference, H 0 : p 1 - p 2 = 0 versus H 1 : p 1 - p 2 ≠ 0 which are, by definition, equal to H 0 : RD = 0 versus H 1 : RD ≠ 0.
If an investigator wants to focus on the risk ratio, the equivalent hypotheses are H 0 : RR = 1 versus H 1 : RR ≠ 1.
If the investigator wants to focus on the odds ratio, the equivalent hypotheses are H 0 : OR = 1 versus H 1 : OR ≠ 1.

Suppose a test is performed to test H 0 : RD = 0 versus H 1 : RD ≠ 0 and the test rejects H 0 at α=0.05. Based on this test we can conclude that there is significant evidence, α=0.05, of a difference in proportions, significant evidence that the risk difference is not zero, significant evidence that the risk ratio and odds ratio are not one. The risk difference is analogous to the difference in means when the outcome is continuous. Here the parameter of interest is the difference in proportions in the population, RD = p 1 -p 2 and the null value for the risk difference is zero. In a test of hypothesis for the risk difference, the null hypothesis is always H 0 : RD = 0. This is equivalent to H 0 : RR = 1 and H 0 : OR = 1. In the research hypothesis, an investigator can hypothesize that the first proportion is larger than the second (H 1 : p 1 > p 2 , which is equivalent to H 1 : RD > 0, H 1 : RR > 1 and H 1 : OR > 1), that the first proportion is smaller than the second (H 1 : p 1 < p 2 , which is equivalent to H 1 : RD < 0, H 1 : RR < 1 and H 1 : OR < 1), or that the proportions are different (H 1 : p 1 ≠ p 2 , which is equivalent to H 1 : RD ≠ 0, H 1 : RR ≠ 1 and H 1 : OR ≠

1). The three different alternatives represent upper-, lower- and two-tailed tests, respectively.

The formula for the test of hypothesis for the difference in proportions is given below.

Test Statistics for Testing H 0 : p 1 = p

The formula above is appropriate for large samples, defined as at least 5 successes (np > 5) and at least 5 failures (n(1-p > 5)) in each of the two samples. If there are fewer than 5 successes or failures in either comparison group, then alternative procedures, called exact methods must be used to estimate the difference in population proportions.

The following table summarizes data from n=3,799 participants who attended the fifth examination of the Offspring in the Framingham Heart Study. The outcome of interest is prevalent CVD and we want to test whether the prevalence of CVD is significantly higher in smokers as compared to non-smokers.

The prevalence of CVD (or proportion of participants with prevalent CVD) among non-smokers is 298/3,055 = 0.0975 and the prevalence of CVD among current smokers is 81/744 = 0.1089. Here smoking status defines the comparison groups and we will call the current smokers group 1 (exposed) and the non-smokers (unexposed) group 2. The test of hypothesis is conducted below using the five step approach.

H 0 : p 1 = p 2 H 1 : p 1 ≠ p 2 α=0.05

Step 2. Select the appropriate test statistic.

We must first check that the sample size is adequate. Specifically, we need to ensure that we have at least 5 successes and 5 failures in each comparison group. In this example, we have more than enough successes (cases of prevalent CVD) and failures (persons free of CVD) in each comparison group. The sample size is more than adequate so the following formula can be used:

Reject H 0 if Z < -1.960 or if Z > 1.960.

We now substitute the sample data into the formula for the test statistic identified in Step 2. We first compute the overall proportion of successes:

We now substitute to compute the test statistic.

Step 5. Conclusion.

We do not reject H 0 because -1.960 < 0.927 < 1.960. We do not have statistically significant evidence at α=0.05 to show that there is a difference in prevalent CVD between smokers and non-smokers.

A 95% confidence interval for the difference in prevalent CVD (or risk difference) between smokers and non-smokers as 0.0114 + 0.0247, or between -0.0133 and 0.0361. Because the 95% confidence interval for the risk difference includes zero we again conclude that there is no statistically significant difference in prevalent CVD between smokers and non-smokers.

Smoking has been shown over and over to be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. What might explain the fact that we did not observe a statistically significant difference using data from the Framingham Heart Study? HINT: Here we consider prevalent CVD, would the results have been different if we considered incident CVD?

A randomized trial is designed to evaluate the effectiveness of a newly developed pain reliever designed to reduce pain in patients following joint replacement surgery. The trial compares the new pain reliever to the pain reliever currently in use (called the standard of care). A total of 100 patients undergoing joint replacement surgery agreed to participate in the trial. Patients were randomly assigned to receive either the new pain reliever or the standard pain reliever following surgery and were blind to the treatment assignment. Before receiving the assigned treatment, patients were asked to rate their pain on a scale of 0-10 with higher scores indicative of more pain. Each patient was then given the assigned treatment and after 30 minutes was again asked to rate their pain on the same scale. The primary outcome was a reduction in pain of 3 or more scale points (defined by clinicians as a clinically meaningful reduction). The following data were observed in the trial.

We now test whether there is a statistically significant difference in the proportions of patients reporting a meaningful reduction (i.e., a reduction of 3 or more scale points) using the five step approach.

H 0 : p 1 = p 2 H 1 : p 1 ≠ p 2 α=0.05

Here the new or experimental pain reliever is group 1 and the standard pain reliever is group 2.

We must first check that the sample size is adequate. Specifically, we need to ensure that we have at least 5 successes and 5 failures in each comparison group, i.e.,

In this example, we have min(50(0.46), 50(1-0.46), 50(0.22), 50(1-0.22)) = min(23, 27, 11, 39) = 11. The sample size is adequate so the following formula can be used

We reject H 0 because 2.526 > 1960. We have statistically significant evidence at a =0.05 to show that there is a difference in the proportions of patients on the new pain reliever reporting a meaningful reduction (i.e., a reduction of 3 or more scale points) as compared to patients on the standard pain reliever.

A 95% confidence interval for the difference in proportions of patients on the new pain reliever reporting a meaningful reduction (i.e., a reduction of 3 or more scale points) as compared to patients on the standard pain reliever is 0.24 + 0.18 or between 0.06 and 0.42. Because the 95% confidence interval does not include zero we concluded that there was a statistically significant difference in proportions which is consistent with the test of hypothesis result.

Again, the procedures discussed here apply to applications where there are two independent comparison groups and a dichotomous outcome. There are other applications in which it is of interest to compare a dichotomous outcome in matched or paired samples. For example, in a clinical trial we might wish to test the effectiveness of a new antibiotic eye drop for the treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis. Participants use the new antibiotic eye drop in one eye and a comparator (placebo or active control treatment) in the other. The success of the treatment (yes/no) is recorded for each participant for each eye. Because the two assessments (success or failure) are paired, we cannot use the procedures discussed here. The appropriate test is called McNemar's test (sometimes called McNemar's test for dependent proportions).

Vide0 - Hypothesis Testing With Two Independent Samples and a Dichotomous Outcome (2:55)

Here we presented hypothesis testing techniques for means and proportions in one and two sample situations. Tests of hypothesis involve several steps, including specifying the null and alternative or research hypothesis, selecting and computing an appropriate test statistic, setting up a decision rule and drawing a conclusion. There are many details to consider in hypothesis testing. The first is to determine the appropriate test. We discussed Z and t tests here for different applications. The appropriate test depends on the distribution of the outcome variable (continuous or dichotomous), the number of comparison groups (one, two) and whether the comparison groups are independent or dependent. The following table summarizes the different tests of hypothesis discussed here.

Continuous Outcome, One Sample: H0: μ = μ0
Continuous Outcome, Two Independent Samples: H0: μ1 = μ2
Continuous Outcome, Two Matched Samples: H0: μd = 0
Dichotomous Outcome, One Sample: H0: p = p 0
Dichotomous Outcome, Two Independent Samples: H0: p1 = p2, RD=0, RR=1, OR=1

Once the type of test is determined, the details of the test must be specified. Specifically, the null and alternative hypotheses must be clearly stated. The null hypothesis always reflects the "no change" or "no difference" situation. The alternative or research hypothesis reflects the investigator's belief. The investigator might hypothesize that a parameter (e.g., a mean, proportion, difference in means or proportions) will increase, will decrease or will be different under specific conditions (sometimes the conditions are different experimental conditions and other times the conditions are simply different groups of participants). Once the hypotheses are specified, data are collected and summarized. The appropriate test is then conducted according to the five step approach. If the test leads to rejection of the null hypothesis, an approximate p-value is computed to summarize the significance of the findings. When tests of hypothesis are conducted using statistical computing packages, exact p-values are computed. Because the statistical tables in this textbook are limited, we can only approximate p-values. If the test fails to reject the null hypothesis, then a weaker concluding statement is made for the following reason.

In hypothesis testing, there are two types of errors that can be committed. A Type I error occurs when a test incorrectly rejects the null hypothesis. This is referred to as a false positive result, and the probability that this occurs is equal to the level of significance, α. The investigator chooses the level of significance in Step 1, and purposely chooses a small value such as α=0.05 to control the probability of committing a Type I error. A Type II error occurs when a test fails to reject the null hypothesis when in fact it is false. The probability that this occurs is equal to β. Unfortunately, the investigator cannot specify β at the outset because it depends on several factors including the sample size (smaller samples have higher b), the level of significance (β decreases as a increases), and the difference in the parameter under the null and alternative hypothesis.

We noted in several examples in this chapter, the relationship between confidence intervals and tests of hypothesis. The approaches are different, yet related. It is possible to draw a conclusion about statistical significance by examining a confidence interval. For example, if a 95% confidence interval does not contain the null value (e.g., zero when analyzing a mean difference or risk difference, one when analyzing relative risks or odds ratios), then one can conclude that a two-sided test of hypothesis would reject the null at α=0.05. It is important to note that the correspondence between a confidence interval and test of hypothesis relates to a two-sided test and that the confidence level corresponds to a specific level of significance (e.g., 95% to α=0.05, 90% to α=0.10 and so on). The exact significance of the test, the p-value, can only be determined using the hypothesis testing approach and the p-value provides an assessment of the strength of the evidence and not an estimate of the effect.

Answers to Selected Problems

Dental services problem - bottom of page 5.

Step 1: Set up hypotheses and determine the level of significance.

α=0.05

Step 2: Select the appropriate test statistic.

First, determine whether the sample size is adequate.

Therefore the sample size is adequate, and we can use the following formula:

Step 3: Set up the decision rule.

Reject H0 if Z is less than or equal to -1.96 or if Z is greater than or equal to 1.96.

Step 4: Compute the test statistic
Step 5: Conclusion.

We reject the null hypothesis because -6.15<-1.96. Therefore there is a statistically significant difference in the proportion of children in Boston using dental services compated to the national proportion.

Contact Lists
News & Events
Collaboration

The role of supercomputers and servers in managing new waves of digital health technologies

In spite of all scientific advancements, health sector continues to be one of the messiest, inefficient, and expensive areas in the world. The uncertainty, inadequate measures, and decisions prone to human error bemoans doom dearly, and radical changes like using supercomputer in the digital health sector are essential to keep it at pace with today’s fast changing world.

Supercomputers and servers are playing a significant role in managing the new waves of digital health technologies. With the advent of a more rapid computing system, machine learning and computer science have taken a monumental leap over past two decades with an increased data access and novel analytical approaches. Interpretation of big, complex and unstructured data is now possible through supercomputers, and it allows processing of big data in medical science.

Recognition of complex disease and health pattern may help us all receive faster and better medical. Biomarker data from RNA/DNA analysis allows us to predict disorders way before its onset. However, the large data it encodes requires equally developed supercomputers to process and analyze using faster algorithms. The biomarkers and metabolic data analysis also provide valuable hints for oncological studies (for example, we can predict breast cancer in advance) and predict genetic disorders (congenital or recessive). It also helps to assist doctors for evidence-based diagnosis (which saves up time from manual data crunching and lowers the cost of medical facilities). The data from clinical trials, patients, experimental lab notes (which helps to redo and verify the preliminary results again), toxicology reports are used for predictive analysis using parallel computing and better servers.

The Radiology and Nuclear medicine department face massive challenges regarding extensive clinical data generated and accumulated. Without compromising quality, supercomputers are the only way we can pave the way for big data analysis required for this function.

Before we begin, let’s take a brief glimpse into types of data-structured and unstructured.

Medical data are often unstructured. By that, we mean it is without proper tabulation, and therefore cannot be put into clinical use by a simple algorithm. The deep learning algorithms have enabled scientists to tabulate data into usable form, which can help to diagnose faster and better. Automating labor-intensive process using ultra-fast processors equipped in supercomputers allow a reduction in time consumption, also, to rise in accuracy and reach of medical facilities and better tracking. Parallel programming and data transfer possible through supercomputers and fast servers allow simulations carried out in astonishing speed quickening up the drug discovery process which requires multiple tests, data gathering and reorganization.

Take, for example, IBM Watson. Oncologists spend day and night fighting relentlessly against this widespread terror called cancer. However, they are developing new methods to combat this disease. Cancer genomics is a highly complex biological science – and it’s a science that is advancing extremely rapidly. The core of cancer biology lies in bioinformatics-which, in turn, depends on massive data analysis.

With nearly 8000 papers published every day, it is possible to miss essential data relevant to a particular cancer research. Watson is tireless, and it can keep up with the enormous amount of data pouring through experiments and clinical trials throughout the world. Also, it’s not just one-disorder targeted. The system allows for multiple diagnoses, which cuts down time and expenditure by tenfold. Also, servers make cloud computing and sharing easy and accessible, which drive forward research in various parts of the world.

Usage of the algorithm also removes the bias induced due to human judgment. Supercomputers, with their tremendous analytic speed, can observe the previously unseen pattern and connections which can help in generation of new hypothesis and original analysis for preventive measures against diseases and disorders.

Telecompanies like Boston-based American Well to San Francisco start-up Doctor On Demand literally bring healthcare to your doorstep. You can immediately consult doctor or consultant through phone or video app, which is better served from a better server. Your vital signs can be taken with the help of medical devices directly uploading your data online, making diagnosis easier without a visit. One New York startup, Nomad Health, pairs doctors with hospitals in need of physicians in three specialties—internal medicine, emergency medicine, and psychiatry.

Ride-sharing giants Uber and Lyft have started new programs like Circulation (by Uber), which integrates medical records into Uber’s API so that nurses, caregivers, and hospital transportation coordinators can more easily schedule rides for patients and accommodate their needs. A better data sharing platform has made this possible.

And what about AI and deep learning that could help doctors figure out a patient’s disease simply by analyzing a face—no scans or testing required? Boston-based startup FDNA is trying to achieve exactly that with its Face2Gene platform. The firm has put together a photo database of people with more than 2,000 rare genetic diseases. Doctors can snap pictures of their patients and upload them to FDNA’s mobile app, which then spits out a list of disorders they might have by analyzing important facial features associated with those conditions (the tech is not a diagnostic tool, but rather a way to narrow down the list of possible genetic suspects). And the company hopes the system can drastically improve the “diagnostic journeys” that those with rare diseases typically face: Such patients, on average, are seen by seven doctors before the correct diagnosis is made. Again, cloud computing and supercomputers had largely contributed in this arena by speeding up the process and find out patterns (easily ignored or unnoticed earlier).

AI using supercomputers have also accelerated natural screening process for drug discovery, and hopefully, shortly, the entire health sector shall revolutionize by digitalization.

Image credit: www.istockphoto.com

https://www.baselarea.swiss/baselarea-swiss/channels/innovation-events/2017/04/day-one-experts-how-ai-is-changing-healthcare-from-rd-to-healthcare-delivery.html
https://www.ibm.com/blogs/watson-health/60-minutes-watson-accelerates-precision-oncology/
https://www.ibm.com/watson/health/oncology-and-genomics/genomics/
https://www.ibm.com/watson/health/life-sciences/drug-discovery/
https://www.ibm.com/watson/health/government/social-program-management/
https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/blog/taskforce-take-health-and-digital-policies-further
http://fortune.com/2017/04/20/digital-health-revolution/

Samsung LABGEO IB10 – Lab in the pocket

A product review It’s a long way and even bored to think about diagnostics. Standing in queues, providing blood...

Now print your hand | 3D printed prosthetics

Imagine, losing a limb in an accident and not being able to do simplest of the works. Thankfully, 3D...

Now robots want to be your nurse and friend | AI: A cultural perspective

Robotic health and associated AI has been in the news for a long time. Robots have been designed to...

Can a mobile app cure depression? New AI apps will surprise you!

Mobile app cure depression There has been a ton of research and experimentation done to attempt and understand mental...

Artificial intelligence discovers new drugs | AI for drug discovery

AI for drug discovery Artificial Intelligence has taken this world by storm, and medicine is no alien to the...

Amazon’s Alexa in healthcare | Your caretaker and friend

Amazon’s Alexa in healthcare When anyone is suffering from a health problem, they will go to a hospital. But...

Ambient Assisted Living – a technological revolution for better senior living

The United Nations’ (UN) Department of Economic and Social Affairs (EC-ESA) forecasts that by 2050, the population of older...

Apple’s secret work on diabetes sensors

Headquartered in Cupertino, California, Apple is American technology company that was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald...

For latest Health IT news, partnerships & Events

Digital health categories.

News & Events
February 2019
January 2019
December 2018
November 2018
October 2018
September 2018
August 2018
February 2018
January 2018
December 2017
November 2017
October 2017
September 2017
August 2017

Dr. Hempel Network

Quick links.

Press Releases

Dr. Hempel Digital Health Network is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon.com.

Awards& Recognition

A hypothesis test is a procedure used in statistics to assess whether a particular viewpoint is likely to be true. They follow a strict protocol, and they generate a 'p-value', on the basis of which a decision is made about the truth of the hypothesis under investigation.All of the routine statistical 'tests' used in research—t-tests, χ 2 tests, Mann-Whitney tests, etc.—are all ...

HYPOTHESIS TESTING. A clinical trial begins with an assumption or belief, and then proceeds to either prove or disprove this assumption. In statistical terms, this belief or assumption is known as a hypothesis. Counterintuitively, what the researcher believes in (or is trying to prove) is called the "alternate" hypothesis, and the opposite ...

Table of contents. Step 1: State your null and alternate hypothesis. Step 2: Collect data. Step 3: Perform a statistical test. Step 4: Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis. Step 5: Present your findings. Other interesting articles. Frequently asked questions about hypothesis testing.

Introduction. This module will continue the discussion of hypothesis testing, where a specific statement or hypothesis is generated about a population parameter, and sample statistics are used to assess the likelihood that the hypothesis is true. The hypothesis is based on available information and the investigator's belief about the population ...

Boston University School of Public Health. Introduction. This module will continue the discussion of hypothesis testing, where a specific statement or hypothesis is generated about a population parameter, and sample statistics are used to assess the likelihood that the hypothesis is true. The hypothesis is based on available information and the ...

Hypothesis testing (or the determination of statistical significance) remains the dominant approach to evaluating the role of random error, despite the many critiques of its inadequacy over the last two decades. Although it does not have as strong a grip among epidemiologists, it is generally used without exception in other fields of health ...

The relationship between the confidence level and the significance level for a hypothesis test is as follows: Confidence level = 1 - Significance level (alpha) For example, if your significance level is 0.05, the equivalent confidence level is 95%. Both of the following conditions represent statistically significant results: The P-value in a ...

23.1 How Hypothesis Tests Are Reported in the News 1. Determine the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. 2. Collect and summarize the data into a test statistic. 3. Use the test statistic to determine the p-value. 4. The result is statistically significant if the p-value is less than or equal to the level of significance.

The present paper attempts to put the P value in proper perspective by explaining different types of probabilities, their role in clinical decision making, medical research and hypothesis testing. Keywords: Hypothesis testing, P value, Probability. The clinician who wishes to remain abreast with the results of medical research needs to develop ...

Mean Population IQ: 100. Step 1: Using the value of the mean population IQ, we establish the null hypothesis as 100. Step 2: State that the alternative hypothesis is greater than 100. Step 3: State the alpha level as 0.05 or 5%. Step 4: Find the rejection region area (given by your alpha level above) from the z-table.

An example of a typical hypothesis test (two-tailed) where "p" is some parameter. First, we state our two kinds of hypothesis:. Null hypothesis (H0): The "status quo" or "known/accepted fact".States that there is no statistical significance between two variables and is usually what we are looking to disprove.

