case study cons and pros

10 Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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A case study in academic research is a detailed and in-depth examination of a specific instance or event, generally conducted through a qualitative approach to data.

The most common case study definition that I come across is is Robert K. Yin’s (2003, p. 13) quote provided below:

“An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.”

Researchers conduct case studies for a number of reasons, such as to explore complex phenomena within their real-life context, to look at a particularly interesting instance of a situation, or to dig deeper into something of interest identified in a wider-scale project.

While case studies render extremely interesting data, they have many limitations and are not suitable for all studies. One key limitation is that a case study’s findings are not usually generalizable to broader populations because one instance cannot be used to infer trends across populations.

Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

1. in-depth analysis of complex phenomena.

Case study design allows researchers to delve deeply into intricate issues and situations.

By focusing on a specific instance or event, researchers can uncover nuanced details and layers of understanding that might be missed with other research methods, especially large-scale survey studies.

As Lee and Saunders (2017) argue,

“It allows that particular event to be studies in detail so that its unique qualities may be identified.”

This depth of analysis can provide rich insights into the underlying factors and dynamics of the studied phenomenon.

2. Holistic Understanding

Building on the above point, case studies can help us to understand a topic holistically and from multiple angles.

This means the researcher isn’t restricted to just examining a topic by using a pre-determined set of questions, as with questionnaires. Instead, researchers can use qualitative methods to delve into the many different angles, perspectives, and contextual factors related to the case study.

We can turn to Lee and Saunders (2017) again, who notes that case study researchers “develop a deep, holistic understanding of a particular phenomenon” with the intent of deeply understanding the phenomenon.

3. Examination of rare and Unusual Phenomena

We need to use case study methods when we stumble upon “rare and unusual” (Lee & Saunders, 2017) phenomena that would tend to be seen as mere outliers in population studies.

Take, for example, a child genius. A population study of all children of that child’s age would merely see this child as an outlier in the dataset, and this child may even be removed in order to predict overall trends.

So, to truly come to an understanding of this child and get insights into the environmental conditions that led to this child’s remarkable cognitive development, we need to do an in-depth study of this child specifically – so, we’d use a case study.

4. Helps Reveal the Experiences of Marginalzied Groups

Just as rare and unsual cases can be overlooked in population studies, so too can the experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of marginalized groups.

As Lee and Saunders (2017) argue, “case studies are also extremely useful in helping the expression of the voices of people whose interests are often ignored.”

Take, for example, the experiences of minority populations as they navigate healthcare systems. This was for many years a “hidden” phenomenon, not examined by researchers. It took case study designs to truly reveal this phenomenon, which helped to raise practitioners’ awareness of the importance of cultural sensitivity in medicine.

5. Ideal in Situations where Researchers cannot Control the Variables

Experimental designs – where a study takes place in a lab or controlled environment – are excellent for determining cause and effect . But not all studies can take place in controlled environments (Tetnowski, 2015).

When we’re out in the field doing observational studies or similar fieldwork, we don’t have the freedom to isolate dependent and independent variables. We need to use alternate methods.

Case studies are ideal in such situations.

A case study design will allow researchers to deeply immerse themselves in a setting (potentially combining it with methods such as ethnography or researcher observation) in order to see how phenomena take place in real-life settings.

6. Supports the generation of new theories or hypotheses

While large-scale quantitative studies such as cross-sectional designs and population surveys are excellent at testing theories and hypotheses on a large scale, they need a hypothesis to start off with!

This is where case studies – in the form of grounded research – come in. Often, a case study doesn’t start with a hypothesis. Instead, it ends with a hypothesis based upon the findings within a singular setting.

The deep analysis allows for hypotheses to emerge, which can then be taken to larger-scale studies in order to conduct further, more generalizable, testing of the hypothesis or theory.

7. Reveals the Unexpected

When a largescale quantitative research project has a clear hypothesis that it will test, it often becomes very rigid and has tunnel-vision on just exploring the hypothesis.

Of course, a structured scientific examination of the effects of specific interventions targeted at specific variables is extermely valuable.

But narrowly-focused studies often fail to shine a spotlight on unexpected and emergent data. Here, case studies come in very useful. Oftentimes, researchers set their eyes on a phenomenon and, when examining it closely with case studies, identify data and come to conclusions that are unprecedented, unforeseen, and outright surprising.

As Lars Meier (2009, p. 975) marvels, “where else can we become a part of foreign social worlds and have the chance to become aware of the unexpected?”

Disadvantages

1. not usually generalizable.

Case studies are not generalizable because they tend not to look at a broad enough corpus of data to be able to infer that there is a trend across a population.

As Yang (2022) argues, “by definition, case studies can make no claims to be typical.”

Case studies focus on one specific instance of a phenomenon. They explore the context, nuances, and situational factors that have come to bear on the case study. This is really useful for bringing to light important, new, and surprising information, as I’ve already covered.

But , it’s not often useful for generating data that has validity beyond the specific case study being examined.

2. Subjectivity in interpretation

Case studies usually (but not always) use qualitative data which helps to get deep into a topic and explain it in human terms, finding insights unattainable by quantitative data.

But qualitative data in case studies relies heavily on researcher interpretation. While researchers can be trained and work hard to focus on minimizing subjectivity (through methods like triangulation), it often emerges – some might argue it’s innevitable in qualitative studies.

So, a criticism of case studies could be that they’re more prone to subjectivity – and researchers need to take strides to address this in their studies.

3. Difficulty in replicating results

Case study research is often non-replicable because the study takes place in complex real-world settings where variables are not controlled.

So, when returning to a setting to re-do or attempt to replicate a study, we often find that the variables have changed to such an extent that replication is difficult. Furthermore, new researchers (with new subjective eyes) may catch things that the other readers overlooked.

Replication is even harder when researchers attempt to replicate a case study design in a new setting or with different participants.

Comprehension Quiz for Students

Question 1: What benefit do case studies offer when exploring the experiences of marginalized groups?

a) They provide generalizable data. b) They help express the voices of often-ignored individuals. c) They control all variables for the study. d) They always start with a clear hypothesis.

Question 2: Why might case studies be considered ideal for situations where researchers cannot control all variables?

a) They provide a structured scientific examination. b) They allow for generalizability across populations. c) They focus on one specific instance of a phenomenon. d) They allow for deep immersion in real-life settings.

Question 3: What is a primary disadvantage of case studies in terms of data applicability?

a) They always focus on the unexpected. b) They are not usually generalizable. c) They support the generation of new theories. d) They provide a holistic understanding.

Question 4: Why might case studies be considered more prone to subjectivity?

a) They always use quantitative data. b) They heavily rely on researcher interpretation, especially with qualitative data. c) They are always replicable. d) They look at a broad corpus of data.

