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119 Genetics Research Topics You Must Know About

Put simply, Genetics is the study of genes and hereditary traits in living organisms. Knowledge in this field has gone up over time, and this is proportional to the amount of research.

Right from the DNA structure discovery, a lot more has come out into the open. There are so many genetics research topics to choose from because of the wide scope of research done in recent years.

Genetics is so dear to us since it helps us understand our genes and hereditary traits. In this guide, you will get to understand this subject more and get several topic suggestions that you can consider when looking for interesting genetics topics.

Writing a paper on genetics is quite intriguing nowadays. Remember that because there are so many topics in genetics, choosing the right one is crucial. It will help you cut down on research time and the technicality of selecting content for the topic. Thus, it would matter a lot if you confirmed whether or not the topic you’re choosing has relevant sources in plenty.

What Is Genetics?

Before we even go deeper into genetics topics for research papers, it is essential to have a basic understanding of what the subject entails.

Genetics is a branch of Biology to start with. It is mainly focused on the study of genetic variation, hereditary traits, and genes.

Genetics has relations with several other subjects, including biotechnology, medicine, and agriculture. In Genetics, we study how genes act on the cell and how they’re transmitted from a parent to the offspring. In modern Genetics, the emphasis is more on DNA, which is the chemical substance found in genes. Remember that Genetics cut across animals, insects, and plants – basically any living organism there is.

Tips On How To Write A Decent Research Paper On Genetics

When planning to choose genetics topics, you should also make time and learn how to research. After all, this is the only way you can gather the information that will help you come up with the content for the paper. Here are some tips that can bail you out whenever you feel stuck:

Choosing the topic, nonetheless, is not an easy thing for many students. There are just so many options present, and often, you get spoilt for choice. But note that this is an integral stage/process that you have to complete. Do proper research on the topic and choose the kind of information that you’d like to apply.

Choose a topic that has enough sources academically. Also, choosing interesting topics in genetics is a flex that can help you during the writing process.

On the web, there’s a myriad of information that often can become deceiving. Amateurs try their luck to put together several pieces of information in a bid to try and convince you that they are the authority on the subject. Many students become gullible to such tricks and end up writing poorly in Genetics.

Resist the temptation to look for an easy way of gaining sources/information. You have to take your time and dig up information from credible resources. Otherwise, you’ll look like a clown in front of your professor with laughable Genetics content.

Also, it is quite important that you check when your sources were updated or published. It is preferred and advised that you use recent sources that have gone under satisfactory research and assessment.

Also, add a few words to each on what you’re planning to discuss.Now, here are some of the top genetics paper topics that can provide ideas on what to write about.

Good Ideas For Genetics Topics

Here are some brilliant ideas that you can use as research paper topics in the Genetics field:

• Is the knowledge of Genetics ahead of replication and research?
• What would superman’s genetics be like?
• DNA molecules and 3D printing – How does it work?
• How come people living in mountainous regions can withstand high altitudes?
• How to cross genes in distinct animals.
• Does gene-crossing really help to improve breeds or animals?
• The human body’s biggest intriguing genetic contradictions
• Are we still far away from achieving clones?
• How close are we to fully cloning human beings?
• Can genetics really help scientists to secure various treatments?
• Gene’s regulation – more details on how they can be regulated.
• Genetic engineering and its functioning.
• What are some of the most fascinating facts in the field of Genetics?
• Can you decipher genetic code?
• Cancer vaccines and whether or not they really work.
• Revealing the genetic pathways that control how proteins are made in a bacterial cell.
• How food affects the human body’s response to and connection with certain plants’ and animals’ DNA.

Hot Topics In Genetics

In this list are some of the topics that raise a lot of attention and interest from the masses. Choose the one that you’d be interested in:

• The question of death: Why do men die before women?
• Has human DNA changed since the evolution process?
• How much can DNA really change?
• How much percentage of genes from the father goes to the child?
• Does the mother have a higher percentage of genes transferred to the child?
• Is every person unique in terms of their genes?
• How does genetics make some of us alike?
• Is there a relationship between diets and genetics?
• Does human DNA resemble any other animal’s DNA?
• Sleep and how long you will live on earth: Are they really related?
• Does genetics or a healthy lifestyle dictate how long you’ll live?
• Is genetics the secret to long life on earth?
• How much does genetics affect your life’s quality?
• The question on ageing: Does genetics have a role to play?
• Can one push away certain diseases just by passing a genetic test?
• Is mental illness continuous through genes?
• The relationship between Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and the DNA.

Molecular Genetics Topics

Here is a list of topics to help you get a better understanding of Molecular genetics:

• Mutation of genes and constancy.
• What can we learn more about viruses, bacteria, and multicellular organisms?
• A study on molecular genetics: What does it involve?
• The changing of genetics in bacteria.
• What is the elucidation of the chemical nature of a gene?
• Prokaryotes genetics: Why does this take a centre stage in the genetics of microorganisms?
• Cell study: How this complex assessment has progressed.
• What tools can scientists wield in cell study?
• A look into the DNA of viruses.
• What can the COVID-19 virus help us to understand about genetics?
• Examining molecular genetics through chemical properties.
• Examining molecular genetics through physical properties.
• Is there a way you can store genetic information?
• Is there any distinction between molecular levels and subcellular levels?
• Variability and inheritance: What you need to note about living things at the molecular level.
• The research and study on molecular genetics: Key takeaways.
• What scientists can do within the confines of molecular genetics?
• Molecular genetics research and experiments: What you need to know.
• What is molecular genetics, and how can you learn about it?

Human Genetics Research Topics

Human genetics is an interesting field that has in-depth content. Some topics here will jog your brain and invoke curiosity in you. However, if you have difficulty writing a scientific thesis , you can always contact us for help.

• Can you extend your life by up to 100% just by gaining more understanding of the structure of DNA?
• What programming can you do with the help of DNA?
• Production of neurotransmitters and hormones through DNA.
• Is there something that you can change in the human body?
• What is already predetermined in the human body?
• Do genes capture and secure information on someone’s mentality?
• Vaccines and their effect on the DNA.
• What’s the likelihood that a majority of people on earth have similar DNA?
• Breaking of the myostatin gene: What impact does it have on the human body?
• Is obesity passed genetically?
• What are the odds of someone being overweight when the rest of his lineage is obese?
• A better understanding of the relationship between genetics and human metabolism.
• The truths and myths engulfing human metabolism and genetics.
• Genetic tests on sports performance: What you need to know.
• An insight on human genetics.
• Is there any way that you can prevent diseases that are transmitted genetically?
• What are some of the diseases that can be passed from one generation to the next through genetics?
• Genetic tests conducted on a person’s country of origin: Are they really accurate?
• Is it possible to confirm someone’s country of origin just by analyzing their genes?

Current Topics in Genetics

A list to help you choose from all the most relevant topics:

• DNA-altering experiments: How are scientists conducting them?
• How important is it to educate kids about genetics while they’re still in early learning institutions?
• A look into the genetics of men and women: What are the variations?
• Successes and failures in the study of genetics so far.
• What does the future of genetics compare to the current state?
• Are there any TV series or science fiction films that showcase the future of genetics?
• Some of the most famous myths today are about genetics.
• Is there a relationship between genetics and homosexuality?
• Does intelligence pass through generations?
• What impact does genetics hold on human intelligence?
• Do saliva and hair contain any genetic data?
• What impact does genetics have on criminality?
• Is it possible that most criminals inherit the trait through genetics?
• Drug addiction and alcohol use: How close can you relate it to genetics?
• DNA changes in animals, humans, and plants: What is the trigger?
• Can you extend life through medication?
• Are there any available remedies that extend a person’s life genetically?
• Who can study genetics?
• Is genetics only relevant to scientists?
• The current approach to genetics study: How has it changed since ancient times?

Controversial Genetics Topics

Last, but definitely not least, are some controversial topics in genetics. These are topics that have gone through debate and have faced criticism all around. Here are some you can write a research paper about:

• Gene therapy: Some of the ethical issues surrounding it.
• The genetic engineering of animals: What questions have people raised about it?
• The controversy around epigenetics.
• The human evolution process and how it relates to genetics.
• Gene editing and the numerous controversies around it.
• The question on same-sex relations and genetics.
• The use of personal genetic information in tackling forensic cases.
• Gene doping in sports: What you need to know.
• Gene patenting: Is it even possible?
• Should gene testing be compulsory?
• Genetic-based therapies and the cloud of controversy around them.
• The dangers and opportunities that lie in genetic engineering.
• GMOs and their impact on the health and welfare of humans.
• At what stage in the control of human genetics do we stop to be human?
• Food science and GMO.
• The fight against GMOs: Why is it such a hot topic?
• The pros and cons of genetic testing.
• The debates around eugenics and genetics.
• Labelling of foods with GMO: Should it be mandatory?
• What really are the concerns around the use of GMOs?
• The Supreme Court decision on the patent placed on gene discoveries.
• The ethical issues surrounding nurses and genomic healthcare.
• Cloning controversial issues.
• Religion and genetics.
• Behavior learning theories are pegged on genetics.
• Countries’ war on GMOs.
• Studies on genetic disorders.

Get Professional Help Online

Now that we have looked at the best rated topics in genetics, from interesting to controversial topics genetics, you have a clue on what to choose. These titles should serve as an example of what to select.

Nonetheless, if you need help with a thesis, we are available to offer professional and affordable thesis writing services . Our high quality college and university assignment assistance are available to all students online at a cheap rate. Get a sample to check on request and let us give you a hand when you need it most.

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122 The Best Genetics Research Topics For Projects

The study of genetics takes place across different levels of the education system in academic facilities all around the world. It is an academic discipline that seeks to explain the mechanism of heredity and genes in living organisms. First discovered back in the 1850s, the study of genetics has come a pretty long way, and it plays such an immense role in our everyday lives. Therefore, when you are assigned a genetics research paper, you should pick a topic that is not only interesting to you but one that you understand well.

Choosing Research Topics in Genetics

Even for the most knowledgeable person in the room, choosing a genetics topic for research papers can be, at times, a hectic experience. So we put together a list of some of the most exciting top in genetics to make the endeavor easier for you. However, note, while all the topics we’ve listed below will enable you to write a unique genetic project, remember what you choose can make or break your paper. So again, select a topic that you are both interested and knowledgeable on, and that has plenty of research materials to use. Without further ado, check out the topics below.

Interesting Genetics Topics for your Next Research Paper

• Genes and DNA: write a beginners’ guide to genetics and its applications
• Factors that contribute or/and cause genetic mutations
• Genetics and obesity, what do you need to know?
• Describe RNA information
• Is there a possibility of the genetic code being confidential?
• Are there any living cells present in the gene?
• Cancer and genetics
• Describe the role of genetics in the fight against Alzheimer’s disease
• What is the gene
• Is there a link between genetics and Parkinson’s disease? Explain your answer.
• Replacement of genes and artificial chromosomes
• Explain genetic grounds for obesity
• Development and disease; how can genetics dissect the developing process
• Analyzing gene expression – RNA
• Gene interaction; eye development
• Advances and developments in nanotechnology to enable therapeutic methods for the treatment of HIV and AIDS.
• Isolating and identifying the cancer treatment activity of special organic metal compounds.
• Analyzing the characteristics in certain human genes that can withstand heavy metals.
• A detailed analysis of genotypes that is both sensitive and able to endure heavy metals.
• Isolating special growth-inducing bacteria that can assist crops during heavy metal damage and identifying lipid directing molecules for escalating heavy metal endurance in plants.

Hot and Controversial Topics in Genetics

• Is there a link between genetics and homosexuality? Explain your answer
• Is it ethical and morally upright to grow human organs
• Can DNA changes beat aging
• The history and development of human cloning science
• How addictive substances alter our genes
• Are genetically modified foods safe for human and animal consumption?
• Is depression a genetically based condition?
• Genetic diagnosis of the fetus
• Genetic analysis of the DNA structure
• What impact does cloning have on future generations?
• What is the link between genetics and autism?
• Can artificial insemination have any sort of genetic impact on a person?
• The advancements in genetic research and the bioethics that come with them.
• Is human organ farming a possibility today?
• Can genetics allow us to design and build a human to our specifications?
• Is it ethical to try and tamper with human genetics in any way?

Molecular Genetics Topics

• Molecular techniques: How to analyze DNA(including genomes), RNA as well as proteins
• Stem cells describe their potential and shortcomings
• Describe molecular and genome evolution
• Describe DNA as the agent of heredity
• Explain the power of targeted mutagenesis
• Bacteria as a genetic system
• Explain how genetic factors increase cancer susceptibility
• Outline and describe recent advances in molecular cancer genetics
• Does our DNA sequencing have space for more?
• Terminal illness and DNA.
• Does our DNA determine our body structure?
• What more can we possibly discover about DNA?

Genetic Engineering Topics

• Define gene editing, and outline key gene-editing technologies, explaining their impact on genetic engineering
• The essential role the human microbiome plays in preventing diseases
• The principles of genetic engineering
• Project on different types of cloning
• What is whole genome sequencing
• Explain existing studies on DNA-modified organisms
• How cloning can impact medicine
• Does our genetics hold the key to disease prevention?
• Can our genetics make us resistant to certain bacteria and viruses?
• Why our genetics plays a role in chronic degenerative diseases.
• Is it possible to create an organism in a controlled environment with genetic engineering?
• Would cloning lead to new advancements in genetic research?
• Is there a possibility to enhance human DNA?
• Why do we share DNA with so many other animals on the planet?
• Is our DNA still evolving or have reached our biological limit?
• Can human DNA be manipulated on a molecular or atomic level?
• Do we know everything there is to know about our DNA, or is there more?

Controversial Human Genetic Topics

• Who owns the rights to the human genome
• Is it legal for parents to order genetically perfect children
• is genetic testing necessary
• What is your stand on artificial insemination vs. ordinary pregnancy
• Do biotech companies have the right to patent human genes
• Define the scope of the accuracy of genetic testing
• Perks of human genetic engineering
• Write about gene replacement and its relationship to artificial chromosomes.
• Analyzing DNA and cloning
• DNA isolation and nanotechnology methods to achieve it.
• Genotyping of African citizens.
• Greatly mutating Y-STRs and the isolated study of their genetic variation.
• The analytical finding of indels and their genetic diversity.

DNA Research Paper Topics

The role and research of DNA are so impactful today that it has a significant effect on our daily lives today. From health care to medication and ethics, over the last few decades, our knowledge of DNA has experienced a lot of growth. A lot has been discovered from the research of DNA and genetics.

Therefore, writing a good research paper on DNA is quite the task today. Choosing the right topic can make things a lot easier and interesting for writing your paper. Also, make sure that you have reliable resources before you begin with your paper.

• Can we possibly identify and extract dinosaur DNA?
• Is the possibility of cloning just around the corner?
• Is there a connection between the way we behave and our genetic sequence?
• DNA research and the environment we live in.
• Does our DNA sequencing have something to do with our allergies?
• The connection between hereditary diseases and our DNA.
• The new perspectives and complications that DNA can give us.
• Is DNA the reason all don’t have similar looks?
• How complex human DNA is.
• Is there any sort of connection between our DNA and cancer susceptibility and resistance?
• What components of our DNA affect our decision-making and personality?
• Is it possible to create DNA from scratch under the right conditions?
• Why is carbon such a big factor in DNA composition?
• Why is RNA something to consider in viral research and its impact on human DNA?
• Can we detect defects in a person’s DNA before they are born?

Genetics Topics For Presentation

The subject of genetics can be quite broad and complex. However, choosing a topic that you are familiar with and is unique can be beneficial to your presentation. Genetics plays an important part in biology and has an effect on everyone, from our personal lives to our professional careers.

Below are some topics you can use to set up a great genetics presentation. It helps to pick a topic that you find engaging and have a good understanding of. This helps by making your presentation clear and concise.

• Can we create an artificial gene that’s made up of synthetic chromosomes?
• Is cloning the next step in genetic research and engineering?
• The complexity and significance of genetic mutation.
• The unlimited potential and advantages of human genetics.
• What can the analysis of an individual’s DNA tell us about their genetics?
• Is it necessary to conduct any form of genetic testing?
• Is it ethical to possibly own a patent to patent genes?
• How accurate are the results of a genetics test?
• Can hereditary conditions be isolated and eliminated with genetic research?
• Can genetically modified food have an impact on our genetics?
• Can genetics have a role to play in an individual’s sexuality?
• The advantages of further genetic research.
• The pros and cons of genetic engineering.
• The genetic impact of terminal and neurological diseases.

Biotechnology Topics For Research Papers

As we all know, the combination of biology and technology is a great subject. Biotechnology still offers many opportunities for eager minds to make innovations. Biotechnology has a significant role in the development of modern technology.

Below you can find some interesting topics to use in your next biotechnology research paper. Make sure that your sources are reliable and engage both you and the reader.

• Settlements that promote sustainable energy technology maintenance.
• Producing ethanol through molasses emission treatment.
• Evapotranspiration and its different processes.
• Circular biotechnology and its widespread framework.
• Understanding the genes responsible for flora response to harsh conditions.
• Molecule signaling in plants responding to dehydration and increased sodium.
• The genetic improvement of plant capabilities in major crop yielding.
• Pharmacogenomics on cancer treatment medication.
• Pharmacogenomics on hypertension treating medication.
• The uses of nanotechnology in genotyping.
• How we can quickly detect and identify food-connected pathogens using molecular-based technology.
• The impact of processing technology both new and traditional on bacteria cultures linked to Aspalathus linearis.
• A detailed analysis of adequate and renewable sorghum sources for bioethanol manufacturing in South Africa.
• A detailed analysis of cancer treatment agents represented as special quinone compounds.
• Understanding the targeted administering of embelin to cancerous cells.

Tips for Writing an Interesting Genetics Research Paper

All the genetics research topics above are excellent, and if utilized well, could help you come up with a killer research paper. However, a good genetics research paper goes beyond the topic. Therefore, besides choosing a topic, you are most interested in, and one with sufficient research materials ensure you

Fully Understand the Research Paper Format

You may write on the most interesting genetics topics and have a well-thought-out set of ideas, but if your work is not arranged in an engaging and readable manner, your professor is likely to dismiss it, without looking at what you’ve written. That is the last thing you need as a person seeking to score excellent grades. Therefore, before you even put pen to paper, understand what research format is required.

Keep in mind that part of understanding the paper’s format is knowing what words to use and not to use. You can contact our trustful masters to get qualified assistance.

Research Thoroughly and Create an Outline

Whichever genetics research paper topics you decide to go with, the key to having excellent results is appropriately researching it. Therefore, embark on a journey to understand your genetics research paper topic by thoroughly studying it using resources from your school’s library and the internet.

Ensure you create an outline so that you can note all the useful genetic project ideas down. A research paper outline will help ensure that you don’t forget even one important point. It also enables you to organize your thoughts. That way, writing them down in the actual genetics research paper becomes smooth sailing. In other words, a genetics project outline is more like a sketch of the paper.

Other than the outline, it pays to have an excellent research strategy. In other words, instead of looking for information on any random source you come across, it would be wise to have a step-by-step process of looking for the research information.

For instance, you could start by reading your notes to see what they have to say about the topic you’ve chosen. Next, visit your school’s library, go through any books related to your genetics research paper topic to see whether the information on your notes is correct and for additional information on the topic. Note, you can visit the library either physically or via your school’s website. Lastly, browse educational sites such as Google Scholar, for additional information. This way, you’ll start your work with a bunch of excellent genetics project ideas, and at the same time, you’ll have enjoyed every step of the research process.

Get Down to Work

Now turn the genetics project ideas on your outline into a genetics research paper full of useful and factual information.

There is no denying writing a genetics research paper is one of the hardest parts of your studies. But with the above genetics topics and writing tips to guide you, it should be a tad easier. Good luck!

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213 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School

Genetics studies how genes and traits pass from generation to generation. It has practical applications in many areas, such as genetic engineering, gene therapy, gene editing, and genetic testing. If you’re looking for exciting genetics topics for presentation, you’re at the right place! Here are genetics research paper topics and ideas for different assignments.

🧬 TOP 7 Genetics Topics for Presentation 2024

🏆 best genetics essay topics, ❓ genetics research questions, 👍 good genetics research topics & essay examples, 🌟 cool genetics topics for presentation, 🌶️ hot genetics topics to write about, 🔎 current genetic research topics, 🎓 most interesting genetics topics.