6.6 - Confidence Intervals & Hypothesis Testing. Confidence intervals and hypothesis tests are similar in that they are both inferential methods that rely on an approximated sampling distribution. Confidence intervals use data from a sample to estimate a population parameter. Hypothesis tests use data from a sample to test a specified hypothesis.

tests to reduce the burden of sexually transmitted infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2019; 19: 570-71. 2 US Department of Health and Human Services. The Belmont Report: ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. Report of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of

Two-sided hypothesis tests are dual to two-sided confidence intervals. A parameter value is in the (1-α)x100% confidence interval if-and-only-if the hypothesis test whose assumed value under the null hypothesis is that parameter value accepts the null at level α. The principle is called the duality of hypothesis testing and confidence ...

Here, we are wanting to check the hypothesis $H_0: p_0 = 0.7$. To do this, we will use binom.test() with the arguments: x - the number of "successes" we observed; n - the total number of observations; p - our hypothesized proportion; The function will print out a litany of useful information. binom.test(x = 31, n = 39, p = 0.7)

To test the hypothesis, a sample of 100 Americans are selected and their expenditures on health care and prescription drugs in 2005 are measured. The sample data are summarized as follows: n=100, x̄ =$3,190 and s=$890. Is there statistical evidence of a reduction in expenditures on health care and prescription drugs in 2005?

Researchers in family medicine and community health can follow specific steps to ensure a systematic and rigorous analysis. Keywords: Family Medicine, Community Health Services ... Fisher's ideas formed the basis of null hypothesis significance testing that sets a criterion for confidence or probability of an event. 4 Among his contributions ...

Campbell Essential Biology Chapter 1 Test. 5.0 (1 review) In what way (s) is the science of biology influencing and changing our culture? A) by helping us understand the relevance of evolution to human health. B) by revealing how mutations in genes can lead to disease. C) by providing new tools for forensic investigations.

Hypothesis testing is an important activity of empirical research and evidence-based medicine. A well worked up hypothesis is half the answer to the research question. ... Of course, from the public health point of view, even a 1% increase in psychosis incidence would be important. Thus the choice of the effect size is always somewhat arbitrary ...

Facebook icon

Student Life Essay in Nepali and English Languages

Hello Dear Students, we are going to share with you the Student Life Essay and the Importance of Student Life Essay in Nepali and English below.

Contents [Shorts]

Short Definitions of Student

Generally, students are called those who are in school, college, and university to fulfill their academic degrees as well as gather the knowledge in the respective field. But it is a narrow definition of a student. Students might be those who are in academic sectors and non-academic sectors to learn sometime new. More preciously, we are always students before die, because we learn many things daily from different sources.

300+ words Student Life Essay in English

Students are those people who study in various educational institutions for the purpose of acquiring education. At the same time, they learn many things and they develop physically and mentally and enjoy their childhood without any worries.

Student life is a very important time for everyone. During this time they learn about life as well as education in school and college. The first task of a student is to study. But most of the students are limited to book knowledge. We need to know book knowledge as well as other external things. A student should take participate in school and community events and programs, read newspapers, do creative work in your spare time, and help your parents with household works that you can.

The house is considered as the first school. So the older members of the family should try to develop good habits, inform them about health and try to remind them in a way that they can understand what to do and what not to do. They are like raw clay. Family members and teachers help them to take the right shape in their life. At the same time, we should also try to keep them away from the company of the wrong friends.

As they get older, they enter college after school. By this time, they have seen and experienced many things. Some students are working and studying, while others are focused only on their studies. Their main goal is to make their life successful by studying well.

Students are considered as the leaders of the future country. So they need to be given proper education, life skills, and training. A good student can go on to do good for society and the country. If we use the student life properly, we can reach the desirable of success soon.

Read Other Article: 50+ Nepali Essay Topics Lists

Student Life Essay in Nepali

Are you searching Student Life Essay in the Nepali Language? If yes, find below.

Importance of Student Life

Student life is an important part of every student. Almost in this period, it is decided either rock in life or ruin the life of a student. Besides, it is a time of choosing the right career options.

They started to learn many things from their schools, friends, teachers, parents, society, and even more from the internet. Sometimes they are unable to decide what is good and what is wrong for them. If they get the right guide, they will do well and if wrong, they will do like this. So student life is called raw mud which can be given any style.

3 thoughts on “ Student Life Essay in Nepali and English Languages ”

this helped me all lot

Thank you very much

Thank you for this essay ☺😊

essayhelp.pro

Coming soon.

Results for essay on my best friend translation from English to Nepali

Human contributions.

From professional translators, enterprises, web pages and freely available translation repositories.

Add a translation

essay on my best friend

Last Update: 2021-05-31 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay on friend

मित्रमा निबन्ध

Last Update: 2020-07-27 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

my best friend

मेरो घनिष्ठ मित्र

Last Update: 2018-12-11 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

composition on my best friend

मेरो सब भन्दा राम्रो साथी मा रचना

Last Update: 2020-04-21 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay on my self

Last Update: 2024-04-11 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay on my country

मेरो देश मा निबंध

Last Update: 2023-11-20 Usage Frequency: 5 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

best friend

सबै भन्दा राम्रो मित्र

Last Update: 2020-03-14 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay on my future goal

मेरो भविष्य लक्ष्य मा निबंध

Last Update: 2023-08-07 Usage Frequency: 7 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay on my favorite teacher

मेरो मनपर्ने शिक्षक मा निबन्ध

Last Update: 2024-04-19 Usage Frequency: 5 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

my best friend in nepali languages

नेपाली भाषामा मेरो सबैभन्दा मिल्ने साथी निबंध

Last Update: 2018-05-26 Usage Frequency: 3 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

i'm fell in love with my best friend

Last Update: 2023-09-25 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

my best friend essay in mepali languages

मपली भाषाहरूमा मेरो सबैभन्दा राम्रो साथी निबन्ध

Last Update: 2018-06-26 Usage Frequency: 3 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

best friends forever

सधैंभरि राम्रो मित्र

Last Update: 2022-03-25 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

super best friends mom

Last Update: 2018-09-14 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

Get a better translation with 7,727,989,638 human contributions

Users are now asking for help:.

essay on friends in nepali

Essay on friendship in nepali language.

essay analysis
essay examples
essay format
essay online
essay samples
essay template

Nepalese Culture

Core concepts.

Companionship
Interdependence
Dependability

Nepal is a landlocked, mountainous country located between India and Tibet. It is well known for the impressive Himalayan range and deep valleys that shape the landscape. Nepalis have a reputation for being dependable and resilient people who can withstand difficult conditions. This was recently exemplified in the stoic national response following the devastating earthquake of 2015. Nepalis often exhibit patience and calmness, and are generally not overly dramatic people. Their tolerance has enabled many different faiths and ethnicities to coexist quite harmoniously. Much of Nepal’s culture is deeply steeped in tradition and religion. However, new values and ideas are being introduced to the general population in light of a new democratic political order.

Nepalis are generally deeply loyal to their citizenship and culture. They are very proud that their country has never been colonised, seeing this as a key distinguishing fact between them and India. The Gurkhas (Nepali soldiers) continue to be highly admired for their role in this regard1. Nepalis understand the worth and beauty of their land. The culture is enigmatic with many religious customs, rituals, festivals, processions and local secrets. Yet, people also share a sense of sadness regarding the widespread poverty and mismanagement of their country. Indeed, poverty is an undeniable social issue. This, coupled with an unstable political situation, means the primary ambition of most Nepalis is generally to secure a stable future for their family.

Nepal is largely underdeveloped with limited social services and public infrastructure. There are very few urban centres outside of the capital city of Kathmandu. An estimated 83% of the population live in rural areas (2011). The geographical isolation that the mountains create has generally led many villages to be secluded from outside influence, meaning many have retained quite a distinct cultural identity. Tribal and nomadic practices continue in many places. The diversity of customs and values between regions means Nepal cannot be broadly generalised. However, typically it can be observed that the more remotely situated a community is, the more visibly traditional their cultural practices will be. Meanwhile, those regions with access to better education are likely to have diverged from some aspects of traditional social customs. Kathmandu in particular is becoming very outward looking, drawing influence from across the globe. Recent cosmopolitan transformation is visible in fashion as traditional Nepali attire is now usually only worn in rural areas.

Social Hierarchies

Nepali culture is quite hierarchical and there is significant stratification between the poorest and the most powerful of society. People mostly accept these differences in social status as the natural order and defer to those who are older or who they perceive to have a high reputation. However, a person’s status and background is not always immediately evident in Nepal. For example, one may find that a fruit seller has a degree in business. As it can be difficult to assume someone’s status from their appearance, Nepalis commonly ask about one’s age, profession, education and family background to determine the correct level of respect to be shown. Westerners often find that they are deferred to a lot and treated with high regard as (relatively speaking) they are considered to be very wealthy in Nepal. Land ownership is also a common measure of status. However, one’s family reputation and status ( ijat ) is generally thought to be more important than material wealth. People are not expected to be respected because of their money, but rather their virtue. There is also a preference shown towards those who are educated or speak English. This being said, many Nepalis are gradually becoming more materialistic and money focused.

The Nepali awareness of status is also heavily influenced by the Hindu caste system . Although often classified under one term, the ‘caste’ system actually represents multiple overlapping systems of stratification. The ‘ varna ’ system divides society into four broad categories (varna) that are sometimes described as clusters of castes. These are the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. Each varna is considered to indicate a different level of ‘purity’ – with the Brahmins being the holiest/purest in Hinduism. Within each varna, there are more specific ‘ thar ’ categories that specify the social community one is born into and are often referred to in terms of vocation/employment. They are allocated and stratified into the varna system depending on the person’s social status. For example, occupations considered ‘dirty’ – such as cleaning or handling cow leather – are situated within the lower varna class of Sudra.

One’s caste traditionally determined the person’s line of work, position in the social hierarchy and defined ideas of self-worth. Despite it becoming illegal to discriminate on the basis of caste in 1962, the influence of this social stratification has remained. Some Nepalis may socialise and marry within their caste while others may even ostracise those belonging to subordinate castes. For example, they may not accept offers of food from someone of a low caste, believing it to be ‘impure’. Nevertheless, as Nepal modernises, the social constraints of the caste system are fading. In Kathmandu, for instance, where castes mix on a daily basis, the concern regarding others’ castes is diminishing. The younger generation is also particularly liberal and open towards all castes. One of the main agendas of the incoming government has been to recognise all castes.

Ethnic Demographic

People’s social distinction, be it their caste or ethnicity , plays a big role in informing their personal identity in Nepal. For example, many Nepalis use the name of their ethnic group or caste as their surname. An individual’s ethnicity is different from their caste. While one’s caste is usually indicative of occupation and family status, ethnic groups commonly share a distinctive language, ancestral home, religious tradition or form of social organisation.

The government has identified between 50 and 60 Nepali ethnicities (2011). Many of these are indigenous to Nepal and have origins as the original inhabitants of a certain region (e.g. the Tharu and Tamang people). Other ethnicities in Nepal, while not native, are often historical inhabitants of the areas. Some of the biggest ethnicities are the Brahmin-Chhetri, Magars and Newars.

The ethnic makeup of Nepal reflects the historical migratory patterns into the country from the North and South. Broadly, the castes and ethnicities can be broken down into two main groups: Tibeto-Burmans and Indo-Aryans. This differentiation between the two is not so much socially distinctive, but often visible in hereditary features that suggest distant ancestry. Indo-Aryans typically have similar appearances to their Indian neighbours in the South, whilst Tibeto-Burmans generally resemble Mongol or Tibetan people. Indo-Aryans are more populous and have come to dominate Nepal socially, politically and economically, while Tibeto-Burmans traditionally inhabit the mountains at very high altitudes. However, with increasing urban and overseas migration, the geographic differentiation between ethnicities is reducing.

Nepalis with foreign ancestry may have retained certain cultural influences that relate to their ancestral background. For example, those from India commonly follow Hinduism, whilst Tibeto-Burmans are generally Buddhist. However, these labels purely serve as a helpful way to categorise the origins of Nepal's ethnic diversity and don’t necessarily reflect Nepali people’s personal identity. People are unlikely to describe themselves as ‘Tibeto-Burman’ or ‘Indo-Aryan’. Every individual ethnicity has developed a strong and distinctive cultural identity. They often share a common language, belief or form of social organisation unique to their ethnic group.

Collectivism

Nepali culture is very collectivistic. Families may combine their assets in order for all members to be economically secure, and close friends perform favours for one another on a regular basis. This interdependence has been largely driven by necessity, as the government cannot always be relied upon to provide support. Instead, Nepalis tend to be deeply reliant on and loyal to their family and social group. It’s common for people to forfeit their own aspirations for the betterment of their entire family unit. For example, one person may work in very difficult conditions whilst sending remittances back to others. In rural areas and at high altitudes especially, people depend on their community for survival, and basic assets are shared communally. Village elders are often the authority figures of these communities. Those who are urban, educated and internationally exposed may be more individualistic in their outlook. However, given the underdeveloped status of Nepal, economic independence is still difficult to attain.

Friendship and Company

Most friendships have a strong significance and substance to people in Nepal. They are approached quite earnestly and are not usually shallow relationships that come and go quickly. There is a sense of graciousness that comes with sharing in another’s company; people are constantly “humbled” to meet others, have a guest or gain a new friend. Once the growth of a friendship begins, so too does an expectation of loyalty and reliability. People often reach out to friends for personal favours and support and may expect to be granted certain privileges (such as job opportunities) on the basis of the relationship.

Generally, Nepalis feel most comfortable when they are accompanied in whatever they do. They love companionship and are known to strike up conversation for little reason other than to talk. This aspect of Nepali culture makes it feel very warm and inclusive. People rarely go anywhere alone ( eklai ), particularly women. Those who are travelling alone can expect to be questioned out of curiosity as to why; solo travellers are usually sent off with a blessing and so are accompanied by the wishes and prayers of their family.

Purity and Fatalism

A deep moral and ethical awareness is interlaced into daily life in Nepal. This is influenced by religious values and beliefs, as well as cultural ideas of purity. They are deeply entrenched and ritualised in people’s diet and personal practice. Almost any action, object, job or person can be categorised as particularly ‘pure’ or ‘impure’. Nepalis can be quite reserved in their behaviour, acting modestly in accord with what is considered to be appropriate behaviour within these cultural guidelines.

The fundamental importance religion holds in many Nepalis’ lives also influences their approach to problem solving. It is common for people to take a fatalistic attitude, assuming the cause of problems to be the result of a god or spirit’s work. For example, witches are sometimes thought to be the cause of bad luck. This fatalism does not necessarily mean people are passive, waiting for things to occur at the will of a god. Nepalis generally work very hard until the point that they can do no more – from there, “what will be will be”. However, misfortunes are often attributed to an individual’s behaviour; for instance, bad health is commonly perceived to result from bad karma. Therefore, Nepalis are known to be quite stoic and tolerant in difficult situations as this explanation of problems can make them feel as if they somewhat deserve to suffer.

_____________________

1 The Nepali military played a famous role in fighting the British off.2 See the statistics on the side of this page for a list of different ethnic groups in Nepal.

Get a downloadable PDF that you can share, print and read.

Develop diverse workforces, markets and communities with our new platform

_Multi DropDown
__Nepali Rashifal
__Today's Nepali Date
__Nepali Unicode
Model Questions
NEB CLASS 12

Nepali Essay Topics Lists | Nibandha Lekhan

Here I have put some Nepali essays (nibandha) which are frequently asked in exams:

Here are your tips to write an essay.

Here is the topic list of Nepali Essay :

1 नेपाल

2 मेरो देश

3 सगरमाथा

4 मेरो देश मेरो गौरव

5 नेपालको राष्ट्रिय झण्डा

6 नेपालको राष्ट्रिय जनवार

7 तिज

8 दशैँ

9 तिहार

10 होली

11 नेपाली चाडपर्वहरु

12 नेपालको सस्कृति

13 पुस्तकालय

14 गाउँले जीवन

15 सहरिया जीवन

16 शिक्षाको महत्व

17 मेरि आमा

18 मेरो बुबा

19 मेरो परिवार

20 मेरो मिल्ने साथी

21 मेरो विद्यालय

22 मेरो घर

23 मेरो गाउँ

24 पानीको महत्व

25 हाम्रो स्वास्थ्य

26 स्वास्थ्य नै धन हो

27 वाताबरण

28 विधार्थी जीवन

29 अनुशासन

30 विधार्थी जीवनमा अनुशासनको महत्व

31 भ्रष्टाचार

32 लोकतन्त्र

33 प्राविधिक शिक्षाको महत्व

34 विज्ञान र प्रबिधि

35 संचार प्रविधि

36 सरस्वती पुजा

37 गाईको बारेमा निबन्ध

38 कुकुर बारेमा निबन्ध

39 महिला हिंसा

40 मेरो जन्मस्थान

41 फूलबारी

42 इन्टरनेट

43 मोबाइल

44 टेलिभिजन

45 फुटवल

46 क्रिकेट

47 मेरो जीवनको लक्ष्य

48 नेपालको विकाशमा पर्यटनको महत्व

49 प्राकृतिक स्रोतहरु

50 मनपर्ने खेल

51 मनपर्ने खानेकुरा

52 नेपालको राजनीतिक अवस्था

53 वायु प्रदूषण

54 नेपालको भौगोलिक अवस्था

Also read: मेरो विद्यालय।

देशप्रतिको मेरो कर्तव्य निबन्ध | Mero Desh Pratiko Mero kartavya |

मेरो जीवनको लक्ष्य निबन्ध | Mero Jivan ko Lakshya Nibandha |

मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध | Mero Desh Nepal bare Nibandha |

IOE Entrance (44)
NEB Class 12 (25)
Nepali Nibandha (24)
Class 11 (21)
Model Questions (4)
Date converter
IOE Entrance
NEB Class 12
Nepali Date
Nepali Nibandha
Nepali Rashifal
Nepali Unicode

Random Posts

Footer Menu Widget

Ace the Himalaya

Trekking in Nepal, Peak Climbing, Mt Biking and Tours in Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet

Everest Base Camp Trek - 14 Days
EBC Trek with Helicopter Return - 12 Days
Everest Base Camp Luxury Trek - 14 Days
Everest Base Camp with Island Peak - 19 Days
Everest Three Passes Trek - 20 Days
Annapurna Base Camp Trek - 13 Days
Annapurna Circuit Trek - 19 Days
Ghorepani Poon Hill Trek - 9 Days
Manaslu Circuit Trek - 15 Days
Gokyo to Everest Base Camp Trek - 17 Days

Dashain and Tihar (Greatest Festivals of Nepalese)

Nepal is a country rich in culture and traditions. The varieties of festivals and occasions we celebrate carry their own significance. The main festivals of Nepalese are the Dashain and the Tihar which they choose to celebrate with their close friends, relatives and family.

Dashain “The Greatest Festival of Nepalese”

Among the festivals we celebrate, Dashain being the greatest one for Nepalese is always celebrated with the zeal and in joyful ways. It is celebrated almost for 15 days in the month of October; 1st, 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th days are the most important.

The 1st day is welcomed following the rituals of ‘Ghatsthapana’ by worshiping Goddess Durga for 9 consecutive days. The main day is called ‘Dashami’ which is also known as ‘Vijaya Dashami’, the day when Goddess Durga got victory over the demons. On this day the seniors of the family put ‘Tika’ and ‘Jamara’ giving blessings to their younger ones.

The special money given to the younger ones is received as ‘Dakchhina’. This day is like a family reunion where everyone enjoys with the varieties of food, playing cards, flying kites, etc. Dashain not only reunites the families and friends but it also gives the working people time to relax and enjoy with family.

Day 1 – Ghatasthapana: Invocation of Goddess Shailaputri:

Ghatasthapana marks the initiation of Dashain with the establishment of the sacred kalash (water-filled vessel). Goddess Shailaputri, the first manifestation of Goddess Durga, is worshipped on this day. She represents new beginnings and embodies the power of nature. Devotees seek her blessings for a prosperous and fruitful festival.