Question 5: In what situations are experimental designs, such as those conducted in labs, most valuable?

a) When there’s a need to study rare and unusual phenomena. b) When a holistic understanding is required. c) When determining cause-and-effect relationships. d) When the study focuses on marginalized groups.

Question 6: Why is replication challenging in case study research?

a) Because they always use qualitative data. b) Because they tend to focus on a broad corpus of data. c) Due to the changing variables in complex real-world settings. d) Because they always start with a hypothesis.

Lee, B., & Saunders, M. N. K. (2017). Conducting Case Study Research for Business and Management Students. SAGE Publications.

Meir, L. (2009). Feasting on the Benefits of Case Study Research. In Mills, A. J., Wiebe, E., & Durepos, G. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Case Study Research (Vol. 2). London: SAGE Publications.

Tetnowski, J. (2015). Qualitative case study research design.  Perspectives on fluency and fluency disorders ,  25 (1), 39-45. ( Source )

Yang, S. L. (2022). The War on Corruption in China: Local Reform and Innovation . Taylor & Francis.

Yin, R. (2003). Case Study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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What are the benefits and drawbacks of case study research?

Posted by Mark Murphy | May 24, 2014 | Method , Research Students | 0

There should be no doubt that with case studies what you gain in depth you lose in breadth – this is the unavoidable compromise that needs to be understood from the beginning of the research process. So this is neither an advantage nor a disadvantage as one aspect cancels out the benefits/drawbacks of the other – there are other benefits and drawbacks that need attention however …

• Their flexibility: case studies are popular for a number of reasons, one being that they can be conducted at various points in the research process. Researchers are known to favour them as a way to develop ideas for more extensive research in the future – pilot studies often take the form of case studies. They are also effective conduits for a broad range of research methods; in that sense they are non-prejudicial against any particular type of research – focus groups are just as welcome in case study research as are questionnaires or participant observation.
• Capturing reality: One of their key benefits is their ability to capture what Hodkinson and Hodkinson call ‘lived reality’ (2001: 3). As they put it, case studies have the potential, when applied successfully, to ‘retain more of the “noise” of real life than many other types of research’ (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2001: 3). The importance of ‘noise’ and its place in research is especially important in contexts such as education, for example in schools where background noise is unavoidable. Educational contexts are always complex, and as a result it is difficult to exclude other unwanted variables, ‘some of which may only have real significance for one of their students’ (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2001, 4).
• The challenge of generality: At the same time, given their specificity, care needs to be taken when attempting to generalise from the findings. While there’s no inherent flaw in case study design that precludes its broader application, it is preferable that researchers choose their case study sites carefully, while also basing their analysis within existing research findings that have been generated via other research designs. No design is infallible but so often has the claim against case studies been made, that some of the criticism (unwarranted and unfair in many cases) has stuck.
• Suspicion of amateurism: Less partisan researchers might wonder whether the case study offers the time and finance-strapped researcher a convenient and pragmatic source of data, providing findings and recommendations that, given the nature of case studies, can neither be confirmed nor denied, in terms of utility or veracity. Who is to say that case studies offer anything more than a story to tell, and nothing more than that?
• But alongside this suspicion is another more insiduous one – a notion that ‘stories’ are not what social science research is about. This can be a concern for those who favour  case study research, as the political consequences can be hard to ignore. That said, so much research is based either on peoples’ lives or the impact of other issues (poverty, institutional policy) on their lives, so the stories of what actually occurs in their lives or in professional environments tend to be an invaluable source of evidence. The fact is that stories (individual, collective, institutional) have a vital role to play in the world of research. And to play the specific v. general card against case study design suggests a tendency towards forms of research fundamentalism as opposed to any kind of rational and objective take on case study’s strengths and limitations.
• Preciousness: Having said that, researchers should not fall into the trap (surprising how often this happens) of assuming that case study data speaks for itself – rarely is this ever the case, an assumption that is as patronising to research subjects as it is false. The role of the researcher is both to describe social phenomena and also to explain – i.e., interpret. Without interpretation the research findings lack meaningful presentation – they present themselves as fact when of course the reality of ‘facts’ is one of the reasons why such research is carried out.
• Conflation of political/research objectives: Another trap that case study researchers sometimes fall into is presenting research findings as if they were self-evidently true, as if the stories were beyond criticism. This is often accompanied by a vague attachment to the notion that research is a political process – one that is performed as a form of liberation against for example policies that seek to ignore the stories of those who ‘suffer’ at the hands of overbearing political or economic imperatives. Case study design should not be viewed as a mechanism for providing a ‘local’ bulwark against the ‘global’ – bur rather as a mechanism for checking the veracity of universalist claims (at least one of its objectives). The valorisation of particularism can only get you so far in social research.

[This post is adapted from material in ‘Research and Education’ (Curtis, Murphy and Shields , Routledge 2014), pp. 80-82].

Reference: Hodkinson, P. and H. Hodkinson (2001). The strengths and limitations of case study research. Paper presented to the Learning and Skills Development Agency conference, Making an impact on policy and practice , Cambridge, 5-7 December 2001, downloaded from h ttp://education.exeter.ac.uk/tlc/docs/publications/LE_PH_PUB_05.12.01.rtf.26.01.2013

About The Author

Mark Murphy

Mark Murphy is a Reader in Education and Public Policy at the University of Glasgow. He previously worked as an academic at King’s College, London, University of Chester, University of Stirling, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, University College Dublin and Northern Illinois University. Mark is an active researcher in the fields of education and public policy. His research interests include educational sociology, critical theory, accountability in higher education, and public sector reform.

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What is a Case Study? Definition & Examples

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Case Study Definition

A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event, or community. This research method involves intensively analyzing a subject to understand its complexity and context. The richness of a case study comes from its ability to capture detailed, qualitative data that can offer insights into a process or subject matter that other research methods might miss.

A case study strives for a holistic understanding of events or situations by examining all relevant variables. They are ideal for exploring ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions in contexts where the researcher has limited control over events in real-life settings. Unlike narrowly focused experiments, these projects seek a comprehensive understanding of events or situations.

In a case study, researchers gather data through various methods such as participant observation, interviews, tests, record examinations, and writing samples. Unlike statistically-based studies that seek only quantifiable data, a case study attempts to uncover new variables and pose questions for subsequent research.

A case study is particularly beneficial when your research:

• Requires a deep, contextual understanding of a specific case.
• Needs to explore or generate hypotheses rather than test them.
• Focuses on a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context.

Learn more about Other Types of Experimental Design .

Case Study Examples

Various fields utilize case studies, including the following:

• Social sciences : For understanding complex social phenomena.
• Business : For analyzing corporate strategies and business decisions.
• Healthcare : For detailed patient studies and medical research.
• Education : For understanding educational methods and policies.
• Law : For in-depth analysis of legal cases.