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Testing
• Should Parents Have the Right to Choose Their Children Based on Genetics?
• GMO Use in Brazil and Other Countries
• Genetics: When Nurture Becomes Nature
• Cause and Effect of Genetically Modified Food
• The Importance of Heredity and Genetics
• Human Genetics: Multifactorial Traits
• Genetic Alterations and Cancer The paper will discuss cancer symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, side-effects of treatment, and also its link with a genetic alteration.
• The Concept of Epigenetics Epigenetics is a study of heritable phenotypic changes or gene expression in cells that are caused by mechanisms other than DNA sequence.
• Genetic and Social Behavioral Learning Theories Learning and behavioral habits in human beings can be influenced by social, environmental and genetic factors. Genetic theory describes how genes help in shaping human behaviors.
• Genetically Modified Organisms: Pros and Cons Genetically modified organisms are organisms that are created after combining DNA from a different species into an organism to come up with a transgenic organism.
• Genetically Modified Pineapples and Their Benefits The paper covers the existing benefits of GM pineapples, as well as examples of what could be achieved with this technology.
• Genetic and Environmental Impacts on Teaching Work If students do not adopt learning materials and the fundamentals of the curriculum well, this is a reason for reviewing the current educational regimen.
• Technology of Synthesis of Genetically Modified Insulin The work summarizes the technology for obtaining genetically modified insulin by manipulating the E. coli genome.
• Medical and Psychological Genetic Counseling Genetic counseling is defined as the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological, and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease.
• Value of the Epigenetics Epigenetics is a quickly developing field of science that has proven to be practical in medicine. It focuses on changes in gene activity that are not a result of DNA sequence mutations.
• Environmental Ethics in Genetically Modified Organisms The paper discusses genetically modified organisms. Environmental ethics is centered on the ethical dilemmas arising from human interaction with the nonhuman domain.
• Restricting the Volume of Sale of Fast Foods and Genetically Modified Foods The effects of fast foods and genetically modified foods on the health of Arizona citizens are catastrophic. The control of such outlets and businesses is crucial.
• Plant Genetic Engineering: Genetic Modification Genetic engineering is the manipulation of the genes of an organism by completely altering the structure of the organism.
• DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics Molecular genetics is critical in studying traits that are passed through generations. The paper analyzes the role of DNA to provide an ample understanding of molecular genetics.
• Genetic Tests: Pros and Cons Genetic testing is still undergoing transformations and further improvements, so it may be safer to avoid such procedures under certain circumstances.
• Link Between Obesity and Genetics Obesity affects the lives through limitations implemented on the physical activity, associated disorders, and even emotional pressure.
• Genetics: A Frameshift Mutation in Human MC4R This article reviews the article “A Frameshift Mutation in Human mc4r Is Associated With Dominant Form of Obesity” published by C. Vaisse, K. Clement, B. Guy-Grand & P. Froguel.
• Genetics and Evolution: Mutation, Selection, Gene Flow and Drift Evolutionary genetics deals with mechanisms that explain the presence and maintenance of traits responsible for genetic variations.
• Exploring ADHD: Genetics, Environment, and Brain Changes Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is the most prevalent child behavioral disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
• Down’s Syndrome as a Genetic Disorder Many people are born with genetic diseases that manifest themselves in one way or another throughout their lives. One of these abnormalities is Down’s syndrome.
• Addiction: Genetic, Environmental, and Psychological Factors Addiction: the role of dopamine and its impact on the brain’s reward system exacerbates addiction and highlights the need for a comprehensive approach.
• Procreative Beneficence: Technological Developments in Genetics Technological developments in genetics have revolutionized procreation by allowing parents to choose the most intelligent genes for their offspring.
• Genetic Technologies for Pathogen Identification The paper states that a genotype represents a set of genes and determines the organism’s phenotype by promoting the development of certain traits.
• Epigenetics as the Phenomenon and Its Examples Epigenetics, or epigenomics, is the study of how the expression of genes that do not presuppose irreversible alterations in the underlying DNA sequence changes.
• Aspects of the Genetic Diseases Genetic diseases are disorders that happen through mutations that occur in the human body. They can be monogenic, multifactorial, and chromosomal.
• Is ADHD Genetically Passed Down to Family Members? Genetic correlations between such qualities as hyperactivity and inattention allowed us to define ADHD as a spectrum disorder rather than a unitary one.
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Genetic Risk and Ethical Considerations Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease that causes brain shrinkage and the death of brain cells. It is the most prevalent form of dementia.
• Behavioral Genetics in “Harry Potter” Books The reverberations of the Theory of Behavioral Genetics permeate the Harry Potter book series, enabling to achieve the comprehension of characters and their behaviors.
• Environmental Impact of Genetically Modified Crop In 1996, the commercial use of genetically modified (GM) crop production techniques had increasingly been accepted by many farmers.
• Gene Transfer and Genetic Engineering Mechanisms This paper discusses gene transfer mechanisms and the different genetic engineering mechanisms. Gene transfer, a natural process, can cause variation in biological features.
• Nutrition: Obesity Pandemic and Genetic Code The environment in which we access the food we consume has changed. Unhealthy foods are cheaper, and there is no motivation to eat healthily.
• Relation Between Genetics and Intelligence Intelligence is a mental ability to learn from experience, tackle issues and use knowledge to adapt to new situations and the factor g may access intelligence of a person.
• Genetics in Diagnosis of Diseases Medical genetics aims to study the role of genetic factors in the etiology and pathogenesis of various human diseases.
• The Morality of Selective Abortion and Genetic Screening The paper states that the morality of selective abortion and genetic screening is relative. This technology should be made available and legal.
• How Much Do Genetics Affect Us?
• What Can Livestock Breeders Learn From Conservation Genetics and Vice Versa?
• How Do Genetics Affect Caffeine Tolerance?
• How Dolly Sheep Changed Genetics Forever?
• What Is the Nature and Function of Genetics?
• What Are the Five Branches of Genetics?
• How Does Genetics Affect the Achievement of Food Security?
• Are Owls and Larks Different in Genetics When It Comes to Aggression?
• How Do Neuroscience and Behavioral Genetics Improve Psychiatric Assessment?
• How Does Genetics Influence Human Behavior?
• What Are Three Common Genetics Disorders?
• Can Genetics Cause Crime or Are We Presupposed?
• What Are Examples of Genetics Influences?
• How Do Genetics Influence Psychology?
• What Traits Are Influenced by Genetics?
• Why Tampering With Our Genetics Will Be Beneficial?
• How Genetics and Environment Affect a Child’s Behaviors?
• Which Country Is Best for Genetics Studies?
• How Does the Environment Change Genetics?
• Can Crop Models Identify Critical Gaps in Genetics, Environment, and Management Interactions?
• How Can Drug Metabolism and Transporter Genetics Inform Psychotropic Prescribing?
• Can You Change Your Genetics?
• How Old Are European Genetics?
• Will Benchtop Sequencers Resolve the Sequencing Trade-off in Plant Genetics?
• What Can You Study in Genetics?
• What Are Some Genetic Issues?
• Does Genetics Matter for Disease-Related Stigma?
• How Did the Drosophila Melanogaster Impact Genetics?
• What Is a Genetics Specialist?
• Will Genetics Destroy Sports?
• Does Genetic Predisposition Affect Learning in Other Disciplines? This paper aims to examine each person’s ability to study a discipline for which there is no genetic ability and to understand how effective it is.
• Detection of Genetically Modified Products Today, people are becoming more concerned about the need to protect themselves from the effects of harmful factors and to buy quality food.
• Genetically Modified Organisms Solution to Global Hunger It is time for the nations to work together and solve the great challenge of feeding the population by producing sufficient food and using fewer inputs.
• Genetic Engineering: Cloning With Pet-28A Embedding genes into plasmid vectors is an integral part of molecular cloning as part of genetic engineering. An example is the cloning of the pectate lyase gene.
• Researching of Genetic Engineering DNA technology entails the sequencing, evaluation and cut-and-paste of DNA. The following paper analyzes the historical developments, techniques, applications, and controversies.
• Genetically Modified Crops: Impact on Human Health The aim of this paper is to provide some information about genetically modified crops as well as highlight the negative impacts of genetically modified soybeans on human health.
• Genetic Engineering Biomedical Ethics Perspectives Diverse perspectives ensure vivisection, bio, and genetic engineering activities, trying to deduce their significance in evolution, medicine, and society.
• Down Syndrome: The Genetic Disorder Down syndrome is the result of a glandular or chemical disbalance in the mother at the time of gestation and of nothing else whatsoever.
• Genetic Modifications: Advantages and Disadvantages Genetic modifications of fruits and vegetables played an important role in the improvement process of crops and their disease resistance, yields, eating quality and shelf life.
• Genetics of Personality Disorders The genetics of different psychological disorders can vary immensely; for example, the genetic architecture of schizophrenia is quite perplexing and complex.
• Labeling of Genetically Modified Products Regardless of the reasoning behind the labeling issue, it is ethical and good to label the food as obtained from genetically modified ingredients for the sake of the consumers.
• Convergent Evolution, Genetics and Related Structures This paper discusses the concept of convergent evolution and related structures. Convergent evolution describes the emergence of analogous or similar traits in different species.
• Genetic Technologies in the Healthcare One area where genetic technology using DNA works for the benefit of society is medicine, as it will improve the treatment and management of genetic diseases.
• Are Genetically Modified Organisms Really That Bad? Almost any food can be genetically modified: meat, fruits, vegetables, etc. Many people argue that consuming products, which have GMOs may cause severe health issues.
• Type 1 Diabetes in Children: Genetic and Environmental Factors The prevalence rate of type 1 diabetes in children raises the question of the role of genetic and environmental factors in the increasing cases of this illness.
• Discussion of Genetic Testing Aspects The primary aim of the adoption process is to ensure that the children move into a safe and loving environment.
• Ethical Concerns on Genetic Engineering The paper discusses Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats technology. It is a biological system for modifying DNA.
• The Normal Aging Process and Its Genetic Basis Various factors can cause some genetic disorders linked to premature aging. The purpose of this paper is to talk about the genetic basis of the normal aging process.
• Defending People’s Rights Through GMO Labels Having achieved mandatory labeling of GMOs, the state and other official structures signal manufacturers of goods about the need to respect customers’ rights.
• Medicine Is Not a Genetic Supermarket Together with the development of society, medicine also develops, but some people are not ready to accept everything that science creates.
• Epigenetics: Definition and Family History Epigenetics refers to the learning of fluctuations in creatures induced by gene expression alteration instead of modification of the ‘genetic code itself.
• Genetically Modified Organisms in Aquaculture Genetically Modified Organisms are increasingly being used in aquaculture. They possess a unique genetic combination that makes them uniquely suited to their environment.
• Genetic Modification of Organisms to Meet Human Needs Genetic modification of plants and animals for food has increased crop yields as the modified plants and animals have more desirable features such as better production.
• Discussion of Epigenetics Meanings and Aspects The paper discusses epigenetics – the study of how gene expression takes place without changing the sequence of DNA.
• Mendelian Genetics and Chlorophyll in Plants This paper investigates Mendelian genetics. This lab report will examine the importance of chlorophyll in plants using fast plants’ leaves and stems.
• Genetic Testing and Bill of Rights and Responsibilities Comparing the Patient Bill of Rights or Patient Rights and Responsibilities of UNMC and the Nebraska Methodist, I find that the latter is much broader.
• Genetically Modified Products: Positive and Negative Sides This paper considers GMOs a positive trend in human development due to their innovativeness and helpfulness in many areas of life, even though GMOs are fatal for many insects.
• Overview of African Americans’ Genetic Diseases African Americans are more likely to suffer from certain diseases than white Americans, according to numerous studies.
• Genetically Modified Fish: The Threats and Benefits This article’s purpose is to evaluate possible harm and advantages of genetically modified fish. For example, the GM fish can increase farms’ yield.
• Genetic Linkage Disorders: An Overview A receptor gene in the human chromosome 9 is the causative agent of most blood vessel disorders. Moreover, blood vessel disorders are the major cause of heart ailments.
• Natural Selection and Genetic Variation The difference in the genetic content of organisms is indicative that certain group of organisms will stay alive, and effectively reproduce than other organisms residing in the same environment.
• Genetically Modified Foods: How Safe are they? This paper seeks to address the question of whether genetically modified plants meant for food production confer a threat to human health and the environment.
• The Genetic Material Sequencing This experiment is aimed at understanding the real mechanism involved in genetic material sequencing through nucleic acid hybridization.
• Genetically Modified Organisms in Human Food This article focuses on Genetically Modified Organisms as they are used to produce human food in the contemporary world.
• Genetic Disorder Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder. The clinical presentation of the disease is evident in various organs of the body as discussed in this paper.
• The Study of the Epigenetic Variation in Monozygotic Twins The growth and development of an organism result in the activation and deactivation of different parts due to chemical reactions at strategic periods and locations
• Human Genome and Application of Genetic Variations Human genome refers to the information contained in human genes. The Human Genome Project (HGP) focused on understanding genomic information stored in the human DNA.
• Saudi Classic Aniridia Genetic and Genomic Analysis This research was conducted in Saudi Arabia to determine the genetic and genomic alterations that underlie classic anirida.
• What Makes Humans Mortal Genetically? The causes of aging have been studied and debated about by various experts for centuries, there multiple views and ideas about the reasons of aging and.
• Decision Tree Analysis and Genetic Algorithm Methods Application in Healthcare The paper investigates the application of such methods of data mining as decision tree analysis and genetic algorithm in the healthcare setting.
• The role of genes in our food preferences.
• The molecular mechanisms of aging and longevity.
• Genomic privacy: ways to protect genetic information.
• The effects of genes on athletic performance.
• CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing: current applications and future perspectives.
• Genetic underpinnings of human intelligence.
• The genetic foundations of human behavior.
• The role of DNA analysis in criminal justice.
• The influence of genetic diversity on a species’ fate.
• Genetic ancestry testing: the process and importance.
• Ban on Genetically Modified Foods Genetically modified (GM) foods are those that are produced with the help of genetic engineering. Such foods are created from organisms with changed DNA.
• Genetic Screening and Testing The provided descriptive report explains how genetic screening and testing assists clinicians in determining cognitive disabilities in babies.
• Neurobiology: Epigenetics in Cocaine Addiction Studies have shown that the addiction process is the interplay of many factors that result in structural modifications of neuronal pathways.
• Genetic (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) Analysis of Genome The advancement of the SNP technology in genomic analysis has made it possible to achieve cheap, effective, and fast methods for analyzing personal genomes.
• Family Pedigree, Human Traits, and Genetic Testing Genetic testing allows couples to define any severe genes in eight-cell embryos and might avoid implanting the highest risk-rated ones.
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: Impact of Genetics New research proved that genetics are the driving force of evolution which causes the revision of some of Darwin’s discoveries.
• Case on Preserving Genetic Mutations in IVF In the case, a couple of a man and women want to be referred to an infertility specialist to have a procedure of in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• Race: Genetic or Social Construction One of the most challenging questions the community faces today is the following: whether races were created by nature or society or not.
• Huntington’s Chorea Disease: Genetics, Symptoms, and Treatment Huntington’s chorea disease is a neurodegenerative heritable disease of the central nervous system that is eventually leading to uncontrollable body movements and dementia.
• DNA Profiling: Genetic Variation in DNA Sequences The paper aims to determine the importance of genetic variation in sequences in DNA profiling using specific techniques.
• Genetic Diseases: Hemophilia This article focuses on a genetic disorder such as hemophilia: causes, symptoms, history, diagnosis, and treatment.
• Genetics: Gaucher Disease Type 1 The Gaucher disease type 1 category is a genetically related complication in which there is an automatic recession in the way lysosomes store some important gene enzymes.
• Genetic Science Learning Center This paper shall seek to present an analysis of sorts of the website Learn Genetics by the University of Utah.
• Benefits of Genetic Engineering The potential increase of people’s physical characteristics and lifespan may be regarded as another advantage of genetic engineering.
• What Is Silencer Rna in Genetics RNA silencing is an evolutionary conserved intracellular surveillance system based on recognition. RNA silencing is induced by double-stranded RNA sensed by the enzyme Dicer.
• Simulating the Natural Selection and Genetic Drift This lab was aimed at simulating the natural selection and genetic drift as well as predicting their frequency of evolution change.
• Cystic Fibrosis: Genetic Disorder Cystic fibrosis, also referred to as CF, is a genetic disorder that can affect the respiratory and digestive systems.
• Genetic Testing and Privacy & Discrimination Issues Genetic testing is fraught with the violation of privacy and may result in discrimination in employment, poor access to healthcare services, and social censure.
• Genetics or New Pharmaceutical Article Within the Last Year Copy number variations (CNVs) have more impacts on DNA sequence within the human genome than single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).
• Genetic Disorders: Diagnosis, Screening, and Treatment Chorionic villus is a test of sampling done especially at the early stages of pregnancy and is used to identify some problems which might occur to the fetus.
• Research of Genetic Disorders Types This essay describes different genetic disorders such as hemophilia, turner syndrome and sickle cell disease (SCD).
• Genetic Mechanism of Colorectal Cancer Colorectal Cancer (CRC) occurrence is connected to environmental factors, hereditary factors, and individual ones.
• Isolated by Genetics but Longing to Belong The objective of this paper is to argue for people with genetic illnesses to be recognized and appreciated as personages in all institutions.
• Genetic Association and the Prognosis of Phenotypic Characters The article understudy is devoted to the topic of genetic association and the prognosis of phenotypic characters. The study focuses on such a topic as human iris pigmentation.
• PiggyBac Transposon System in Genetics Ideal delivery systems for gene therapy should be safe and efficient. PB has a high transposition efficiency, stability, and mutagenic potential in most mammalian cell lines.
• A Career in Genetics: Required Skills and Knowledge A few decades ago, genetics was mostly a science-related sphere of employment. People with a degree in genetics can have solid career prospects in medicine and even agriculture.
• Advantages of Using Genetically Modified Foods Genetic modifications of traditional crops have allowed the expansion of agricultural land in areas with adverse conditions.
• Genetic Factors as the Cause of Anorexia Nervosa Genetic predisposition currently seems the most plausible explanation among all the proposed etiologies of anorexia.
• Personality Is Inherited Principles of Genetics The present articles discusses the principles of genetics, and how is human temperament and personality formed.
• Literature Review: Acceptability of Genetic Engineering The risks and benefits of genetic engineering must be objectively evaluated so that modern community could have a better understanding of this problem
• Impacts of Genetic Engineering of Agricultural Crops In present days the importance of genetic engineering grew due to the innovations in biotechnologies and Sciences.
• The Effects of Genetic Modification of Agricultural Products Discussion of the threat to the health of the global population of genetically modified food in the works of Such authors as Jane Brody and David Ehrenfeld.
• Genetic Engineering in Food and Freshwater Issues The technology of bioengineered foods, genetically modified, genetically engineered, or transgenic crops, will be an essential element in meeting the challenging population needs.
• Genetic Engineering and Religion: Designer Babies The current Pope has opposed any scientific procedure, including genetic engineering, in vitro fertilization, and diagnostic tests to see if babies have disabilities.
• Op-ED Genetic Engineering: The Viewpoint The debate about genetic engineering was started more than twenty years ago and since that time it has not been resolved
• Genetically Modified Food as a Current Issue GM foods are those kinds of food items that have had their DNA changed by usual breeding; this process is also referred to as Genetic Engineering.
• All About the Role of Genetic Engineering and Biopiracy The argument whether genetically engineered seeds have monopolized the market in place of the contemporary seeds has been going on for some time now.
• Genetic Engineering and Cloning Controversy Genetic engineering and cloning are the most controversial issues in modern science. The benefits of cloning are the possibility to treat incurable diseases and increase longevity.
• Biotechnology: Methodology in Basic Genetics The material illustrates the possibilities of ecological genetics, the development of eco-genetical models, based on the usage of species linked by food chain as consumers and producers.
• Genetics Impact on Health Care in the Aging Population This paper briefly assesses the impact that genetics and genomics can have on health care costs and services for geriatric patients.
• Genetic foundations of rare diseases.
• Genetic risk factors for neurodegenerative disorders.
• Inherited cancer genes and their impact on tumor development.
• Genetic variability in drug metabolism and its consequences.
• The role of genetic and environmental factors in disease development.
• Genomic cancer medicine: therapies based on tumor DNA sequencing.
• Non-invasive prenatal testing: benefits and challenges.
• Genetic basis of addiction.
• The origins of domestication genes in animals.
• How can genetics affect a person’s injury susceptibility?
• Concerns Regarding Genetically Modified Food It is evident that genetically modified food and crops are potentially harmful. Both humans and the environment are affected by consequences as a result of their introduction.
• Family Genetic History and Planning for Future Wellness The patient has a family genetic history of cardiac arrhythmia, allergy, and obesity. These diseases might lead to heart attacks, destroy the cartilage and tissue around the joint.
• Personal Genetics and Risks of Diseases Concerning genetics, biographical information includes data such as ethnicity. Some diseases are more frequent in specific populations as compared to others.
• Genetic Predisposition to Alcohol Dependence and Alcohol-Related Diseases The subject of genetics in alcohol dependence deserves additional research in order to provide accurate results.
• Genetically-Modified Fruits, Pesticides, or Biocontrol? The main criticism of GMO foods is the lack of complete control and understanding behind GMO processes in relation to human consumption and long-term effects on human DNA.
• Genetic Variants Influencing Effectiveness of Exercise Training Programmes “Genetic Variants Influencing Effectiveness of Exercise Training Programmes” studies the influence of most common genetic markers that indicate a predisposition towards obesity.
• Eugenics, Human Genetics and Their Societal Impact Ever since the discovery of DNA and the ability to manipulate it, genetics research has remained one of the most controversial scientific topics of the 21st century.
• Genetic Interference in Caenorhabditis Elegans The researchers found out that the double-stranded RNA’s impact was not only the cells, it was also on the offspring of the infected animals.
• Genetics and Autism Development Autism is associated with a person’s genetic makeup. This paper gives a detailed analysis of this condition and the role of genetics in its development.
• Genetically Modified Food Safety and Benefits Today’s world faces a problem of the shortage of food supplies to feed its growing population. The adoption of GM foods can solve the problem of food shortage in several ways.
• Start Up Company: Genetically Modified Foods in China The aim of establishing the start up company is to develop the scientific idea of increasing food production using scientific methods.
• Community Health Status: Development, Gender, Genetics Stage of development, gender and genetics appear to be the chief factors that influence the health status of the community.
• Genetics of Developmental Disabilities The aim of the essay is to explore the genetic causes of DDs, especially dyslexia, and the effectiveness of DNA modification in the treatment of these disorders.
• Homosexuality as a Genetic Characteristic The debate about whether homosexuality is an inherent or social parameter can be deemed as one of the most thoroughly discussed issues in the contemporary society.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Twins: Genetics Study Autism spectrum disorder is a behavioral condition caused by genetic and environmental factors. Twin studies have been used to explain the hereditary nature of this condition.
• Why Is the Concept of Epigenetics So Fascinating? Epigenetics has come forward to play a significant role in the modern vision of the origin of illnesses and methods of their treatment, which results in proving to be fascinating.
• Epigenetics and Its Effect on Physical and Mental Health This paper reviews a research article and two videos on epigenetics to developing an understanding of the phenomenon and how it affects individuals’ physical and mental health.
• Genomics, Genetics, and Nursing Involvement The terms genomics and genetics refer to the study of genetic material. In many cases, the words are erroneously used interchangeably.
• Genetic Counseling for Cystic Fibrosis Some of the inherited genes may predispose individuals to specific health conditions like cystic fibrosis, among other inheritable diseases.
• Genetic and Genomic Healthcare: Nurses Ethical Issues Genomic medicine is one of the most significant ways of tailoring healthcare at a personal level. This paper will explore nursing ethics concerning genetic information.
• Patent on Genetic Discoveries and Supreme Court Decision Supreme Court did not recognize the eligibility of patenting Myriad Genetics discoveries due to the natural existence of the phenomenon.
• Genetic Testing, Its Background and Policy Issues This paper will explore the societal impacts of genetic research and its perceptions in mass media, providing argumentation for support and opposition to the topic.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and Future Farming There are many debates about benefits and limitations of GMOs, but so far, scientists fail to prove that the advantages of these organisms are more numerous than the disadvantages.
• GMO: Some Peculiarities and Associated Concerns Genetically modified organisms are created through the insertion of genes of other species into their genetic codes.
• Mitosis, Meiosis, and Genetic Variation According to Mendel’s law of independent assortment, alleles for different characteristics are passed independently from each other.
• Genetic Counseling and Hypertension Risks This paper dwells upon the peculiarities of genetic counseling provided to people who are at risk of developing hypertension.
• The Perspectives of Genetic Engineering in Various Fields Genetic engineering can be discussed as having such potential benefits for the mankind as improvement of agricultural processes, environmental protection, resolution of the food problem.
• Labeling Food With Genetically Modified Organisms The wide public has been concerned about the issue of whether food products with genetically modified organisms should be labeled since the beginning of arguments on implications.
• Diabetes Genetic Risks in Diagnostics The introduction of the generic risks score in the diagnosis of diabetes has a high potential for use in the correct classification based on a particular type of diabetes.
• Residence and Genetic Predisposition to Diseases The study on the genetic predisposition of people to certain diseases based on their residence places emphasizes the influence of heredity.
• Eugenics, Human Genetics and Public Policy Debates Ethical issues associated with human genetics and eugenics have been recently brought to public attention, resulting in the creation of peculiar public policy.
• Genetics Seminar: The Importance of Dna Roles DNA has to be stable. In general, its stability becomes possible due to a large number of hydrogen bonds which make DNA strands more stable.
• Genetically Modified Organisms: Position Against Genetically modified organisms are organisms that are created after combining DNAs of different species to come up with a transgenic organism.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and Their Benefits Scientists believe GMOs can feed everyone in the world. This can be achieved if governments embrace the use of this new technology to create genetically modified foods.
• Food Science and Technology of Genetic Modification Genetically modified foods have elicited different reactions all over the world with some countries banning its use while others like the United States allowing its consumption.
• How Much can We Control Our Genetics, at What Point do We Cease to be Human? The branch of biology that deals with variation, heredity, and their transmission in both animals and the plant is called genetics.
• Genetic Engineering: Gene Therapy The purpose of the present study is to discover just what benefits gene therapy might have to offer present and future generations.
• Genetically Modified Foods and Their Impact on Human Health Genetically modified food has become the subject of discussion. There are numerous benefits and risks tied to consumption of genetically modified foods.
• The Potential Benefits of Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering is a new step in the development of the humans’ knowledge about the nature that has a lot of advantages for people in spite of its controversial character.
• Genetic Engineering: Dangers and Opportunities Genetic engineering can be defined as: “An artificial modification of the genetic code of an organism. It changes radically the physical nature of the being in question.