Day 2 – Dwitiya: Adoration of Goddess Brahmacharini:

On Dwitiya, Goddess Brahmacharini is revered. She symbolizes dedication, purity, and self-discipline. Worshipping her encourages devotees to embrace righteous paths and attain spiritual enlightenment.

Day 3 – Tritiya: Devotion to Goddess Chandraghanta:

Goddess Chandraghanta, worshipped on Tritiya, showcases her bravery and grace. Her half-moon-adorned forehead inspires courage. By honoring her, individuals seek protection from negativities and inner strength to overcome challenges.

Day 4 – Chaturthi: Reverence for Goddess Kushmanda:

Chaturthi is dedicated to Goddess Kushmanda, the creator of the universe. She radiates cosmic energy and blesses devotees with vitality and well-being. Her worship signifies the importance of energy and life force.

Day 5 – Panchami: Praise of Goddess Skandamata:

Goddess Skandamata, worshipped on Panchami, is the mother of Lord Skanda (Kartikeya). She represents motherly love and protection. Devotees seek her blessings for nurturing relationships and safeguarding their loved ones.

Day 6 – Shashthi: Reverence for Goddess Katyayani:

Goddess Katyayani, revered on Shashthi, epitomizes strength and courage. She is the warrior goddess who defeats evil forces. Worshipping her instills determination and the will to overcome adversities.

Day 7 – Saptami: Adoration of Goddess Kalaratri:

Goddess Kalaratri, worshipped on Saptami, embodies the fierce and destructive form of Durga. She annihilates darkness and negativity, paving the way for light and positivity in life. Her worship symbolizes the victory of good over evil.

Day 8 – Ashtami: Worship of Goddess Mahagauri:

On Ashtami, Goddess Mahagauri is venerated. She radiates purity and grace, signifying the triumph of righteousness. Her worship purifies the mind and soul, granting inner peace and spiritual growth.

Day 9 – Navami: Devotion to Goddess Siddhidatri:

Goddess Siddhidatri, worshipped on Navami, grants divine knowledge and spiritual enlightenment. She blesses devotees with achievements and accomplishments, both material and spiritual. Her worship symbolizes the culmination of the Navadurga manifestations.

Day 10 – Dashami (Vijaya Dashami): Celebration of Goddess Durga’s Victory:

Vijaya Dashami is the pinnacle of Dashain, honoring Goddess Durga’s victory over the demon Mahishasura. She represents the ultimate power of femininity and the vanquisher of evil forces. On this day, families come together to seek her blessings through the Tika and Jamara ceremony, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil.

Tihar “The Festival of Lights”

The festival usually falls in the month of October or November, celebrated for five days worshiping 4 different animals i.e. Kaag Tihar (Crow Tihar), Kukur Tihar (Dog Tihar), Gai Tihar (Cow Tihar)- the main day to worship the goddess of wealth, Laxmi, Goru Tihar (Ox Tihar) and the 5th day is celebrated as ‘ Bhaitika ’ which signifies and carries great importance for the love and concern between brothers and sisters.

The sisters put the seven colors Tika on the brother’s forehead and pray for their longer life and progress. Tihar always brings excitement and jolly mood in the families and friends; playing ‘Deusi-bhailo’ and trying the best to welcome goddess Laxmi, who is believed to bring the happiness and wealth in the life of everyone.

Related Blogs & Articles

Kathmandu Valley- A City of Myths

Shikali Jatra in Khokana

Dashain – Celebrating Victory of Good over Evil

Name This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged.

Trekking in Nepal

Climbing and expedition, cultural tour and sightseeing, cycling and mountain biking, luxury treks, luxury tours, multi country tours, voluntourism trips, extend your trip.

Everest Panorama Trek – 9 Days
EBC Trek with Helicopter Return – 12 Days
Everest Base Camp Trek – 14 Days
Gokyo Lake Trek – 13 Days
Gokyo and Renjo La Pass Trek – 14 Days
Everest Base Camp Trek without Lukla Flight – 17 Days
Gokyo to Everest Base Camp Trek – 17 Days
Everest Base Camp with Island Peak – 19 Days
Everest Three Passes Trek – 20 Days
Everest High Passes and Island Peak – 23 Days
Classical Everest Base Camp Trek – 21 Days
Langtang Valley Trek – 10 Days
Langtang Valley Ganja La Pass Trek – 14 Days
Langtang Helambu Trek – 17 Days
Ghorepani Poon Hill Trek – 9 Days
Mardi Himal Trek – 10 Days
Annapurna Base Camp Trek – 13 Days
Himalayan Highlights – 13 Days
Nar Phu Valley Trek with Annapurna Circuit – 18 Days
Annapurna Circuit Trek – 19 Days
Tilicho Lake Trek With Thorong La Pass – 19 Days
Khopra Danda Trek – 11 Days
Shivapuri-Chisapani Trek – 4 Days
Upper Mustang Trek (Drive & Trek) – 16 Days
Tsum Valley Trek – 16 Days
Manaslu Circuit Trek – 15 Days
Dhaulagiri Circuit Trek – 21 Days
Upper Dolpo Trek – 25 Days
Kanchenjunga Base Camp Trek – 29 Days
Yala Peak Climbing – 13 Days
Island Peak Climbing – 15 Days
Mera Peak Climbing – 19 Days
Everest Base Camp and Lobuche East – 18 Days
Tent Peak Climbing with Annapurna Base Camp – 18 Days
Pisang Peak and Thorung La Pass – 21 Days
Ama Dablam Expedition – 29 Days
Kathmandu Cultural Heritage Tour – 3 Days
Kathmandu Heritage – 3 Days
Inheritances of Kathmandu – 4 Days
Glimpses of Kathmandu & Nagarkot – 5 Days
Kathmandu and Pokhara Unveiled – 5 Days
Explore Kathmandu – 6 Days
Glimpse of Nepal – 8 Days
Nepal Heritage Tour – 10 Days
Nepal Adventure Tour – 11 Days
Nepal Multi Sports Adventure – 11 Days
Nepal Vista – 10 Days
Nepal Highlights – 14 Days
Experience Nepal – 15 Days
One Day Biking Trip – Kathmandu – 1 Day
Annapurna Circuit Biking – 14 Days
Upper Mustang Biking – 16 Days
Kathmandu Valley Rim Biking – 8 Days
Annapurna in Luxury – 9 Days
VVIP Everest Base Camp Trek – 10 Days
Everest View Luxury Trek – 11 Days
Everest Base Camp Luxury Trek – 14 Days
Everest Base Camp Deluxe Trek – 16 Days
Mt Everest Base Camp to Gokyo Trek – 19 Days
Kathmandu Luxury Tour – 3 Days
Kathmandu and Pokhara Luxury Tour – 5 Days
Nepal Multi Sport Luxury Adventure – 11 Days
Best of Nepal – 14 Days
Trishuli River Rafting – 1 Day
Everest Base Camp Helicopter Tour – 1 Day
Everest Base Camp Heli Tour with Gokyo Extension – 1 Day
Langtang Heli Sightseeing – 1 Day
Pokhara and Annapurna Heli Sightseeing – 1 Day
Paragliding in Nepal (Pokhara) – 1 Day
Scenic Mountain Flight (Everest Flight) – 1 Day
Ultra Light Flight – 1 Day
Jamacho Day Hike-One day hiking trip – 1 Day
Kathmandu Uncovered with Nagarkot – 1 Day
Day Tour to UNESCO Heritage Sites – 1 Day
Nepal and Tibet – 15 Days
Nepal and Bhutan – 15 Days
India, Nepal and Bhutan – 19 Days
Nepal, Tibet and Bhutan – 20 Days
Arupokhari School Volunteer Program – 14 Days
Rebuild Home Volunteer Program – 9 Days
Bardiya Jungle Safari – 4 Days
Chitwan Jungle Safari – 3 Days

Trekking in Bhutan

Festival tours, motorcycling.

Druk Path Trek – 8 Days
Chomalhari Trek – 12 Days
Laya Ghasa Trek – 18 Days
Bhutan Vistas Tour – 5 Days
Cultural Heartland Tour – 10 Days
Hidden Valley – 11 Days
Bhutan Multi Sports Tour – 11 Days
Paro Tshechu Festival – 8 Days
Punakha Tsechu – 9 Days
Trongsa Lhuntse Tshechu – 9 Days
Bumthang Tangbi – 11 Days
Bhutan Ura Yakchoe – 12 Days
Tamshingphala Choepa – 12 Days
Mongar and Trashigang – 16 Days
Bhutan Biking – 8 Days
Bhutan Motorcycle Tour – 12 Days

Trekking in Tibet

Tibet Advance Everest Base Camp – 21 Days
Cho Oyu Expedition – 45 Days
Shishapangma Expedition – 47 Days
Everest Expedition via North Side – 63 Days
Kathmandu and Lhasa Tour – 7 Days
Tibet Heritage Tour – 8 Days
Overland Tour to Everest Base Camp – 10 Days
Mount Kailash Mansarovar Lake Tour – 15 Days
Everest Base Camp Biking Tour – 21 Days
WishesinEnglish
Birthday Wishes
Hindi Wishes Shayari
Nepali Wishes Shayari
Write for us
April Fools Day 2024

Essay on Nepal – My Country My Pride For Kids & Students Of Schools and Colleges

Nepal is amazingly beautiful. The unmatched beauty of the majestic Himalayas fills the visitors with great awe. Not only the natural beauty but the romantic, spiritual and omnipresent spirituality capture tourists and provide Nepal with a magical atmosphere that makes it a special and unique travel destination.

In this article, we will present some of the essays on Nepal for you and your friends. We’ll mention some popular facts, information, and attractive places in the Nepal essay. After reading this article you should have a clear idea about the essay about Nepal. Here are some of the top selected essays on Nepal.

Essay about nepal: my country my pride [500 words].

My country Nepal is situated between two large countries China and India. According to the census of 2011 A.D., 26,494,504 people living in my country.

The area of Nepal is 147,181 SQ.K.M. the density of population in urban regions is higher than in rural regions. Similarly, valleys and plains are more densely populated than the hilly region.

The national flag of Nepal is unique to them all. It is the only flag in the world that is not rectangular. The flag is crimson red which signifies the rhododendron which is the national flower of Nepal. The border is blue which signifies peace and harmony.

Until 1962, the flag’s emblems, the sun, and the crescent moon had human faces which signify the unity of the country. The national flower and bird, rhododendron and Danfe respectively, the flag was a plumed crown worn by the kings and crossed Kukhris carried by the Gurkhas for their bravery. Nepal followed a monarchy system until the people movement in 2063 BS.

Nepal is an agro-based country. About 80 percent of the people depend on agriculture. Some of the educated people are employed in other sectors such as teaching, office work, business, etc.

Although people belong to various social groups and religions, the real practice of ‘unity is diversity. Most of the people in Nepal followed the Hindu religion but people enjoy a right to other religions too.

People speak different languages and enjoy different modes of culture and traditions. In Nepal people respect each other’s religion and culture as well.

It is said that ‘Hario ban Nepal ko Dhan’. Nepal seems to be beautiful because of the green forest. In the forest, there are wild animals. Many tourists come to watch them which helps to increase the foreign currency.

A Lady Traveller is travelling Nepal himalayas

Nepal is famous for its natural beauty and gifts. Although Nepal is landlocked, people from foreign countries are fond of visiting in Nepal. Nepal is famous for its mountains, rivers, lakes, etc.

The highest mountain peak in the world, Mt. Everest , lies in Nepal. Many tourists visit her every year. Through tourism, Nepal can earn foreign currency which can be used for development. Nepal is rich in water resources.

Many rivers flow from high mountains twisting and turning around the hills and moving through Terai. Many brooks and streams serve people in many ways. They are advantageous for irrigation, transportation, rafting, running hydroelectricity projects, and so on.

The most amazing fact about Nepal is that it does not greet another person with a handshake or a hello, it rather joins their hand and says Namaste which means I respect you as a person.

Nepal is the neighboring country of India, thus Indians do the same when they meet one another. Another amazing fact about Nepal is related to food. If you ever come to Nepal as a tourist, you must try the famous food called ‘ momo ’. It is a delicious dumpling made from flour and water filled with meat filling.

And how can we ever forget the birthplace of Lord Buddha? Lord Buddha was born in Lumbini in 500BC. It is a founder of the religion Buddhism which covers 9% of the total population.

He had four noble truths about pain and sorrow. Also, he had eight right paths about how to live a proper life. He is still regarded as the one who found peace and how the world then has become.

Nepal is developing a country. About 70 percent of the people are literate. The farmers are provided with the facilities of irrigation, modern fertilizers, improved seeds, and a modern method of farming. The facilities of electricity health care and other facilities are also increasing.

I feel proud to be a citizen of Nepal. We, Nepali people, respect each other. I do feel most of the people love the nation. We feel that mother and motherland are the same. I do hope that our country Nepal will be the most famous in the world.

This Essay on Nepal – My Nation My Pride is written by Susan Basel

Essay on Nepal – My Nation My Pride [1000 words]

My nation, Nepal, is extremely a heaven. The main imperfection is that it has no ocean to get to; it’s a landlocked nation. I adore my nation more than anything else on the planet.

What has my nation not got? It is one of the most extravagant nations on the planet in bio-assorted variety; hydropower or water assets; arrival structure and the amicable idea of individuals and their customs and culture.

My nation, Nepal has numerous activities and numerous things to see. Drifting, boating, mountaineering, paragliding, bouncing, and trekking are regular things to see, as well. Mountains, lakes, national parks , streams, and old structures are ladies’ viewing.

Even though an incredible number of the general population are under destitution line and uneducated; they are sufficiently cognizant to safeguard their traditions and societies.

They are politically mindful, as well. My nation’s present need is instructive and financial advancement, and vote-based standards and qualities. I cherish my nation.

I was conceived for it and I’ll bite the dust for it. In general, Nepal is such a land of mine where I can live cheerfully.

It is the guests ‘heaven where nature is alive. It is such s put a reality where its single touch revives everybody.

Nepal lies in the southern piece of Asia between China and India. It is a landlocked nation. It has a territory of 1,47,181 square km. The capital city is Kathmandu . Nepal can be partitioned into three natural zones.

The Himalayan districts, the Hilly area, and the Terai locale. The Himalayan locale covers 15% of the land region, the Hilly district has 68% and the Terai district has 17% of the land territory.

Nepal’s standard time is 5 hours and 45 minutes quicker than the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), which is London time. Nepal is separated into 5 advancement locales, 14 zones, and 77 district areas. Nepal has almost 25 million of the populace.

Nepal is wealthy in regular assorted variety. It has numerous types of plants and creatures. Nepal is additionally reached in hydro control. It has numerous great waterways like Koshi, Gandaki, and Karnali.

Nepal is a heaven for vacationers. They can do numerous things like trekking, boating, and mountaineering.

In this way, enterprises in light of tourism ought to be built up here with the goal that each Nepali gets utilized. In addition, Nepal will turn into the goal of the voyagers.

Nepal is honored with one of the most extravagant societies on the planet. The announcement holds especially valid if there should arise an occurrence in Nepal where each part of life, sustenance, dress , and even occupations are socially guided.

The way of life of Nepal incorporates the codes of conduct, dress, dialect, customs, standards of conduct, and frameworks of conviction.

The way of life of Nepal is an exceptional blend of custom and curiosity. The conventions are taken after as they were and new traditions are made to keep pace with the evolving times. Culture in Nepal is a gathering of music, design, religion, and writing.

The mountain kingdom of Nepal is multi-ethnic and multi-lingual. The land is rich with special social gatherings like Tharu, Yadav, Ahir, Newars, and others.

Nepalese are among the most accommodating hosts. This is the explanation behind why travelers from distant locations abroad appreciate coming to Nepal over and over.

Nearby Nepalese are for the most part country individuals who welcome the visitors to their homes for tea, espresso, or dinner. Nepalese are socially warm, cordial, and tender hosts who put their hearts over their heads.

Nepalese model with newari traditional dress

Party is the equivalent word in the Nepalese Culture. For the Nepalese, celebrations are not just the early scenes, but rather additionally are a living piece of their rich social legacy.

Celebrations viably tie together the Nepalese individuals of various social foundations and convictions into one country. Most Nepalese celebrations are identified with various Hindu and Buddhist divinities. They are commended on days sanctified for them by religion and convention

Nepal is regarded as a standout amongst the most extreme social orders on the planet. The declaration holds particularly substantial if there ought to emerge an event in Nepal where each piece of life, sustenance, dress, and even occupation are socially guided.

The lifestyle of Nepal consolidates the sets of accepted rules, dress, lingo, traditions, norms of direction, and structures of conviction.

Better than average to Know that the lifestyle of Nepal is a remarkable mix of custom and interest. The traditions are taken after as they were and new conventions are made to keep pace with the developing circumstances.

The gathering is the proportional word to the Nepalese Culture. For the Nepalese, festivals are not only yearly scenes but instead moreover are a living bit of their rich social heritage. Festivities suitably integrate the Nepalese people of different social establishments and feelings into one nation.

Most Nepalese festivals are related to different Hindu and Buddhist divinities. They are praised on days blessed for them by religion and tradition.

Tihar : This celebration of lights that falls between October/November is the second greatest celebration after Dashain . This celebration goes on for five days and individuals venerate Laxmi – the Goddess of Wealth.

Every one of the houses is cleaned and beautified with the conviction that Goddess Laxmi will go into the house that is the cleanest and individuals lit candles, oil lights, and different lights and the entire place looks enlightening.

Amid the five days, crows, canines, and bovines are revered and regarded with vermilion, wreath, and heavenly sustenance for what they have done in the lives of people.

Crows are viewed as the flag-bearers that brought news notwithstanding amid the circumstances when there were no postmen and no postal administrations. Pooches are the most devoted creatures and they protect our home as obvious gatekeepers.

Dairy animals are additionally an image of riches in Hinduism and she is likewise the rational creature of Nepal. Amid Tihar, the Newari people group in Nepal additionally watches Mha puja – a custom of loving one’s own body and life.

On this very day, the Newari New Year which is otherwise called Nepal Sambat starts. The celebration closes with Bhai Tika – siblings’ day when his sisters adore him for his long and sound life to shield the lives of his sisters. This is additionally a betting time in Nepal as betting isn’t unlawful during this celebration.

This Long Essay on Nepal, My Nation My Pride is written by Abhishek Raj Jha

Essay on Nepal MY COUNTRY MY PRIDE [1500 words]

Mother and country are more prominent than paradise. It is a genuine proclamation. We are born in this nation that is brimming with characteristic delights.

We are exceptionally nationalist. We adore the country more than our soul. Nation resembles a paradise for me. My nation’s name is Nepal. It is gotten from two supernatural words ‘Ne’ and ‘Pala’.

The word Nepal implies a nation of peace and love. This is where Master Gautama Buddha ‘ the light of Asia’ was born. This is a nation of Bir Gorkhalies. The most noteworthy crest on the planet Mt. Everest is situated in a nation that makes a nation the best.

There are numerous mountains in my nation along these lines it is called a precipitous nation. Numerous waterways spill out of the mountain to the slopes and plain place where there is Terai.

My nation Nepal is isolated into three geological districts and seven advancement areas called provinces. Nation national bloom is the rhododendron, the national fowl is Daphne, the national color is a smirk and the national weapon is khukuri.

My nation Nepal is little on the planet outline, but for me, my nation whether it is little or enormous is a world. Numerous national identities are born in nation life: Prithivi Narayan Shah, Bahadur Shah, Rajendra Laxmi, etc. The history of the nation Nepal is great.

Every one of the pages of history is loaded with the hot and red blood of national legends. My nation Nepal is the Yam between two major stones. I mean it is between the two greatest nations India and China. Nation Nepal is separated into numerous ethnic gatherings.

The nation is multi-rank, multi-culture, multi-convention, and multi-religious. They are of various positions yet they are living in ‘solidarity of assorted variety’ without battling for the sake of culture, religion, rank, and so forth. They are living in a tranquil condition.

People of diverse religions and beliefs are the dominant features of my country’s society. Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity are the major religions that are practiced in my country.

People have a sense of unity, though living in diversity. Mostly, Brahmins and Chhetris are regarded as Hindu believers and people from the Mongoloid community are taken as Buddhist devotees, but they have good respect for each other in the course of cultural exchange.