For example, consider a case study in a business setting where a startup struggles to scale. Researchers might examine the startup’s strategies, market conditions, management decisions, and competition. Interviews with the CEO, employees, and customers, alongside an analysis of financial data, could offer insights into the challenges and potential solutions for the startup. This research could serve as a valuable lesson for other emerging businesses.

See below for other examples.

Types of Case Studies

Several standard types of case studies exist that vary based on the objectives and specific research needs.

Illustrative Case Study : Descriptive in nature, these studies use one or two instances to depict a situation, helping to familiarize the unfamiliar and establish a common understanding of the topic.

Exploratory Case Study : Conducted as precursors to large-scale investigations, they assist in raising relevant questions, choosing measurement types, and identifying hypotheses to test.

Cumulative Case Study : These studies compile information from various sources over time to enhance generalization without the need for costly, repetitive new studies.

Critical Instance Case Study : Focused on specific sites, they either explore unique situations with limited generalizability or challenge broad assertions, to identify potential cause-and-effect issues.

Pros and Cons

As with any research study, case studies have a set of benefits and drawbacks.

• Provides comprehensive and detailed data.
• Offers a real-life perspective.
• Flexible and can adapt to discoveries during the study.
• Enables investigation of scenarios that are hard to assess in laboratory settings.
• Facilitates studying rare or unique cases.
• Generates hypotheses for future experimental research.
• Time-consuming and may require a lot of resources.
• Hard to generalize findings to a broader context.
• Potential for researcher bias.
• Cannot establish causality .
• Lacks scientific rigor compared to more controlled research methods .

Crafting a Good Case Study: Methodology

While case studies emphasize specific details over broad theories, they should connect to theoretical frameworks in the field. This approach ensures that these projects contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the subject, rather than standing as an isolated entity.

The following are critical steps in developing a case study:

• Define the Research Questions : Clearly outline what you want to explore. Define specific, achievable objectives.
• Select the Case : Choose a case that best suits the research questions. Consider using a typical case for general understanding or an atypical subject for unique insights.
• Data Collection : Use a variety of data sources, such as interviews, observations, documents, and archival records, to provide multiple perspectives on the issue.
• Data Analysis : Identify patterns and themes in the data.
• Report Findings : Present the findings in a structured and clear manner.

Analysts typically use thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes within the data and compare different cases.

• Qualitative Analysis : Such as coding and thematic analysis for narrative data.
• Quantitative Analysis : In cases where numerical data is involved.
• Triangulation : Combining multiple methods or data sources to enhance accuracy.

A good case study requires a balanced approach, often using both qualitative and quantitative methods.

The researcher should constantly reflect on their biases and how they might influence the research. Documenting personal reflections can provide transparency.

Avoid over-generalization. One common mistake is to overstate the implications of a case study. Remember that these studies provide an in-depth insights into a specific case and might not be widely applicable.

Don’t ignore contradictory data. All data, even that which contradicts your hypothesis, is valuable. Ignoring it can lead to skewed results.

Finally, in the report, researchers provide comprehensive insight for a case study through “thick description,” which entails a detailed portrayal of the subject, its usage context, the attributes of involved individuals, and the community environment. Thick description extends to interpreting various data, including demographic details, cultural norms, societal values, prevailing attitudes, and underlying motivations. This approach ensures a nuanced and in-depth comprehension of the case in question.

Learn more about Qualitative Research and Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data .

Morland, J. & Feagin, Joe & Orum, Anthony & Sjoberg, Gideon. (1992). A Case for the Case Study . Social Forces. 71(1):240.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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The Pros and Cons of Case Studies

Developing Case Studies for Product Managers

When Sequent delivers workshops, they tend to draw upon a lot of personal observation, insight, and experience, and we encourage others to do the same. Part of this body of knowledge will include case studies of what other companies have successfully (or not so successfully) achieved.

However, we tend not to overly rely upon using formal case studies to guide our teaching because we believe there are some significant shortcomings in taking this approach.

The First Issue

First, formal case studies often lack the essential insights of what was actually going on inside the company in question. Case studies that include unbiased critical analysis are usually written from the outside looking in without the benefit of a true internal perspective of the situation. These observations, by the way, maybe no more or less valid than your own.

Meanwhile, those case studies that are written from an internal point of view have more than likely been thoroughly sanitized through company legal departments, corporate communications groups, and sometimes even public relations firms. Yes, there is something to be learned from these types of reports, as long as their content is put into its proper context.

The Second Issue

The second issue with formal case studies is that they are often used to represent either the “right way” or the “wrong way” of doing things. Although it may be tempting to apply such a clear definition, doing so will almost certainly force you to ignore the nearly infinite number of unique inputs and circumstances that surrounded any given situation; all of which helped contribute to the final outcome.

Repeating any given case under ever so slightly different conditions may yield dramatically different results. Since it is unrealistic to understand all of those intricacies, it is also equally unrealistic to use case studies as definitive roadmaps for future success or failure.

The final concern with an over-reliance on formal case studies is that doing so may encourage imitation rather than inspiration – and that is not an advisable place to be.  You may recall taking classes in college where works of art and literature were analyzed to the nth degree. And while this made for some interesting discussion, the focus seemed to be placed more on understanding how somebody else did something rather than encouraging people to think up new ways of doing things on their own.

Presenting the “case” without the formal “study” may just inspire people to apply their own observations and insights rather than leaning on someone else’s analysis.

This, in turn, should lead to the creation of unique works of business art that other people will be writing cases studies about someday!

None of this is to say that formal case studies should be completely ignored – only that they should not be overly relied upon. When case studies are put into the category of foundational learning, they can be extremely effective tools. But when these studies are used as an absolute framework for what should or should not be done in any given situation, you may just find that your own intuition and observations will serve as a far better guide.

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Home » Pros and Cons » 12 Case Study Method Advantages and Disadvantages

12 Case Study Method Advantages and Disadvantages

A case study is an investigation into an individual circumstance. The investigation may be of a single person, business, event, or group. The investigation involves collecting in-depth data about the individual entity through the use of several collection methods. Interviews and observation are two of the most common forms of data collection used.

The case study method was originally developed in the field of clinical medicine. It has expanded since to other industries to examine key results, either positive or negative, that were received through a specific set of decisions. This allows for the topic to be researched with great detail, allowing others to glean knowledge from the information presented.

Here are the advantages and disadvantages of using the case study method.

List of the Advantages of the Case Study Method

1. it turns client observations into useable data..

Case studies offer verifiable data from direct observations of the individual entity involved. These observations provide information about input processes. It can show the path taken which led to specific results being generated. Those observations make it possible for others, in similar circumstances, to potentially replicate the results discovered by the case study method.

2. It turns opinion into fact.

Case studies provide facts to study because you’re looking at data which was generated in real-time. It is a way for researchers to turn their opinions into information that can be verified as fact because there is a proven path of positive or negative development. Singling out a specific incident also provides in-depth details about the path of development, which gives it extra credibility to the outside observer.