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StudyCorgi. (2022, January 16). 213 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/genetics-essay-topics/

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StudyCorgi . "213 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/genetics-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "213 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School." January 16, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/genetics-essay-topics/.

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Gene Inheritance and Transmission

It is often difficult to advocate for the importance of gene inheritance and transmission. After all, why should anyone care about Mendelian genetics ? Mendel did excellent work, but his research was performed long ago. In recent years, has not molecular genetics replaced the need to learn about gene transmission? Questions such as these are often posed by students and scientists alike. Ironically, with the completion of the Human Genome Project, the need to merge the analytical power of gene inheritance with molecular approaches is more important than ever before. These days, principles of gene inheritance and transmission are all too often presented as "fact." Thus, it is easy to forget that the simplest ideas of inheritance and transmission were elucidated by hard work and experimentation. Every student knows something about Mendel and his peas; however, the work of other early geneticists is virtually unknown. For example, in the first decade of the twentieth century, Bateson and Punnett looked at the phenotypes of hundreds of chickens in order to describe the first case of epistasis . Meanwhile, Harris realized that Pearson's goodness-of-fit test (now called the chi-square test) might be used to bring statistical rigor to Mendelian genetics. Around the same period, Morgan and his colleagues made significant advances using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a model system, and they studied the first-known heritable mutation using these flies. In still other laboratories, Sutton merged cell biology and genetics to propose the radical idea (for the time, at least) that genes might actually be on chromosomes , and Timofeeff-Ressovsky described the concepts of penetrance and expressivity through extensive experimental work. The efforts of these researchers and many others are all described in the gene inheritance and transmission topic room. Indeed, this room relies upon such experimental evidence as the basis for its discussion of the current state of knowledge in the field of transmission genetics. Transmission genetics is more than an historical journey, however. Genetic analysis at this level involves observation and explanation of phenotypic patterns both among the offspring of specified hybrid crosses and among naturally occurring families. Here, the analytical power of planned crosses is particularly important. But what can researchers learn from a test cross ? How can they use hybrid crosses to construct gene maps ? What exactly is epistasis, and why is it important? How can genetic crosses be used to isolate new mutants in model systems such as nematodes , zebrafish , or Drosophila ? And how can someone "construct" an organism of known genotype so that he or she can carry out investigations of gene action? The answers to these questions and many more can all be found here, thereby emphasizing the use of the transmission genetics as a valuable research tool.

Image: Sheila Terry/Science Source.

McGuire, T. (2008) Introduction to the gene inheritance and transmission topic room. Nature Education 1(1):189

Chromosome Theory and the Castle and Morgan Debate

Discovery and Types of Genetic Linkage

Genetics and Statistical Analysis

Thomas Hunt Morgan and Sex Linkage

Thomas Hunt Morgan, Genetic Recombination, and Gene Mapping

Environmental Influences on Gene Expression

Epistasis: Gene Interaction and Phenotype Effects

Genetic Dominance: Genotype-Phenotype Relationships

Phenotype Variability: Penetrance and Expressivity

Phenotypic Range of Gene Expression: Environmental Influence

Pleiotropy: One Gene Can Affect Multiple Traits

C. elegans : Model Organism in the Discovery of PKD

Biological Complexity and Integrative Levels of Organization

Genetics of Dog Breeding

Human Evolutionary Tree

Mapping Genes to Chromosomes: Linkage and Genetic Screens

Mendelian Ratios and Lethal Genes

Paternity Testing: Blood Types and DNA

Developing the Chromosome Theory

Genetic Recombination

Gregor Mendel and the Principles of Inheritance

Mendelian Genetics: Patterns of Inheritance and Single-Gene Disorders

Mitosis, Meiosis, and Inheritance

Multifactorial Inheritance and Genetic Disease

Non-nuclear Genes and Their Inheritance

Polygenic Inheritance and Gene Mapping

Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination

Sex Determination in Honeybees

Test Crosses

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Genetics Term Papers Samples For Students

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Human Developmental Disorder Term Paper Examples

Choose a gene that has been implicated in a human developmental disorder.

FOXP2 is a gene that codes for a member of the transcription factors’ forkhead /winged-helix family, FOX. It is situated from base pair 114,086,309 to base pair 114,693,771 on the chromosome 7’s long (q) arm at position 31. The gene has 42 distinct introns, which include 41gt-ag and 1 other. The first FOXP2 report depicted 19 exons, of which two, namely 3a and 3b, are variably spliced into transcripts that cover about 300 kb on the chromosome 7q31 (Lai, Fisher and Hurst).

Relationship Term Paper Sample

Summary of the popular source.

The popular article attempts to report on a study that links people’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction in marriage to their gene composition. The article bases its arguments on this study to try to explain the reason why some people happen to enjoy their marriages while others do not. It also explains why the prevailing emotional climate affects people’s ability to enjoy or dread marriage as associated with their respective DNA characteristics.

Free Disorders Of The Blood Term Paper Example

Introduction.

Blood consists of erythrocytes and leucocytes suspended in it. Blood is pumped from the heart to the body through the arteries and it enters back in the heart through the veins. Blood without cells is known as plasma while serum is the straw colored liquid obtained after the removal of the clot. Plasma contains different proteins, nutrients and waste materials. There are different cases of blood disorders observed in humans.

Blood cells and platelets

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Sample Term Paper On Evolutionary Explanations For The Left-Handedness

Handedness can be considered as the use of the hand for better, faster and more precise performance or control in certain tasks. In the concept of handedness, right and left hands are considered, and generally the use of one hand more than the other is considered. However, there are four kinds of people in terms of handedness: right-handed people, left-handed people, mixed-handed people, and ambidextrous. Left-handedness is less frequently found than right-handedness. Researchers have found that left-handedness is fairly more common in men as compared to women (Papadatou-Pastou, Martin, Munafo, & Jones, 2008).

Theories of left-handedness

Example of dna term paper, free huntingtons disease term paper sample.

This is a hereditary disease that has slow brain striatum atrophy (Gil and Rego). For several years, a Huntington’s disease patient may go through unrestrained movements, mental impairment and behavioral commotions. Finally, Huntington’s disease patients get totally reliant on a caregiver. The disease is an autosomal dominant condition that affects the equally two genders.

Nature Vs Nurture Term Paper Examples

Nature vs. nurture, biology 1210, spring 2013 term paper examples.

#1 MAKE OBSERVATIONS Some genetic diseases are very common in people with certain heritages. Examples include sickle cell anemia in persons from African descent, Tays Sachs in Jews from Germany or Eastern Europe, and cystic fibrosis in Caucasians. #2 ASK QUESTIONS

Is there a way to narrow down genetic issues specific to certain heritages?

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This is a rare birth defect whereby the joints between the bones of an infant close prematurely before the brain is fully formed. It is a condition where a baby is born with an abnormal shaped skull. The premature closure of the baby’s bone sutures changes the skull’s growth pattern and this leads to abnormal head shapes and facial features. This condition causes a baby to be born with a deformed or an abnormal shaped skull. This skull deformity needs to be attended to since it causes problems with normal brain and skull growth in infants.

The Evolution Of Sex Genes Term Paper

Term paper on impacts of gene-environment interactions on depression, genetically modified foods term paper examples, epigenetics term paper sample, definition and reaction to video.

Epigenetics refers to the study of changes in organisms where those changes are caused by modifications of gene expression and not alterations of the genetic code. The video on “PBS Nova ScienceNOW Epigenetics” from YouTube, gives the numerous ways in which epigenetics is manifest in the lives of identical twins. It uses real life cases of numerous twins from diverse ages to assert that differences that exist between identical twins especially on behaviour and mannerisms are a result of epigenetics.

Discussion of epigenetics article

Inspiring term paper about huntington’s disease, good the human genome project term paper example, good term paper on rett syndrome, description, bipolar disorder term papers example.

Bipolar disorder alias maniac depression is characterized by mood swings between lows( depression) and highs( mania), or a combination of these two at times. While depression is one of the most common features of this illness, maniac episodes are, usually, marked by a mix of irritability and anger, with or without euphoria. As such, the mood symptoms in the disorder may take four forms:

Mania: A period of persistently irritable mood accompanied by increased sense of self-esteem and optimism.

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Thesis Statement: Alzheimer’s affects the cognitive functions of individuals in a number of ways.

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Term paper on genomics: top 5 papers | genetics | biotechnology.

Here is a term paper on ‘Genomics’. Find paragraphs, long and short term paper on ‘Genomics’ especially written for school and college students.

Term Paper on Genomics

Term Paper Contents:

• Term Paper on the Benefits of Genomics

Term Paper # 1. Introduction to Genomics:

Genomics is the study of the genome of an organism. A genome is the complete set of genetic instructions needed to develop and direct the activities of every organism. The genetic instructions are contained in the DNA.

The double helix of DNA is made up of four nitrogenous bases that are repeated millions or billions of times throughout a genome. The human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs, which reside in the 23 pairs of chromosomes within the nucleus of all the cells.

Each chromosome contains hundreds to thousands of genes, which carry information necessary for the synthesis of proteins required by organisms. These proteins are responsible for the various phenotypic expressions of the organism which includes how the organism looks, how its body metabolizes food or fights infection, and sometimes even how it behaves.

The sequence of the four nitrogenous bases i.e., A, T, C, and G differs in different organisms. The order of the bases underlies all of life’s diversity. Genomics is concerned with sequencing the genomes of various organisms. This study began in the year 1980 and by 1990 the genomes of many species were under study.

Genomics is different from molecular biology in that molecular biology is concerned with the investigation of single genes, their functions and roles, while genomics is concerned with the study of the total DNA of an organism.

Term Paper # 2. Meaning of Genomics:

Beginning in the mid-1980’s, geneticists moved away from the classical approaches of mutagenesis and mapping. They, began using recombinant DNA technology for genetic analysis. In this method, a collection of clones, called a genomic library is established.

The clones are pieced together into overlapping sets and assembled into genetic and physical maps that include the entire genome. In the final step, the clones are sequenced with all genes in the genome identified by their nucleotide sequence. Collectively, these methods are called genomics. Thus, genomics involves detailed analysis of the structural and functional organization of the complete genome.

Term Paper # 3. Branches of Genomics:

The different branches of genomics are as follows:

a. Functional Genomics:

The study of gene expression during various conditions is known as functional genomics.

b. Proteomics:

The study of full set of proteins in a tissue and the changes during various conditions is proteomics.

Term Paper # 4. Genomics of Organisms :

The genomes of several organisms have been sequenced. The first genome to be sequenced in its entirety was that of bacteriophage φ X 174 which possesses 5,368 base pairs. It was sequenced by Frederick Sanger in the year 1977. The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae which possesses 1.8 Mb, in the year 1995.

By the year 2005, about 1000 viruses, 220 bacteria and about 20 eukaryote organisms such as the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster have been sequenced. Table 1 enlists the different organisms that have been sequenced.

Term Paper # 5. Benefits of Genomics :

The current and potential applications of genome research include: molecular medicine, energy sources and environmental applications, risk assessment, bio-archaeology, anthropology, evolution and human migration, DNA forensics (identification) and agriculture, livestock breeding and bio-processing.

1. Molecular Medicine:

The results of the human genome project will be utilised for advances in medicine.

a. It will enable medical science to develop highly effective diagnostic tools.

b. It will help understand the health needs of people based on their individual genetic make ups.

c. It will help scientists design new and highly effective treatments for disease.

d. It will enable individualised analysis based on each person’s genome, which will lead to a very powerful form of preventive medicine.

e. It will allow scientists to learn about risks of future illness based on DNA analysis.

f. It will allow identification of defective genes which can then be replaced through gene therapy.

g. The detailed map of the human genome will help researchers identify genes associated with many genetic conditions such as muscular dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, inherited colon cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and familial breast cancer. Early diagnosis will enable treatment of the condition.

h. Genes related to common illness such as asthma, cancer, diabetes and heart disease can be identified much faster.

2. DNA Forensics (Identification):

a. Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match with the evidence left at crime scenes as in DNA finger printing that enables the identification of criminals and solve paternity cases.

b. Identify endangered and protected species as an aid to wildlife officials (could be used for prosecuting poachers).

c. Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil and food.

d. Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs.

e. Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds.

3. Agriculture, Livestock Breeding and Bioprocessing:

a. Understanding plant and animal genomes will enable us to create stronger, more disease-resistant plants and animals.

b. It reduces the cost of agriculture and provides consumers with more nutritious, pesticide-free foods.

c. Vaccines have been incorporated into food products.

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105 Gene Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best gene topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 interesting topics to write about gene, 📌 simple & easy gene essay titles, 👍 good essay topics on gene.