A Hindu has a distinct tradition of sacrificing animals to the goddess because they are the symbol of having ferocious power and need the blood of a living being to be satisfied. Lord Shiva is considered to be the supreme God in Hinduism.

The way of life in my country is a collection of music, engineering, religion, and writing. Our mountain kingdom is multi-ethnic and multi-lingual. The land is rich with interesting social gatherings like Tharu, Yadav, Ahir, Newars, and others.

Culture is inserted in the high pinnacles of our country, convention streams with its waterways, workmanship crosses through its valleys and religion lies in the core of its kin. Our country is a place where craftsmanship, culture, and religion are a piece of the life of the occupants. Individuals praise each minute with the smell, adding curiosity to the customs without influencing their quintessence.

Further, the craftsmanship and engineering of my country are profoundly impacted by religion. Exceptional craftsmanship can be found in sanctuaries, engineering, sanctums, wellsprings, and the outline of religious articles.

Craftsmanship and religion are so profoundly interlocked that it is difficult to isolate one from the other. All artistic expressions express both Hindu and Buddhist iconography.

Along the line of culture, we Nepalese have our unique way of celebrating festivals, It is a blend of multilingual and multicultural measurement.

More than 60 ethnic gatherings have been recorded and numerous are as yet investigated, who are prosperous with their dialect, ensembles, and conventions.

They have their remarkable celebrations of festivity. In my country, individuals praise national celebrations and nearby reasonable for the entire year in various months.

MagheSakranti is praised in January, on the principal day of Magh as indicated by the Nepali timetable. Individuals eat different dishes of heavenly nourishment such as ghee, laddoo and Chaku, and sweet potatoes. Hitched little girls go to their folks to join the joy.

Fagupurnima is a beautiful celebration, celebrated amid the long stretch of March on a full moon day. Individuals praise this celebration by tossing hues and water to each other. It is flawlessly celebrated in the Terai areas of Nepal.

MahaShivratri festivity is devoted to Lord Shiva, celebrated on the no-moon night by the Hindus by and large in March. A major reasonable held in the Pashupatinath territory by a huge number of Hindu aficionados. Sadhus paint their bodies with the fiery debris and love Shiva all through the entire night.

Ghodejatra is otherwise called a pony race festivity, for the most part, celebrated toward the finish of March (15 Chaitra). It is a breathtaking festival at Tundikhel by amassing the ponies of police and armed force. Ordinarily, the visitors are the senior government authorities and high personnel.

Gai Jatra is held in August, particularly celebrated inside the Kathmandu Valley. The members are from those families who have lost they’re any of their relatives or closest ones.

It was begun by King Pratap Malla to support his significant other, who was especially stunned by the passing of a child. It demonstrated that it isn’t just an illustrious family who lost their dearest one yet, in addition, to numerous families.

The Indra Jatra is praised to pay tribute to the lord of rain Indra, in August for eight days. It is commended by a mass of individuals pulling the chariot.

Buddha Jayanti is the festival of Lord Buddha’s birthday. Buddhist and Hindu fans walk rallies and visit Buddhist Stupas and attempt to spread the message of peace on the planet.

Losar is Tibetan New Year. Individuals commend it for a few days on singing, moving, and eating delectable substances. Tibetans accumulate around the Stupa with their outfits.

Chhath is a festival by venerating the rising and setting sun by sinking half of the body in the water. For the most part, it is commended in the Terai area by wedded ladies. They remain to fast amid the celebration and sing people melodies.

Teej is a celebration celebrated by Hindu ladies for three days. It regularly falls in August or early September. This celebration is commended to wish the long existence of the spouse.

Dashain is the longest celebration in Nepal, praised for15 days. It falls between September-October. The Hindu individuals adore goddess Durga for nine days and put on Tika and Jamara on the tenth day till the fifteenth day alongside the gift of the senior citizens.

Deepawali is known as the Tihar celebration celebrated for five days amid harvest time. It is the celebration of lights. On the fifth day, sisters put tika and wreaths on their siblings and sibling offered some sort of presents. It is known as the celebration, making a great connection between siblings and sisters.

Along the line of these festivals, the mood, beats, and bob of Nepali conventional people, and established music are sufficiently otherworldly to soothe you and sufficiently engaging to cheer you.

Music is related to each occasion in Nepal, at that point be it birth, marriage, celebrations, or national occasions. You will be surprised to find a piece of various unique music full of rhythm in every culture that is sufficient enough to blow your mind and demand the music for a long time.

If one moves away from our rich culture and diversity within it, if one can take one’s eye away from these, one will be surprised by the natural beauty my country possesses.

With top eight in the top ten 8000-meter high mountains in the world in its lap, my country shines every morning to make people over here smile with it.

Apart from these White Mountains, green mountains are all over the mountain region to make one sparkle within yourself with its astonishing beauty.

Within these green mountains, we have a large landscape of forest where one will be able to find the scenario of 500 various types of butterflies and 600 types of the indigenous plant family.

My country, Nepal is an overall package of beauty, diversity, history, and on top of that unity among people. I am certainly proud to be a part of this beautiful creation.

This Short Essay on Nepal, My Nation My Pride is well written by Hari Adhikari.

Essay on Nepal – Our country, our pride [200 words]

There is a widely famous statement that “Mother and motherland are greater than heaven.” This quote is so true without any doubt. We are born in a country that is filled with natural beauty.

The feeling of patriotism flows in the blood of every Nepalese citizen. We love the nation more than our soul. Our country is like heaven for us. Our country’s name is Nepal.

The word Nepal signifies a country of peace and love. Nepal is a country where Lord Gautam Buddha also known as the ‘light of Asia’ was born. Nepal is a country of Bir Gorkhali soldiers. The highest peak in the world i.e. Mt. Everest is located in our country Nepal.

There are various mountains in our country therefore Nepal is also globally known as a mountainous country. Our country Nepal is divided into three geographical regions and five development regions.

The national flower of Nepal is the rhododendron, the national bird is Daphne, the national color is the smirk and the national weapon is khukuri. Our country Nepal is very small on the world map but for us, whether it is small or big it is the world.

Nepalese can see the whole world in their homeland. Many national personalities are born in our country. For instance Prithvi Narayan Shah, Bahadur Shah, Rajendra Laxmi, and so on.

The history of the country Nepal is very powerful. All the pages of the past are crammed with hot as well as pure dark red blood of our national heroes. Our country Nepal is the Yam between two big stones.

This means Nepal lies in the middle of two leading countries i.e. India and China. Country Nepal is divided into many ethnic groups. The country is multi-caste, multi-culture, multi-tradition, and multi-religious.

Nepalese are living in a very peaceful environment. Nepal is loved by many tourists numbers of tourists is increasing day by day. Tourists are attracted by countries by which country can move ahead in their economic status.

Foreign currency which tourists left in the country helps to make the country more developed. We, Nepalese people, do not need big buildings, expensive things, etc. We are happy by the smell of rhododendron.

We are happy with the natural beauties which are located in the country. We all are well known for the saying, “Hario ban Nepal ko Dhan”. It is true as every green forest in Nepal is wealth for our country.

More than 80% of the total population of the whole country depends upon agriculture therefore country can be said as an agricultural country also. Many rivers, green forests, mountains, lakes, etc. make the country at the top.

Our country Nepal is heaven for us. Our country which is full of natural beauty is everything for me that I want. We all Nepalese are ready to sacrifice souls to our country Nepal. We feel very proud to be Nepali. Thus, we say that our country is a pride for us. We feel proud to say that we are Nepali.

By Saugat Thapa

Essay on Nepal – My Country My Pride (Essay in 300 words)

Nepal is known for its natural beauty in the world. There is no sea linked with this country but yet people like to see mountains, hills, forests, rivers, lakes and so many other things. Everyone knows Nepal as the country with the highest mountain in the world.

This is the only country where people have found innumerable kinds of birds which live in high mountains as well as in low Terai. Most people enjoyed mountain climbing, trekking, rafting in the rivers and lakes, and having a wonderful view of wild animals.

Mountains speak their beauty, golden view in the morning, the sun playing in those regions. Bright red light can be observed in the west on the horizon at the sunset. Probably the sun looks playing with young people of the land.

Rivers flow from the high mountains twisting and turning around the hills and through the Terai and reaching the other’s land. The murmuring brooks (rivers) refresh the human heart and mind. Sals, pines, and other trees where rhododendrons smile in full bloom. Leaves and branches move in the gentle breeze.

Lophophorus sing beautiful songs in higher flights. Lovely flowers bloom and. smile in rainbow colors. The cuckoo is seen sitting on branches and calling the spring with rapturous songs. Mechi, Koshi, and Karnali run far in distance carrying calls from Nepalese people for foreigners.

Mechi is in the east. Kali in the west making borders of the country. Mountains in the north and Terai in the south join with neighboring countries. Southern plain lands speak their own words. Green crops and harvest produce their delights. During the plow, planting, and harvesting one can enjoy the songs sung by the farmers.

Temples and pagodas ring the bells and gongs (large bells) to invite the foreigners. Wild animals living in the dense forest make a beautiful show for the people. Who will miss the beauties of Nepal? Who’ll not have the desire to see once the real beauty of Nature?

There are many websites where you can order to write an essay. Feel free to visit this website where you can get a custom essay and someone will write your essay about Nepal from scratch. CustomWritingPro is a good solution for students who need help writing essays online.

Searched Terms

Essay on Nepal, Short Essay on Nepal, Long Essay on Nepal, Paragram and Essay on Nepal, Essay+on+Nepal, Nepal+essay, top Essay on Nepal, etc.

The best places in china for families.

Top 5 Places To Visit in Montenegro

Ways To Improve Your Traveling Experience Through A Credit Card

21 Interesting Tips for Tourists Who Want to Visit Nepal During Summer Season

The Modern Traveler’s Guide to Ancient Wonders

Five Popular Trekking Routes in the Everest Region

51+ Nepali Essay Topics Lists | Nibandha Topics

Hello Dear Students, Are you searching for Nepali Essay Topics to write an essay and submit to your teacher? If so, you are in the right place. You can scroll below to list the Nepali Essay or Nibadha Topics Lists.

An essay can be short or long. It depends on the level of the student. A lower-level student is asked short and a higher-level student is asked for long essays. Essay writing skill helps the teacher to measure a student’s writing skill of a student.

Basically, there are three parts to an essay introduction, body, and conclusion. In the first introduction part, a student needs to write a basic introduction about an essay topic, explain detail in the body part, then write a summary and suggestions in the last conclusion part.

Lists of Nepali Essay Topics

We had tried to cover as much as possible Nepali Essay Topics in this article. We hope that you found this post helpful.

Please put your views in the comment box.

3 thoughts on “ 51+ Nepali Essay Topics Lists | Nibandha Topics ”

I need this

आजको आवश्यकता जीवनोपयोगी शिक्षा

Results for essay about friendship in nepali translation from English to Nepali

Human contributions.

From professional translators, enterprises, web pages and freely available translation repositories.

Add a translation

essay about friendship in nepali

नेपाली मा मित्रता को बारे मा निबंध

Last Update: 2021-09-12 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay about kite in nepali

नेपालीमा काइटको बारेमा निबन्ध

Last Update: 2022-03-20 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay about friendship

मित्रता को बारे मा निबंध

Last Update: 2017-12-24 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essay about cricket in nepali

नेपाली मा क्रिकेट को बारे मा निबंध

Last Update: 2023-09-12 Usage Frequency: 15 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

essays about nepali friendship

नेपाली मित्रता बारेमा निबंध

Last Update: 2023-11-19 Usage Frequency: 1 Quality: Reference: Anonymous

Get a better translation with 7,696,073,463 human contributions

Users are now asking for help:.

Dashain: The Festival of Nepal

Dashain Festival of Nepal INTRODUCTION Dashain is the biggest festival in Nepal. Dashain is celebrated by Nepalese people with great excitement. It is normally in the month of October but sometimes in late September. This festival is the longest and the most important of all festivals in Nepal. It falls in the best time of the year when fruits, vegetables and other foods are in plenty. And, all animals are well fed and healthy. It is said that Dashain is a celebration of the victory of the gods over the wicked demons.

More sophisticated people think it as a message that good will always wins over bad in the end. And, we all should stand on the side of the good even when the bad side may look to be stronger. THE PREPARATION Before the first day of Dashain starts, people clean their houses, clean up the barns, paint white and red colours on the walls, paint the windows, repair the Aangan, repair the barns and trails in the villages, and paint the temples, schools and shelters with white clay. They buy new clothes, lots of food and spices.

Then the celebration begins. THE FIFTEEN DAYS OF DASHAIN The fifteen days are said to mark the various events in the war between the gods and the demons. These fifteen days of Dashain are celebrated as follows: * Day 1: Ghastapana: It is the first day of moon and represents the start of the battle. All weapons and tools in the households are gathered, cleaned and put in a room where Goddess Durga’s worship is commenced. Seeds of corn and barley are planted in a large planter of leaves and kept in dark in the worship room.

Order custom essay Dashain: The Festival of Nepal with free plagiarism report

These seeds would have grown to be yellow seedlings (Jamara) by the ninth day, when they are offered to Vishwa Karma and to all worshippers on the tenth day. * Day 2-7: Dwitia to Saptami: Represent the continuation of the battle. * Day 8: Ashtami: Animals are sacrificed in the temples of Goddess Durga asking for her help to win the battle. * Day 9: Nawami: People worship Durga in mass. Everyone goes to temple of Durga. Also Vishwa Karma (god of creativity) is worshipped at the room where all tools and weapons were kept and the tools are finally released from the room.

All machinery like sewing machine, cars, carts and grinding mills are stopped and offerings are made to Vishwa Karma asking to protect from accidents and mishaps. This day signifies that everyone gets ready for the final battle. * Day 10: Vijaya Dasami: Goddess Durga defeats demon Mahishasur. Good finally wins over the bad. Victory is celebrated with exchanges of blessings and best possible food one can afford. Elders in the family give blessings to the young and put Tika and Jamara on their forehead. People are supposed to pay honor to and get blessings from the all surviving elders in the family clan.

All people seem to be on the move as they try to visit as many relatives as possible to collect the most possible blessings. * Day 11-14: Ekadashi – Chaturthi: These days are for visiting elders that were too far to visit on the tenth day. Also if some difficulties prevented us from reaching home and elders. So Tika continues throughout Dashain. * Day 15: Purnima or Kojagrat Purnima: Dashain ends on the day of full-moon. On this day, people stay at home and rest. Laxmi (the goddess of wealth) is worshiped on this date. People are now ready to work and acquire virtue, power and wealth.

In Dashain, you want a tika from an older person in your family or from anyone. You want to receive blessings from as many wellwishers as you can. First you start in your family. The oldest person in your family gives Tika and blessings to the youngest then the second youngest and so on. Anticipation, fun, hope, blessings and friendship come to you in Dashain, especially when you are close to your relatives and friends, and not in a far-away land and alone. You still write to your relatives or call them if you can and get thier thoughts and blessings even when you are far-far-away!

Cite this Page

Dashain: The Festival of Nepal. (2018, Apr 30). Retrieved from https://phdessay.com/dashain-the-festival-of-nepal/

Run a free check or have your essay done for you

More related essays

Industry in Nepal Industrial Social Work Submitted by: Submitted to: Bikina Chhetri Kesh Malla 6th Semester Date: 1st October, 2010 Concept: Handicrafts are unique expressions that represent a culture, tradition.

What is value system? In simple way value system means the principle of right and wrong that are accepted by an individual or a social group. Values can be defined as.

Nepal is one of the most desired tourist destination of all time. Due to these cultural norms and values, Nepal is a most profitable destination for tourism industry. Annually, the.

Research Proposal on A COMPARATIVE PROPOSAL FOR TRIAL BY JURY IN NEPALI LEGAL SYSTEM Submitted to BA/LLB Programme Nepal Law Campus Faculty of Law Tribhuvan University Submitted by SauravNath Pant.

Women's Property Rights Movement in Nepal by Binda Pandey Nepal is still running under strong feudalistic social values and norms. There were no clear provisions regarding Nepalese women and property.

Illuminating the World of Modern-day Slavery Speech by Lisa Kristine Speech Review by Kitty XUE Writing ? Lisa Kristen’s speech astonished the audience by simply presenting lives of slaves all.

Nearly 4000 languages are spoken in the world. Some language are confined in a small area. But some language are widely spoken. English language is an international language. It is.

The magnitude of NCDs is still unknown in Nepal. The ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal has non yet formulated policy sing NCDs in the absence of grounds.

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our cookie policy

Save time and let our verified experts help you.

Essay on Nepal

Students are often asked to write an essay on Nepal in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Nepal

Introduction to nepal.

Nepal is a small country in South Asia. It is mostly known for Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world. Many people visit Nepal to climb mountains and enjoy nature.

Geography and Climate

Nepal has hills, flat lands, and the Himalayas. The weather varies from hot in the plains to cold in the mountains. It has beautiful forests and rivers.

Culture and Festivals

Nepal has many cultures and languages. Festivals like Dashain and Tihar are celebrated with joy. People wear colorful clothes and share good food.

Nepal is home to rare animals like the Bengal tiger and one-horned rhinoceros. Conservation parks protect these creatures.

Farming is a key job in Nepal. Tourism also helps the economy. Many visitors come to see the mountains and experience the culture.

Also check:

Speech on Nepal

250 Words Essay on Nepal

Nepal is a small country in South Asia, tucked between China and India. It is famous for its stunning mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world. Many people come to Nepal to see these giant mountains and enjoy nature.

People and Culture

In Nepal, many different groups of people live together. They speak various languages and celebrate different festivals. One of the most famous festivals is Dashain, a time when families come together to share joy and blessings. The culture in Nepal is rich with music, dance, and art that tell stories of the past.

Land and Nature

Nepal is not just about high mountains. It has green forests with many types of plants and animals. Some animals, like the Bengal tiger and the one-horned rhinoceros, are very rare and special. People also visit Nepal to trek through these beautiful landscapes and see the wildlife.

Farming is an important job in Nepal because many people live in villages. They grow rice, wheat, and vegetables. Tourism is another big part of Nepal’s economy. Visitors come to hike in the mountains or see the ancient cities with old temples and palaces.

Nepal faces some tough challenges. Earthquakes can happen here, and they can cause a lot of damage. Also, many people in Nepal do not have a lot of money, and kids sometimes have to work instead of going to school.

In conclusion, Nepal is a country with beautiful nature and a rich mix of cultures. It has its problems, but it is a place full of life and history that is interesting to learn about.

500 Words Essay on Nepal

Nepal is a small, beautiful country in South Asia. It is landlocked, which means it does not touch the sea. It is found between two giant countries, India and China. Nepal is known for its stunning mountains, rich culture, and brave history. It is a place where nature and culture come together.

The Land of Mountains

One of the most famous things about Nepal is that it has many tall mountains. The highest mountain in the world, Mount Everest, is in Nepal. People from all over the world come to Nepal to see the mountains and some try to climb them. Not just Mount Everest, there are many other high peaks in Nepal that make it a perfect place for adventure and enjoying nature.

Nepal is home to many different groups of people. Each group has its own language, traditions, and festivals. The two major religions in Nepal are Hinduism and Buddhism. The people of Nepal are known for being friendly and welcoming. They celebrate many colorful festivals throughout the year. One of the biggest festivals is Dashain, which brings families together to share joy and blessings.

Wildlife and Nature

Apart from mountains, Nepal has green forests that are home to many animals. You can find rare animals like the Bengal tiger, one-horned rhinoceros, and red panda in Nepal’s national parks. These parks are special areas where animals are protected. People can visit these parks to see the wildlife and enjoy the beauty of nature.

Historical Places

Nepal has many old temples, palaces, and monuments. These places tell stories about Nepal’s past. The capital city, Kathmandu, has places like Kathmandu Durbar Square and Swayambhunath Stupa, which are very old and important. These places are not just beautiful; they also help people learn about Nepal’s history and culture.

Challenges Faced by Nepal

Even though Nepal is rich in natural beauty and culture, it faces some challenges. Many people in Nepal do not have a lot of money, and it is hard for them to get things like good education and healthcare. Also, because Nepal has many mountains, it can be hard to build roads and houses in some areas. Sometimes, natural disasters like earthquakes can cause a lot of damage.