3. It is relevant to all parties involved.

Case studies that are chosen well will be relevant to everyone who is participating in the process. Because there is such a high level of relevance involved, researchers are able to stay actively engaged in the data collection process. Participants are able to further their knowledge growth because there is interest in the outcome of the case study. Most importantly, the case study method essentially forces people to make a decision about the question being studied, then defend their position through the use of facts.

4. It uses a number of different research methodologies.

The case study method involves more than just interviews and direct observation. Case histories from a records database can be used with this method. Questionnaires can be distributed to participants in the entity being studies. Individuals who have kept diaries and journals about the entity being studied can be included. Even certain experimental tasks, such as a memory test, can be part of this research process.

5. It can be done remotely.

Researchers do not need to be present at a specific location or facility to utilize the case study method. Research can be obtained over the phone, through email, and other forms of remote communication. Even interviews can be conducted over the phone. That means this method is good for formative research that is exploratory in nature, even if it must be completed from a remote location.

6. It is inexpensive.

Compared to other methods of research, the case study method is rather inexpensive. The costs associated with this method involve accessing data, which can often be done for free. Even when there are in-person interviews or other on-site duties involved, the costs of reviewing the data are minimal.

7. It is very accessible to readers.

The case study method puts data into a usable format for those who read the data and note its outcome. Although there may be perspectives of the researcher included in the outcome, the goal of this method is to help the reader be able to identify specific concepts to which they also relate. That allows them to discover unusual features within the data, examine outliers that may be present, or draw conclusions from their own experiences.

List of the Disadvantages of the Case Study Method

1. it can have influence factors within the data..

Every person has their own unconscious bias. Although the case study method is designed to limit the influence of this bias by collecting fact-based data, it is the collector of the data who gets to define what is a “fact” and what is not. That means the real-time data being collected may be based on the results the researcher wants to see from the entity instead. By controlling how facts are collected, a research can control the results this method generates.

2. It takes longer to analyze the data.

The information collection process through the case study method takes much longer to collect than other research options. That is because there is an enormous amount of data which must be sifted through. It’s not just the researchers who can influence the outcome in this type of research method. Participants can also influence outcomes by given inaccurate or incomplete answers to questions they are asked. Researchers must verify the information presented to ensure its accuracy, and that takes time to complete.

3. It can be an inefficient process.

Case study methods require the participation of the individuals or entities involved for it to be a successful process. That means the skills of the researcher will help to determine the quality of information that is being received. Some participants may be quiet, unwilling to answer even basic questions about what is being studied. Others may be overly talkative, exploring tangents which have nothing to do with the case study at all. If researchers are unsure of how to manage this process, then incomplete data is often collected.

4. It requires a small sample size to be effective.

The case study method requires a small sample size for it to yield an effective amount of data to be analyzed. If there are different demographics involved with the entity, or there are different needs which must be examined, then the case study method becomes very inefficient.

5. It is a labor-intensive method of data collection.

The case study method requires researchers to have a high level of language skills to be successful with data collection. Researchers must be personally involved in every aspect of collecting the data as well. From reviewing files or entries personally to conducting personal interviews, the concepts and themes of this process are heavily reliant on the amount of work each researcher is willing to put into things.

These case study method advantages and disadvantages offer a look at the effectiveness of this research option. With the right skill set, it can be used as an effective tool to gather rich, detailed information about specific entities. Without the right skill set, the case study method becomes inefficient and inaccurate.

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5 Benefits of Learning Through the Case Study Method

• 28 Nov 2023

While several factors make HBS Online unique —including a global Community and real-world outcomes —active learning through the case study method rises to the top.

In a 2023 City Square Associates survey, 74 percent of HBS Online learners who also took a course from another provider said HBS Online’s case method and real-world examples were better by comparison.

Here’s a primer on the case method, five benefits you could gain, and how to experience it for yourself.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is the Harvard Business School Case Study Method?

The case study method , or case method , is a learning technique in which you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it. After working through it yourself and with peers, you’re told how the scenario played out.

HBS pioneered the case method in 1922. Shortly before, in 1921, the first case was written.

“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it?” says HBS Professor Jan Rivkin, former senior associate dean and chair of HBS's master of business administration (MBA) program, in a video about the case method . “That skill—the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry to choose a course of action—that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”

Originally developed for the in-person MBA classroom, HBS Online adapted the case method into an engaging, interactive online learning experience in 2014.

In HBS Online courses , you learn about each case from the business professional who experienced it. After reviewing their videos, you’re prompted to take their perspective and explain how you’d handle their situation.

You then get to read peers’ responses, “star” them, and comment to further the discussion. Afterward, you learn how the professional handled it and their key takeaways.

HBS Online’s adaptation of the case method incorporates the famed HBS “cold call,” in which you’re called on at random to make a decision without time to prepare.

“Learning came to life!” said Sheneka Balogun , chief administration officer and chief of staff at LeMoyne-Owen College, of her experience taking the Credential of Readiness (CORe) program . “The videos from the professors, the interactive cold calls where you were randomly selected to participate, and the case studies that enhanced and often captured the essence of objectives and learning goals were all embedded in each module. This made learning fun, engaging, and student-friendly.”

If you’re considering taking a course that leverages the case study method, here are five benefits you could experience.

5 Benefits of Learning Through Case Studies

1. take new perspectives.

The case method prompts you to consider a scenario from another person’s perspective. To work through the situation and come up with a solution, you must consider their circumstances, limitations, risk tolerance, stakeholders, resources, and potential consequences to assess how to respond.

Taking on new perspectives not only can help you navigate your own challenges but also others’. Putting yourself in someone else’s situation to understand their motivations and needs can go a long way when collaborating with stakeholders.

2. Hone Your Decision-Making Skills

Another skill you can build is the ability to make decisions effectively . The case study method forces you to use limited information to decide how to handle a problem—just like in the real world.

Throughout your career, you’ll need to make difficult decisions with incomplete or imperfect information—and sometimes, you won’t feel qualified to do so. Learning through the case method allows you to practice this skill in a low-stakes environment. When facing a real challenge, you’ll be better prepared to think quickly, collaborate with others, and present and defend your solution.

3. Become More Open-Minded

As you collaborate with peers on responses, it becomes clear that not everyone solves problems the same way. Exposing yourself to various approaches and perspectives can help you become a more open-minded professional.

When you’re part of a diverse group of learners from around the world, your experiences, cultures, and backgrounds contribute to a range of opinions on each case.

On the HBS Online course platform, you’re prompted to view and comment on others’ responses, and discussion is encouraged. This practice of considering others’ perspectives can make you more receptive in your career.

“You’d be surprised at how much you can learn from your peers,” said Ratnaditya Jonnalagadda , a software engineer who took CORe.