• The Expression of the Bmp4 Gene and Its Role in the Evolutionary Process The scientists studied the expression of the Bmp4 gene due to the molecular basis in the size and shape of the beaks.
• Gene Therapy: History, Description, Steps, and Future The field of research concerning the modification of cells to cure certain diseases became known in the early 1970s. The success of the procedure was then published and performed in 2002.
• Gene Modification: Building Baby From the Genes Up Around the world raises the number of experiments on reducing the percentage of sick children, as well as modifying genes for appearance and character.
• Molecular Cloning of GFP Gene Molecular cloning is a set of methods in molecular biology that is used to obtain multiple copies of the target DNA fragment. Bacterial transformation is a process of recombinant DNA insertion into a host bacterial […]
• Gene Therapies: The Market Access Thus, the level of clinical development affects the possibility of reimbursement: the better characteristics it has, there are more chances that GTMPs can be funded.
• The Gene Therapy Development and Purpose Still, I do not think that people will “design” their babies in the future, as it is not the initial purpose of gene therapy.
• Sustaining Proliferative Signaling in Instances of HER2 Gene Amplification The epidemiology of breast cancer and the methods of overcoming the growth of cancer cells are essential research topics in the current age.
• Gene Therapy and Genetic Enhancement On the other hand, genetic enhancement targets modifying the genes to augment the aptitudes of an organism outside the ordinary. Somatic gene editing impacts the cells of an individual under treatment and it is inherited […]
• Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Causes, Origin, and Gene Mutation Apart from analyzing chromosome abnormalities present in patients with ALL, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the disorder’s origin, including primary causes and the process of gene mutations.
• Gene Editing: Humanity’s Possible Doom The ethics of gene editing from an Islamic perspective: A focus on the recent gene editing of the Chinese twins. This article will be the primary citation in regards to the many advantages of gene […]
• Companies in the United States Announce Plans for Gene-Edited Strawberries Keith further explains that the technology used in the production of potatoes is the same going to be used to produce strawberries.
• Gene Mutation Effects and Prevention In the scientific world, gradual body change is a common occurrence witnessed in many parts of the world over a couple of years. In conclusion, the mutation causes a physical dysfunction and change in the […]
• Molecular Genetics: Gene Sequence Homology The emergence of the Mendelian genetics in the 19th century and the discovery of DNA structure by James Watson and Francis Crick in the 20th century have paved the way for the development of molecular […]
• Cutting-Edge Methods: Gene-Environment Interactions The advantage of the method of gene-environment interaction is that it allows assessing both environmental and genetic influences with certain accuracy.
• Gene-Environment Interaction: Personality Development One of the studies dedicated to the issue of the gene-environment interaction of fragile x syndrome in twins was performed by Willemsen et al.
• New Gene Discovered That Stops Spread of Cancer At this point, it is crucial to mention that the discovery by the Salk institute is just a beginning of a long scientific journey that is anticipated to culminate in a comprehensive and conclusive study […]
• Discussion on Lab Report an E. Coli Bacteria Lacz Gene A synthesizing buffer was added to provide the suitable environment required for the synthesis of the new DNA strand. The addition of T4 DNA polymerase was to facilitate the hybridization of the old and the […]
• Direct Marketing of Gene Tests The initiatives taken by the Human Genetics commission in UK that led to withdrawal of Sciona from the market was a great step.
• Activation and Repression of Gene Expression The basis of the study is that modification of histones at the promoter and enhancer sites is critical in the activation of gene expression.
• Inherited Mutant Gene Leading to Pompes Disease The main challenge in treating the disease lies in the manner in which it rapidly progresses and the high rates of mortality associated with it. The insufficiency of GAA results in accumulation of glycogen in […]
• The Theory of Evolution. Gene Responsible for Hairiness One of the significant evolution of man that enabled him to conquer a wider area on earth compared to other primates is the acquisition of the upright posture which freed its hands.
• The Genetics of Crime: ‘Criminal Gene’ The idea that criminal and offending behavior stands in the correlation with the genetic features of the offender is not a novelty of our time.
• GEP (Gene Expression Profiling) on MM Prognostication GEP is traditionally performed in thirty-nine steps, which include the identification of the experimental design, the collection of genes, identification of samples, array preparation, provision of a targeted synthesis, hybridization, transformation of the key data, […]
• Isolation the FtsZ Gene From a Donor Plasmid (pProEX) The final practical involved the screening of the Southern blot and testing the Taq polymerase colonies to confirm the results obtained in the previous session.
• Gene Expression Using Quantitative Real Time PCR The establishment of the exact products of the expression of certain genes calls for specialized molecular analytical procedures. This experiment had an objective to determine the gene expression levels of the genes encoding CHOP/GADD153, BiP […]
• Genetic Disorders That Can Be Treated With Gene Therapy It is in this context that the application of gene therapy has increased the hope of medical professionals in overcoming and controlling such failures in the treatment of genetic disorders.
• The Gene Therapy: Crucial Aspects In the other common form of gene therapy, the modified gene cells are only corrected in the patient and the next generation does not get to inherit them.
• Breast Cancer Susceptibility Gene (BRCA2) The mechanisms underlying the genetic predisposition to a particular disease are manifold and this concept is the challenging one to the investigators since the advent of Molecular Biology and database resources.
• Process of Gene Expression One of the major mechanism through which gene expression is altered is addition where a base pair is added to the normal sequence hence changing the specificity of the protein that the code specifies.
• Cancer: Gene Mutation’s Influence, Treatments As such, it could be safely argued that cancers are generally occasioned by the accumulation of mutations in our own genes, a process that leads the genes to decisively alter the behavior of cells, further […]
• Germ Line Gene Manipulation: Designing Babies Germ line gene manipulation is the alteration of genomic content of zygotes or gametes by inserting genes into the Genome of Germ Cells.
• Research Projects: Mutations in the Mstn Gene The nature of this mutation, which leads to disruption of the normal functioning of connective tissue, is the implementation of the gene knockout.
• Whole-Genome Sequencing for Identification and Gene Function Prediction of Bacterial Genomes One of the most useful applications of the given approach is to determine the original source of an outbreak, and that is why WGS is actively used in epidemiology studies.
• Embryonic Gene Testing and Manipulation Due to the technical advancements in the area, the possibility to choose the sex of a child, choosing the most healthy embryos, using donated sperms and eggs, has given man an almost godlike quality to […]
• Subsequent Cloning of PARK2 Gene The following description is a series of important events that led to the identification and subsequent cloning of the PARK2 gene responsible for Parkinson’s disease.
• A Development and Characteristics of Vivo Gene Modification Techniques Once the genes were sucked into the bacterial virus, the researchers went about the difficult task of separating the ones they wanted from the rest of the genes in the “soup mix”.
• Going Public: IPO Capital and Execution Strategy After careful analysis of what has been achieved within the current infrastructure of Gene One, the founding members of Gene One and the current board members are in agreement with the idea that Gene One […]
• Gene Delivery Methods Analysis This method is one of the successful physical methods of gene delivery, which have shown good results and a 10 to 20 fold increase in the permeation of the genetic material.
• Targeted Gene Therapy: A Fantasy or a Reality? The non-viral methods helped by increasing the simplicity of the introduction of the DNA into the body, the relatively less costly making of the drugs, and the absence of any immune response common to the […]
• Gene Mapping Using Markers of Bactrocera Tryoni In the experiment, male back cross enabled the identification and differentiation of the nature of linkage that exists between the white marks and the white gene.
• Cancer, Its Nature and Gene Therapy On closer inspection of the problem of cancer as a result of a genetic mutation, one will realize that the mechanism of the disorder in most cases is launched at an unspecified point in time […]
• Gene Therapy: Risks and Benefits All over the world, “the technique is best known for the correction of defective genes so as to treat diseases; the most common procedural form of gene therapy involves the insertion of the functional gene […]
• Gene Patenting and Organ Donation Profitability is the key to violating the law, and that is the reason for the lack of transparency in the tissue market.
• Molecular System in Gene Editing Technologies According to scientists, the effect of this molecular system on the example of a man has not yet been investigated to the end.
• Caenorhabditis Elegans: Unc-22 Gene Strong & Weak Alleles Studies involving the manipulation of the unc-22 gene including the introduction of mutations and silencing various alleles of the gene have helped elucidate the structure and function of the gene, which is beneficial to the […]
• Genetic Technology and Gene Therapy: Ethical Issues However, we can be certain that the potential danger of the gene practices can be and actually is regulated; also, the Church does not object against the deployment of such techniques, and the “slippery slope” […]
• Gene-Environment Interaction Theory The doctrine was, originally, generated by the scientists, Sandra Scarr, who suggested that genes may impact the constitution of the surrounding environment, which stimulates a certain niche of human responses and to the surrounding conditions.
• Justice in Human Gene Transfer Therapy: Plato Views Plato’s idea of non-interference also can be applied to the first example of genetic treatment that individuals with an illness have their own specialization, thus treatment should not be provided as a disease is something […]
• Green Fluorescent Protein and Gene Fusion The PCR was then used to amplify the GFP gene used in the experiment. The growth levels of the antibiotics can be clearly observed through the plates used in the experiment.
• Facilitating Change within Gene One In the case of Gene One, leadership development is important as the company aims to stay ahead of the competition and ensure business challenges are transformed into opportunities.
• Facilitating Organizational Change in Gene One The company should be willing to finance the technology department to contribute to the success of this strategy. This strategy will lead to the desired gains since it will improve the quality of the firm’s […]
• Neural Stem Cells, Viral Vectors in Gene Therapy and Restriction Enzymes The nervous system is comprised of specialized type of cells called Neural Stem Cells. Developmental versatility of plasticity of neural stem cells is important in formation of these different neural cells.
• The Revelations of Epigenetics: A New Way to Look at the Chances of Gene Expression While there is yet much to learn, it is clear even now that with the help of epigenetics, the cure for a number of genetic diseases can be found.
• Concept of the Gene-Environment Interactions The main objective of the researchers’ study was to examine the cases of lung cancer with references to the multi-analytical approach with the help of which it was possible to analyze the impact of genetic […]
• Gene Discovery: Ischaemic Stroke and Genetic Variations The scientists from the University of Oxford and other United Kingdom based research institutes sought to isolate a genetic variant to link to the disease to pave the way for development of suitable treatment.
• Molecular Biology gene/ mRNA body To understand the development of the Huntington disease, the function of normal Huntingtin proteins has to be elucidated. The data suggested that normal Htt is a component of the P body and functions in the […]
• Huntington’s Disease: The Discovery of the Huntington’s Gene Since the sex chromosomes are not involved in the production of this disease, both men and women are equally susceptible to Huntington’s disease The gene that causes huninton’s disease is dominant which means that only […]
• Utilising Neural Network and Support Vector Machine for Gene Expression Classification
• Relationship Happiness and Your DNA: How One Gene Encodes Emotional Sensitivity
• The Life Experiences of Gene in A Separate Peace, a Novel by John Knowles
• The Ethical Dilemma Of The Polio Vaccine, Gene Mapping, And Even Cloning
• Moral and Ethical Issues in Gene Therapy
• Macropinocytosis: Discovery of Macropinocytosis Gene Agpa and Therapeutic Potential
• The Influence of Savageness on the Behavior of Gene in A Separate Peace, a Novel by John Knowles
• The Genetic Observations Through the Studies of Hybrid Corn, Single Gene Human Traits
• The Importance of Gene in Defining the Offspring’s Characteristics
• The Hostility Between Gene And Finny In A Separate Peace By John Knowles
• Teenage Difference in the Case of Gene and Phineas at the Devon School, New England
• The Features of the Cystic Fibrosis Gene and Its Treatment
• Use of Gene-Expression Programming to Estimate Manning’s Roughness Coefficient for High Gradient Streams
• The End of the GMO? Genome Editing, Gene Drives and New Frontiers of Plant Technology
• The Flaws of Perfection in The Goodness Gene by Sonia Levitin
• Isolation and Characterization of the Chloroperoxidase Gene From Caldariomyces Fumago
• The Deterioration of Finny and Gene’s Friendship in A Separate Peace by John Knowles
• Neurological Effects Of Fos B Gene On Behavior Of Mice
• The Friendship of Phineas and Gene in A Separate Peace by John Knowles
• Transposon-Mediated Insertional Mutagenesis in Gene Discovery and Cancer
• High-Dimensional Sparse Factor Modeling: Applications in Gene Expression Genomics
• Technology and the Weakening of Human Gene Pool
• The Dynamics of Sex Ratio Evolution: The Impact of Males as Passive Gene Carriers on Multilevel Selection
• Investigation Of The Function Of Mutated Gene In Different Environmental Challenges
• The Effects Of Foods And Food Constituents On Gene Expression
• Understanding Gene Cloning and Genetic Engineering of Plants
• Repression of Homeotic Gene Expression in Drosophila Resulting from Polycomb Group Mediated Actions
• The Sociological Effects and Moral and Ethical Considerations of Gene
• The Use of Biblical Allusions to Convey Gene’s Fall from Innocence in A Separate Peace, a Novel by John Knowles
• The Dominant Characters of Gene and Finny in the Novel, A Separate Peace by John Knowles
• The Types of Gene Therapy That Cures Diseases
• Preparation of an Artificial Microrna Construct to Knockout a Specified Lipase Gene
• The Therapeutic Potential of Gene Therapy
• Oscillatory Dynamics Induced By Multi-Delays In Gene Expression
• The Effects of the Cystic Fibrosis Gene on the Digestive System and the Lungs
• Sex Determination By Amplification Of Amelogenin Gene From
• Variations In Cytokine Gene Polymorphisms
• Genetic Observations Through The Studies of Hybrid Corn, Single Gene Human Traits, and Fruit Flies
• Role of Mutated Gene in the Evolution of Large Brained, Small-Jawed Humans
• History And Procedures of Gene Therapy
• The GMO Debate: Controversies Surrounding Recombinant Gene Technology and Attitudes of the British Public
• The Significance of Controlling the Gene Responsible for Apoptosis Phenomenon in Age Control
• The Hierarchical Regulation of Gene Expression in Mammalian Cells
• The Role of Gene Regulation in Neural Circuit Development: Studies in the Zebra Finch
• Disorders Ideas
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• Introduction
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Data Sharing Statement

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Chiu DT , Hamlat EJ , Zhang J , Epel ES , Laraia BA. Essential Nutrients, Added Sugar Intake, and Epigenetic Age in Midlife Black and White Women : NIMHD Social Epigenomics Program . JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(7):e2422749. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.22749

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Essential Nutrients, Added Sugar Intake, and Epigenetic Age in Midlife Black and White Women : NIMHD Social Epigenomics Program

• 1 Community Health Sciences Division, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley
• 2 Osher Center for Integrative Health, University of California, San Francisco
• 3 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco
• 4 Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles
• Original Investigation Sociodemographic and Lifestyle Factors and Epigenetic Aging in US Young Adults Kathleen Mullan Harris, PhD; Brandt Levitt, PhD; Lauren Gaydosh, PhD; Chantel Martin, PhD; Jess M. Meyer, PhD; Aura Ankita Mishra, PhD; Audrey L. Kelly, PhD; Allison E. Aiello, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Telehealth Parenting Program and Epigenetic Biomarkers in Children With Developmental Delay Sarah M. Merrill, PhD; Christina Hogan, MS; Anne K. Bozack, PhD; Andres Cardenas, PhD; Jonathan S. Comer, PhD; Daniel M. Bagner, PhD; April Highlander, PhD; Justin Parent, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Socioeconomic Status, Lifestyle, and DNA Methylation Age Alika K. Maunakea, PhD; Krit Phankitnirundorn, PhD; Rafael Peres, PhD; Christian Dye, PhD; Ruben Juarez, PhD; Catherine Walsh, PhD; Connor Slavens, BSc; S. Lani Park, PhD; Lynne R. Wilkens, DrPH; Loïc Le Marchand, MD, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Epigenetic Age Acceleration and Disparities in Posttraumatic Stress in Women Alicia K. Smith, PhD; Seyma Katrinli, PhD; Dawayland O. Cobb, MS; Evan G. Goff, BS; Michael Simmond, BS; Grace M. Christensen, PhD, MPH; Tyler Prusisz, BS; Sierra N. Garth, MPH; Meghan Brashear, MPH; Anke Hüls, PhD, MSc; Erika J. Wolf, PhD; Edward J. Trapido, ScD; Ariane L. Rung, PhD, MPH; Nicole R. Nugent, PhD; Edward S. Peters, DMD, SM, ScD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Childhood Maltreatment and Longitudinal Epigenetic Aging Olivia D. Chang, MSW; Helen C. S. Meier, PhD; Kathryn Maguire-Jack, PhD; Pamela Davis-Kean, PhD; Colter Mitchell, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Familial Loss of a Loved One and Biological Aging Allison E. Aiello, PhD, MS; Aura Ankita Mishra, PhD; Chantel L. Martin, PhD; Brandt Levitt, PhD; Lauren Gaydosh, PhD; Daniel W. Belsky, PhD; Robert A. Hummer, PhD; Debra J. Umberson, PhD; Kathleen Mullan Harris, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Obesity and Early-Onset Breast Cancer in Black and White Women Sarabjeet Kour Sudan, PhD; Amod Sharma, PhD; Kunwar Somesh Vikramdeo, PhD; Wade Davis, BS; Sachin K. Deshmukh, PhD; Teja Poosarla, MD; Nicolette P. Holliday, MD; Pranitha Prodduturvar, MD; Cindy Nelson, BS; Karan P. Singh, PhD; Ajay P. Singh, PhD; Seema Singh, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Psychosocial Disadvantage During Childhood and Midlife Health Ryan L. Brown, PhD; Katie E. Alegria, PhD; Elissa Hamlat, PhD; A. Janet Tomiyama, PhD; Barbara Laraia, PhD; Eileen M. Crimmins, PhD; Terrie E. Moffitt, PhD; Elissa S. Epel, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Epigenetic Aging and Racialized, Economic, and Environmental Injustice Nancy Krieger, PhD; Christian Testa, BS; Jarvis T. Chen, ScD; Nykesha Johnson, MPH; Sarah Holmes Watkins, PhD; Matthew Suderman, PhD; Andrew J. Simpkin, PhD; Kate Tilling, BSc, MSc, PhD; Pamela D. Waterman, MPH; Brent A. Coull, PhD; Immaculata De Vivo, PhD; George Davey Smith, MA(Oxon), MD, BChir(Cantab), MSc(Lond); Ana V. Diez Roux, MD, PhD, MPH; Caroline Relton, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Original Investigation Prenatal Maternal Occupation and Child Epigenetic Age Acceleration Saher Daredia, MPH; Anne K. Bozack, PhD; Corinne A. Riddell, PhD; Robert Gunier, PhD; Kim G. Harley, PhD; Asa Bradman, PhD; Brenda Eskenazi, PhD; Nina Holland, PhD; Julianna Deardorff, PhD; Andres Cardenas, PhD JAMA Network Open
• Special Communication Advancing Health Disparities Science Through Social Epigenomics Research Arielle S. Gillman, PhD, MPH; Eliseo J. Pérez-Stable, MD; Rina Das, PhD JAMA Network Open

Question   Are dietary patterns, including essential nutrients and added sugar intakes, and scores of nutrient indices associated with epigenetic aging?

Findings   In this cross-sectional study of 342 Black and White women at midlife, higher added sugar intake was associated with older epigenetic age, whereas higher essential, pro-epigenetic nutrient intake and higher Alternate Mediterranean Diet (aMED) and Alternate Healthy Eating Index (AHEI)–2010 scores (reflecting dietary alignment with Mediterranean diet and chronic disease prevention guidelines, respectively) were associated with younger epigenetic age.

Meaning   The findings of this study suggest a tandem importance in both optimizing nutrient intake and reducing added sugar intake for epigenetic health.

Importance   Nutritive compounds play critical roles in DNA replication, maintenance, and repair, and also serve as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents. Sufficient dietary intakes support genomic stability and preserve health.

Objective   To investigate the associations of dietary patterns, including intakes of essential nutrients and added sugar, and diet quality scores of established and new nutrient indices with epigenetic age in a diverse cohort of Black and White women at midlife.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This cross-sectional study included analyses (2021-2023) of past women participants of the 1987-1997 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study (NGHS), which examined cardiovascular health in a community cohort of Black and White females aged between 9 and 19 years. Of these participants who were recruited between 2015 and 2019 from NGHS’s California site, 342 females had valid completed diet and epigenetic assessments. The data were analyzed from October 2021 to November 2023.

Exposure   Diet quality scores of established nutrient indices (Alternate Mediterranean Diet [aMED], Alternate Healthy Eating Index [AHEI]–2010); scores for a novel, a priori–developed Epigenetic Nutrient Index [ENI]; and mean added sugar intake amounts were derived from 3-day food records.

Main Outcomes and Measures   GrimAge2, a second-generation epigenetic clock marker, was calculated from salivary DNA. Hypotheses were formulated after data collection. Healthier diet indicators were hypothesized to be associated with younger epigenetic age.

Results   A total of 342 women composed the analytic sample (mean [SD] age, 39.2 [1.1] years; 171 [50.0%] Black and 171 [50.0%] White participants). In fully adjusted models, aMED (β, −0.41; 95% CI, −0.69 to −0.13), AHEI-2010 (β, −0.05; 95% CI, −0.08 to −0.01), and ENI (β, −0.17; 95% CI, −0.29 to −0.06) scores, and added sugar intake (β, 0.02; 95% CI, 0.01-0.04) were each significantly associated with GrimAge2 in expected directions. In combined analyses, the aforementioned results with GrimAge2 were preserved with the association estimates for aMED and added sugar intake retaining their statistical significance.

Conclusions and Relevance   In this cross-sectional study, independent associations were observed for both healthy diet and added sugar intake with epigenetic age. To our knowledge, these are among the first findings to demonstrate associations between added sugar intake and epigenetic aging using second-generation epigenetic clocks and one of the first to extend analyses to a diverse population of Black and White women at midlife. Promoting diets aligned with chronic disease prevention recommendations and replete with antioxidant or anti-inflammatory and pro-epigenetic health nutrients while emphasizing low added sugar consumption may support slower cellular aging relative to chronological age, although longitudinal analyses are needed.