Nepal is a country that may be small in size but is big in its natural beauty, culture, and the warmth of its people. It is a place that teaches us about the importance of nature, history, and living together in peace. Even with its challenges, Nepal continues to be a country that attracts people from around the world who want to experience its unique charm.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Essay on Neolithic Revolution
Essay on Gardening With Family
Essay on Geometry

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Things you buy through our links may earn Vox Media a commission

The Case for Marrying an Older Man

A woman’s life is all work and little rest. an age gap relationship can help..

In the summer, in the south of France, my husband and I like to play, rather badly, the lottery. We take long, scorching walks to the village — gratuitous beauty, gratuitous heat — kicking up dust and languid debates over how we’d spend such an influx. I purchase scratch-offs, jackpot tickets, scraping the former with euro coins in restaurants too fine for that. I never cash them in, nor do I check the winning numbers. For I already won something like the lotto, with its gifts and its curses, when he married me.

He is ten years older than I am. I chose him on purpose, not by chance. As far as life decisions go, on balance, I recommend it.

When I was 20 and a junior at Harvard College, a series of great ironies began to mock me. I could study all I wanted, prove myself as exceptional as I liked, and still my fiercest advantage remained so universal it deflated my other plans. My youth. The newness of my face and body. Compellingly effortless; cruelly fleeting. I shared it with the average, idle young woman shrugging down the street. The thought, when it descended on me, jolted my perspective, the way a falling leaf can make you look up: I could diligently craft an ideal existence, over years and years of sleepless nights and industry. Or I could just marry it early.

So naturally I began to lug a heavy suitcase of books each Saturday to the Harvard Business School to work on my Nabokov paper. In one cavernous, well-appointed room sat approximately 50 of the planet’s most suitable bachelors. I had high breasts, most of my eggs, plausible deniability when it came to purity, a flush ponytail, a pep in my step that had yet to run out. Apologies to Progress, but older men still desired those things.

I could not understand why my female classmates did not join me, given their intelligence. Each time I reconsidered the project, it struck me as more reasonable. Why ignore our youth when it amounted to a superpower? Why assume the burdens of womanhood, its too-quick-to-vanish upper hand, but not its brief benefits at least? Perhaps it came easier to avoid the topic wholesale than to accept that women really do have a tragically short window of power, and reason enough to take advantage of that fact while they can. As for me, I liked history, Victorian novels, knew of imminent female pitfalls from all the books I’d read: vampiric boyfriends; labor, at the office and in the hospital, expected simultaneously; a decline in status as we aged, like a looming eclipse. I’d have disliked being called calculating, but I had, like all women, a calculator in my head. I thought it silly to ignore its answers when they pointed to an unfairness for which we really ought to have been preparing.

I was competitive by nature, an English-literature student with all the corresponding major ambitions and minor prospects (Great American novel; email job). A little Bovarist , frantic for new places and ideas; to travel here, to travel there, to be in the room where things happened. I resented the callow boys in my class, who lusted after a particular, socially sanctioned type on campus: thin and sexless, emotionally detached and socially connected, the opposite of me. Restless one Saturday night, I slipped on a red dress and snuck into a graduate-school event, coiling an HDMI cord around my wrist as proof of some technical duty. I danced. I drank for free, until one of the organizers asked me to leave. I called and climbed into an Uber. Then I promptly climbed out of it. For there he was, emerging from the revolving doors. Brown eyes, curved lips, immaculate jacket. I went to him, asked him for a cigarette. A date, days later. A second one, where I discovered he was a person, potentially my favorite kind: funny, clear-eyed, brilliant, on intimate terms with the universe.

I used to love men like men love women — that is, not very well, and with a hunger driven only by my own inadequacies. Not him. In those early days, I spoke fondly of my family, stocked the fridge with his favorite pasta, folded his clothes more neatly than I ever have since. I wrote his mother a thank-you note for hosting me in his native France, something befitting a daughter-in-law. It worked; I meant it. After graduation and my fellowship at Oxford, I stayed in Europe for his career and married him at 23.

Of course I just fell in love. Romances have a setting; I had only intervened to place myself well. Mainly, I spotted the precise trouble of being a woman ahead of time, tried to surf it instead of letting it drown me on principle. I had grown bored of discussions of fair and unfair, equal or unequal , and preferred instead to consider a thing called ease.

The reception of a particular age-gap relationship depends on its obviousness. The greater and more visible the difference in years and status between a man and a woman, the more it strikes others as transactional. Transactional thinking in relationships is both as American as it gets and the least kosher subject in the American romantic lexicon. When a 50-year-old man and a 25-year-old woman walk down the street, the questions form themselves inside of you; they make you feel cynical and obscene: How good of a deal is that? Which party is getting the better one? Would I take it? He is older. Income rises with age, so we assume he has money, at least relative to her; at minimum, more connections and experience. She has supple skin. Energy. Sex. Maybe she gets a Birkin. Maybe he gets a baby long after his prime. The sight of their entwined hands throws a lucid light on the calculations each of us makes, in love, to varying degrees of denial. You could get married in the most romantic place in the world, like I did, and you would still have to sign a contract.

Twenty and 30 is not like 30 and 40; some freshness to my features back then, some clumsiness in my bearing, warped our decade, in the eyes of others, to an uncrossable gulf. Perhaps this explains the anger we felt directed at us at the start of our relationship. People seemed to take us very, very personally. I recall a hellish car ride with a friend of his who began to castigate me in the backseat, in tones so low that only I could hear him. He told me, You wanted a rich boyfriend. You chased and snuck into parties . He spared me the insult of gold digger, but he drew, with other words, the outline for it. Most offended were the single older women, my husband’s classmates. They discussed me in the bathroom at parties when I was in the stall. What does he see in her? What do they talk about? They were concerned about me. They wielded their concern like a bludgeon. They paraphrased without meaning to my favorite line from Nabokov’s Lolita : “You took advantage of my disadvantage,” suspecting me of some weakness he in turn mined. It did not disturb them, so much, to consider that all relationships were trades. The trouble was the trade I’d made struck them as a bad one.

The truth is you can fall in love with someone for all sorts of reasons, tiny transactions, pluses and minuses, whose sum is your affection for each other, your loyalty, your commitment. The way someone picks up your favorite croissant. Their habit of listening hard. What they do for you on your anniversary and your reciprocal gesture, wrapped thoughtfully. The serenity they inspire; your happiness, enlivening it. When someone says they feel unappreciated, what they really mean is you’re in debt to them.

When I think of same-age, same-stage relationships, what I tend to picture is a woman who is doing too much for too little.

I’m 27 now, and most women my age have “partners.” These days, girls become partners quite young. A partner is supposed to be a modern answer to the oppression of marriage, the terrible feeling of someone looming over you, head of a household to which you can only ever be the neck. Necks are vulnerable. The problem with a partner, however, is if you’re equal in all things, you compromise in all things. And men are too skilled at taking .

There is a boy out there who knows how to floss because my friend taught him. Now he kisses college girls with fresh breath. A boy married to my friend who doesn’t know how to pack his own suitcase. She “likes to do it for him.” A million boys who know how to touch a woman, who go to therapy because they were pushed, who learned fidelity, boundaries, decency, manners, to use a top sheet and act humanely beneath it, to call their mothers, match colors, bring flowers to a funeral and inhale, exhale in the face of rage, because some girl, some girl we know, some girl they probably don’t speak to and will never, ever credit, took the time to teach him. All while she was working, raising herself, clawing up the cliff-face of adulthood. Hauling him at her own expense.

I find a post on Reddit where five thousand men try to define “ a woman’s touch .” They describe raised flower beds, blankets, photographs of their loved ones, not hers, sprouting on the mantel overnight. Candles, coasters, side tables. Someone remembering to take lint out of the dryer. To give compliments. I wonder what these women are getting back. I imagine them like Cinderella’s mice, scurrying around, their sole proof of life their contributions to a more central character. On occasion I meet a nice couple, who grew up together. They know each other with a fraternalism tender and alien to me. But I think of all my friends who failed at this, were failed at this, and I think, No, absolutely not, too risky . Riskier, sometimes, than an age gap.

My younger brother is in his early 20s, handsome, successful, but in many ways: an endearing disaster. By his age, I had long since wisened up. He leaves his clothes in the dryer, takes out a single shirt, steams it for three minutes. His towel on the floor, for someone else to retrieve. His lovely, same-age girlfriend is aching to fix these tendencies, among others. She is capable beyond words. Statistically, they will not end up together. He moved into his first place recently, and she, the girlfriend, supplied him with a long, detailed list of things he needed for his apartment: sheets, towels, hangers, a colander, which made me laugh. She picked out his couch. I will bet you anything she will fix his laundry habits, and if so, they will impress the next girl. If they break up, she will never see that couch again, and he will forget its story. I tell her when I visit because I like her, though I get in trouble for it: You shouldn’t do so much for him, not for someone who is not stuck with you, not for any boy, not even for my wonderful brother.

Too much work had left my husband, by 30, jaded and uninspired. He’d burned out — but I could reenchant things. I danced at restaurants when they played a song I liked. I turned grocery shopping into an adventure, pleased by what I provided. Ambitious, hungry, he needed someone smart enough to sustain his interest, but flexible enough in her habits to build them around his hours. I could. I do: read myself occupied, make myself free, materialize beside him when he calls for me. In exchange, I left a lucrative but deadening spreadsheet job to write full-time, without having to live like a writer. I learned to cook, a little, and decorate, somewhat poorly. Mostly I get to read, to walk central London and Miami and think in delicious circles, to work hard, when necessary, for free, and write stories for far less than minimum wage when I tally all the hours I take to write them.

At 20, I had felt daunted by the project of becoming my ideal self, couldn’t imagine doing it in tandem with someone, two raw lumps of clay trying to mold one another and only sullying things worse. I’d go on dates with boys my age and leave with the impression they were telling me not about themselves but some person who didn’t exist yet and on whom I was meant to bet regardless. My husband struck me instead as so finished, formed. Analyzable for compatibility. He bore the traces of other women who’d improved him, small but crucial basics like use a coaster ; listen, don’t give advice. Young egos mellow into patience and generosity.

My husband isn’t my partner. He’s my mentor, my lover, and, only in certain contexts, my friend. I’ll never forget it, how he showed me around our first place like he was introducing me to myself: This is the wine you’ll drink, where you’ll keep your clothes, we vacation here, this is the other language we’ll speak, you’ll learn it, and I did. Adulthood seemed a series of exhausting obligations. But his logistics ran so smoothly that he simply tacked mine on. I moved into his flat, onto his level, drag and drop, cleaner thrice a week, bills automatic. By opting out of partnership in my 20s, I granted myself a kind of compartmentalized, liberating selfishness none of my friends have managed. I am the work in progress, the party we worry about, a surprising dominance. When I searched for my first job, at 21, we combined our efforts, for my sake. He had wisdom to impart, contacts with whom he arranged coffees; we spent an afternoon, laughing, drawing up earnest lists of my pros and cons (highly sociable; sloppy math). Meanwhile, I took calls from a dear friend who had a boyfriend her age. Both savagely ambitious, hyperclose and entwined in each other’s projects. If each was a start-up , the other was the first hire, an intense dedication I found riveting. Yet every time she called me, I hung up with the distinct feeling that too much was happening at the same time: both learning to please a boss; to forge more adult relationships with their families; to pay bills and taxes and hang prints on the wall. Neither had any advice to give and certainly no stability. I pictured a three-legged race, two people tied together and hobbling toward every milestone.

I don’t fool myself. My marriage has its cons. There are only so many times one can say “thank you” — for splendid scenes, fine dinners — before the phrase starts to grate. I live in an apartment whose rent he pays and that shapes the freedom with which I can ever be angry with him. He doesn’t have to hold it over my head. It just floats there, complicating usual shorthands to explain dissatisfaction like, You aren’t being supportive lately . It’s a Frenchism to say, “Take a decision,” and from time to time I joke: from whom? Occasionally I find myself in some fabulous country at some fabulous party and I think what a long way I have traveled, like a lucky cloud, and it is frightening to think of oneself as vapor.

Mostly I worry that if he ever betrayed me and I had to move on, I would survive, but would find in my humor, preferences, the way I make coffee or the bed nothing that he did not teach, change, mold, recompose, stamp with his initials, the way Renaissance painters hid in their paintings their faces among a crowd. I wonder if when they looked at their paintings, they saw their own faces first. But this is the wrong question, if our aim is happiness. Like the other question on which I’m expected to dwell: Who is in charge, the man who drives or the woman who put him there so she could enjoy herself? I sit in the car, in the painting it would have taken me a corporate job and 20 years to paint alone, and my concern over who has the upper hand becomes as distant as the horizon, the one he and I made so wide for me.

To be a woman is to race against the clock, in several ways, until there is nothing left to be but run ragged.

We try to put it off, but it will hit us at some point: that we live in a world in which our power has a different shape from that of men, a different distribution of advantage, ours a funnel and theirs an expanding cone. A woman at 20 rarely has to earn her welcome; a boy at 20 will be turned away at the door. A woman at 30 may find a younger woman has taken her seat; a man at 30 will have invited her. I think back to the women in the bathroom, my husband’s classmates. What was my relationship if not an inconvertible sign of this unfairness? What was I doing, in marrying older, if not endorsing it? I had taken advantage of their disadvantage. I had preempted my own. After all, principled women are meant to defy unfairness, to show some integrity or denial, not plan around it, like I had. These were driven women, successful, beautiful, capable. I merely possessed the one thing they had already lost. In getting ahead of the problem, had I pushed them down? If I hadn’t, would it really have made any difference?

When we decided we wanted to be equal to men, we got on men’s time. We worked when they worked, retired when they retired, had to squeeze pregnancy, children, menopause somewhere impossibly in the margins. I have a friend, in her late 20s, who wears a mood ring; these days it is often red, flickering in the air like a siren when she explains her predicament to me. She has raised her fair share of same-age boyfriends. She has put her head down, worked laboriously alongside them, too. At last she is beginning to reap the dividends, earning the income to finally enjoy herself. But it is now, exactly at this precipice of freedom and pleasure, that a time problem comes closing in. If she would like to have children before 35, she must begin her next profession, motherhood, rather soon, compromising inevitably her original one. The same-age partner, equally unsettled in his career, will take only the minimum time off, she guesses, or else pay some cost which will come back to bite her. Everything unfailingly does. If she freezes her eggs to buy time, the decision and its logistics will burden her singly — and perhaps it will not work. Overlay the years a woman is supposed to establish herself in her career and her fertility window and it’s a perfect, miserable circle. By midlife women report feeling invisible, undervalued; it is a telling cliché, that after all this, some husbands leave for a younger girl. So when is her time, exactly? For leisure, ease, liberty? There is no brand of feminism which achieved female rest. If women’s problem in the ’50s was a paralyzing malaise, now it is that they are too active, too capable, never permitted a vacation they didn’t plan. It’s not that our efforts to have it all were fated for failure. They simply weren’t imaginative enough.

For me, my relationship, with its age gap, has alleviated this rush , permitted me to massage the clock, shift its hands to my benefit. Very soon, we will decide to have children, and I don’t panic over last gasps of fun, because I took so many big breaths of it early: on the holidays of someone who had worked a decade longer than I had, in beautiful places when I was young and beautiful, a symmetry I recommend. If such a thing as maternal energy exists, mine was never depleted. I spent the last nearly seven years supported more than I support and I am still not as old as my husband was when he met me. When I have a child, I will expect more help from him than I would if he were younger, for what does professional tenure earn you if not the right to set more limits on work demands — or, if not, to secure some child care, at the very least? When I return to work after maternal upheaval, he will aid me, as he’s always had, with his ability to put himself aside, as younger men are rarely able.

Above all, the great gift of my marriage is flexibility. A chance to live my life before I become responsible for someone else’s — a lover’s, or a child’s. A chance to write. A chance at a destiny that doesn’t adhere rigidly to the routines and timelines of men, but lends itself instead to roomy accommodation, to the very fluidity Betty Friedan dreamed of in 1963 in The Feminine Mystique , but we’ve largely forgotten: some career or style of life that “permits year-to-year variation — a full-time paid job in one community, part-time in another, exercise of the professional skill in serious volunteer work or a period of study during pregnancy or early motherhood when a full-time job is not feasible.” Some things are just not feasible in our current structures. Somewhere along the way we stopped admitting that, and all we did was make women feel like personal failures. I dream of new structures, a world in which women have entry-level jobs in their 30s; alternate avenues for promotion; corporate ladders with balconies on which they can stand still, have a smoke, take a break, make a baby, enjoy themselves, before they keep climbing. Perhaps men long for this in their own way. Actually I am sure of that.

Once, when we first fell in love, I put my head in his lap on a long car ride; I remember his hands on my face, the sun, the twisting turns of a mountain road, surprising and not surprising us like our romance, and his voice, telling me that it was his biggest regret that I was so young, he feared he would lose me. Last week, we looked back at old photos and agreed we’d given each other our respective best years. Sometimes real equality is not so obvious, sometimes it takes turns, sometimes it takes almost a decade to reveal itself.

The Cut Shop

Editor’s Picks

Most Popular

What is your email.

This email will be used to sign into all New York sites. By submitting your email, you agree to our Terms and Privacy Policy and to receive email correspondence from us.

Sign In To Continue Reading

Create your free account.

Password must be at least 8 characters and contain:

Lower case letters (a-z)
Upper case letters (A-Z)
Numbers (0-9)
Special Characters (!@#$%^&*)

As part of your account, you’ll receive occasional updates and offers from New York , which you can opt out of anytime.

Terms & Condition
Privacy policy

_Multi Dropdown
__Dropdown 1
__Dropdown 2
__Dropdown 3
ApplicationLetter

मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध | Essay on my country nepal in nepali

मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध | essay on my country nepal in nepali , मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध (१५० शब्दहरु ) mero desh essay in nepali language, मेरो देश को बारेमा निबन्ध 200 शब्दमा essay on my country in nepali in 200, मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध (२५० शब्दहरु ) mero desh nepal essay in nepali, मेरो देश को बारेमा निबन्ध 300 शब्दमा essay on my country in nepali in 300, मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध ( ५०० शब्दहरु) essay on my country nepal in nepali in 500 words, recommended posts, post a comment.

Thanks for visit our site, please do not comment any spam link in comment box.

एक टिप्पणी भेजें

Contact form.

Wednesday, April 3rd, 2024

International
Entertainment
Fact-Checking
Date Converter
Preeti to Unicode
Unicode to Preeti
Roman to Unicode
Tic Tac Toe

SMS Friendship Cup: Nepal beats Baroda by 27 runs

April 2, 2024

KATHMANDU: Nepal clinched another victory in the ongoing SMS Friendship Cup in India by defeating Baroda with a margin of 27 runs on Tuesday.

This marks Nepal’s second consecutive win in the tournament.

Baroda, aiming for a target of 157 runs, managed to score 129 runs after losing all their wickets in 20 overs.

Bhanu Pania, representing Baroda, scored the highest with 36 runs, including three sixes, while Captain Vishnu Solanki contributed 25 runs with two fours in 32 balls.

Baba Khan scored 27 runs with two boundaries and two sixes in 18 balls.

At one point, Baroda, struggling at 22-5, was steered by Bhanu and Vishnu, who shared a partnership of 53 runs for the sixth wicket.

Karan KC took 3 wickets, conceding 24 runs in 4 overs, while Sompal Kami claimed 2 wickets, giving away 20 runs in 4 overs.

Abinash Bohara took 2, Gulshan Jha and Dipendra Singh Airee grabbed 1 wicket each.

Earlier, Nepal, batting first, scored 156 runs, losing 6 wickets in 20 overs.

Kushal Malla top-scored for Nepal with 40 runs, including 3 fours and 2 sixes, off 25 balls.

Sandeep Jora contributed 29 runs with two fours and a six off 16 balls.

At one point, Nepal was at 82-5 in 12.5 overs when Sandeep and Kushal shared a partnership of 47 runs, leading to a modest total.

Opener Aasif Sheikh and Kushal Bhurtel were dismissed for 9 runs each.