In addition to interacting with peers in the course platform, Jonnalagadda was part of the HBS Online Community , where he networked with other professionals and continued discussions sparked by course content.

“You get to understand your peers better, and students share examples of businesses implementing a concept from a module you just learned,” Jonnalagadda said. “It’s a very good way to cement the concepts in one's mind.”

4. Enhance Your Curiosity

One byproduct of taking on different perspectives is that it enables you to picture yourself in various roles, industries, and business functions.

“Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers,” says former HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in the Harvard Business Review . “Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

Through the case method, you can “try on” roles you may not have considered and feel more prepared to change or advance your career .

5. Build Your Self-Confidence

Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader’s perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career.

According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey , 84 percent of HBS Online learners report feeling more confident making business decisions after taking a course.

“Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people,” Nohria says in the Harvard Business Review . “There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching.”

How to Experience the Case Study Method

If the case method seems like a good fit for your learning style, experience it for yourself by taking an HBS Online course. Offerings span seven subject areas, including:

• Business essentials
• Leadership and management
• Entrepreneurship and innovation
• Finance and accounting
• Business in society

No matter which course or credential program you choose, you’ll examine case studies from real business professionals, work through their challenges alongside peers, and gain valuable insights to apply to your career.

Are you interested in discovering how HBS Online can help advance your career? Explore our course catalog and download our free guide —complete with interactive workbook sections—to determine if online learning is right for you and which course to take.

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Case Study Pros and Cons

• Categories: Case Study Research Methods

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Published: Jun 6, 2024

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Table of contents

Advantages of case studies, disadvantages of case studies, balancing the pros and cons.

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Pros and Cons of case studies

• Post author: admin
• Post published: March 27, 2020
• Post category: Education
• Post comments: 0 Comments

Case studies are research methodologies that are used and analyzed in order to depict principles; they have been usually used in social sciences. They are research strategies and experiential inquiries that seek to examine various phenomena within a real-life context. Case studies seek to explain and give details in the analysis of people and events. There are several pros that back case studies and there are cons too that criticize them. The pros and cons are listed below.

1 . They show client observations- Since case studies are strategies that are used and analyzed in order to describe principles therefore it seeks to show indeed the client investigated and experienced a particular phenomenon.

2 . Makes practical improvements- Case studies present facts that categorically describe particular people or events in order to make some of the necessary improvements. Case studies data is what supports a particular belief.

3 . They are an influential way of portraying something- If a researcher wants to prove a particular principle to be true, he or she must back it by case studies in order to make the other people and the naysayers believe.

4 . They turn opinions into facts- Case studies present real data on a particular phenomenon. Since facts about various things are presented then it can be verified through this kind of data if the information presented is in the positive or negative development of opinion.

5 . It is relevant to all the parties that are involved- Case studies help the researchers in actively focusing on the data collection process and the participants’ knowledge is bettered. At the end of the process, everybody is able to defend his position through facts.

6 . A number of different research methodologies can be used in case the studies- Case study method goes beyond the interview and direct observations. Secondary data can be obtained from various historical sources that can be used to back the method.

7 . Case studies can be done remotely- It is not essential for a researcher to be present in the specific location of the study in order to effectively use the case study method. Other forms of communication come in to cover that gap for the researcher.

8 . It has a very high cost- If you put this research method in comparison to the others, this one seems more expensive because the cost of accessing data is very high.

9 . Readers can access data from this method very easily- The The format in which case studies present their data is very useful to the readers and easily note the outcomes of the same.

10 . Collects data that cannot be collected by another method- The type of data collected by case studies is much richer and greater in-depth than that of the other experimental methods.

1 . Data collected cannot be generalized- The data collected by the case study method was collected from a smaller population it cannot be generalized to the wider population.

2 . Some of the case studies are not scientific- The weakness of the data collected in some of the case studies that are not scientific is that it cannot be generalized.

3 . It is very difficult to draw a definite cause/effect from case studies- The the kind of data that case studies present cannot be used to draw a definite cause-effect relationship.

4 . Case studies concentrate on one experiment- The problem associated with concentrating on one experiment or a specific group of people is that the data presented might contain some kind of bias.

5 . It takes a lot of time to analyze the data- This process takes longer to analyze the data because there is a very large amount of data that must be collected. Participants might take a lot of time in giving answers or giving inaccurate information.

6 . Case studies can be inefficient processes- Sometimes the researchers are not present in the study areas which means they will not be able to notice whether the information provided is accurate or not terming the whole process inefficient.

7 . Case study method can only be effective with a small sample size- If a very large sample size is involved in the case study it is likely for it to become inefficient because the method requires a small sample size to get the data and analyze it.

8 . The method requires a lot of labor in data collection- The researcher is seriously needed in the data collection of this method. They have to be personally involved in order to be able to identify the quality of the data provided.

9 . There are factors that can influence the data- The method of data collection is meant to collect fact-based data but the power to determine what fact is and what is not is the person who is collecting the data.

10 . There is no right answer in case studies- Case studies do not present any specific answer that is right, the problem arises in the validation of solutions because there is more than one way of looking at things.

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The Advantages and Limitations of Single Case Study Analysis

As Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman have recently noted, qualitative research methods presently enjoy “an almost unprecedented popularity and vitality… in the international relations sub-field”, such that they are now “indisputably prominent, if not pre-eminent” (2010: 499). This is, they suggest, due in no small part to the considerable advantages that case study methods in particular have to offer in studying the “complex and relatively unstructured and infrequent phenomena that lie at the heart of the subfield” (Bennett and Elman, 2007: 171). Using selected examples from within the International Relations literature[1], this paper aims to provide a brief overview of the main principles and distinctive advantages and limitations of single case study analysis. Divided into three inter-related sections, the paper therefore begins by first identifying the underlying principles that serve to constitute the case study as a particular research strategy, noting the somewhat contested nature of the approach in ontological, epistemological, and methodological terms. The second part then looks to the principal single case study types and their associated advantages, including those from within the recent ‘third generation’ of qualitative International Relations (IR) research. The final section of the paper then discusses the most commonly articulated limitations of single case studies; while accepting their susceptibility to criticism, it is however suggested that such weaknesses are somewhat exaggerated. The paper concludes that single case study analysis has a great deal to offer as a means of both understanding and explaining contemporary international relations.

The term ‘case study’, John Gerring has suggested, is “a definitional morass… Evidently, researchers have many different things in mind when they talk about case study research” (2006a: 17). It is possible, however, to distil some of the more commonly-agreed principles. One of the most prominent advocates of case study research, Robert Yin (2009: 14) defines it as “an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident”. What this definition usefully captures is that case studies are intended – unlike more superficial and generalising methods – to provide a level of detail and understanding, similar to the ethnographer Clifford Geertz’s (1973) notion of ‘thick description’, that allows for the thorough analysis of the complex and particularistic nature of distinct phenomena. Another frequently cited proponent of the approach, Robert Stake, notes that as a form of research the case study “is defined by interest in an individual case, not by the methods of inquiry used”, and that “the object of study is a specific, unique, bounded system” (2008: 443, 445). As such, three key points can be derived from this – respectively concerning issues of ontology, epistemology, and methodology – that are central to the principles of single case study research.