Epigenetic clocks powerfully predict biological age independent of chronological age. These clocks reflect altered gene and protein expression patterns, particularly those resulting from differential DNA methylation (DNAm) at CpG (5′-C-phosphate-G-3′) sites. DNAm that accumulates over time is a testament to the toll social, behavioral, and environmental forces can have on the body. 1 - 3 These alterations often result in pathogenic processes (eg, genomic instability, systemic inflammation, and oxidative stress) characteristic of aging and chronic disease. 1 , 4 , 5 As such, myriad clocks reflecting epigenetic age have been developed for a range of age- or disease-related targets. 4 , 6 The GrimAge series contains second-generation markers of epigenetic aging that account for clinical and functional biomarkers, and is most notable for its robust associations with human mortality and morbidity risk, including time to death and comorbidity counts. 6 , 7 The recently developed version 2 of the GrimAge clock (hereafter, GrimAge2) improved on the first’s predictive abilities and confirmed its applicability for people at midlife and of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. 1 , 6

Epigenetic changes are modifiable and efforts to counter epigenetic alteration in humans have centered on lifestyle factors including diet, inspiring concepts of an “epigenetic diet” and “nutriepigenetics.” 8 , 9 So far, 2 epidemiological studies have found inverse associations between higher diet quality and slower epigenetic aging using clock measures related to mortality, including the first version of GrimAge. 7 , 10 In those studies, diet measures were reflective of healthy dietary patterns (eg, the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension [DASH] diet, the Alternate Mediterranean Diet [aMED] score) emphasizing consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and seeds, and legumes. 8 , 11 For example, the Mediterranean-style diet is largely plant-based with emphasis on extra virgin olive oil and seafood. This makes it replete with bioactive nutrients and phytotherapeutic compounds and low in highly processed, high fat, and nutrient-poor foods, a mixture hypothesized to be protective against low-grade chronic inflammation (“inflammaging”), oxidative stress, intracellular and extracellular waste accumulation, and disrupted intracellular signaling and protein-protein interactions. Thus, such a pattern is likely effective in preventing and reversing the epigenetic changes and pathogenic processes associated with aging, disease, and decline. 4 , 8 , 12 - 14

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) are an established set of nutrient-specific reference values determined by experts that guide population intakes for adequacy and toxic effects. 15 Recent thinking, however, suggests that diets may not always adequately supply nutrients and other bioactives, particularly relative to the amounts necessary to fully condition gene expression or counteract epigenetic alterations to ensure optimal physiological metabolism. 8 Macronutrients and micronutrients play crucial roles in DNA replication, damage prevention, and repair, whereas nutrient deficiencies (and excesses) can cause genomic damage to the same degree as physical or chemical exposures. 16 Given that (1) progenome effects of some micronutrients have been observed at different and higher levels than the established DRIs and (2) determination of DRIs does not solely consider genomic stability (ie, lesser susceptibility to genomic alterations), experts have called for refining the DRIs to be better aligned for genomic health maintenance. 14 , 16 - 18 Diet quality inventories, such as those for Mediterranean-style diets, have not generally incorporated DRIs, although such considerations could clarify how food-based indices compare against requirements for related nutrients (eg, those with epigenetic properties) and refine epidemiological and intervention efforts. Accordingly, for this study, a novel nutrient index theoretically associated with epigenetic health was created and its associations with epigenetic aging were tested alongside established diet quality indices.

To date, nutriepigenetic work has mostly involved older White populations and focused on healthy dietary aspects. It is therefore important to examine the associations between nutrition and epigenetic aging in more diverse samples and to better understand what specific dietary aspects could be underlying the observed associations. Nutrients with established epigenetic action should be examined, especially considering intakes relative to amounts set forth in the DRIs and nutritional recommendations. Similarly, sugar is an established pro-inflammatory and oxidative agent that has been implicated in cancer as well as cardiometabolic diseases. 19 - 21 However, in diet quality indices often studied in the epigenetic context (eg, the aMED), sugar is noticeably unaccounted for, and it has also yet to be examined alone. Given the high consumption of sugar globally and the demographic variations within, 22 - 24 elucidating this association could motivate future dietary interventions and guidelines as well as health disparities research. This study sought to examine associations of diet with GrimAge2 in a midlife cohort comprising Black and White US women. The central hypothesis was that indicators of a healthier diet may be associated with decelerated epigenetic aging, and added sugar intake with accelerated aging.

This cross-sectional study used data from the original National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Growth and Health Study (NGHS) (1987-1999) and its follow-up (2015-2019), which studied a cohort of Black and White females aged from 9 or 10 years into midlife (age 36-43 years), examining cardiometabolic health and related determinants. The participants were recruited based on biological female sex at age 9 or 10 years. The follow-up study re-recruited women from the California site. 25 , 26 Participants (and/or their parent[s] or guardian[s]) provided demographic data and completed online or paper surveys and new assessments. Participants received remuneration and provided informed consent. The institutional review board of the University of California, Berkeley, approved all study protocols. This study followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

For inclusion in current analyses, the participants needed valid diet records and epigenetic data at midlife along with age and race and ethnicity information (participant self-reported); after excluding 5 women with epigenetic data quality issues, 342 individuals were included in the analytic sample. Complete case analyses were done. Among the 624 women who were followed up, the women composing the analytic sample were younger (39.2 years vs 39.9 years; P  < .001) and had greater body mass index (BMI, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) compared with women without complete diet and epigenetic data (32.5 vs 30.7; P  = .02) ( Table 1 ). No differences were otherwise observed.

Participants provided saliva samples used for DNAm analyses performed by the University of California, Los Angeles Neuroscience Genomics Core (UNGC) of the Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior using the Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip platform (Illumina, Inc). DNAm profiles were generated by Horvath’s online calculator, 27 which provided (1) estimates of epigenetic age based on GrimAge2 estimation methods; and (2) assessments of data quality (again, 5 observations did not pass quality checks). GrimAge2 uses Cox proportional hazards regression models that regress time to death (due to all-cause mortality) on DNAm-based surrogates of plasma proteins, a DNAm-based estimator of smoking pack-years, age, and female sex. It was updated from GrimAge, version 1 6 by including 2 new DNAm-based estimators of plasma proteins—high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (logCRP) and hemoglobin A 1c (log A 1c )—beyond the original 7. Linear transformation of results from these models allows GrimAge2 to be taken as an epigenetic age estimate (in years). Further information can be accessed from studies on DNA treatment and isolation and advanced analysis options for generating output files 28 or GrimAge2. 1

The participants were instructed by the NGHS study staff to self-complete a 3-day food record at follow-up for 3 nonconsecutive days. 29 Data were entered into and analyzed by the Nutrition Data System for Research (NDSR) software, version 2018 (University of Minnesota Nutrition Coordinating Center).

Mean nutrient and food intakes were calculated across valid food records for each woman based on the NDSR 2018 output. These values were used to calculate the scores of 2 overall diet quality nutrient indices (aMED and the Alternate Healthy Eating Index [AHEI]–2010) and a novel index (Epigenetic Nutrient Index [ENI]) score as described below. The aMED (Mediterranean-style diet) followed published scoring methodology 30 reflecting the degree of adherence to 9 components of an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant-rich diet. The AHEI-2010 was assessed following published scoring instructions 31 and reflects the degree of adherence to 11 dietary components associated with decreased risk for chronic disease.

This study developed a novel nutrient index (ENI) after the Mediterranean-style diet, but via a nutrient-based approach rather than a food-based one. Nutrient selection was done a priori based on antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory capacities as well as roles in DNA maintenance and repair documented in the literature. 16 , 32 , 33 Scores can range from 0 to 24, with higher scores reflecting higher DRI adherence ( Table 2 ). 34 The internal consistency of the ENI was acceptable (Cronbach α = 0.79). The ENI also demonstrated convergent validity with r  = 0.51 ENI-aMED correlation as well as higher ENI scores in women from childhood households with higher annual incomes (13.9 vs 11.7, for ≥$40 000/y vs <$10 000/y, respectively) and parental educational attainment (14.7 vs 12.3, for ≥college graduate vs < high school graduate, respectively), corresponding to the literature. 36 Pearson correlations between the ENI and diet scores and added sugar intake were also calculated. The ENI score was moderately correlated with the AHEI-2010 score ( r  = 0.44) but not correlated with added sugar intake. The aMED and AHEI-2010 scores were highly correlated at r  = 0.73. Added sugar intake had moderate correlation with the AHEI-2010 score ( r  = −0.44) and low correlation with the aMED score ( r  = −0.28).

Added sugar intake was calculated as the mean across valid food records using NDSR output. The NDSR defines added sugar intake as the total sugar added to foods (eg, as syrups and sugars) during food preparation and commercial food processing. Monosaccharides and disaccharides naturally occurring in foods are not included. 35

To maximize internal validity and minimize confounding, several covariates were included. Age and sample batch were controlled for as well as naive CD8 and CD8pCD28nCD45Ran memory and effector T-cell counts, thus accounting for normal cell count variation. To control for baseline factors and their potential influence on diet and epigenetic age over time, the following parameters assessed at age 9 or 10 years (mostly parent or caregiver reported) were further adjusted for annual household income, highest parental educational attainment, number of parents in household, and number of siblings. Additionally, self-reported race (Black or White) as well as the current health and lifestyle factors of self-reported chronic conditions (yes to any of the following ever: cancer, diabetes [including gestational, prediabetes], hypertension, or hypercholesterolemia) or medication use (currently yes for any of the following conditions: diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, or thyroid), BMI (measured), having ever smoked (yes or no), and mean daily total energy intake (as higher diet quality scores might result from higher energy intake) 37 were also included.

Descriptive analyses provided summary statistics. Linear regression models estimated unadjusted and adjusted cross-sectional associations between each of the 4 dietary exposures with GrimAge2. Per expert recommendations, unadjusted models controlled for women’s current age, sample batch, and both naive CD8 and CD8pCD28nCD45Ran memory and effector T-cell counts. Adjusted models controlled for those variables in addition to relevant sociodemographic and health behavior–related covariates already listed. To examine the association between healthy diet measures together with added sugar intake and GrimAge2, aMED, AHEI-2010, and ENI scores were each separately put into the same fully adjusted multivariable linear regression model. The threshold for statistical significance was 2-tailed (α = .05) and all statistical analyses were conducted from October 2021 to November 2023 with Stata15 SE, version 15.1 (StataCorp LLC).

The analytic sample of this study comprised 342 women (mean [SD] age at follow-up, 39.2 [1.1] years; 171 [50.0%] Black and 171 [50.0%] White participants; mean [SD] BMI, 32.5 [10.0]; 150 [43.9%] ever smokers; 164 [48.0%] ever diagnosed with a chronic condition; and 58 [17.0%] currently taking medication) ( Table 1 ). The participants were well distributed across socioeconomic status categories at baseline (9-10 years old). The participants presented with low to moderate levels of diet quality; the mean (SD) scores were 3.9 (1.9) (possible range, 0-9) on the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant Mediterranean-style pattern (aMED); 55.4 (14.7) (possible range, 0-110) on the AHEI-2010 for chronic disease risk; and 13.5 (5.0) (possible range, 0-24) on the ENI for intakes of epigenetic-relevant nutrients relative to DRIs. The participants also reported mean (SD) daily added sugar intake of 61.5 (44.6) g, although the score range was large (2.7-316.5 g).

Table 3 provides the overall unadjusted and adjusted associations between each dietary exposure of interest and GrimAge2 resulting from multivariable linear regression models. In both unadjusted and adjusted models, all dietary exposures were statistically and significantly associated with GrimAge2 in the hypothesized, anticipated direction. In adjusted models, the associations observed for each dietary exposure were slightly attenuated. Each unit increase in the scores was associated with year changes in GrimAge2, as follows: aMED (β, −0.41; 95% CI, −0.69 to −0.13), AHEI-2010 (β, −0.05; 95% CI, −0.08 to −0.01), and ENI (β, −0.17; 95% CI, −0.29 to −0.06), indicating that healthier diets were associated with decelerated epigenetic aging. Each gram increase in added sugar intake was associated with a 0.02 (95% CI, 0.01 to 0.04) increase in GrimAge2, reflecting accelerated epigenetic aging.

Table 4 illustrates the associations of healthy diet measures (aMED, AHEI-2010, and ENI scores) and added sugar intake with epigenetic aging and gives the adjusted results for each healthy diet measure and added sugar intake with GrimAge2 in the context of each other. In all instances, healthier diet measures and added sugar intake appeared to maintain their independent associations with GrimAge2 in the expected directions. Associations were statistically significant for added sugar intake in all models as well as for aMED scores; 95% CIs were more imprecise for AHEI-2010 and ENI scores.

The findings of this cross-sectional study are among the first, to our knowledge, to demonstrate the association of added sugar intake with an epigenetic clock. Further, to our knowledge, it is the first study to examine the associations of diet with GrimAge2 and extend the applicability of such results to a cohort of Black and White women at midlife. As hypothesized, measures of healthy dietary patterns (aMED, AHEI-2010 scores), and high intakes of nutrients theoretically related to epigenetics (ENI) were associated with younger epigenetic age, while a higher intake of added sugar was associated with older epigenetic age. Additionally, this study examined indicators of healthy and less healthy diets in the same model, allowing simultaneous evaluation of each in the presence of the other. Although the magnitudes of associations were diminished and some 95% CIs became wider, their statistical significance generally persisted, supporting the existence of independent epigenetic associations of both healthy and less healthy diet measures. This approach is informative, as dietary components are often examined singularly or in indices, which can lead to erroneous conclusions if key contextual dietary components are not accounted for or are obscured. From these findings, even in healthy dietary contexts, added sugar still has detrimental associations with epigenetic age. Similarly, despite higher added sugar intake, healthier dietary intakes appear to remain generally associated with younger epigenetic age.

The number of published nutriepigenetic studies, particularly on examining second-generation epigenetic clock markers, is still relatively small. However, the results of the present study are consistent with the literature. Two other studies 7 , 10 have examined GrimAge1-associated outcomes and found higher diet quality scores, including the DASH and aMED, were associated with slower epigenetic aging. However, those studies were limited to older (>50 years) and White populations, limiting their demographic generalizability. Analyses of epigenetic aging and added sugar intake are new, but findings are consistent with the larger body of epidemiological work that has drawn connections between added sugar intake and cardiometabolic disease, 19 , 20 perhaps suggesting a potential mechanism underlying such observations. Granted, point and 95% CI estimates for the added sugar–GrimAge2 associations were close to zero, suggesting a smaller role for added sugar compared with healthy dietary measures; however, more studies are needed. Nevertheless, their statistical significance was persistent.

Nutrient-based inventories can provide epidemiological contributions for genomic health studies. The idea of epigenetically critical nutrients is important for 2 reasons. First, it supports the notion that epigenetic nutrient intakes above DRI levels could boost epigenetic preservation and potentially motivate updates to nutritional guidelines, an outcome advocated for by nutriepigenetic experts. 16 - 18 In the novel ENI constructed for the present study, points were awarded based on comparisons of average daily intakes with: (1) estimated average requirements, or the requirement considered adequate for half of the healthy individuals in a population, and (2) recommended dietary allowances or adequate intakes, or where 97% to 98% or essentially all of a population’s healthy individuals’ requirements for a nutrient are met. 15 Future iterations could test varying ENI scoring parameters relative to DRIs for epigenetic benefit. Second, taking a nutrient approach suggests that any dietary pattern rich in vitamins, minerals, and other bioactives could be useful for preserving epigenetic health. This is helpful because dietary patterns are socioculturally influenced, but a nutrient focus rather than a focus on foods could help bridge cultures, class, and geography. 9 The Okinawan diet, for example, is nutritionally similar to the Mediterranean-style diet but more aligned to Asian tastes. 38 In general, the sociodemographic determinants of diet should not be discounted. Across the US population, for instance, it is known that overall diet quality is mediocre and relatively low while added sugar intake is considerably high, as also observed in the sample of the present study. However, specific nutrient intakes will vary based on the particulars of dietary patterns. 22 , 36 As dietetics and medicine progresses into the era of personalized nutrition and personalized medicine, the role of social factors including diet will be important to consider in epigenetic studies and could figure prominently in work on health disparities.

Strengths of this study are its inclusion of a diverse group of women as well as use of robust measures of diet and DNAm. It was also possible to control for several potential sociodemographic confounders.

This study also has limitations. As a cross-sectional study, it is not possible to infer causality without temporality, and therefore longitudinal studies are needed. Additionally, diet was self-reported via 3-day food records, which may lead to underestimates and overestimates of intakes depending on the nutrient. Therefore, augmenting dietary assessment with food frequency questionnaires and/or biomarkers could be helpful. 39 Also, other nutrients with pro-epigenetic properties were not included in the current ENI. Still, the Cronbach α for this first ENI version was acceptable at 0.79 and it demonstrated good convergent validity with customary socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. The tolerable upper intake levels of the DRIs were not considered in constructing the ENI. Future work should assess the prevalence of intakes beyond upper limits to assess whether toxicity could be a concern.

To our knowledge, the findings of this cross-sectional study are among the first to find associations between indicators of healthy diet as well as added sugar intake and second-generation epigenetic aging markers and one of the first to include a cohort of Black women. Higher diet quality and higher consumption of antioxidants or anti-inflammatory nutrients were associated with younger epigenetic age, whereas higher consumption of added sugar was associated with older epigenetic age. Promotion of healthy diets aligned with chronic disease prevention and decreased added sugar consumption may support slower cellular aging relative to chronological age, although longitudinal analyses are needed.

Accepted for Publication: April 29, 2024.

Published: July 29, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.22749

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Chiu DT et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Dorothy T. Chiu, PhD, Osher Center for Integrative Health, University of California, San Francisco, 1545 Divisadero St, #301D, San Francisco, CA 94115 ( [email protected] ); Barbara A. Laraia, PhD, MPH, RD, Community Health Sciences Division, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, CA 94720 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Chiu and Laraia had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. Drs Epel and Laraia share co–senior authorship on this article.

Concept and design: Chiu, Hamlat, Epel, Laraia.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Chiu, Hamlat, Laraia.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Hamlat, Zhang, Epel, Laraia.

Statistical analysis: Chiu, Hamlat, Zhang.

Obtained funding: Epel, Laraia.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Chiu, Laraia.

Supervision: Epel, Laraia.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Chiu reported receiving support from grants from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); the National Institute on Aging (NIA); and the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH) during the conduct of the study. Dr Hamlat reported receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) during the conduct of the study. Dr Laraia reported receiving grants from NIH NICHD during the conduct of the study. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: The research reported in this publication was supported by grant R01HD073568 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD (Drs Laraia and Epel, principal investigators [PIs]); grant R56HL141878 from the NHLBI; and grants R56AG059677 and R01AG059677 from the NIA (both for Drs Epel and Laraia, PIs). The participation of Dr Chiu was supported by the University of California, San Francisco Osher Center research training fellowship program under grant T32AT003997 from NCCIH.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See the Supplement .

Additional Contributions: We recognize the past and present NHLBI Growth and Health Study (NGHS) staff for their talents and dedication, without which the study and these analyses would not have been possible. We also thank the Nutrition Policy Institute for providing consultation and support with historical study data. Additionally, we express immense gratitude to Ake T. Lu, PhD, and Steve Horvath, PhD, now of Altos Labs, for their epigenetic clock expertise and consultation. Neither was financially compensated for their contributions beyond their usual salary. Of note, we thank the NGHS participants for their time and efforts over the years.

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Cori Bush becomes second 'Squad' member to lose 2024 primary as Democrats split over Israel

Rep. Cori Bush, D-Mo., suffered a bruising defeat in her St. Louis district on Tuesday night, becoming the second member of the progressive group of House lawmakers known as “the Squad” to lose a Democratic primary to a more moderate opponent this year.

Bush, a second-term lawmaker, was bested in the Democratic race for Missouri’s 1 st District by St. Louis prosecuting attorney Wesley Bell, who was backed by a major pro-Israel group. The race was the second - most expensive House primary in U.S. history, taking a back seat only to the contest earlier this year for Rep. Jamaal Bowman’s Bronx-area seat, according to the group AdImpact. 

Bell sought to frame Bush as out of touch with her constituents throughout the monthslong race and highlighted the multiple investigations into her campaign finances. But Bush’s criticism of the Israeli government, more than any other factor, came to define the campaign.  

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A registered nurse and activist, Bush was the first member of Congress to call for a cease-fire between Israel and Hamas, nine days after Hamas’ Oct. 7 attack on Israel. Since then, she has remained a steadfast critic of Israel’s handling of the war and has accused Israeli officials of committing genocide.

The United Democracy Project, a super PAC aligned with the American Israel Public Affairs Committee, poured more than $8 million into the contest to boost Bell’s campaign to replace Bush in the halls of Congress. Justice Democrats , a PAC that has opposed U.S. aid to Israel, meanwhile, said it spent more than $2 million in support of Bush. 

The St. Louis primary isn’t the first race in which AIPAC has played a role in 2024. The group has put its weight behind an array of candidates challenging some of the most vocal Democratic lawmakers criticizing Israel’s handling of the war in Gaza.  

In July, Bowman, Bush’s fellow Squad member, lost the Democratic primary in his district to a more moderate candidate whose campaign was aided by outside funding. The United Democracy Project spent more than $7 million in that race.

Bowman , in a fundraising call Monday night, told Bush that he knew exactly what she was experiencing and said she was a "powerful truth teller. "

Several other members of the Squad – the group of progressive lawmakers who came to prominence during former President Donald Trump's term – have managed to fend off similar challenges this year. Among them: Rep. Summer Lee, D-Pa., and Rep. Rashida Tlaib, D-Mich. 

Others in the group still have a difficult race ahead this year. Rep. Ilhan Omar, D-Minn., faces a tough primary challenge from former Minneapolis City Council member Don Samuels next week.  