Anil Kumar Shah hit 25 runs with 2 fours and 1 six in 27 balls, while Captain Rohit Paudel scored 18 runs in 13 balls, and Gulshan Jha was out for 13 runs.

For Baroda, Baba Khan took 2 wickets, Mohit Mongia and Parikshit Patadar grabbed 1 wicket each.

Nepal had previously defeated Gujarat by 8 wickets in their first match. Gujarat had defeated Baroda by 5 wickets.

Nepal will play against Gujarat on Wednesday and Baroda on Friday.

The final will be held on Sunday.

Today’s national news in a nutshell

Health Ministry issues warning on dengue amid rising temperatures

PM Dahal highlights historic initiatives for labour rights and financial justice

China willing to reopen 14 traditional trade transits, says DPM Shrestha

Karnali Province calls for political parties to form new government

Education Minister updates House on investigation into missing TU answer scripts

Nepal secures spot in SMS Friendship Cup finals with eight-run victory over Gujarat

RPP decides not to support the ruling alliance at provincial level

Supreme Court orders detention of suspended Judge Giri in marital rape case

Nepal sets 182-run target for Gujarat in SMS Friendship Cup clash

Ireland Wolves triumph over Nepal ‘A’ by 21 runs in ODI opener

Nepal to bat first against Gujarat in SMS Friendship Cup clash

ODI series: Ireland ‘A’ sets a target of 158 runs for Nepal ‘A’

Solaris yacht 64.

Berthon Home
Yacht Brokerage
New Yacht Sales
Boatyard & Marina

Your Local Broker, Internationally

Berthon UK (Lymington, Hampshire - UK) Sue Grant [email protected] 0044 (0)1590 679 222

Berthon France (Mandelieu La Napoule, France) Bruno Kairet [email protected] 0033 (0)4 93 63 66 80

Berthon Scandinavia (Henån, Sweden) Magnus Kullberg [email protected] 0046 304 694 000

Berthon Spain (Palma de Mallorca, Spain) Simon Turner [email protected] 0034 639 701 234

Berthon USA (Rhode Island, USA) Jennifer Stewart [email protected] 001 401 846 8404

Solaris Yachts

Solaris Power
Pegasus Yachts
Iguana Yachts
Yacht Finance

Solaris 64 RS

A recent model launched in 2019, from the drawing board of Soto Acebal… The Solaris 64 RS represents an extremely innovative yacht in the performance bluewater cruising world, featuring a raised saloon with 360-degree windows for unparalleled panoramic views and a central engine room (which also houses all the main services) with two aft cabins set nicely aft with a companionway thus isolated from any noise from the machinery and systems and giving a greater feeling of privacy.

The innovation begins with the interior layout, which provides a large sail locker in the bow, which can also be specified as an optional en-suite crew cabin. A spacious owner’s cabin forward, with generous storage, available with either an island or an outboard berth. The galley is located close to the mast and extends across the full beam of the boat.

The wide saloon features the companionway offset to starboard, which provides a passageway to the guest cabins and all en-suites have separate full height shower compartments. In terms of size and storage volumes the two guest cabins have nothing to envy to the owner’s cabin forward.

The 3-meter long fore and aft tender garage, with longitudinal access, does not intrude in the aft cabins at all and enables to large lockers with full deck access to port and starboard while the transom also serves as an ample swim platform.

The off-set companionway creates a spacious cockpit with a fixed table to the portside and a deck sofa to starboard side with a passageway in between.

The sail handling area of the cockpit features a central plinth dedicated to the mainsheet and two side winches control lines are located within easy reach of the helm and the signature self-tacking jib makes her easily handled.

Again, with a choice of interior finishes – light oak, teak, washed and antiqued oak, the craftsmanship, attention to detail and quality throughout is as you would expect from Solaris Yachts.

Available Yachts

Solaris Yachts - Solaris 40
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 44
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 50
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 55
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 60
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 64 RS
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 68 RS
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 74 RS
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 80 RS
Solaris Yachts - Solaris 111 SY

Contact Details

Alan McIlroy Berthon UK Tel: 0044 (0)1590 679 222 E-Mail: [email protected] Click image for full broker profile.

Richard Baldwin Berthon UK Tel: 0044 (0)1590 679 222 E-Mail: [email protected] Click image for full broker profile.

Magnus Kullberg Berthon Scandinavia Tel: 0046 304 694 000 E-Mail: [email protected] Click image for full broker profile.

peter-houghton-2022-c, Berthon Brokerage

Peter Houghton Berthon USA Tel: 001 401 846 8404 E-Mail: [email protected] Click image for full broker profile.

Yacht Specifications

Yacht layout.

Click a thumbnail

Search BerthonInternational.com

The Berthon Collection

Solaris 64 rs.

Specifications

Make an Enquiry

The berthon collection / cruising yachts.

Discovery 58

£1,050,000 / VAT paid

Discovery 55

£590,000 / VAT paid

€636,500 / VAT paid

Southerly 535

£295,000 / VAT paid

TALISMAN OF IPSWICH

£285,000 / VAT paid

Contest 50CS

Miss millie of valetta.

€725,000 / VAT paid

Nautor Swan 46

£179,900 / VAT paid

Nautor Swan 44

£155,000 / VAT paid

International Listings
Motor Yachts
Cruising Yachts
Performance Yachts
Contact Berthon International

Yachts for Sale
Sold Yachts
Market Report

Solaris 64 RS is one of the newer models from the drawing board of Javier Soto Acebal and hull number one launched in 2019. She is an extremely innovative yacht in the bluewater-cruising segment. The RS models have a bright saloon with large windows that provide an unbeatable panoramic view. The elevated saloon creates space for a central engine room where all service systems are gathered, well insulated so that the two aft cabins are not disturbed. The layout of the foreship is really innovative where she can be specified with two different solutions, a large sail locker or furnished for a crew cabin with its own head. Forward is also the spacious owner´s cabin with unbeatable comfort, private heads and generous storage options. The double bed is placed either amidships with access from both sides or offset to the port side. The galley is centrally located and runs across its entire beam. The well-thought-out interior layout creates a passage through the wide saloon where the companionway is offset to starboard, which provides easy access to the guest cabins in the stern. The guests’ cabins have big volume with good storage and a private heads, of course with full-height shower.

The deck layout of this performance yacht does not disappoint any sailor, the mainsheet is trimmed on the centrally located winch and the other lines are trimmed at the winches on the side, all within easy access of the helmsman. Twin rudders, weight-optimized “T” -shaped keel and self-tacking jib contribute to the high sailing performance and easy handling. The keel is also available with a shallow draft alternative, 2.9m, and a lifting keel that does not affect the interior space. The modern hull with a wide stern hides a 3m longitudinal tender garage, without encroaching on the space in the stern cabins. The cockpit has an ergonomic and comfortable seating area with a sofa and fixed table facing the port side and a sofa on the starboard side, in between passage to the companionway.

The option list is generous with a selection of interior details depending on the expression and character you want, modern light oak, brushed, antique treated, or traditional teak. Quality and detail finish are consistently of the highest class, the craftsmen at the Italian shipyard have left nothing to chance on this luxury yacht.

Magnus Kullberg Berthon Scandinavia Tel: +46 79 079 55 45 E-Mail: [email protected]

fredrik-sundberg-2020, Berthon Brokerage

Fredrik Sundberg Berthon Scandinavia Tel: +46 70822 02 09 E-Mail: [email protected]

Search BerthonScandinavia.se

The Solaris Yacht 64′

The new Solaris 64’ RS is the smallest of the new exclusive line of Solaris maxi-yachts designed for extended blue water sailing. The Solaris 64’ RS will be built to the traditional Solaris “monolithic” methods, which were tested by the Solaris 72’ Kamana belonging to Enrico Tettamanti, who has seven years of circumnavigation, including sailing in both the Arctic and Antarctic oceans. The longitudinal access of the tender does not affect the aft cabins’ volume. The cockpit layout is such that even when the table is open, a large free passage below deck is assured. It can be built in the Solaris advanced composite materials facility by using the pre-preg Sprint technology, which is the absolutely best technology for the quality of the composite, ensuring maximum longevity and safety.

Click HERE to download this yacht specification sheet.

Moody Yachts
Rustler Yachts
Sealine Motor Yachts

The company Solaris Yachts has a long history of both the production of new yachts and the repair/refit of yachts. The shipyard opened its gates in 1974 – in Aquileia, at the top of the Venetian lagoon, an area well known for its boatbuilding traditions. In their modern production facilities, right next to the water, you have the opportunity to test sail your magic carpet of choice.

For more than 40 years, they have produced very fine performance yachts and now their models range from 40ft to 111ft. The yachts are characterised by innovative design, very high construction quality and of course, their stylish finish. The Solaris Design Team has had great success and in collaboration with Javier Soto Acebal, designed today’s fleet of yachts. Solaris Yachts is considered one of the most prestigious yards in the world and at a recent Boat International World Superyacht Awards – they won a prize for their latest superyacht – the Solaris 111 RS.

The success of Solaris Yachts has mainly come thanks to its brilliant construction philosophy – a combination of technology, strength and traditional manufacturing. Each Solaris yacht has a 40mm composite main bulkhead, the bulkhead is laminated on both sides to the hull and deck. Longitudinal and transverse beams are laminated to the hull. The keels on all models have a wide keel plate for optimal power transmission and power distribution through the 30mm coarse steel bolts that connect the keel to the hull. The yachts are very strong and built with the best components and material choices. The high quality means that a Solaris yacht retains a high resale value and above all, trouble-free sailing pleasure for you as the owner.

When stepping aboard, the first thing you will notice is the design of all Solaris models, but it is only when you get out on the water that you really understand the benefits of a Solaris. The yachts are designed and constructed so that you, perhaps with a small crew, can get the most out of your sailing. A large open cockpit provides an overview of the entire yacht, and winches and sheets are within easy reach. All models are delivered with self-tacking foresail for easy and safe sail handling, and in combination with an integrated bowsprit for gennakers, this will be an unbeatable combination even on the regatta circuit.

Solaris Yachts deliver performance and comfort in a completely unique way. You will get many admiring eyes every time you enter a marina or bay.

The Berthon Sales Group has worked closely with Solaris Yachts for many years, with multiple offices now acting as agents for these fantastic Italian sailboats. This is a great asset for you – knowing there is a network of knowledgeable sailors and services out there.

Peter Houghton: [email protected]

The Solaris 40 was a brand new model in 2021 and she packs all the punch, looks and of course, comfort of her bigger sisters. The main idea behind the Solaris 40 was to incorporate the latest advances along with keeping the stylish Solaris lines - which Javier Soto Acebal has created throughout the whole Solaris fleet.

The Solaris 44 saw its debut at the 2018 Cannes Yachting Festival and has proved to be a very popular yacht. Over 30 have been built and their popularity continues. The hull shape and design of the Solaris 44 was first seen on the Solaris 55 with the now trademark Solaris soft chine and carrying her full beam aft to the transom. Her twin rudders provide great grip on the water and of course, the outboard twin helms allow for fantastic visibility down the decks. Her sailing performance speaks for itself and she is perfectly balanced at sea.

With over 60 Solaris 50s sold since her introduction, it was a tall request for Javier Soto Acebal to improve on this popular size with additional refinements. He has delivered however with the ‘new’ Solaris 50, launched April 2022. Even more sparkling performance that is easily manageable, with increased stability, and a clean uncluttered striking style. The integral transom tender garage and improved layout down below takes this new 50 to an unbelievable next level of design.

A long 14 months in the design office eventually came the spectacular Solaris 55. Every detail was reviewed and fine-tuned to ensure she became a benchmark 16m yacht, in regards to her looks, capabilities and performance. As with her sisters she also carries her maximum beam aft a design feature which is now seen most commonly on a large number of ocean racing yachts. She has a high stability ratio and righting moment ballast to weight ratio of more than 40% created by her T keel with lead bulb and cast iron fin available with a 3m draft or optional shallower 2.7m.

Freshly launched in 2020 to create a yacht that will set the precedent for the future of performance cruising yachts. The aim was to create a Mini-Maxi which means the yacht must be no longer than 18.31m allowing her to take part in Mini-Maxi racing. Including the prestigious Mini-Maxi Cup which takes place in the fabulous Porto Cervo every year. The Solaris 60 is the ultimate yacht for the family yachtsman who also wants to do a spot of enjoyable racing.

Solaris 68 RS

Solaris 68 RS is the perfect yacht for bluewater cruising. Like her smaller sister ship, she is extremely innovative with unbeatable performance both above and below deck. This yacht is the result of many years of experience from the design and construction of sailing yachts with a focus on long-distance sailing.

Solaris 74 RS

It's time to make history again by launching a new 22-meter yacht, the Solaris 74 RS. Over the years, the shipyard has developed and designed several models in this size of yacht, each yacht has become more innovative and performed better on the water than its predecessor. The owners' needs and ambitions have been satisfied and each Solaris yacht offers safe and easy offshore sailing.

Solaris 80 RS

Created for extended bluewater cruising in comfort while still being under 24m. The Solaris 80 RS design has been incredibly well thought through and there are 2 very different options for the interior layout - with either the owner’s cabin forward or aft which is a rare find. Whichever is your preference, she still boasts 4 cabins plus great crew accommodation which is positioned forward or aft depending on your layout choice.

Solaris 111 SY

Solaris 111 SY - hull no.1 was launched in 2020 but made her public debut at the 2021 Monaco Yacht Show and she was incredibly well received. Built at the request of past Solaris owners, she is a beautiful yacht. At this size, the yacht is very much semi-custom so can therefore be adapted to meet your needs. Her list of impressive features is second to none.

Search BerthonUSA.com

Solaris Yachts 64

Solaris Yachts 64 (2024) for sale in Aquileia, Italy

Contact seller for price Tax Not paid / Excluded

Transport It
Currency Exchange

This Solaris Yachts 64 is a custom and semi-custom cruiser designed by renowned naval architects and manufactured in 2024. It features a length of 19.40 meters and a beam of 5.40 meters with a high chine and a moderately reverse bow allowing smooth wave penetration and less pitching. The interior layout can be customized to the customers' requirements and includes a unique, watertight tender garage with longitudinal access and capstan winch. Outstanding quality and behaviour at sea make this vessel a superior cruiser-racer.

About this Solaris Yachts 64

With the 64’, Solaris confirms its leadership in custom and semi-custom yachts between 40’ and 111’ by producing real cruiser-racers designed by the best naval architects in the world. The historical and traditional quality of Solaris is exemplified with a jewel of rare quality in terms of construction and outstanding features and in terms of behavior at sea, that are characteristic of the hull lines by Soto Acebal. Particular attention has been given to the distribution of all the variable weights amidships, in order to maintain the ideal trim of the boat. The high “chine”, a typical feature of Solaris hulls in recent years, has been designed to give more roundness to the shape of the stern sections with consequent reduction of drag. A moderately reverse bow has been incorporated to this design to provide a number of advantages while sailing such as improved wave penetration and less pitching. Halyards and sheets are lead to a bridge deck near the helm position to allow easy handling even when singlehanded. There are different options for interior layout to suit the customers’ requirements. A unique feature is the tender garage with longitudinal access, no need to remove the outboard engine, completely watertight and supported by a capstan winch for easy handling of the tender.

Mit der Solaris 64‘ manifestiert die Werft ihre führende Rolle beim Bau von Semicustom-Yachten zwischen 50 und 111 Fuß. Dieser Cruiser/Racer stammt aus der Feder eines der besten Designer der Welt. Die traditionelle Solaris Qualität zeigt sich in der soliden Konstruktion der Yacht, in genialen Detail-Lösungen und in dem hervorragenden Seeverhalten, das für Entwürfe von Javier Soto Acebal charakteristisch ist. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit wurde dem Zentrieren von beweglichen Gewichten im Schiff gewidmet, um einen optimalen Trimm zu erreichen und das Stampfen zu minimieren. Hohe Chines, ein typisches Merkmal der jüngeren Solaris-Rümpfe, geben den Hecksektionen eine rundere Form und reduzieren den Schleppwiderstand. Ein steiler, sogar leicht negativer Steven ist zum ersten Mal Designmerkmal einer Solaris-Yacht und bietet mehrere Vorteile, wie einen besseren Eintritt in die Welle und reduziertes Stampfen. Alle Schoten, Fallen und Trimmeinrichtungen sind auf Winschkonsolen direkt vor den Steuerständen geführt, so dass sich die Yacht praktisch einhand segeln lässt. Es sind verschiedene Interieur- Layouts nach Eignerwunsch verfügbar. Eine Besonderheit ist die Tendergarage in Längsrichtung: der Außenborder muss nicht demontiert werden, die Lazarette ist absolut wasserdicht abgeschlossen und eine Winde erleichtert das Handling des Tenders.

Sailing Corner

Your message has been sent.

Contact Broker/Dealer

By submitting this form, you agree to our Privacy & Cookie Policy

Site protected by Google reCAPTCHA Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply

Solaris 64 also found under:

Bluewater cruiser
Coastal cruiser
Cruiser/racer
Offshore cruiser
Solaris Italy
Solaris 64 Italy

Featured articles:

How to Sell Your Boat Faster

You might be selling your boat because you ne...

articles - sunseeker-yachts-for-sale-buyers-guide

Sunseeker Yachts for Sale: A Buyer’s Guide

If you’re thinking about buying a yacht...

articles - invest-in-repairing-your-boat

Should You Invest in Repairing Your Boat Before Selling It?

If you're getting ready to sell a boat, y...

More Solaris 64 Boats

View details

View all Solaris 64 Boats for sale

More Solaris Boats

View all Solaris Boats for sale

More boats from this seller

View all 15 boats

Ask for more photos

Email to a friend.

By submitting this form, you agree to our Privacy & Cookie PolicySite protected by Google reCAPTCHA Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply

Report this boat

Thank you, your message has been sent.

Why not register your interest in these similar boats?

We will send the following details to the sellers of the selected boats: Your name, email address, phone number (if provided). your country and which boat(s) you are interested in.

Request More Information

This feature requires cookies to be enabled on your browser.

Show price in:

Show lengths, beam and draft in:

Show displacement or weight in:

Show capacity or volume in:

Show speed in:

Show distance in:

SOLARIS 64 RS

The deck plan shows a real seaworthiness.

Home » Boat » Sailing Yacht » SOLARIS 64 RS

Presentation

Yacht class n°21 (june-july-august 2020), solaris yachts.

Over the last decade, the Italian yard Solaris Yachts has developed a range of refined and high-performance sailboats, of which the Solaris 64 RS presents a beautiful symbiosis : there, the pleasures of sailing are only equaled by the comfort of life on board.

The Northeast coast of Sardinia is certainly one of the most beautiful playgrounds for lovers of sunny sailing and for keen racers. The choice of Solaris to organize its annual shipowners gathering there to compete in technical and tactical coastal races reflects the same high standards as the construction of its sailing yachts – and recently also of its motor boats. Last year, the Solaris Days, during which the Solaris Cup is raced, brought together nearly forty sailing boats, including the very recent Solaris 64 RS. A superb opportunity to embark on a round of this friendly and competitive competition. The owner of this first hull of the series – the yard has already received five orders since its presentation early 2019 in Düsseldorf – knows Solaris well, having already owned a smaller model. With 10 knots established, the weather was reasonable for this first outing with a crew of 14 from multiples origins, who knew each other slightly.