First, the vital notion of ‘boundedness’ when it comes to the particular unit of analysis means that defining principles should incorporate both the synchronic (spatial) and diachronic (temporal) elements of any so-called ‘case’. As Gerring puts it, a case study should be “an intensive study of a single unit… a spatially bounded phenomenon – e.g. a nation-state, revolution, political party, election, or person – observed at a single point in time or over some delimited period of time” (2004: 342). It is important to note, however, that – whereas Gerring refers to a single unit of analysis – it may be that attention also necessarily be given to particular sub-units. This points to the important difference between what Yin refers to as an ‘holistic’ case design, with a single unit of analysis, and an ’embedded’ case design with multiple units of analysis (Yin, 2009: 50-52). The former, for example, would examine only the overall nature of an international organization, whereas the latter would also look to specific departments, programmes, or policies etc.

Secondly, as Tim May notes of the case study approach, “even the most fervent advocates acknowledge that the term has entered into understandings with little specification or discussion of purpose and process” (2011: 220). One of the principal reasons for this, he argues, is the relationship between the use of case studies in social research and the differing epistemological traditions – positivist, interpretivist, and others – within which it has been utilised. Philosophy of science concerns are obviously a complex issue, and beyond the scope of much of this paper. That said, the issue of how it is that we know what we know – of whether or not a single independent reality exists of which we as researchers can seek to provide explanation – does lead us to an important distinction to be made between so-called idiographic and nomothetic case studies (Gerring, 2006b). The former refers to those which purport to explain only a single case, are concerned with particularisation, and hence are typically (although not exclusively) associated with more interpretivist approaches. The latter are those focused studies that reflect upon a larger population and are more concerned with generalisation, as is often so with more positivist approaches[2]. The importance of this distinction, and its relation to the advantages and limitations of single case study analysis, is returned to below.

Thirdly, in methodological terms, given that the case study has often been seen as more of an interpretivist and idiographic tool, it has also been associated with a distinctly qualitative approach (Bryman, 2009: 67-68). However, as Yin notes, case studies can – like all forms of social science research – be exploratory, descriptive, and/or explanatory in nature. It is “a common misconception”, he notes, “that the various research methods should be arrayed hierarchically… many social scientists still deeply believe that case studies are only appropriate for the exploratory phase of an investigation” (Yin, 2009: 6). If case studies can reliably perform any or all three of these roles – and given that their in-depth approach may also require multiple sources of data and the within-case triangulation of methods – then it becomes readily apparent that they should not be limited to only one research paradigm. Exploratory and descriptive studies usually tend toward the qualitative and inductive, whereas explanatory studies are more often quantitative and deductive (David and Sutton, 2011: 165-166). As such, the association of case study analysis with a qualitative approach is a “methodological affinity, not a definitional requirement” (Gerring, 2006a: 36). It is perhaps better to think of case studies as transparadigmatic; it is mistaken to assume single case study analysis to adhere exclusively to a qualitative methodology (or an interpretivist epistemology) even if it – or rather, practitioners of it – may be so inclined. By extension, this also implies that single case study analysis therefore remains an option for a multitude of IR theories and issue areas; it is how this can be put to researchers’ advantage that is the subject of the next section.

Having elucidated the defining principles of the single case study approach, the paper now turns to an overview of its main benefits. As noted above, a lack of consensus still exists within the wider social science literature on the principles and purposes – and by extension the advantages and limitations – of case study research. Given that this paper is directed towards the particular sub-field of International Relations, it suggests Bennett and Elman’s (2010) more discipline-specific understanding of contemporary case study methods as an analytical framework. It begins however, by discussing Harry Eckstein’s seminal (1975) contribution to the potential advantages of the case study approach within the wider social sciences.

Eckstein proposed a taxonomy which usefully identified what he considered to be the five most relevant types of case study. Firstly were so-called configurative-idiographic studies, distinctly interpretivist in orientation and predicated on the assumption that “one cannot attain prediction and control in the natural science sense, but only understanding ( verstehen )… subjective values and modes of cognition are crucial” (1975: 132). Eckstein’s own sceptical view was that any interpreter ‘simply’ considers a body of observations that are not self-explanatory and “without hard rules of interpretation, may discern in them any number of patterns that are more or less equally plausible” (1975: 134). Those of a more post-modernist bent, of course – sharing an “incredulity towards meta-narratives”, in Lyotard’s (1994: xxiv) evocative phrase – would instead suggest that this more free-form approach actually be advantageous in delving into the subtleties and particularities of individual cases.

Eckstein’s four other types of case study, meanwhile, promote a more nomothetic (and positivist) usage. As described, disciplined-configurative studies were essentially about the use of pre-existing general theories, with a case acting “passively, in the main, as a receptacle for putting theories to work” (Eckstein, 1975: 136). As opposed to the opportunity this presented primarily for theory application, Eckstein identified heuristic case studies as explicit theoretical stimulants – thus having instead the intended advantage of theory-building. So-called p lausibility probes entailed preliminary attempts to determine whether initial hypotheses should be considered sound enough to warrant more rigorous and extensive testing. Finally, and perhaps most notably, Eckstein then outlined the idea of crucial case studies , within which he also included the idea of ‘most-likely’ and ‘least-likely’ cases; the essential characteristic of crucial cases being their specific theory-testing function.

Whilst Eckstein’s was an early contribution to refining the case study approach, Yin’s (2009: 47-52) more recent delineation of possible single case designs similarly assigns them roles in the applying, testing, or building of theory, as well as in the study of unique cases[3]. As a subset of the latter, however, Jack Levy (2008) notes that the advantages of idiographic cases are actually twofold. Firstly, as inductive/descriptive cases – akin to Eckstein’s configurative-idiographic cases – whereby they are highly descriptive, lacking in an explicit theoretical framework and therefore taking the form of “total history”. Secondly, they can operate as theory-guided case studies, but ones that seek only to explain or interpret a single historical episode rather than generalise beyond the case. Not only does this therefore incorporate ‘single-outcome’ studies concerned with establishing causal inference (Gerring, 2006b), it also provides room for the more postmodern approaches within IR theory, such as discourse analysis, that may have developed a distinct methodology but do not seek traditional social scientific forms of explanation.