Louis Jacobson, PolitiFact Louis Jacobson, PolitiFact

Amy Sherman, PolitiFact Amy Sherman, PolitiFact

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/fact-checking-tim-walzs-past-statements

Looking back at Tim Walz’s record and past statements

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Vice President Kamala Harris has tapped Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz as her running mate, capping a historically compressed vice presidential search.

Walz rocketed up the list of finalists on the strength of his folksy relatability, gubernatorial experience and congressional record representing a conservative-leaning district.

READ MORE: Harris selects Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz as running mate

“I am proud to announce that I’ve asked @Tim_Walz to be my running mate,” Harris posted on X Aug. 6. “As a governor, a coach, a teacher, and a veteran, he’s delivered for working families like his. It’s great to have him on the team. Now let’s get to work.”

Walz rose to the rank of command sergeant major over 24 years in the U.S. Army National Guard and worked as a teacher and football coach. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives by ousting a Republican incumbent in a heavily rural district in 2006. Walz was elected governor in 2018 and was reelected in 2022.

“He’s a smart choice if they deploy him in two specific ways,” said Blois Olson, a political analyst for WCCO radio in Minneapolis-St. Paul. “Send him to rural areas to counter the polarization and the idea that only Republicans can win there. And have him keep the deep left base satisfied, which could be an issue with a very moody voting bloc.”

Olson said Walz’s rural experience and regular-guy vibes might be able to shave 2 to 4 percentage points off GOP electoral performance in rural Michigan, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin — three states considered crucial to a Democratic victory in November.

WATCH LIVE: Harris holds first rally with Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz after choosing him as running mate

“The most recent Survey USA poll taken last month for KSTP-TV had Walz’ job approval at a healthy 56 percent,” said Steve Schier, a political scientist at Carleton College in Minnesota. “That said, Minnesota is quite a polarized state, and Republicans in the state despise him. He initially campaigned as a moderate in 2018 but has governed as a progressive.”

Walz was one of several potential vice presidential options floated since President Joe Biden announced he’d cede the nomination and endorsed Harris. Other frequently cited names were Gov. Josh Shapiro of Pennsylvania, Arizona Sen. Mark Kelly, Kentucky Gov. Andy Beshear and Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg.

Now that he is Harris’ running mate, we are on the lookout for claims by and about Walz to fact-check — just as we are for Harris and former President Donald Trump and his vice presidential pick, Sen. J.D. Vance, R-Ohio. Readers can email us suggestions to [email protected].

READ MORE: Fact-checking JD Vance’s past statements and relationship with Trump

Republicans have already begun to question Walz’s handling of the rioting following the murder of George Floyd while in Minneapolis police custody. Walz clashed with Minneapolis Mayor Jacob Frey over how to handle the unrest, but he sent the Minnesota National Guard to aid local law enforcement.

Who is Tim Walz?

Walz grew up in Nebraska but moved with his wife, Gwen, to Minnesota in 1996 to teach high school geography and coach football; his teams won two state championships.

He was 42 when he ran for Congress, a decision sparked by a 2004 incident at an appearance by President George W. Bush. “Walz took two students to the event, where Bush campaign staffers demanded to know whether he supported the president and barred the students from entering after discovering one had a sticker for Democratic candidate John Kerry,” according to the Almanac of American Politics. “Walz suggested it might be bad PR for the Bush campaign to bar an Army veteran, and he and the students were allowed in. Walz said the experience sparked his interest in politics, first as a volunteer for the Kerry campaign and then as a congressional candidate.”

Walz’s ideological profile is nuanced. The other highest-profile finalist for Harris’ running mate, Shapiro, was pegged as somewhat more moderate and bipartisan than Walz. An Emerson College poll released in July found Shapiro with 49 percent approval overall in his state, including a strong 46 percent approval from independents and 22 percent from Republicans.

When he was elected to Congress, Walz represented a district that had sent Republicans to Washington for 102 of the previous 114 years, according to the Almanac of American Politics. Representing that constituency, Walz was able to win the National Rifle Association’s endorsement and he voted for the Keystone XL pipeline — two positions that have become highly unusual in today’s Democratic Party.

During his first gubernatorial term, Walz worked with legislative Republicans, which produced some bipartisan achievements, including $275 million for roads and bridges, additional funds for opioid treatment and prevention, and a middle-income tax cut.

In 2022, Walz won a second term by a 52 percent to 45 percent margin. Democrats also flipped the state Senate, providing him with unified Democratic control in the Legislature. This enabled Walz to enact a progressive wish list of policies, including classifying abortion as a “fundamental right,” a requirement that utilities produce carbon-free energy by 2040, paid family leave and legalizing recreational marijuana. He also signed an executive order safeguarding access to gender-affirming health care for transgender residents.

After Harris’ announcement, the Trump campaign attacked Walz’s legislative record in a campaign email: “Kamala Harris just doubled-down on her radical vision for America by tapping another left-wing extremist as her VP nominee.”

Olson noted that Walz “only has one veto in six years. He doesn’t say ‘no’ to the left, after being a moderate. That’s a reason he’s now beloved by the left.”

Democrats have controlled the Minnesota state Legislature’s lower chamber during Walz’ entire tenure. However, Republicans controlled the state Senate for his first four years in office.

Walz’s meteoric three-week rise on the national scene stemmed after calling Trump, Vance and other Republicans in their circle “weird.”

In a July 23 interview on MSNBC, Walz predicted that Harris would win older, white voters because she was talking about substance, including schools, jobs and environmental policy.

“These are weird people on the other side,” Walz said. “They want to take books away. They want to be in your exam room. That’s what it comes down to. And don’t, you know, get sugarcoating this. These are weird ideas.”

Days later on MSNBC , Walz reiterated the point: “You know there’s something wrong with people when they talk about freedom. Freedom to be in your bedroom. Freedom to be in your exam room. Freedom to tell your kids what they can read. That stuff is weird. They come across weird. They seem obsessed with this.”

Other Democrats, including the Harris campaign, amplified the “weird” message, quickly making Walz a star in online Democratic circles.

Walz also attracted notice for being a self-styled fix-it guy who has helped pull a car out of a ditch and given advice about how to save money on car repairs . He staged a bill signing for free breakfast and lunch for students surrounded by cheering children .

Schier said he expects Walz to be a compatible ticket-mate who won’t upstage the presidential nominee. “Walz will be a loyal companion to Harris,” Schier said.

One thing Walz does not bring to the table is a critical state for the Democratic ticket. In 2024, election analysts universally rate Minnesota as leaning or likely Democratic. By contrast, Shapiro’s state of Pennsylvania is not only one of a handful of battleground states but also the one with the biggest haul of electoral votes, at 19. Another finalist, Kelly, represents another battleground state with nine electoral votes, Arizona.

Fact-checking Walz

We have not put Walz on our Truth-O-Meter. However, days after Floyd’s murder, we wrote a story about how a false claim about out-of-state protestors was spread by Minnesota officials, including Walz, and then national politicians, including Trump.

At a May 2020 news conference, Walz said he understood that the catalyst for the protests was “Minnesotans’ inability to deal with inequalities, inequities and quite honestly the racism that has persisted.” But there was an issue with “everybody from everywhere else.”

“We’re going to start releasing who some of these people are, and they’ll be able to start tracing that history of where they’re at, and what they’re doing on the ‘dark web’ and how they’re organizing,” Walz said. “I think our best estimate right now that I heard is about 20 percent that are Minnesotans and about 80 percent are outside.”

The statistic soon fell apart.

Within hours, local TV station KARE reported that Minneapolis-based police tallies of those arrested for rioting, unlawful assembly, and burglary-related crimes from May 29 to May 30 showed that 86 percent of those arrested listed Minnesota as their address. Twelve out of 18 people arrested in St. Paul were from Minnesota.

Confronted with these numbers, the officials walked back their comments that evening or did not repeat them. In a news conference, Walz did not repeat his earlier 80 percent assertion. KARE-TV wrote that Walz said the estimate was based in part on law enforcement intelligence information and that the state would monitor developments.

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Clinical Research Coord Inter Term-Limited

Job summary.

This position is located within a sports medicine research and musculoskeletal research lab that currently focuses on clinical trials, epidemiology, outcomes, and genetics research on patients with rehabilitation and orthopedic conditions such as rotator cuff tears that cause shoulder pain. This is the Mid- level position on the Michigan Medicine CRC Career Ladder. This position will primarily work with a large multi-center study on the genetic epidemiology of rotator cuff tears called CuffGEN. This large study will collect patient outcomes and saliva samples to determine the genetic variants associated with rotator cuff tendon disorders. The coordinator will also work on ARC which is a multi-center randomized clinical trial on operative versus non-operative treatment for rotator cuff tears.

The successful candidate will be a positive, highly motivated, organized person with a passion for engaging and working with diverse population. High initiative and independence are essential. The characteristic duties and responsibilities of this position may evolve over time to match changing needs and priorities and may include work on other research studies and Clinical Trials.

Responsibilities*

     Knowledge of all 6competency domains is expected:

• Scientific Concepts and Research Design
• Ethical Participant Safety Considerations
• Clinical Study Operations (GCPs)
• Study and Site Management
• Data Management and Informatics
• Communication and Teamwork

     Responsibilities include:

• Maintain Multisite Regulatory documents
• Assisting with identifying, recruiting and enrolling study participants, conducting study assessments and interviews.
• Assist Project Manager in tracking participant and study progress, monitoring active participants, record-keeping, data entry and verification, filing, collection and processing of biological materials (e.g., saliva, blood, urine, feces), and other assigned duties.
• Strong attention to detail skills and the ability to prioritize workload efficiently are essential
• Strong interpersonal and communication skills to develop rapport with a diverse pool of research participants with various clinical conditions.
• Establishing and Maintaining a Sample Biorepository
• Train and support team members
• Various duties as needed

Required Qualifications*

• Bachelor's degree in Health Science or an equivalent combination of related education and experience.
• Certification is required through Association of Clinical Research Professionals (ACRP) as a Certified Clinical Research Coordinator (CCRC) or Society of Clinical Research Association (SOCRA) as a Certified Clinical Research Professionals (CCRP) or equivalent. Candidates must be eligible to register or take the exam at date of hire and the certification must be completed or passed etc. within six months of date of hire. (Please review eligibility criteria from SoCRA or   ACRP )
• Minimum 3 years of directly related experience in clinical research and clinical trials is necessary. Please review SoCRA's Definition of a Clinical Research Professional qualifying experience prior to applying.
• E xcellent verbal and written communication skills
• Excellent organizational skills and the ability to multitask
• Ability to work independently, take initiative and adapt to changing priorities
• Outstanding problem-solving skills and resourcefulness
• Highly organized, detail-oriented, responsible, and responsive, with strict adherence to deadlines
• Eagerness to learn new skills and take on new responsibilities
• Driver's license and reliable transportation; Ability to communicate to different Michigan Medicine Sites.

Desired Qualifications*

• Master's degree in psychology, social work, public health, social sciences, science or related field
• 6+ years of direct related experience
• Experience working on multi-site studies
• Experience using REDCap
• Knowledge of Michigan Medicine policies and procedures.

Work Schedule

Monday - Friday, with variability depending on the needs of study participants.

Work Locations

Primary Work location is at the North Campus Research Complex (NCRC) on Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor.

Modes of Work

Positions that are eligible for hybrid or mobile/remote work mode are at the discretion of the hiring department.  Work agreements are reviewed annually at a minimum and are subject to change at any time, and for any reason, throughout the course of employment. Learn more about the work modes here .

Additional Information

Supervision Received: This position receives direct supervision and reports directly to Project Senior Manager

This is a term-limited position with funding available through November 30, 2026, with an extension possible if additional funding is secured. At the end of the stated term, the appointment will terminate and will not be eligible for Reduction in Force (RIF) benefits. This term-limited appointment does not create a contract or guarantee of employment for any period of time as you will remain subject to disciplinary or other performance measures, up to and including termination, at the will of the University in accordance with existing University policy and standards for employee performance and conduct.

Background Screening

Michigan Medicine conducts background screening and pre-employment drug testing on job candidates upon acceptance of a contingent job offer and may use a third party administrator to conduct background screenings.  Background screenings are performed in compliance with the Fair Credit Report Act. Pre-employment drug testing applies to all selected candidates, including new or additional faculty and staff appointments, as well as transfers from other U-M campuses.

Application Deadline

Job openings are posted for a minimum of seven calendar days.  The review and selection process may begin as early as the eighth day after posting. This opening may be removed from posting boards and filled anytime after the minimum posting period has ended.

U-M EEO/AA Statement

The University of Michigan is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer.

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Term Paper on Inheritance | Genetic Attribute | Biology

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Here is a compilation of term papers on ‘Inheritance’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short term papers on ‘Inheritance’ especially written for school and college students.

Term Paper on Inheritance

Term Paper Contents:

• Term Paper on Genetic Engineering

ADVERTISEMENTS: (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 1. Term Paper on Variation in Offspring :

Sexual reproduction leads to variation in the offspring, that is, each individual has different characteristics. No two offspring from the same parents, produced by sexual reproduction, are genetically identical. An exception occurs when the offspring develop from the same ovum and sperm, in which case they are ‘identical twins’.

Two types of variation are seen:

A. Continuous, and

B. Discontinuous.

A. Continuous Variation :

Continuous variation is the result of the interaction of two factors:

(i) The genes that are inherited by an individual

(ii) The effect of the environment on the individual.

The environmental factors involved might include:

(i) The availability and type of food (in animals)

(ii) Disease

(iii) The Climate:

a. Amount of sunlight

b. Temperature

c. Amount of available water.

(iv) The ions present in the soil (in plants)

(v) Competition from other organisms in the environment.

In continuous variation, individuals show a range between the two extremes. Every possible form between the two extremes will exist.

Examples of continuous variation are:

(i) Body mass

(ii) Height

(iii) Foot size.

B. Discontinuous Variation :

This is the result of inheritance only. There are few types, with no intermediates.

Examples of discontinuous variation are:

(i) Blood groups

(ii) The ability to roll the tongue into a ‘U’ shape (either you can or you cannot!).

2. Term Paper on the Chemical Structure of Chromosomes :

Chromosomes, situated in the nuclei of all living cells (except bacteria, which have no true nucleus) are made of the chemical substance DNA. The DNA molecule, looking rather like a very long, twisted rope ladder, is made up of two strands (of alternating sugar and phosphate units) held together by pairs of chemical units called bases (the rungs of the ladder – see the upper section of the diagram below). The molecule is described as a double helix (Greek ‘helix’ = a spiral).

There are four bases only:

A (Adenine)

C (Cytosine)

G (Guanine)

T (Thymine)

These bases link with one another in the following ways (‘The Rule of Base Pairing’)

3. Term Paper on the Unit of Inheritance :

All living organisms manufacture proteins in their cells. These are used either for structural purposes within the cell or as enzymes to control chemical processes in the cell. All proteins are made up of linked amino acids.

The sequence of bases (e.g. CATGCTAGCCTA) on one of the two strands is a code. When protein molecules are made in the cytoplasm of a cell, a copy of the bases on a section of a DNA strand is made and passed out into the cytoplasm of the cell. The sequence of bases is first split into triplets (CAT, GCT, AGC, and CTA). Each triplet is then responsible for lining up one particular amino acid in the sequence of amino acids that will link to form a protein. Each of the 22 amino acids has its own triplet.

Since the sequence of bases on DNA molecules is different for each (sexually produced) individual, it follows that no two individuals will make protein molecules with exactly the same sequence of amino acids. The length of chromosome which contains the bases necessary to make one protein molecule is otherwise known as a gene.

Definition of Gene:

A Gene is defined as a unit of inheritance.

For the purpose of understanding the mechanism of simple inheritance, it is convenient to imagine a chromosome as a string of beads, like that shown below, each bead represents one gene.

During cell division, genes are copied and these copies are passed on from parent to offspring via chromosomes in the nuclei of the parents’ gametes.

4. Term Paper on Genetic Inheritance :

Every member of the same species has the same number of chromosomes in each (healthy) cell of their body. These chromosomes exist in matching pairs. For example, human beings have 23 matching or homologous pairs of chromosomes, a total number of 46. Of each pair of matching chromosomes, one is inherited from a person’s mother and one is inherited from their father.

The genes of homologous chromosomes also match. In other words, if we look at two strings of beads, like those shown in Fig. 79, the order of the different shapes of beads is the same on both strings.

Matching genes on homologous chromosomes are called alleles.

You can see in Fig. 79 that a pair of beads (like the two ■ shown at position 1) always match in shape, but do not always match in colour. This is a way of showing that one pair of allele’s controls one character, but each allele may exist in two forms- they may be dominant or recessive.

In Fig. 79, the alleles in position 1 are both dominant, in position 2 they are both recessive and in position 3, there is one of each.

For a particular character, an offspring may therefore inherit either:

i. Two dominant alleles, one from each parent. The offspring is described as homozygous dominant.

ii. Two recessive alleles, one from each parent. The offspring is described as homozygous recessive.

iii. One dominant and one recessive allele. The offspring is described as heterozygous.

These are the three possible genotypes of the individual.

If at least one dominant allele is present in the genotype, the individual will show the dominant feature in their appearance (or phenotype). Thus the homozygous dominant and heterozygous genotypes will give the same phenotype. The homozygous recessive individual will have the alternative (or ‘contrasting’) phenotype.

5. Term Paper on Variation as a Result of Mutation :

Genes and chromosomes are always subject to change (or mutation) as a result of environmental forces acting upon them. These forces are known as mutagens, and include X-rays, atomic radiation, ultraviolet light and some chemicals. Exposure to higher doses of any of these mutagens will lead to a greater rate of mutation.

Definition of Mutation:

A mutation is a spontaneous change in the structure of a gene or chromosome.

Gene Mutation:

Sickle-cell anaemia is an example of a condition caused by a gene mutation.

Both parents pass on a mutated (and recessive) allele for making haemoglobin in red blood cells. The homozygous recessive offspring cannot make effective haemoglobin, and cannot carry sufficient oxygen in their blood. Their red blood cells also take on a distorted shape. A person with this condition is likely to die at an early age.

Chromosome Mutation :

Down’s syndrome is an example of a condition caused by a chromosome mutation.

As described above, there are 46 (23 pairs of) chromosomes in every normal cell of the human body; there are 23 unpaired chromosomes in each gamete. Forty-six is known as the diploid number and 23 as the haploid number.

If, in the production of gametes by one of the parents, one extra chromosome enters one of the gametes, then there will be 24 (instead of 23) chromosomes in that gamete. If this gamete is involved in the process of fertilisation, there will be 47 (instead of 46) chromosomes in the zygote. In older parents, there is a greater tendency for chromosome number 21 not to separate properly as gametes are being made.

A child who inherits the extra chromosome will suffer from Down’s syndrome. Their physical and mental development will be slow, and they will have a distinctive facial appearance.

6. Term Paper on Monohybrid Inheritance :

Organisms inherit alleles for thousands of different contrasting characters, for example, human hair is either curly or straight, and we either can or cannot smell the scent of certain flowers. Monohybrid inheritance refers to only one pair of contrasting characters, such as curly or straight hair, controlled in the individual by one pair of alleles.

There are two types of monohybrid inheritance:

A. With complete dominance, and

B. With co-dominance.

A. With Complete Dominance :

This is where the presence of only one dominant allele will decide the appearance (or phenotype) of the individual.

Example: Coat colour in mice.

In mice, brown coat colour is dominant over grey coat colour. In an experiment, a homozygous dominant (or ‘pure-breeding’) brown male mouse mated with a homozygous recessive (also pure-breeding) grey female mouse. All their offspring (that is, the F 1 or first filial generation) were found to be brown.

The offspring of the F 1 generation were then allowed to freely interbreed. It was found that their offspring (the F 2 generation) were brown to grey in a 3: 1 ratio.

This can be explained in a genetic diagram, set out below:

Genetic Diagrams :

Genetic diagrams are a way of looking at the combinations of alleles produced by two parents. In constructing genetic diagrams, the letters of the alphabet (rather than beads) are used to represent alleles. A dominant allele is represented by a capital letter (like A, B, C) and its recessive allele is represented by a small (or lower case) version of the same letter (like a, b, c).

For Example:

(Note: Statistically, there is an exactly equal chance of either of the alleles from the male combining with either of the alleles from female at the time of fertilisation.)

The results are given as a statistical ratio in a large sample. The smaller the sample, the less likely that the ratios will be the same as shown.

In humans, where only one offspring is likely to be produced at a time, the probability of that offspring inheriting a particular feature is often given. Probability is usually expressed as a percentage.

Example: Cystic fibrosis in humans

Cystic fibrosis is an inherited condition that affects the type of mucus found in people’s lungs. Most people produce normal protein in the mucus of their lungs. They possess at least one dominant allele, which may be called ‘F’. The homozygous recessive person, suffering from cystic fibrosis, has the genotype ‘ff’. Their lungs contain particularly thick and sticky mucus, which makes gaseous exchange difficult.