8.5 knots upwind in 10 knots of wind

The start, with a high density of competitors, allowed us to immediately assess the velocity of the Solaris 64 RS. The powerful sail plan, with Banks Sails’ iRevolution (dyneema and carbon mix) membranes, features a 120 m2 mainsail combined with a 102 m2 genoa that propelled the sailboat at 8.5 knots at 30 degrees from the apparent wind. Equipped with a lifting keel for a draft between 2.60 and 3.75 m, this sailboat is quite stiff to the canvas. During the nearly 30-mile course, we were able to assess her seaworthiness and the crew to gradually refine their maneuvers by successively hoisting the Code 0 and the gennaker, the latter being on roller in the absence of bowsprit. The foredeck with flush-deck hatches facilitates movement while the titanium stanchions and pulpit provide a strong feeling of security. The cockpit accommodates five electric winches (the central one for the mainsail) providing invaluable assistance for the trimming of the sails, while a two-position hydraulic adjuster controls the tension of the backstay and boom vang. From the two steering stations, the skipper controls the sail furling gears, but also the tender garage hatch, the bow and stern thrusters that can be operated by a single joystick, the telescopic cockpit table, the keel and the lights. This precise and functional design proves the know-how of this shipyard that, although it has only existed for about ten years as Solaris Yachts, has nevertheless a long history that began more than forty years ago in Aquileia, near Venice. This long time specialist in the construction of one-off sailing boats of up to 80 feet was taken over by former Grand Soleil managers who developed the Solaris range that now boasts ten models from 44 to 111 foot. The shipyard often collaborates with the Argentinian architect Javier Soto Acebal who created this Solaris 64 RS. With more than 30 boats built each year, the shipyard undertook, in 2017, an expansion of its infrastructures to double its annual production. The Solaris family continues to grow – and to get longer – with the ongoing production of 80 and even 111-foot.

The salon combines brightness, warmth and conviviality

After a good day of sailing that allowed us appreciate the sailing behaviour, we took advantage of the return journey to study her layout, designed for the comfort of passengers. The 64 has a higher freeboard than her big sister, the Solaris 68, which allowed a more spacious tender garage at the stern and also suggests increased interior volumes. The deck plan at the cockpit level has a fair distribution between the life at sea, with clear spaces for maneuvers, and relaxing times at anchor, with an off-set passageway leading the companionway so as not to bother the passengers around the table or lying on the sundeck. Everywhere teak slats offer softness under the feet and elegance to the eyes. Walking down the companionway – quite vertical but with handrails on both sides – only confirmed the sensation of volume pictured from outside. At the bottom of the six steps, the saloon combines a generous and luminous space with a warm and convivial dimension. The deckhouse windows provide a view of the sails and the sea. The extensive woodwork allows to appreciate the finishing quality and successfully combines tradition with contemporaneity. On starboard, the salon has a chart table, with all the equipment to follow and plan the navigation route, plus a sofa, while the other side accommodates a large table with a U-shaped settee for eight. The fully equipped galley is located slightly below forward and enjoys a compact design comfortable at sea. The master cabin is located in the forward part of the Solaris 64 RS and can accommodate either a standard outboard double bed or an island one, like on our test boat. Warm-coloured wood dominates on the floor, in the fittings and on the front bulkhead, creating an enveloping atmosphere. Note that a navigational data repeater is located right next to the bed to visualize in the blink of an eye the smooth running of the yacht. A spacious bathroom with shower compartment completes this private area. Two guest cabins are accessible via the door next to the companionway. Both have two single beds that can be joined together and a private bathroom. The Solaris 64 RS offers great sailing performance but also accessible fast cruising in uncompromising comfort. An ode to the “dolce vita”.

Technical sheet

The current magazine

Privacy Overview
Strictly Necessary Cookies
3rd Party Cookies

This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful.

Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings.

If you disable this cookie, we will not be able to save your preferences. This means that every time you visit this website you will need to enable or disable cookies again.

This website uses Google Analytics to collect anonymous information such as the number of visitors to the site, and the most popular pages.

Keeping this cookie enabled helps us to improve our website.

Please enable Strictly Necessary Cookies first so that we can save your preferences!

Election 2024
Newsletters
Photography
Personal Finance
AP Buyline Personal Finance
Press Releases
Israel-Hamas War
Russia-Ukraine War
Global elections
Asia Pacific
Latin America
Middle East
March Madness
AP Top 25 Poll
Movie reviews
Book reviews
Personal finance
Financial Markets
Business Highlights
Financial wellness
Artificial Intelligence
Social Media

Chinese coast guard hits Philippine boat with water cannons in disputed sea, causing injuries

In this screen grab from video provided by the Armed Forces of the Philippines, a Chinese coast guard ship uses water cannons and closely maneuvers beside a Philippine resupply vessel Unaizah May 4 as it approaches Second Thomas Shoal, locally called Ayungin shoal, at the disputed South China Sea on Saturday, March 23, 2024. (Armed Forces of the Philippines via AP)

In this screen grab from video provided by the Armed Forces of the Philippines, a Chinese coast guard ship uses water cannon on a Philippine resupply vessel Unaizah May 4 as it approaches Second Thomas Shoal, locally called Ayungin shoal, at the disputed South China Sea on Saturday, March 23, 2024. (Armed Forces of the Philippines via AP)

In this screen grab from video provided by the Armed Forces of the Philippines, a Chinese coast guard ship tries to block a Philippine resupply vessel Unaizah May 4 as it approaches Second Thomas Shoal, locally called Ayungin shoal, at the disputed South China Sea on Saturday, March 23, 2024. (Armed Forces of the Philippines via AP)

In this screen grab from video provided by the Armed Forces of the Philippines, a Chinese coast guard ship uses water cannons on a Philippine resupply vessel Unaizah May 4 as it approaches Second Thomas Shoal, locally called Ayungin shoal, at the disputed South China Sea on Saturday, March 23, 2024. (Armed Forces of the Philippines via AP)

Copy Link copied

MANILA, Philippines (AP) — Chinese coast guard ships hit a Philippine supply boat with water cannons Saturday in the latest confrontation near a disputed shoal in the South China Sea , causing injuries to its navy crew members and heavy damage to the wooden vessel, Philippine officials said.

The United States and Japan immediately expressed their support to the Philippines, as well as alarm over Chinese forces’ aggression off the Second Thomas Shoal , which has been the scene of repeated confrontations between Chinese and Philippine vessels over the past year.

The far-flung shoal has been occupied by a small contingent of Philippine navy and marines on a marooned warship since 1999, but has been surrounded by Chinese coast guard and suspected militia vessels in an increasingly tense territorial standoff . It’s the second time the Philippine boat Unaizah May 4 has been damaged by the Chinese coast guard’s water cannon assault in March alone.

The repeated high-seas confrontations have sparked fears they could degenerate into a larger conflict that could bring China and the United States into a collision.

In this photo provided by the Philippine Coast Guard, a Chinese coast guard ship, top, tries to block a Philippine government vessel at the disputed South China Sea on Thursday March 21, 2024. Chinese coast guard ships, backed by a military helicopter, tried to dangerously block but failed to stop two Philippine government vessels carrying scientists from reaching two barren sandbars called Sandy Cay in the disputed South China Sea, Philippine officials said Friday. (Philippine Coast Guard via AP)

Washington lays no claims to the busy seaway, a key global trade route, but has deployed Navy ships and fighter jets in what it calls “freedom of navigation” operations, which China has criticized .

The U.S. has also warned repeatedly that it’s obligated to defend the Philippines — its oldest treaty ally in Asia — if Filipino forces, ships or aircraft come under an armed attack, including in the South China Sea.

U.S. State Department spokesperson Matthew Miller said in a statement Saturday that the United States “stands with its ally the Philippines and condemns the dangerous actions by the People’s Republic of China (PRC) against lawful Philippine maritime operations in the South China Sea on March 23.”

He said the Chinese ships’ “repeated employment of water cannons and reckless blocking maneuvers resulted in injuries to Filipino service members and significant damage to their resupply vessel, rendering it immobile.”

Escorted by two Philippine coast guard ships, the Unaizah May 4 was en route to deliver supplies and a fresh batch of Filipino sailors to the territorial outpost in the shoal at dawn Saturday when they were blocked and surrounded by Chinese coast guard ships and suspected militia vessels.

“Their reckless and dangerous actions culminated with the water cannoning of Unaizah May 4, causing severe damage to the vessel and injuries to Filipinos onboard,” a Philippine government task force dealing with the territorial conflicts said without elaborating.

The two Philippine coast guard patrol ships maneuvered through the Chinese blockade to treat the injured Filipino crew members and tow the disabled supply boat away. Another motorboat managed to transport the new batch of Filipino sailors and supplies to the Philippine outpost in the shallows of the shoal despite the Chinese coast guard’s attempt to block them by placing a floating barrier in the waters, Philippine officials said.

The hostilities dragged on for about 8 hours, they said.

“The Philippines will not be deterred — by veiled threats or hostility — from exercising our legal rights over our maritime zones,” the government task force said in a statement. “We demand that China demonstrate in deeds and not in words that it is a responsible and trustworthy member of the international community.”

Chinese coast guard spokesperson Gan Yu said the Philippine vessels intruded into what he said was China’s territorial waters despite repeated warnings. “The China coast guard implemented lawful regulation, interception and expulsion in a reasonable and professional manner,” Gan said.

Washington’s ambassador to Manila, MaryKay Carlson, said that “the U.S. stands with the Philippines against the PRC’s repeated dangerous maneuvers and water cannons to disrupt” the Philippine coast guard’s “lawful activities” in Manila’s exclusive economic zone.

Japan’s ambassador-designate to Manila, Endo Kazuya, reiterated his country’s “grave concern on the repeated dangerous actions by the Chinese coast guard in the South China Sea, which resulted in Filipino injuries.”

Aside from China and the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan and Brunei also have overlapping claims in the resource-rich and busy waterway, which Beijing continues to claim virtually in its entirety despite a 2016 international arbitration ruling that invalidated its expansive claims on historical grounds.

Video released by the Philippine military shows two Chinese coast guard ships hitting the smaller wooden-hulled boat Unaiza May 4 with high-pressure water cannon sprays at close range, causing the boat to shift in the high seas.

Chinese coast guard previously blasted the Unaizah May 4 with high-pressure water cannons in a confrontation near the Second Thomas Shoal on March 5, shattering its windshield and slightly injuring a Filipino admiral and four of his men with glass shards and splinters of debris.

The Department of Foreign Affairs in Manila summoned China’s deputy ambassador after the March 5 confrontation to convey a protest against the Chinese coast guard’s actions, which it said were unacceptable.

Associated Press writer Matthew Lee in Washington contributed to this report.

News&Social
Solaris Cup

M 3.30 (2,90 opt) L.KEEL 2.45-3.75

Hp V.P. 110 (150 OR 180)

Alle technischen Daten anzeigen

Die Solaris 64RS. Ein neues Modell aus dem Designbüro von Soto Acebal.

Die Solaris 64RS ist eine äußerst innovative Yacht in der Welt der Performance-Cruising Yachten. Sie hat einem erhöhten Salon mit 360 Grad Aussicht durch die Panoramen-Fenster, einen zentralen Maschinenraum und zwei sehr ruhige Achterkabinen.

Die Innovation beginnt mit dem Innenlayout und dem großen Segelstauraum im Bug, der auch als ein Ensuite-Crew-Kabine ausgebaut werden kann. Vor dem Mast gibt es eine große Eignerkabine mit großzügigem Stauraum, wahlweise mit einem Insel- oder einem Bett an der Bordwand. Die Pantry liegt in der Nähe des Mastes und erstreckt sich über beide Seiten.

Der große Salon hat den Niedergang an Steuerbord und bietet damit einen großen Durchgang zu den achterlichen Gästekabinen, beide mit eigenem Bad und separater Dusche mit voller Stehhöhe. In Bezug auf Größe und Stauraum stehen die beiden Gästekabinen, im Vergleich mit der Eignerkabine vorne, in nichts nach.

Die 3 Meter lange Tendergarage mit Längsausrichtung ist in den hinteren Kabinen nicht bemerkbar.

Der seitlich positionierte Eingang ermöglicht ein einzigartig geräumiges Gästecockpit mit festem Tisch backbords sowie zwei gegenüber liegende „Lounge“ Sitzflächen und freiem Durchgang zum Niedergang.

Der Arbeitsbereich verfügt über eine zentrale Grossschot- und je zwei weitere seitlich positionierten Arbeitswinschen und ist vom Gästebereich komplett abgetrennt.

Die moderne Rumpflinien zeigen ein breites Heck mit einer Doppelrüderblättersteueranlage und leicht negativem Bug. Der T-förmige Kiel ist niebst dem optionalen Teleskop Hubkiel, der somit nicht im Salon eindringt, mit zwei Tiefgängen erhältlich.

Javier Soto Acebal

INTERIOR DESIGNER

ROSEO DESIGN

SOLARIS DESIGN TEAM

SOLARIS 64RS

TECHNISCHE DATEN

Displacement.

Kg 27.600 LIGHT

CE CERTIFICATION

Strange Glow Over Moscow Skies Triggers Panic as Explosions Reported

B right flashes lit up the night sky in southern Moscow in the early hours of Thursday morning, new footage appears to show, following reports of an explosion at an electrical substation on the outskirts of the city.

Video snippets circulating on Russian-language Telegram channels show a series of flashes on the horizon of a cloudy night sky, momentarily turning the sky a number of different colors. In a clip shared by Russian outlet MSK1.ru, smoke can be seen rising from a building during the flashes lighting up the scene.

Newsweek was unable to independently verify the details of the video clips, including when and where it was filmed. The Russian Ministry of Emergency situations has been contacted via email.

Several Russian Telegram accounts said early on Thursday that residents of southern Moscow reported an explosion and a fire breaking out at an electrical substation in the Leninsky district, southeast of central Moscow.

Local authorities in the Leninsky district told Russian outlet RBC that the explosion had happened in the village of Molokovo. "All vital facilities are operating as normal," Leninsky district officials told the outlet.

The incident at the substation in Molokovo took place just before 2 a.m. local time, MSK1.ru reported.

Messages published by the ASTRA Telegram account, run by independent Russian journalists, appear to show residents close to the substation panicking as they question the bright flashes in the sky. One local resident describes seeing the bright light before losing access to electricity, with another calling the incident a "nightmare."

More than 10 villages and towns in the southeast of Moscow lost access to electricity, the ASTRA Telegram account also reported. The town of Lytkarino to the southeast of Moscow, lost electricity, wrote the eastern European-based independent outlet, Meduza.

Outages were reported in the southern Domodedovo area of the city, according to another Russian outlet, as well as power failures in western Moscow. Electricity was then restored to the areas, the Strana.ua outlet reported.

The cause of the reported explosion is not known. A Telegram account aggregating news for the Lytkarino area described the incident as "an ordinary accident at a substation."

The MSK1.ru outlet quoted a local resident who speculated that a drone may have been responsible for the explosion, but no other Russian source reported this as a possible cause.

Ukraine has repeatedly targeted Moscow with long-range aerial drones in recent months, including a dramatic wave of strikes in late May.

On Sunday, Moscow Mayor Sergei Sobyanin said the region's air defense systems had intercepted an aerial drone over the city of Elektrostal, to the east of Moscow. No damage or casualties were reported, he said.

The previous day, Russian air defenses detected and shot down another drone flying over the Bogorodsky district, northeast of central Moscow, Sobyanin said.

There is currently no evidence that an aerial drone was responsible for the reported overnight explosion at the electrical substation in southern Moscow.

Russian Soldier Bashes Drone With Shovel After Detonation Failure: Video
Russia Headed for Disappointment in Battles Along Dnieper River: UK
Ukraine's Military Receives Good News From Multiple NATO Allies

Start your unlimited Newsweek trial

Stills from footage circulating on Telegram early on Thursday morning. Bright flashes lit up the night sky in southern Moscow, new footage appears to show, following reports of an explosion at an electrical substation on the outskirts of the city.

RS. A new model from the drawing board of Soto Acebal … the Solaris 64 RS. She represents an extremely innovative yacht in the performance cruising world, featuring a raised saloon with 360 degree windows for better panoramic views and a central engine room with two aft cabins isolated from any noise from the machinery and systems.

Solaris 64 RS. A recent model launched in 2019, from the drawing board of Soto Acebal…. The Solaris 64 RS represents an extremely innovative yacht in the performance bluewater cruising world, featuring a raised saloon with 360-degree windows for unparalleled panoramic views and a central engine room (which also houses all the main services ...

Solaris 64 RS. Solaris 64 RS is one of the newer models from the drawing board of Javier Soto Acebal and hull number one launched in 2019. She is an extremely innovative yacht in the bluewater-cruising segment. The RS models have a bright saloon with large windows that provide an unbeatable panoramic view. The elevated saloon creates space for ...

RS. Nasce dalla matita di Soto Acebal questo Solaris 64 RS. Rappresenta uno yacht estremamente innovativo nel mondo delle barche da crociera veloce, caratterizzate dal salone rialzato che porta i vetri e la vista a 360° e consente di avere una sala macchine e un motore a centro barca con le cabine di poppa prive di impianti che creano rumore ...

SUBSCRIBE OUR CHANNEL https://www.youtube.com/c/theboatshow/?sub_confirmation=1 Review of the new Solaris 64 RS (Raised Saloon), a sailing yacht built in Ita...

Sailing Yacht Solaris 64 RS for sale. The focus is on granular details, professional yacht sales photography, and video - as part of the Berthon International Winter Collection 2023-24. ... Solaris 64 RS-Solaris 60-Discovery 58 KARIBU. £1,050,000 / VAT paid. Discovery 55 MERLYN III. £590,000 / VAT paid. Discovery 55 SAXON BLUE. €636,500 ...

DELIVERY in 2025! A new model from the drawing board of Soto Acebal … the Solaris 64 RS. She represents an extremely innovative yacht in the performance cruising world, featuring a raised saloon with 360 degree windows for better panoramic views and a central engine room with two aft cabins isolated from any noise from the machinery and systems.

https://www.berthoninternational.com/new-yacht-sales/solaris-yachts/solaris-64-rs/One of the more recent designs from Javier Soto Acebal and Solaris Yachts -...

Solaris 64 RS - Toby Hodges introduces the Italian yard's new raised saloon model, a powerful new head turner from the board of Soto Acebal - due to launch i...

The new Solaris 64' RS is the smallest of the new exclusive line of Solaris maxi-yachts designed for extended blue water sailing. The Solaris 64' RS will be built to the traditional Solaris "monolithic" methods, which were tested by the Solaris 72' Kamana belonging to Enrico Tettamanti, who has seven years of circumnavigation, including sailing in both the Arctic and Antarctic oceans.

SOLARIS 64 RS (2025) for sale. Experience elite sailing with the Solaris 64 RS, a state-of-the-art yacht breaking boundaries in the performance cruising world. Manufactured in 2025 and currently docked in Spain, this exceptional yacht offers a revolutionary design by Soto Acebal, boasting innovative features such as a raised saloon, offering ...

Solaris boats for sale on YachtWorld are available for a range of prices from $95,482 on the moderate end of the spectrum, with costs up to $3,061,888 for the most expensive, custom yachts.

The fully equipped galley is located slightly below forward and enjoys a compact design comfortable at sea. The master cabin is located in the forward part of the Solaris 64 RS and can accommodate either a standard outboard double bed or an island one, like on our test boat. Warm-coloured wood dominates on the floor, in the fittings and on the ...

Yachts sail along the Moskva River on the day of the sailing competition. A game in one of the kindergartens in Rostov-on-Don: children dressed in the uniform of Red Army soldiers sit in the carriage of the children's railway, load a toy gun, the train of the children's railway is going. ... Soyuzkinozhurnal Number 64 Film Information Please ...

MANILA, Philippines (AP) — Chinese coast guard ships hit a Philippine supply boat with water cannons Saturday in the latest confrontation near a disputed shoal in the South China Sea, causing injuries to its navy crew members and heavy damage to the wooden vessel, Philippine officials said.. The United States and Japan immediately expressed their support to the Philippines, as well as alarm ...

RS. Die Solaris 64RS. Ein neues Modell aus dem Designbüro von Soto Acebal. Die Solaris 64RS ist eine äußerst innovative Yacht in der Welt der Performance-Cruising Yachten. Sie hat einem erhöhten Salon mit 360 Grad Aussicht durch die Panoramen-Fenster, einen zentralen Maschinenraum und zwei sehr ruhige Achterkabinen.

B right flashes lit up the night sky in southern Moscow in the early hours of Thursday morning, new footage appears to show, following reports of an explosion at an electrical substation on the ...

Find company research, competitor information, contact details & financial data for BETA GIDA, OOO of Elektrostal, Moscow region. Get the latest business insights from Dun & Bradstreet.