Applying specifically to the state of the field in contemporary IR, Bennett and Elman identify a ‘third generation’ of mainstream qualitative scholars – rooted in a pragmatic scientific realist epistemology and advocating a pluralistic approach to methodology – that have, over the last fifteen years, “revised or added to essentially every aspect of traditional case study research methods” (2010: 502). They identify ‘process tracing’ as having emerged from this as a central method of within-case analysis. As Bennett and Checkel observe, this carries the advantage of offering a methodologically rigorous “analysis of evidence on processes, sequences, and conjunctures of events within a case, for the purposes of either developing or testing hypotheses about causal mechanisms that might causally explain the case” (2012: 10).

Harnessing various methods, process tracing may entail the inductive use of evidence from within a case to develop explanatory hypotheses, and deductive examination of the observable implications of hypothesised causal mechanisms to test their explanatory capability[4]. It involves providing not only a coherent explanation of the key sequential steps in a hypothesised process, but also sensitivity to alternative explanations as well as potential biases in the available evidence (Bennett and Elman 2010: 503-504). John Owen (1994), for example, demonstrates the advantages of process tracing in analysing whether the causal factors underpinning democratic peace theory are – as liberalism suggests – not epiphenomenal, but variously normative, institutional, or some given combination of the two or other unexplained mechanism inherent to liberal states. Within-case process tracing has also been identified as advantageous in addressing the complexity of path-dependent explanations and critical junctures – as for example with the development of political regime types – and their constituent elements of causal possibility, contingency, closure, and constraint (Bennett and Elman, 2006b).

Bennett and Elman (2010: 505-506) also identify the advantages of single case studies that are implicitly comparative: deviant, most-likely, least-likely, and crucial cases. Of these, so-called deviant cases are those whose outcome does not fit with prior theoretical expectations or wider empirical patterns – again, the use of inductive process tracing has the advantage of potentially generating new hypotheses from these, either particular to that individual case or potentially generalisable to a broader population. A classic example here is that of post-independence India as an outlier to the standard modernisation theory of democratisation, which holds that higher levels of socio-economic development are typically required for the transition to, and consolidation of, democratic rule (Lipset, 1959; Diamond, 1992). Absent these factors, MacMillan’s single case study analysis (2008) suggests the particularistic importance of the British colonial heritage, the ideology and leadership of the Indian National Congress, and the size and heterogeneity of the federal state.

Most-likely cases, as per Eckstein above, are those in which a theory is to be considered likely to provide a good explanation if it is to have any application at all, whereas least-likely cases are ‘tough test’ ones in which the posited theory is unlikely to provide good explanation (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 505). Levy (2008) neatly refers to the inferential logic of the least-likely case as the ‘Sinatra inference’ – if a theory can make it here, it can make it anywhere. Conversely, if a theory cannot pass a most-likely case, it is seriously impugned. Single case analysis can therefore be valuable for the testing of theoretical propositions, provided that predictions are relatively precise and measurement error is low (Levy, 2008: 12-13). As Gerring rightly observes of this potential for falsification:

“a positivist orientation toward the work of social science militates toward a greater appreciation of the case study format, not a denigration of that format, as is usually supposed” (Gerring, 2007: 247, emphasis added).

In summary, the various forms of single case study analysis can – through the application of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative research methods – provide a nuanced, empirically-rich, holistic account of specific phenomena. This may be particularly appropriate for those phenomena that are simply less amenable to more superficial measures and tests (or indeed any substantive form of quantification) as well as those for which our reasons for understanding and/or explaining them are irreducibly subjective – as, for example, with many of the normative and ethical issues associated with the practice of international relations. From various epistemological and analytical standpoints, single case study analysis can incorporate both idiographic sui generis cases and, where the potential for generalisation may exist, nomothetic case studies suitable for the testing and building of causal hypotheses. Finally, it should not be ignored that a signal advantage of the case study – with particular relevance to international relations – also exists at a more practical rather than theoretical level. This is, as Eckstein noted, “that it is economical for all resources: money, manpower, time, effort… especially important, of course, if studies are inherently costly, as they are if units are complex collective individuals ” (1975: 149-150, emphasis added).

Limitations

Single case study analysis has, however, been subject to a number of criticisms, the most common of which concern the inter-related issues of methodological rigour, researcher subjectivity, and external validity. With regard to the first point, the prototypical view here is that of Zeev Maoz (2002: 164-165), who suggests that “the use of the case study absolves the author from any kind of methodological considerations. Case studies have become in many cases a synonym for freeform research where anything goes”. The absence of systematic procedures for case study research is something that Yin (2009: 14-15) sees as traditionally the greatest concern due to a relative absence of methodological guidelines. As the previous section suggests, this critique seems somewhat unfair; many contemporary case study practitioners – and representing various strands of IR theory – have increasingly sought to clarify and develop their methodological techniques and epistemological grounding (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 499-500).

A second issue, again also incorporating issues of construct validity, concerns that of the reliability and replicability of various forms of single case study analysis. This is usually tied to a broader critique of qualitative research methods as a whole. However, whereas the latter obviously tend toward an explicitly-acknowledged interpretive basis for meanings, reasons, and understandings:

“quantitative measures appear objective, but only so long as we don’t ask questions about where and how the data were produced… pure objectivity is not a meaningful concept if the goal is to measure intangibles [as] these concepts only exist because we can interpret them” (Berg and Lune, 2010: 340).

The question of researcher subjectivity is a valid one, and it may be intended only as a methodological critique of what are obviously less formalised and researcher-independent methods (Verschuren, 2003). Owen (1994) and Layne’s (1994) contradictory process tracing results of interdemocratic war-avoidance during the Anglo-American crisis of 1861 to 1863 – from liberal and realist standpoints respectively – are a useful example. However, it does also rest on certain assumptions that can raise deeper and potentially irreconcilable ontological and epistemological issues. There are, regardless, plenty such as Bent Flyvbjerg (2006: 237) who suggest that the case study contains no greater bias toward verification than other methods of inquiry, and that “on the contrary, experience indicates that the case study contains a greater bias toward falsification of preconceived notions than toward verification”.

The third and arguably most prominent critique of single case study analysis is the issue of external validity or generalisability. How is it that one case can reliably offer anything beyond the particular? “We always do better (or, in the extreme, no worse) with more observation as the basis of our generalization”, as King et al write; “in all social science research and all prediction, it is important that we be as explicit as possible about the degree of uncertainty that accompanies out prediction” (1994: 212). This is an unavoidably valid criticism. It may be that theories which pass a single crucial case study test, for example, require rare antecedent conditions and therefore actually have little explanatory range. These conditions may emerge more clearly, as Van Evera (1997: 51-54) notes, from large-N studies in which cases that lack them present themselves as outliers exhibiting a theory’s cause but without its predicted outcome. As with the case of Indian democratisation above, it would logically be preferable to conduct large-N analysis beforehand to identify that state’s non-representative nature in relation to the broader population.