Genetic Diagram: Both Parents Heterozygous for Cystic Fibrosis:

In the diagram below, there are two parents who are both heterozygous for cystic fibrosis (their genotype is ‘Ff’). If they have a child, the probability of this child having the genotype ff, and therefore suffering from cystic fibrosis, is 25%.

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• v.205(4); 2017 Apr

The Evolving Definition of the Term “Gene”

Petter portin.

* Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014, Finland

Adam Wilkins

† Institute of Theoretical Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, 10115, Germany

This paper presents a history of the changing meanings of the term “gene,” over more than a century, and a discussion of why this word, so crucial to genetics, needs redefinition today. In this account, the first two phases of 20th century genetics are designated the “classical” and the “neoclassical” periods, and the current molecular-genetic era the “modern period.” While the first two stages generated increasing clarity about the nature of the gene, the present period features complexity and confusion. Initially, the term “gene” was coined to denote an abstract “unit of inheritance,” to which no specific material attributes were assigned. As the classical and neoclassical periods unfolded, the term became more concrete, first as a dimensionless point on a chromosome, then as a linear segment within a chromosome, and finally as a linear segment in the DNA molecule that encodes a polypeptide chain. This last definition, from the early 1960s, remains the one employed today, but developments since the 1970s have undermined its generality. Indeed, they raise questions about both the utility of the concept of a basic “unit of inheritance” and the long implicit belief that genes are autonomous agents. Here, we review findings that have made the classic molecular definition obsolete and propose a new one based on contemporary knowledge.

IN 1866, Gregor Mendel, a Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar, working in what is today the Czech Republic, laid the foundations of modern genetics with his landmark studies of heredity in the garden pea ( Pisum sativum ) ( Mendel 1866 ). Though he did not speak of “genes”—a term that first appeared decades later—but rather of elements , and even “cell elements” (original German Zellelemente p. 42), it is clear that Mendel was hypothesizing the hereditary behavior of miniscule hidden factors or determinants underlying the stably inherited visible characteristics of an organism, which today we would call genes. This is apparent throughout his publication in his use of abstract letter symbols for hereditary determinants to denote the physical factors underlying the inheritance of characteristics. There is no doubt that he considered the mediators of heredity to be material entities, though he made no conjectures about their nature.

The word “gene” was not coined until early in the 20th century, by the Danish botanist Johannsen (1909) , but it rapidly became fundamental to the then new science of genetics, and eventually to all of biology. Its meaning, however, has been evolving since its birth. In the beginning, the concept was used as a mere abstraction. Indeed, Johannsen thought of the gene as some form of calculating element (a point to which we will return), but deliberately refrained from speculating about its physical attributes ( Johannsen 1909 ). By the second decade of the 20th century, however, a number of genes had been localized to specific positions on specific chromosomes, and could, at least, be treated, if not thought of precisely, as dimensionless points on chromosomes. Furthermore, groups of genes that showed some degree of coinheritance could be placed in “linkage groups,” which were the epistemic equivalent of the cytological chromosome. We term this phase the “classical period” of genetics. By the early 1940s, certain genes had been shown to have internal structure, and to be dissectable by genetic recombination; thus, the gene, at this point, had conceptually acquired a single dimension, length. Twenty years later, by the early 1960s, the gene had achieved what seemed like a definitive physical identity as a discrete sequence on a DNA molecule that encodes a polypeptide chain. At this point, the gene had a visualizable three-dimensional structure as a particular kind of molecule. We will call this period—from roughly the end of the 1930s to the early 1960s—the “neoclassical period.”

The 1960s definition of the gene is the one most geneticists employ today, but it is clearly out-of-date for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-based organisms. (We will deal only with the latter; RNA viruses and their genes will not be discussed.) Here, we review the older history of the terminology, and then the findings from the 1970s onwards that have undermined the generality of the 1960s definition. We will then propose a contemporary definition of the “gene” that accounts for the complexities revealed in recent decades. This publication is a follow-on paper to an earlier paper by one of us ( Portin 2015 ).

The Classical Period of Genetics

The development of modern genetics began in 1900, when three botanists—the German Carl Correns, the Dutchman Hugo de Vries, and the Austrian Erich von Tschermak—independently cited and discussed the experiments of Mendel as basic to understanding the nature of heredity. They presented results similar to Mendel’s though using different plants as experimental material ( Correns 1900 ; de Vries 1900 ; Tschermak 1900 ). Their conceptual contributions as “rediscoverers” of Mendel, however, were probably not equivalent. De Vries and Correns claimed that they had discovered the essential facts and developed their interpretation before they found Mendel’s article, and they demonstrated that they fully understood the essential aspects of Mendel’s theory ( Stern 1970 ). In contrast, Tschermak’s analysis of his own data was inadequate, and his paper lacked an interpretation. Thus, while he sensed the significance of Mendel’s work, Tschermak should not be given credit equal to that due to de Vries and Correns.

In 1900, chromosomes were already known, and they were soon seen to provide a concrete basis for Mendel’s abstract hereditary factors. This postulated connection between genes and chromosomes, which later came to be known as the chromosome theory of inheritance, was initially provided by the German biologist T. H. Boveri and the American geneticist and physician W. S. Sutton during the years 1902–1903. Boveri first demonstrated the individuality of chromosomes with microscopic observations on the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus ( Boveri 1902 ). He went on to demonstrate the continuity of chromosomes through cell divisions with studies of Ascaris megalocephala , a parasitic nematode worm ( Boveri 1903 ). These two characteristics—individuality and continuity—are necessary, although not sufficient, characteristics of the genetic material. Sutton’s contribution ( Sutton 1903 ), on the basis of his studies on the spermatogenesis of Brachystola magna , a large grasshopper, was to demonstrate a clear equivalence between the behavior of chromosomes at the meiotic divisions and Mendel’s postulated separation and independent inheritance of character differences at gamete formation. Thus, this early version of the chromosome theory of inheritance suggests an explanation for Mendel’s laws of inheritance: the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment. It was not until 1916, however, that it could be considered to be proven. In that year, C. B. Bridges, an American geneticist, showed in Drosophila melanogaster that nondisjunction, a rare exceptional behavior of genetic makers (lack of segregation) during gamete formation, was always associated with an analogous exceptional behavior of a given chromosome pair during meiosis ( Bridges 1916 ).

Shortly after the birth of the chromosome theory, however, a new phenomenon had been discovered that appeared to contradict Mendel’s law of independent assortment. This was the phenomenon of linkage, initially found in the sweet pea ( Lathyrus odoratus ), in which some genes were found to exhibit “coupling,” violating independent assortment ( Bateson et al. 1905a , b ). This exception to the rule, however, became the basis of an essential extension of the chromosome theory when it was realized that genes showing linkage are located on the same chromosome, and genes showing independent assortment are located on different chromosomes.

According to the canonical history of genetics, it was the American geneticist T. H. Morgan who was the first to propose in 1910 this extension of the chromosome theory ( Morgan 1910 , 1917 ). Recent studies on the history of genetics ( Edwards 2013 ), however, show that, most likely, Morgan was influenced by the first textbook of genetics in English written by R. H. Lock, a British botanist associated with Bateson and Punnet, published in 1906, where the possibility that linkage might result from genes lying on the same chromosome was first suggested ( Lock 1906 ). Thus, it is Lock to whom the credit of explaining linkage must be given.

It was soon understood that genes sufficiently far apart on the chromosome can also show independent assortment, due to extensive genetic recombination during meiosis, while genes that are closer to each other show a degree of coinheritance, the frequency of their separation by recombination being directly related to the distance between them. Owing to the work of Morgan and his group on the fruit fly ( D. melanogaster ), the phenomenon of linkage and its breakdown via crossing over became the essential basis for the mapping of genes ( Morgan 1919 , 1926 ; Morgan et al. 1915 ). The first map, of the Drosophila X-chromosome, was constructed by Alfred Sturtevant, one of Morgan’s students ( Sturtevant 1913 ). The linear sequence of genes he diagrammed was the abstract genetic epistemic equivalent of the chromosome itself.

The genetic maps of the linkage groups were subsequently followed by cytological maps of the chromosomes. These were first constructed by showing that X-ray-induced changes of the order of the genes in the linkage groups, such as translocations and deletions, were associated with corresponding changes in the structure of chromosomes ( Dobzhansky 1929 ; Muller and Painter 1929 ; Painter and Muller 1929 ). This was followed by detailed cytological mapping of genes, made possible by the existence of the “giant” chromosomes of the salivary glands of the fruit fly, in which genes identified by their inheritance patterns could be localized to specific (visible) locations on chromosomes ( Painter 1934 ; Bridges 1935 , 1938 ).

Morgan conceived the cytological explanation for the genetical phenomenon of crossing over by adopting the chiasmatype theory of Frans Alfons Jannsens, a Belgian cytologist, that was based on his observations of meiosis at spermatogenesis in the salamander Batrachoseps attenuatis ( Janssens 1909 ; see also Koszul et al. 2012 ). Janssens observed cross figures at synapsis in meiotic chromosome preparations of this amphibian that resembled the Greek letter chi (χ). Accordingly, he called such a junction “chiasma” (pl. chiasmata). Janssens interpreted each of these as due to fusion at one point between two of the four strands of the tetrad of chromatids at the pachytene stage of the meiotic prophase. According to the chiasmatype theory, chiasmata were due to breakage and reunion of one maternal and one paternal chromatid of the tetrad. Consequently, the formation of each chiasma leads to an exchange of equal and corresponding regions of two of the four chromatids. This mechanism of exchange provided the needed physical explanation for the partial genetic linkage of genes that Morgan had observed. In other words, chiasmata are cytological counterparts of the genetical crossover points.

An alternative explanation for the origin of chiasmata was the so called classical hypothesis, which did not require breakage and rejoining of chromosomes, but assumed that chiasmata were simply a result of the paternal and maternal chromatids going across each other, forming a cross-like configuration at the pachytene stage of meiosis ( McClung 1927 ; Sax 1932a , b ). This hypothesis did not explain the phenomenon of genetic recombination, but was preferred by most cytologists of that time because it did not threaten the permanence and individuality of the chromosomes, which the chiasmatype theory initially seemed to do. During subsequent years, many cytological facts, as reviewed, for example, in Whitehouse (1973) , supported the chiasmatype theory, but not the classical theory.

Thus, by the early 1930s, the concept of the gene had become more concrete. Genes were regarded as indivisible units of inheritance, each located at a specific point on a specific chromosome. Furthermore, they could be defined in terms of their behavior as fundamental units on the basis of four criteria: (1) hereditary transmission, (2) genetic recombination, (3) mutation, and (4) gene function. Moreover, it was believed, albeit without any empirical evidence, that these four ways of defining the gene fully agreed with one another (reviewed in Portin 1993 ; Keller 2000 ). As A. Sturtevant and G. W. Beadle wrote in (1939), near the end of what we are calling the classical period of genetics, it was also clear that genes determine the nature of developmental reactions and thus, ultimately, the visible traits they generate. But how genes do these things was unknown; indeed, that was considered one of the major unsolved problems in biology, and it remained so for two decades ( Sturtevant and Beadle 1962 , p. 335). Further, it was believed that the integration of genetics with such fields as biochemistry, developmental physiology, and experimental embryology would lead to a deep understanding of the nature and role of genes, and that this integration would add to our understanding of those processes that make up development ( Sturtevant and Beadle 1962 , p. 357; see also Sturtevant 1965 ).

The significance of this perspective was initially elaborated by H. J. Muller, an American geneticist and a student of Morgan’s, who had done important work on several key aspects of the subject: the mapping of genes ( Muller 1920 ), the relation between genes and characteristics of organisms ( Muller 1922 ), and the nature of gene mutation ( Muller 1927 ; also see Carlson 1966 ). In his classic paper dealing with the effect of changes in individual genes on the variation of the organism, Muller (1922 ) published arguments that can be viewed as a theoretical summary of the essence of the classical period of genetics. On the basis of a considerable body of earlier work, he put forward an influential theory that genes are molecules with three essential capacities: autocatalysis (self-reproduction), heterocatalysis (production of nongenetic material or effects), and ability to mutate (while retaining the first two properties). In this view, genes were undoubted physical entities, three-dimensional ultramicroscopic ones, possessing individuated heritable structures, with some capacity for change that itself could be passed on.

In another visionary paper, Muller (1926) connected the concept of the gene to the theory of evolution, while he described the gene as the basis of evolution and the origin of life itself, indeed as the basis of life itself. These profound views of Muller strongly influenced the direction of much future research, not only in genetics, but in biology as a whole ( Carlson 1966 p. 82).

The Neoclassical Period of Genetics

Whatever the speculations of Muller and a few others, the classical period of genetics was one in which the gene could be treated effectively as a dimensionless point on a chromosome. It was followed, however, by what we are calling the neoclassical period, in which the gene first acquired an unambiguous spatial dimension, namely length, and later a likewise linear chemical identity, in the form of the DNA molecule. This period of genetics involved two different, but complementary, research programs: on the one hand, it was demonstrated, using the classic genetic tool of recombinational mapping, that genes have an internal structure; on the other hand, the basic molecular nature of the gene and its function began to be revealed. These two streams fused in the late 1950s.

The neoclassical period began in the early 1940s, with work in formal genetics showing that genes could be dissected into contiguous segments by genetic recombination. Hence, they were not dimensionless points but entities with length. These observations were made first in D. melanogaster ( Oliver 1940 ; Lewis 1941 ; 1945 ; Green and Green 1949 ), and then in microbial fungi ( Bonner 1950 ; Giles 1952 ; Pontecorvo 1952 ; Pritchard 1955 ).

If genes had length, however, they must be long molecules of some sort, and the question was whether those molecules were proteins or DNA, the two major molecular constituents of the chromosomes. Critically important work in the early 1940s, in the laboratory of Oswald Avery at Rockefeller University, answered the question. Avery and his colleagues showed that DNA is the hereditary material by demonstrating that the causative agent in bacterial transformation, which entailed a heritable change in the morphology of the bacterial cells ( Griffith 1928 ), was DNA ( Avery et al. 1944 ). Though this work was published in 1944, it would take nearly a decade for this to become universally accepted. The experimental proof that convinced the scientific community was the experiment of Hershey and Chase (1952) , in which these authors showed that the DNA component of bacteriophages was the one responsible for their multiplication.

The most critical and final breakthrough for the DNA theory of inheritance, however, was the revelation of the double-helical structure of DNA ( Watson and Crick 1953a , 1954 ), and the realization of the genetic implications of that ( Watson and Crick 1953b ). This was followed by demonstrations in the early 1960s that genes are first transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA), which transmitted the genetic information from the nucleus to the protein synthesis machinery in the cytoplasm (reviewed in Portin 1993 ; Judson 1996 ). Earlier work in the 1940s had established the connection between genes and proteins, in the “one gene-one enzyme” hypothesis of Beadle and Tatum (1941) (see also Srb and Horowitz 1944 ; reviewed in Strauss 2016 ). By the late 1950s, there was thus a satisfying molecular theory of both the nature of the gene, and the connections between genes and proteins.

Crucial further work involved the genetic fine structure mapping of genes—a research program that reached its culmination with work by S. Benzer and C. Yanofsky. Benzer, using the operational cis -trans test, originated by E. B. Lewis in Drosophila , defined the unit of genetic complementation, i.e. , the basic unit of gene function, which he called the cistron ( Box 1 ). He also defined the smallest units of genetic recombination and gene mutation: the recon and muton, respectively ( Benzer 1955 , 1959 , 1961 ). The postulate of the classical period that the gene was a fundamental unit not only of function, but also of recombination and mutation, was definitively disproved by Benzer’s work showing that the “gene” had many mutons and recons. Yanofsky and his coworkers validated the material counterparts of these formal concepts of Benzer. The equivalent of the cistron is a sequence of nucleotide pairs in DNA that contain information for the synthesis of a polypeptide, and determines its amino acid sequences, an idea known as the colinearity hypothesis. Furthermore, the physical DNA equivalent of the recon and the muton was shown to be one nucleotide pair ( Crawford and Yanofsky 1958 ; Yanofsky and Crawford 1959 ; Yanofsky et al. 1964 , 1967 ). The period of neoclassical genetics culminated in the cracking of the universal genetic code by several teams, revealing that nucleotide sequences specify the sequence of polypeptide chains (reviewed in Ycas 1969 ; Judson 1996 ).

The neoclassical concept of the gene, outlined above, can be summarized in the formulation “one gene—one mRNA—one polypeptide,” which combines the idea of mRNA, as developed by Jacob and Monod (1961a) ; Gros et al. (1961) ; Brenner et al. (1961) , and the earlier “one gene—one enzyme” hypothesis of Beadle and Tatum (1941) (and see Srb and Horowitz 1944 ). Another version of this hypothesis is that of “one cistron—one polypeptide” ( Crick 1963 ), which emerged as a slogan in the 1960s–1980s. Altogether, the conceptual journey from Johannsen’s totally abstract entities termed “genes” to a defined, molecular idea of what a gene is, and how it works, had taken a little over half a century.

The Breakdown of the Neoclassical Concept of the Gene and the Beginning of the Modern Period of Genetics

Deviations from the one gene—one mrna—one polypeptide hypothesis.

The hypothesis of “one gene—one mRNA—one polypeptide” as a general description of the gene and how it works started to expire, however, when it was realized that a single gene could produce more than one mRNA, and that one gene can be a part of several transcription units. This one-to-several relationship of genes to mRNAs occurs by means of complex promoters and/or alternative splicing of the primary transcript.

Multiple transcription initiation sites, i.e. , alternative promoters, have been found in all kingdoms of organisms, and they have been classified into six classes ( Schibler and Sierra 1987 ). All of them can produce transcripts that do not obey the rule of one-to-one correspondence between the gene and the transcription unit, since transcription can be initiated at different promoters. The result is that a single gene can produce more than one kind of transcript ( Schibler and Sierra 1987 ).

The discovery of alternative splicing as a way of producing different transcripts from one gene had a more complex history. In the late 1970s it was discovered, first in animal viruses and then in eukaryotes, that genes have a split structure. That is, genes are interrupted by introns (see review by Portin 1993 ). Split genes produce one pre-mRNA molecule, from which the introns are removed during the maturation of the mRNA by pre-mRNA splicing. Depending on the gene, the splicing pattern can be invariant (“constitutive”) or variable (“alternative”). In constitutive splicing, all the exons present in a transcript are incorporated into one mature mRNA through invariant ligation of consecutive exons, yielding a single kind of mRNA from the gene. In alternative splicing, nonconsecutive exons are joined by the processing of some, but not all, transcripts from a gene. In other words, individual exons can be excluded from the mature mRNA in some transcripts, but they can be included in others ( Leff et al. 1986 ; Black 2003 ). Alternative splicing is a regulated process, being tissue-specific and developmental-stage-specific. Nevertheless, the colinearity of the gene and the mRNA is preserved, since the order of the exons in the gene is not changed.

In addition to alternative splicing, two other phenomena are now known that contradict a basic tenet of the neoclassical gene concept, namely that amino-acid sequences of proteins, and consequently their functions, are always derivable from the DNA of the corresponding gene. These are the phenomena of RNA editing (reviewed by Brennickle et al. 1999 ; Witzany 2011 ) and of gene sharing originally found by J. Piatigorsky (reviewed in Piatigorsky 2007 ). The term RNA editing describes post-transcriptional molecular processes in which the structure of an RNA molecule is altered. Though a rare event, it has been observed to occur in eukaryotes, their viruses, archaea and prokaryotes, and involves several kinds of base modifications in RNA molecules. RNA editing in mRNAs effectively alters the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein so that it differs from that predicted by the genomic DNA sequence ( Brennickle et.al . 1999 ). The concept of gene sharing describes the fact that different cells contain identically sequenced polypeptides, derived from the same gene, but so differently configured in different cellular contexts that they perform wildly different functions. This phenomenon, facetiously called “protein moonlighting,” means that a gene may acquire and maintain a second function without gene duplication, and without loss of the primary function. Such genes are under two or more entirely different selective constraints ( Piatigorsky and Wistow 1989 ).

Despite these observations, showing the potential one-to-many relationships of genes to mRNAs and their encoded proteins, the concept of the gene remained intact; the gene itself could still be seen as a defined and localized nucleotide sequence of DNA even though it could contain information for more than one kind of polypeptide chain. Matters changed, however, when the sequencing projects revealed still more bizarre phenomena.