Ukrainian military had 64 combat engagements with Russian forces near Synkivka of Kharkiv region, south to Terny and Vesele of Donetsk region, Klischiyivka and Andriyivka of Donetsk region, near Novobakhmutivka, Avdiyivka, Syeverne, Pervomayske and Nevelske of Donetsk region, Heorhiyivka, Pobyeda and Novomykhaylivka of Donetsk region, Staromayorske of Donetsk region, at the east bank of Dnipro ...

windrose 17 sailboat

Reveel Protocol Potential Airdrop Backed by Binance
KiloEX Confirmed Airdrop Invested By Binance Labs
Chance of Getting Two Potential Airdrop | Backed by Polychain, BinanceLabs and Others
Caldera Potential Airdrop Invested $9M By Sequoia Capital And Dragonfly
Polyhedra Network Potential Airdrop biggest Investors are Binance Labs, Animoca Brand, Polychain

Greetinglines

Best Greetings For Loved Ones

Essay on My Country Nepal For Students

If there is a country’s flag that stands out among all other countries it is the flag of Nepal . Our flag is very unique and cannot be compared to other countries’ flags due to its shape. It also has a hidden meaning behind it which represents the country’s peace-loving and friendly nature, bravery, and immortal history.

My country Nepal is situated between two countries, India and China. Although it is sandwiched between international powers, conflicts have not happened between any, and peace remains. Nepal is a country of various castes and cultures. In other words, it is like a beautiful garden of flowers with people of different ethnicities and backgrounds.

My country Nepal is not only unique for its flag but also its geographical terrain, the variety of castes and cultures you can find, and the rich history of it. It is the land of various great places and important figures that people know far and wide. The temperature here spans from cool to hot and is a heaven for residing in.

There are about 126 castes in Nepal each with its own rich history and culture which makes Nepal a rich place for culture. Some dating back to the millenniums. Not only that, our country is very rich in its geographical terrain. From the lowest point of just 70 Meters from sea level to the world’s highest peak Mt. Everest (8848.86 meters) , we have temperature scales that vary from place to place. It is divided into three regions, Terai, Hilly, and Himalayas each according to their altitude and geographical differences.

Himalayan regions have high and mighty Himalayas that are breathtaking to look at. Out of the world’s top 10 highest peaks, 8 of them fall in my country. It is already a great pride to have come from such a country. The diverse flora and fauna, beautiful landscapes, lush and green jungles, historical and religious places in Nepal are enough to gather the attention of foreigners and locals too. People from all over the world pay thousands of dollars just to see our country’s snow-capped mountains, rivers, cliffs, waterfalls, other beautiful landscapes, the rich flora and fauna, and sites of great religious and historical importance. It just doesn’t end there.

📌 Read – Essay on the Importance of English Language

Our country ranks in the top 5 for the richest in water resources. With just a small country with an area of 1,47,181 sq kilometers, it has the potential to fuel hydropower worth 2% of the entire world. It may look small in number but taking our country’s small area in context, it is a potential incomparable to all. The Terai region holds fertile land and smooth flowing waters that are excellent for farming and cultivating.

Nepal is also known as an agricultural country where 60% of the people here follow agriculture as their work. Our country also has huge historical importance. Gautama Buddha the founder and preacher of Buddhism which is practiced worldwide was also born in Nepal. Buddhism is known to preach peace and non-violence and to love everyone. King Janak is also an important figure who holds great importance to communities in Nepal.

Other personalities include Bhrikuti, Araniko, etc. Our country is also known for its bravery. Our country never has to celebrate Independence day as we were never under the rule of any other. We stood and fought against the Britans and other Mongol countries. Brave Gorkhalis were united after a long struggle and fought their way to preserve their country. The courage and bravery of Nepali people are also know world wide. Many brave Gorkhalis went to fight under countries in world wars and won various colors and medals. This brought our country so much respect that we even enjoy it for granted to date.

Although our country’s history, culture, terrains, and achievements make anyone feel proud, the power struggle for the politicians, previous kings, and presidents have made the country weak and fall in the developing country category. Our rich natural resources have not been utilized and we have fallen way behind. Corruption is widely prevalent in our country and the loans we have taken from other countries are in a large number. The amount of food and other materialistic consumption has made Nepal import more and export less.

Our country is poor but the people here are rich. This is because of the corruption and the illegal working/trading that has been done. The government has not made significant progress and the people aren’t responsible. Although I feel proud to be A Nepali, the condition of my country makes me feel bad. People should feel responsible and carry out their duties and not just complain about the government.

The government too should implement proper policies and rules and enforce them accordingly. Utilization of our natural resources should be done in an effective way and social evils such as discrimination according to castes and genders, other superstitions should be slowly removed. Centralized development should stop and we should control the people moving out to other countries with their skills that are wasted abroad. This way we can slowly develop our country.

Essays on Other Topics

Essay on Mother – 800+ Words Paragraph
Essay on Pollution | 800+ Words Paragraph on Pollution
Essay on Importance of Discipline
Essay on Globalization | 800+ Words Paragraph on Globalization

If you love our posts the consider following us on our social media channels Twitter @ GreetingLines and Facebook @ GreetingLines , our you can directly reach us via Contact Page .

Essay on Romeo and Juliet | Paragraph on Romeo & Juliet

Is It Bad That Students Use Online Essay Writing Services?

Essay on Technology | 800+ Words Paragraph on Technology

28 thoughts on “ essay on my country nepal for students ”.

Thank you so much sir for helpful essay.

Thanks a lot sir .😊👨 its give to get new ideas😊

It’s my humble request to you.that plz write an essay on my country,my paradise.🙏

Thankyou for your essay. It really helped me.

Thank you so much sir for helpful essay.Actually I was searching for essay on my country and luckily found ….

░░░░░░▄████▄ ░░░░░▐▌░░░░▐▌ ░░▄▀▀█▀░░░░▐▌ ░░▄░▐▄░░░░░▐▌▀▀▄ ▐▀░▄▄░▀▌░▄▀▀░▀▄░▀ ▐░▀██▀░▌▐░▄██▄░▌ ░▀▄░▄▄▀░▐░░▀▀░░▌ ░░░░█░░░░▀▄▄░▄▀ ░░░░█░█░░░░█░▐ ░░░░█░█░░░▐▌░█ ░░░░█░█░░░▐▌░█ ░░░░▐▌▐▌░░░█░█ ░░░░▐▌░█▄░▐▌░█ ░░░░░█░░▀▀▀░░▐▌ ░░░░░▐▌░░░░░░█ ░░░░░░█▄░░░░▄█ ░░░░░░░▀████▀

░░░░░░▄████▄ ░░░░░▐▌░░░░▐▌ ░░▄▀▀█▀░░░░▐▌ ░░▄░▐▄░░░░░▐▌▀▀▄ ▐▀░▄▄░▀▌░▄▀▀░▀▄░▀ -: ▐░▀██▀░▌▐░▄██▄░▌ ░▀▄░▄▄▀░▐░░▀▀░░▌ ░░░░█░░░░▀▄▄░▄▀ ░░░░█░█░░░░█░▐ ░░░░█░█░░░▐▌░█ ░░░░█░█░░░▐▌░█ ░░░░▐▌▐▌░░░█░█ ░░░░▐▌░█▄░▐▌░█ ░░░░░█░░▀▀▀░░▐▌ ░░░░░▐▌░░░░░░█ ░░░░░░█▄░░░░▄█ ░░░░░░░▀████▀

You are great sir 😚✌️🤞🙏

I really like your essay it helps me to get new ideas and thoughts 😃💕💕💕💕 Thanks for your nice essay.

Thank for your kind words we appreciate it 😉

Hi I am new user

Thank you Alot sir ❤

Your Welcome 😉

Thank yuh sir. For the great essay. This helps us for getting ideas to write an essay

Thank you so much for such amazing compliment 😊

Am proud to be nepali ❤️❤️❤️🇳🇵🇳🇵🇳🇵🇳🇵 so I knew about the history of our country it’s like a story ❤️❤️🇳🇵🇳🇵🇳🇵

Ya it’s really good to visit in Nepal. Nepal has most beautiful place to look.

Thanku sir for such a helpful and true essay which is outstanding💕💕💕

Thanku sir for your such a helpful and true essay which is outstanding💕💕💕

we are glad that you liked it 😉

Hello there! This post couldn’t be written any better!

Reading this post reminds me of my old room mate! He always kept chatting about this. I will forward this article to him. Fairly certain he will have a good read. Thanks for sharing!

I love what you guys are up too. This kind of clever work and exposure! Keep up the superb works guys I’ve incorporated you guys to my blogroll.

Wonderful blog! I found it while searching on Yahoo News. Do you have any tips on how to get listed in Yahoo News? I’ve been trying for a while but I never seem to get there! Thank you

Hey There. I found your blog using msn. This is a very well written article. I will be sure to bookmark it and return to read more of your useful info.

Thanks for the post. I will certainly return.

Hello! Do you know if they make any plugins to help with Search Engine Optimization? I’m trying to get my blog to rank for some targeted keywords but I’m not seeing very good results. If you know of any please share. Many thanks!

You can Use rank math or Yoast SEO they are very good you can try both but I would suggest you to use Rankmath cause it is more user friendly but in the end, it depends on you;)

This colours has navigated right into my heart.

This post is so insightful and well-written! I love how you presented the information in a clear and engaging manner. Keep up the great work

Share full article

Supported by

Guest Essay

Stephen Breyer: The Supreme Court I Served On Was Made Up of Friends

A group plays cards in the background, while judicial robes hang on a rail in the foreground.

By Stephen Breyer

Justice Breyer is a retired associate justice of the United States Supreme Court and the author of “Reading the Constitution: Why I Chose Pragmatism, Not Textualism.”

Recently, the Supreme Court justices Sonia Sotomayor and Amy Coney Barrett spoke together publicly about how members of the court speak civilly to one another while disagreeing, sometimes vigorously, about the law. Considerable disagreement on professional matters among the Supreme Court justices, important as they are, remain professional, not personal. The members of the court can and do get along well personally. That matters.

In my tenure, this meant that we could listen to one another, which increased the chances of agreement or compromise. It means that the court will work better for the nation that it serves. And I wonder: If justices who disagree so profoundly can do so respectfully, perhaps it is possible for our politically divided country to do the same.

Sandra Day O’Connor was the first woman appointed to the court; Ruth Bader Ginsburg was the second. I remember being slightly surprised when, during a visit to meet with several European judges, they suddenly disappeared. Where had they gone? It seems they went off together to look for suitable women’s collars for their robes. They found some, and Justice Ginsburg wore them ever after.

At about the same time, Justice O’Connor reminded me that our chief justice, William Rehnquist, had decided that he too needed something distinctive on his black robe. Inspired by Gilbert and Sullivan’s “Iolanthe ,” he decided to enliven it with a few gold stripes on the sleeves. Justice O’Connor found at a European bookstall a picture of Lorenzo de’ Medici wearing similar stripes. She suggested that we send it to him with a special message from her.

We would do things together outside of class. Chief Justice Rehnquist, Justice Anthony Kennedy, Justice O’Connor and I would play bridge with friends and spouses (often changing partners). Today, I gather that justices who do not always agree on legal results nonetheless agree to go to hockey games or play golf together. (Why hockey in Washington, D.C., where baseball, football and basketball abound? Perhaps they just like hockey.)

As is fairly well known, Justice Ginsburg and Justice Scalia loved opera and became great friends. They even convinced Justice Kennedy and me to take part in a Washington Opera performance of “Die Fledermaus,” provided, of course, that we simply sat onstage on a sofa and never opened our mouths. Justice Scalia had a good musical voice, however; he, law clerks and other justices would sometimes sing at the court, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist, as well as by a friend of Justice Scalia who was a fine pianist and loved Cole Porter.

Justice Scalia and I would talk to students in high school, law school and other audiences about the court. It was obvious to those audiences that while we did not share basic views about how to interpret difficult statutory and constitutional phrases, we were friends.

Certain unwritten rules help to smooth over differences and maintain good personal relations among court members. At conferences when we discussed cases privately, we proceed in order of seniority, and no one would speak twice until everyone had spoken once. Thus, everyone could be fairly sure that he or she would have a chance to speak before minds were definitely made up. (This rule helped me, for I was the most junior justice for 11 years.)

Once all had spoken we would discuss the case, back and forth. But one quickly learned that it did not help to say “I have a better argument than you.” Much better to listen to what others say and to find in their points of view material for working out an agreement, or perhaps a compromise.

Chief Justice Rehnquist generally did not approve of jokes made during the business portion of the conference, though I admit I once told him while we were having coffee, and having recently nearly lost a majority on what we thought initially would be a unanimous opinion, “I have discovered how to get five people on a single opinion.” “How?” he asked. “Start with nine,” I replied.

In any event, agreement or disagreement, joke or no joke, in my 28 years on the court I did not hear a voice raised in anger in that conference, nor were snide or personal remarks ever made. The discussion was professional, disagreements reflected legal differences on the merits, and the justices tried to find ways to reach court agreements.

Justice O’Connor maintained that a highly important informal court rule was this: You and I may disagree strongly in respect to Case One, but that fact has nothing to do with our positions in respect to (non-legally-related) Case Two, where we may be the strongest of allies. That is, no horse-trading.

After conference we would have lunch, often talking about sports or trading so-called jokes, and other nonlegal matters. I remember once saying to Chief Justice Rehnquist that I thought it amazing that we were about to have a pleasant lunch when just 20 minutes before at conference we had strongly disagreed about applicable law. His reply suggested that he thought only a short time earlier that half the court thought the other half had lost its mind.

What works for nine people with lifetime appointments won’t work for the entire nation, but listening to one another in search of a consensus might help.

Stephen Breyer is a retired associate justice of the United States Supreme Court.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , WhatsApp , X and Threads .

Essay on my best friend in Nepali.https://youtu.be/PWBo6o7_zZE

The slides used in this video can be found here:https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B-JWfTCc-DCLVjd1MUhnSUpaMUk?resourcekey=0-lGpfeL8_WW82yibE41GeQA&usp=...

It is a sample essay about my best friend. Model Sample Essay about My Best Friend. A friend in need is a friend indeed. A true friend walks in when others walk out. He is ever ready to sacrifice his life for his friend. So, fortunate is the man who has a true friend. I do have dozens of friends. Many are hello friends whereas only a few ...

My Best Friend Essay in about 600+ words. Friendship is a beautiful relationship ... Shayari written... Happy Birthday Quotes For Friends · Heart Touching Shayari · Like Facebook.... Nepali nibandha book is a free educational app. This app contains many Nepali essays. Many Nepali essays in this app, Which is very useful...

This is just an educational essay. You can keep in your mind how to write an essay about my best friend. It is a sample essay about my best friend. Model Sample Essay about My Best Friend... Friendship Quotes in the Nepali Language: Message, Shayari No. 5. Kura yasto gar ki bhawana kahilyai kam na hos. Kalpana gara ki nai na haraos.

Get here 380 best and good friendship day shayari sms messages wishes and quotes in Nepali language and font. We have posted here some 180 top friendship quotes, message, shayari in Nepali language for your friends, facebook friends, twitters friends and college and school friends or business friends. Friendship Dosti Shayari in Nepali.

Interdependence. Faith. Tradition. Patience. Tolerance. Dependability. Nepal is a landlocked, mountainous country located between India and Tibet. It is well known for the impressive Himalayan range and deep valleys that shape the landscape. Nepalis have a reputation for being dependable and resilient people who can withstand difficult conditions.

Do not make the body of the essay lengthy or monotonous. 12. Do not repeat the same thing, the same words time and again. 13. Conclude the essay in short in one paragraph including the main points that support the topic of the essay. Here is the topic list of Nepali Essay: 1 नेपाल. 2 मेरो देश.

300+ words Student Life Essay in English. Students are those people who study in various educational institutions for the purpose of acquiring education. At the same time, they learn many things and they develop physically and mentally and enjoy their childhood without any worries. Student life is a very important time for everyone.

7,691,661,767. Contextual translation of "essay on my best friend" into Nepali. Human translations with examples: mitini ama, मित्रमा निबन्ध, मेरो देश मा निबंध, मेरो घनिष्ठ मित्र.

In this article, we will present some of the essays on Nepal for you and your friends. We'll mention some popular facts, information, and attractive places in the Nepal essay. After reading this article you should have a clear idea about the essay about Nepal. Here are some of the top selected essays on Nepal. Nepal is amazingly beautiful.

Contextual translation of "essay about friendship in nepali" into Nepali. Human translations with examples: MyMemory, World's Largest Translation Memory.

500 Words Essay on Nepali Culture Introduction to Nepali Culture. Nepali culture is like a beautiful garden with many kinds of flowers. It is rich with traditions, art, festivals, and music. ... The food is not just about taste; it is also about bringing family and friends together to share a meal. Traditional Clothing. The clothes in Nepal are ...

The subtopic of an essay is a topic that supports the main topic of the essay and helps to bolster its credibility. An example of a subtopic in an essay about transitioning to a new school might be difficulty making new friends or learning ..... An informative essay is any type of essay that has the goal of informing or educating an audience.

Introduction to Nepal. Nepal is a small, beautiful country in South Asia. It is landlocked, which means it does not touch the sea. It is found between two giant countries, India and China. Nepal is known for its stunning mountains, rich culture, and brave history. It is a place where nature and culture come together.

A series about ways to take life off "hard mode," from changing careers to gaming the stock market, moving back home, or simply marrying wisely. Illustration: Celine Ka Wing Lau. In the summer, in the south of France, my husband and I like to play, rather badly, the lottery. We take long, scorching walks to the village — gratuitous beauty ...

आज मेरो देश नेपाल बारे निबन्ध (essay on my country nepal in nepali) कक्षा ५, ६, ७, ८, ९, १०, ११ र १२ का लागि 150, 200, 250, 300, 500 शब्दमा छन ।

KATHMANDU: Nepal clinched another victory in the ongoing SMS Friendship Cup in India by defeating Baroda with a margin of 27 runs on Tuesday. This marks Nepal's second consecutive win in the tournament. Baroda, aiming for a target of 157 runs, managed to score 129 runs after losing all their wickets in 20 overs. Bhanu […]

My Best Friend: A Bond That Lasts a Lifetime. My Best Friend Essay in about 600+ words. Friendship is a beautiful relationship ... Shayari written... Happy Birthday Quotes For Friends · Heart Touching Shayari · Like Facebook.... Nepali nibandha book is a free educational app. This app contains many Nepali essays.

Essay on My Country Nepal For Students. If there is a country's flag that stands out among all other countries it is the flag of Nepal. Our flag is very unique and cannot be compared to other countries' flags due to its shape. It also has a hidden meaning behind it which represents the country's peace-loving and friendly nature, bravery ...

Justice Breyer is a retired associate justice of the United States Supreme Court and the author of "Reading the Constitution: Why I Chose Pragmatism, Not Textualism.". Recently, the Supreme ...

essay topics

Translation of "friend" into Nepali

मित्र, साथी are the top translations of "friend" into Nepali. Sample translated sentence: For example, just five years before the accident related above, John’s mother had a friend whose child was killed trying to cross that very highway! ↔ उदाहरणको लागि, माथि बताइएको दुर्घटना हुनुभन्दा पाँच वर्षअघिको कुरा हो। जोनकी आमाको एउटा साथीको छोरा पनि त्यही बाटो काट्दा मरेका थिए!

A person other than a family member, spouse or lover whose company one enjoys and towards whom one feels affection. [..]

English-Nepali dictionary

person whose company one enjoys

person whose company one enjoys [..]

Show algorithmically generated translations

Automatic translations of " friend " into Nepali

Translations with alternative spelling

A Quaker; a member of the Society of Friends. [..]

"Friend" in English - Nepali dictionary

Currently we have no translations for Friend in the dictionary, maybe you can add one? Make sure to check automatic translation, translation memory or indirect translations.

Images with "friend"

Phrases similar to "friend" with translations into nepali.

Friends साथीहरू
friends साथीहरू

Translations of "friend" into Nepali in sentences, translation memory

Reveel Protocol Potential Airdrop Backed by Binance
KiloEX Confirmed Airdrop Invested By Binance Labs
Chance of Getting Two Potential Airdrop | Backed by Polychain, BinanceLabs and Others
Caldera Potential Airdrop Invested $9M By Sequoia Capital And Dragonfly
Polyhedra Network Potential Airdrop biggest Investors are Binance Labs, Animoca Brand, Polychain