Severe cracks in the concept of the gene

These new findings have shown that there are multiple possible relationships between DNA sequences and the molecular products they specify. The net result has been the realization that the basic concept of the gene as some form of generic, universal “unit of heredity” is too simple, and correspondingly, that, a new definition or concept of “the gene” is needed ( Keller 2000 ; Falk 2009 ; Portin 2009 ). Several observations have been crucial to this re-evaluation, and one of us has reviewed these relatively recently ( Portin 2009 ). They are worth summarizing here:

• In eukaryotic organisms, there are few if any absolute boundaries to transcription, making it impossible to establish simple general relationships between primary transcripts and the ultimate products of those transcripts.

Hence, the structural boundaries of the gene as the unit of transcription are often far from clear, as documented particularly well in mammals (reviewed by Carninci 2006 ). In reality, whole chromosomes, if not the whole genome, seem to be continuums of transcription ( Gingeras 2007 ). Furthermore, the genome is full of overlapping transcripts, thus making it impossible to draw 1:1:1 relationship between specific DNA sequences, transcripts and functions ( Pearson 2006 ). Indeed, convincing evidence indicates that the human genome is comprehensively transcribed from both DNA strands, so that the majority of its bases can be found in primary transcripts that compendiously overlap one another (The FANTOM Consortium and RIKEN Genome Exploration Group 2005; The ENCODE Project Consortium 2007 ; 2012 ). Both protein coding and noncoding transcripts may be derived from either or both DNA strands, and they may be overlapping and interlaced. Furthermore, different transcripts often include the same coding sequences ( Mattick 2005 ). The functional significance of these overlaps is still largely unclear, but there is an increasing number of examples in which both transcripts are known to have protein-coding exons from one position in the genome combined with exons from another part of the genome hundreds of thousands of nucleotides away ( Kapranov et al. 2007 ). This was wholly unanticipated when the 1960s definition of the gene was formulated.

• 2. Exons of different genes can be members of more than one transcript.

Gene fusion, at the level of transcripts, is a reality, and is completely at odds with the “one gene—one mRNA—one protein” hypothesis. And this is not a rare phenomenon. It has been estimated that at least 4–5% of the tandem gene pairs in the human genome can be transcribed into a single RNA sequence, called chimeric transcripts, encoding a putative chimeric protein ( Parra et al. 2006 ).

• 3. Comparably, in the organelles of microbial eukaryotes, many examples of “encrypted” genes are known: genes are often in pieces that can be found as separate segments around the genome.

Hence, in addition to the fusion of two adjacent genes at the level of transcription, different building blocks of a given mRNA molecule can often be located, as modules, on different chromosomes (reviewed in Landweber 2007 ). Some evidence indicates that, even in multicellular eukaryotes, protein-coding transcripts are derived from different nonhomologous chromosomes (reviewed in Claverie 2005 ).

• 4. In contradiction to the neoclassical definition of a gene, which posits that the hereditary information resides solely in DNA sequences, there is increasing evidence that the functional status of some genes can be inherited from one generation of individuals to the next, a phenomenon known as transgenerational epigenetic inheritance ( Holliday 1987 ; Gerhart and Kirschner 2007 ; Jablonka and Raz 2009 ).

One example is mouse epigenetic changes mediated by RNA that are inherited between generations in a non-Mendelian fashion ( Rassoulzadegan et al. 2006 ). On the other hand, many of the epigenetic changes, or so called epimutations, are inherited otherwise in a Mendelian fashion, except that, in contrast to conventional mutations, they are not always inherited with the same stability, but can be swept away during the course of some generations ( e.g. , Jablonka and Raz 2009 ).

• 5. “Genetic restoration” a mechanism of non-Mendelian inheritance of extragenomic information, first found in Arabidopsis thaliana , may also take place ( Lolle et al. 2005 ).

It was observed that several independent mutant strains yielded apparently normal progeny at a high frequency of a few percent, which is higher than could be expected if it were a question of random mutations. It seems neither to be a question of epigenetic changes, but rather healing of fixed mutations. Lolle et al. (2005) suggested that this is due to precise reversion of the original DNA with a mechanism that involves template-directed restoration of ancestral DNA passed on in an RNA cache. This phenomenon, called the “RNA cache” hypothesis, means that organisms can sometimes rewrite their DNA on the basis of RNA messages inherited from generations past ( Lolle et al. 2005 ). The RNA cache hypothesis has, however, been disputed by several authors ( Comai and Cartwright 2005 ; Mercier et al. 2008 ; Miyagawa et al. 2013 ).

• 6. Finally, in addition to protein coding genes, there are many RNA-encoding genes that produce diverse RNA molecules that are not translated to proteins.

That there are special genes that specify only RNA products was recognized in the early 1960s; these are the ribosomal RNA and tRNA genes, vital for protein synthesis. Yet, it is now apparent that there are many transcripts that do not encode proteins, and that are not the classic structural RNAs of protein synthesis (tRNAs and rRNAs). Those sequences that specify long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and which serve some biological function, surely deserve to be called genes. In contrast, sequences specifying lncRNAs or transcripts from defunct mobile elements, which are made constitutively in all or most cell types probably do not have biological function and should not be designated as genes. The surprisingly large multitude of different noncoding RNA genes and their function has been reviewed by several authors ( e.g. , Eddy 2001 ; Carninci and Hayashizaki 2007 ; Carninci et al. 2008 ).

Current Status and Future Perspectives Regarding the Concept of the Gene

The observations summarized above, together with many others, have created the interesting situation that the central term of genetics— “the gene”—can no longer be defined in simple terms. The neoclassical molecular definition of the gene does not capture the bewildering variety of hereditary elements, all based in DNA, that collectively specify the organism, and which therefore deserve the appellation of “genes.” Even the classical notion of the gene simply as a fundamental “unit of heredity” is itself problematic. After all, if it is difficult or impossible to generalize about the nature of such “units,” it is probably not very helpful to speak about them. Unsurprisingly, this realization has called forth various attempts to redefine the gene, in terms of both DNA sequence properties, and those of the products specified by those sequences. A number of proposed definitions are listed in Table 1 . A detailed discussion of these ideas will not be given here, but they have been summarized, classified, and characterized (see Waters 2013 ). These definitions, however, all tend to neglect one central, albeit implicit, aspect of the earlier notions of the “gene”: its presumed autonomy of action. We return to this matter below.

Essential Content or Character of the Proposition	Classification	Author(s)
These three first operational definitions give criteria, formal, experimental and computational, for identifying genes in the DNA sequences of genomes, annotation of genomes, and for specifying the function of genes	Operational
	Operational
	Operational	(2009)
In these three following definitions, classified as molecular, the structural and the functional gene are conceptually distinguished and separated	Molecular
	Molecular
	Molecular
In this definition two gene concepts, “gene-P (preformationist)” and “gene-D (developmental)”, are distinguished	Complex
This definition presents three different concepts of the gene: instrumental, nominal and postgenomic	Complex
This definition aims at to define the gene on the basis of its products and separates it from DNA	A new kind of redefinition

How should geneticists deal with this situation? Should we simply invoke a plurality of different kinds of genes and leave it at that? In effect, we could settle for using the collective term “the genes” as a synonym for the genome, and not fuss over the seeming impossibility of defining the singular form, the “gene.” This, however, would seem to be more of an evasion of the problem than its solution. Alternatively, would it be preferable to accept the inadequacy of the notion of a simple general “unit of heredity,” and foreswear the use of the term “gene” altogether?

The problem with that last suggestion, junking the term “gene,” is not just that the word is used ubiquitously by geneticists and laymen alike, but that it seems indispensable to the discipline’s discourse. This is apparent in the foundations of several subdisciplines of genetics, such as many fields of applied genetics, like medical genetics and plant and animal breeding, that frequently deal in genes identified solely by their nonmolecular mutant phenotypes. It also applies to quantitative genetics and population genetics, which operate using mathematical modeling, and in which the gene is often regarded merely as an abstract unit of calculation (not dissimilarly to the view of Johannsen described below), but one that is vital to conceptualizing the genetic compositions of populations and their changes. In those fields, the molecular intricacies and complications of the genetic material can be largely ignored, at least initially, but the term “gene” itself seems irreplaceable. It is hard to imagine those disciplines abandoning it, whatever the range of molecular complexities that the word both hides and embraces.

In other subdisciplines, such as developmental genetics and molecular genetics, however, there is an urgent need to redefine the gene because the molecular details are often crucial to understanding the phenomena being investigated. The definitions that have been attempted so far ( Table 1 ), however, seem inadequate; for the most part, they focus on either structural or functional aspects, yet it is ultimately meaningless to separate structure and function, even though both can initially be studied in isolation from one another. One attempt to unite the structural and functional aspects of the gene in a single definition has been made by P. E. Griffiths and E. M. Neumann-Held, who introduced the “molecular process” gene concept. In this idea, the word “gene” denotes not some structural “unit of heredity” but the recurring process that leads to the temporally and spatially regulated expression of a particular polypeptide product ( Griffiths and Neumann-Held 1999 ; Neumann-Held 1999 , 2001 ). One difficulty with this redefinition is that it neglects all the nonconventional genes that specify only RNA products. More fundamentally, it has nothing to say about hereditary transmission, which was the original and fundamental impetus for coining the term “gene.”

Perhaps the way forward is to take a step backward in history, and focus on the initial concerns of Johannsen. He not only coined the term “gene,” but was also responsible for the words “genotype” and “phenotype,” and the crucial distinction between them in heredity. Though he could say nothing about how genes (genotype) specified or determined traits (phenotype), he clearly saw this as a crucial question. Indeed, that issue has been at the heart of genetics since the 1930s, in contrast to the questions about how genes are transmitted in heredity, which dominated the first decades of 20th-century genetics. It is apparent, however, that Johannsen thought that the genotype is primary, and that genes are minute computational devices whose precise material nature could be left for solution to a later time. He wrote: “Our formulas, as used here for not directly observable genotypic factors—genes as we used to say—are and remain computational-formulas , placement-devices that should facilitate our overview. It is precisely therefore that the little word “gene” is in place; no imagination of the nature of this “construction” is prejudiced by it, rather the different possibilities remain open from case to case.” ( Johannsen 1926 p. 434, English translation in Falk 2009 p. 70).

The initial expectations were that the connections between genes and phenes would be fairly direct, an expectation bolstered initially by findings about pigmentation genetics, and later by mutations affecting nutritional requirements in microbial cells. In both situations, the connection between the mutant effects and the known biochemistry were often direct and easy to understand. Furthermore, the early success of Mendelian genetics had been based, in large part, on the fact that many of the genetic variants initially studied had constant, unambiguous effects; this was vital to the work of Mendel and to the early 20th-century Mendelians. As the field matured, however, it became apparent that the phenotypic effects of many alleles could be influenced by other genes, influencing both the degree of severity of a mutation’s expression (its “expressivity”), and the proportion of individuals possessing the mutation that expressed it at all (its “penetrance”).

To illustrate the differences in the manifestation of a given gene’s function caused by genetic background effects, take the various degrees of expression of the gene regulating the size and shape of incisors in man. Copies of one dominant gene, identical by descent, caused missing, or peg-shaped, or strongly mesio-distally reduced upper lateral incisors in subsequent generations ( Alvesalo and Portin 1969 ). Though the precise nature of the gene involved is not known, the example shows that the same gene can have different manifestations in different individuals, i.e. , in different genetic backgrounds. There is an enormous number of documented examples of such genetic background effects in all organisms that have been investigated genetically.

The phenomenon of genetic background effects was already well recognized by geneticists in the second decade of the 20th century, as illustrated, for example, in the multi-part series of papers, dealing with coat color inheritance in mammals by S. Wright, published in Journal of Genetics ( Wright 1917a , b ). (Wright would later achieve eminence as one of the key founders of population genetics, but he started his career in what was then known as “physiological genetics.”) The whole matter, however, was raised to a new conceptual level in the 1930s, by C. H. Waddington, a British developmental biologist and geneticist, who called the totality of interactions among genes and between genes and the environment “the epigenotype.”

The epigenotype consists of the total developmental system lying between the genotype and the phenotype through which the adult form of an organism is realized ( Waddington 1939 ). Although a clear concept of “gene regulation” did not exist in the 1940s and 1950s, Waddington, with this concept, was clearly edging toward it. When the Jacob-Monod model of gene regulation came forth in the early 1960s, Waddington promptly saw its relevance for development ( Waddington 1962 ; 1966 ) as, of course, did Jacob and Monod themselves ( Jacob and Monod 1961a , b ; Monod and Jacob 1961 ). The crucial point, with respect to the definition of the gene, is that genes are not autonomous, independent agents—as was implicit in much of the early treatment of genes, and which indeed remains potent in much contemporary thinking, as exemplified in R. Dawkins’ still influential book, “The Selfish Gene” ( Dawkins 1976 ). Rather, they exert their effects within, or as the output of, complex systems of gene interactions. Today, we term such systems “genetic networks” or “genetic regulatory networks” (GRNs). Sewall Wright, along with Waddington, was an early exponent of such network thinking ( Wright 1968 ), but the modern concept of GRNs reached its fruition only in the late 1990s (reviewed in Davidson 2001 ; Wilkins 2002 ; Davidson and Erwin 2006 ; Wilkins 2007 ).

The conceptual consequences of viewing individual genes not as autonomous actors but as interactive elements or outputs of networks are profound. For one thing, it becomes relatively easy to think about the nature of genetic background effects in terms of the structure of GRNs ( Box 2 ). While much of the thinking of the 20th century about genes was based on the premise that the route from gene to phenotype was fairly direct, and often deducible from the nature of the gene product, the network perspective envisages far more complexity and indirectness of effects. In general, the path from particular genes to specific phenes is long, and the role of many gene products seems to be the activation or repression of the activities of other genes. As a result, for most of these interactive effects, the normal (wild-type) function of the gene can only rarely be deduced directly from the mutant phenotype, which often involves complicated secondary effects resulting from the disrupted operation of the GRN within which the gene acts. Hence, the widely held popular belief that particular genes govern or “determine” particular traits, including complex psychological ones ( e.g. , risk-taking, gender identity, autism), as inferred from studies of genetic variants, is a gross oversimplification, hence distortion, of a complex reality.

In effect, genes do not have independent “agency”; for the most part they are simply cogs in the complex machinery of GRNs, and interpreting their mutant phenotypes is often difficult. In contrast, the genes for which there is an obvious connection between the mutant form and an altered phenotype are usually ultimate outputs of GRNs, such as pigmentation genes, hemoglobins, and enzymes of intermediary metabolism. These genes, however, also lack true autonomy, being activated in response to the operation of GRNs. Therefore, to fully understand how a gene functions, one must comprehend the larger systems in which they operate. Genetics, in this sense, is becoming systems biology, a point that has also been made by others (see, for example, Keller 2005 ). In effect, since genes can only be defined with respect to their products, and those products are governed by GRNs, the particular cellular and regulatory (GRN) contexts involved may be considered additional “dimensions” vital to specifying a gene’s function and identity. The examples of “gene sharing,” in which the function of the gene is wholly a function of its cellular context, illustrate this in a particularly vivid way. The “gene”—however it comes to be defined—can therefore be seen not as a three-dimensional entity but as a multi-dimensional one.

Putting it all Together: Toward a New Definition of the “Gene”

Where do all these considerations leave us? It took approximately half a century to go from Johannsen’s wholly abstract formulation of the term “gene” as a “unit of heredity,” to reach the early 1960s concept of the gene as a continuous segment of DNA sequence specifying a polypeptide chain. A further half century’s worth of experimental investigation has brought us to the realization that the 1960s definition is no longer adequate as a general one. Yet the term “gene” persists as a vaguely understood generic description. It is, to say the least, an anomalous situation that the central term of genetics should now be shrouded in confusion and ambiguity. That is not only intellectually unsatisfactory for the discipline, but has detrimental effects on the popular understanding of genetics. Such misunderstanding is seen most starkly in the situation noted earlier, the commonly held view that there are individual genes responsible “for” certain complex conditions, e.g. , schizophrenia, alcoholism, etc. A clearer definition of the term would thus help both the field of genetics, and, ultimately, public understanding.

Here, therefore, we will propose a definition that we believe comes closer to doing justice to the idea of the “gene,” in light of current knowledge. It makes no reference to “the unit of heredity”—the long-standing sense of the term—because we feel that it is now clear that no such generic universal unit exists. By referring to DNA sequences, however, our definition embodies the hereditary dimension of genes (in a way that pure “process”-centered definitions focused on gene expression do not). Furthermore, in its emphasis on the ultimate molecular products and reference to GRNs as both evokers and mediators of the actions of those products, it recognizes the long causal chains that often operate between genes and their effects. Our provisional definition is this:

A gene is a DNA sequence (whose component segments do not necessarily need to be physically contiguous) that specifies one or more sequence-related RNAs/proteins that are both evoked by GRNs and participate as elements in GRNs , often with indirect effects , or as outputs of GRNs , the latter yielding more direct phenotypic effects .

This is an explicitly “molecular” definition, but we think that is what is needed now. In contrast, “genes” that are identified purely by their phenotypic effects, as for example in genome-wide association study (GWAS) experiments, would, in our view, not deserve such a characterization until found to specify one or more RNAs/proteins. The genetic effects picked up in such work often identify purely regulatory elements, and these should not qualify as genes, only as part of genes. Our definition, like the classic 1960s’ formulation, makes identifying the product(s) crucial to delimiting, hence identifying, the genes themselves. It, however, also emphasizes the molecular and cellular context in which those products form and function. Those larger contexts, in effect, become necessary to define the function of the specifying gene(s).

The new definition, however, is slightly cumbersome. We therefore offer it only as a tentative solution, hence as a challenge to the field to find a better formulation but one that does justice to the complex realities of the genetic material uncovered in the past half-century.

The cis -trans test

Of fundamental importance in the operational definition of the gene is the cis-trans test ( Lewis 1951 ; Benzer 1957 ). To test whether mutations a and b belong to the same gene or cistron ( Benzer 1957 ), or different cistrons, the cis -heterozygote a b/+ + and the trans -heterozygote a +/+ b are compared. If the cis -heterozygotes, and the trans -heterozygotes are phenotypically similar (usually wild type), they are said to “complement” one another, and the mutations are inferred to fall into different cistrons. If, however, the cis -heterozygotes and the trans -heterozygotes are phenotypically different, the trans -heterozygote being (usually) mutant, and the cis -heterozygote (usually) of wild type, the mutations do not complement, and are inferred to belong to the same cistron. The attached figure clarifies the idea.

The principle of the cis-trans test. If mutations a and b belong to the same cistron, the phenotypes of the cis - and trans -heterozygotes are different. If, however, the cis - and trans -heterozygotes are phenotypically similar, the mutations a and b belong to different cistrons. The notation “works” on the Figure means that the cistron is able to produce a functional polypeptide. Mutations a and b are recessive mutations that both affect the same phenotypic trait, such as the eye color of D. melanogaster , for example.

Interpreting “genetic background” effects in terms of GRNs

Genetic background effects typically exhibit either of two forms, when a pre-existing mutation, with an associated phenotypic manifestation, is crossed into a different strain: the reduction (“suppression”) of the mutant phenotype or its increase (“enhancement”). The effects involve either changes in the degree (“expressivity”) of the mutant effect, or the number of individuals) affected (its “penetrance”), or both. When analyzed genetically, these effects could often be traced to specific “suppressor” or “enhancer” loci, which could be either tightly linked or distant in the genome from the original mutant locus. Typically regarded as an unnecessary complication in analysis of the original mutation, they were usually not pursued further. Yet, in terms of current understanding of GRNs, they are not, in principle, mysterious. Each gene that is part of a GRN can be thought of as either transmitting a signal for the activation or repression of one or more other “downstream” genes in that network, but, given the hierarchical nature of GRNs, it follows that a mutational alteration in a specific gene in the network can be either strengthened or reduced by other mutational changes in the network, either upstream or downstream of the original mutation. The particular effect achieved will depend on the characteristics of each of the two mutations involved—whether they are loss-of- or gain-of-function mutations—and the precise nature of their connectivity. Such effects are most readily illustrated with linear sequences of gene actions, genetic pathways ( Wilkins 2007 ), but can be understood in networks, when the network structure and the placement of the two genes within them is known. Some genetic background effects, in principal, however, might involve partially redundant networks, in which the effects of the two pathways are additive. In those cases, a mutant effect in one pathway may be either compensated, hence suppressed, or exacerbated, by a second mutation in the other pathway, the precise effects again depending upon the specific characteristics of the mutations and the degree of redundancy between the two GRNs.

Acknowledgments

We thank Mark Johnston and Richard Burian for many helpful suggestions, both editorial and substantive, on previous drafts. A.W. would also like to acknowledge earlier conversations with Jean Deutsch on the subject of this article; we disagreed on much but the process was stimulating and helpful. P.P. wants to thank his friends Marja Vieno, M.Sc. for linguistic aid at the very first stages of this project, and Harri Savilahti, Ph.D. for a fruitful discussion, and Docent Mikko Frilander, Ph.D. for consultation. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Communicating editor: M. Johnston

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