There are, however, three important qualifiers to the argument about generalisation that deserve particular mention here. The first is that with regard to an idiographic single-outcome case study, as Eckstein notes, the criticism is “mitigated by the fact that its capability to do so [is] never claimed by its exponents; in fact it is often explicitly repudiated” (1975: 134). Criticism of generalisability is of little relevance when the intention is one of particularisation. A second qualifier relates to the difference between statistical and analytical generalisation; single case studies are clearly less appropriate for the former but arguably retain significant utility for the latter – the difference also between explanatory and exploratory, or theory-testing and theory-building, as discussed above. As Gerring puts it, “theory confirmation/disconfirmation is not the case study’s strong suit” (2004: 350). A third qualification relates to the issue of case selection. As Seawright and Gerring (2008) note, the generalisability of case studies can be increased by the strategic selection of cases. Representative or random samples may not be the most appropriate, given that they may not provide the richest insight (or indeed, that a random and unknown deviant case may appear). Instead, and properly used , atypical or extreme cases “often reveal more information because they activate more actors… and more basic mechanisms in the situation studied” (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Of course, this also points to the very serious limitation, as hinted at with the case of India above, that poor case selection may alternatively lead to overgeneralisation and/or grievous misunderstandings of the relationship between variables or processes (Bennett and Elman, 2006a: 460-463).

As Tim May (2011: 226) notes, “the goal for many proponents of case studies […] is to overcome dichotomies between generalizing and particularizing, quantitative and qualitative, deductive and inductive techniques”. Research aims should drive methodological choices, rather than narrow and dogmatic preconceived approaches. As demonstrated above, there are various advantages to both idiographic and nomothetic single case study analyses – notably the empirically-rich, context-specific, holistic accounts that they have to offer, and their contribution to theory-building and, to a lesser extent, that of theory-testing. Furthermore, while they do possess clear limitations, any research method involves necessary trade-offs; the inherent weaknesses of any one method, however, can potentially be offset by situating them within a broader, pluralistic mixed-method research strategy. Whether or not single case studies are used in this fashion, they clearly have a great deal to offer.

References 

Bennett, A. and Checkel, J. T. (2012) ‘Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practice’, Simons Papers in Security and Development, No. 21/2012, School for International Studies, Simon Fraser University: Vancouver.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006a) ‘Qualitative Research: Recent Developments in Case Study Methods’, Annual Review of Political Science , 9, 455-476.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006b) ‘Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods: The Example of Path Dependence’, Political Analysis , 14, 3, 250-267.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2007) ‘Case Study Methods in the International Relations Subfield’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 2, 170-195.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2010) Case Study Methods. In C. Reus-Smit and D. Snidal (eds) The Oxford Handbook of International Relations . Oxford University Press: Oxford. Ch. 29.

Berg, B. and Lune, H. (2012) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences . Pearson: London.

Bryman, A. (2012) Social Research Methods . Oxford University Press: Oxford.

David, M. and Sutton, C. D. (2011) Social Research: An Introduction . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Diamond, J. (1992) ‘Economic development and democracy reconsidered’, American Behavioral Scientist , 35, 4/5, 450-499.

Eckstein, H. (1975) Case Study and Theory in Political Science. In R. Gomm, M. Hammersley, and P. Foster (eds) Case Study Method . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006) ‘Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research’, Qualitative Inquiry , 12, 2, 219-245.

Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays by Clifford Geertz . Basic Books Inc: New York.

Gerring, J. (2004) ‘What is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?’, American Political Science Review , 98, 2, 341-354.

Gerring, J. (2006a) Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Gerring, J. (2006b) ‘Single-Outcome Studies: A Methodological Primer’, International Sociology , 21, 5, 707-734.

Gerring, J. (2007) ‘Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 3, 231-253.

King, G., Keohane, R. O. and Verba, S. (1994) Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research . Princeton University Press: Chichester.

Layne, C. (1994) ‘Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 5-49.

Levy, J. S. (2008) ‘Case Studies: Types, Designs, and Logics of Inference’, Conflict Management and Peace Science , 25, 1-18.

Lipset, S. M. (1959) ‘Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy’, The American Political Science Review , 53, 1, 69-105.

Lyotard, J-F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge . University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis.

MacMillan, A. (2008) ‘Deviant Democratization in India’, Democratization , 15, 4, 733-749.

Maoz, Z. (2002) Case study methodology in international studies: from storytelling to hypothesis testing. In F. P. Harvey and M. Brecher (eds) Evaluating Methodology in International Studies . University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor.

May, T. (2011) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process . Open University Press: Maidenhead.

Owen, J. M. (1994) ‘How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 87-125.

Seawright, J. and Gerring, J. (2008) ‘Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options’, Political Research Quarterly , 61, 2, 294-308.

Stake, R. E. (2008) Qualitative Case Studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry . Sage Publications: Los Angeles. Ch. 17.

Van Evera, S. (1997) Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science . Cornell University Press: Ithaca.

Verschuren, P. J. M. (2003) ‘Case study as a research strategy: some ambiguities and opportunities’, International Journal of Social Research Methodology , 6, 2, 121-139.

Yin, R. K. (2009) Case Study Research: Design and Methods . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

[1] The paper follows convention by differentiating between ‘International Relations’ as the academic discipline and ‘international relations’ as the subject of study.

[2] There is some similarity here with Stake’s (2008: 445-447) notion of intrinsic cases, those undertaken for a better understanding of the particular case, and instrumental ones that provide insight for the purposes of a wider external interest.

[3] These may be unique in the idiographic sense, or in nomothetic terms as an exception to the generalising suppositions of either probabilistic or deterministic theories (as per deviant cases, below).

[4] Although there are “philosophical hurdles to mount”, according to Bennett and Checkel, there exists no a priori reason as to why process tracing (as typically grounded in scientific realism) is fundamentally incompatible with various strands of positivism or interpretivism (2012: 18-19). By extension, it can therefore be incorporated by a range of contemporary mainstream IR theories.

— Written by: Ben Willis Written at: University of Plymouth Written for: David Brockington Date written: January 2013

Further Reading on E-International Relations

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• Imperialism’s Legacy in the Study of Contemporary Politics: The Case of Hegemonic Stability Theory
• Recreating a Nation’s Identity Through Symbolism: A Chinese Case Study
• Ontological Insecurity: A Case Study on Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in Jerusalem
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Home | The Mind Blog | Pros and Cons of Case Studies

Pros and Cons of Case Studies

Case studies can be one of the most powerful B2B marketing tools out there. They can inform potential customers how your existing customers achieved success with your products or services. They can also help generate leads for your business. But as with everything, there are some benefits and potential drawbacks to case studies. Here are some pros and cons of case studies:

3 Pros of Case Studies

Here’s why case studies can be a positive exercise for your business:

1. They Are Inexpensive

Comparatively, case studies are less expensive than other methods of research. Costs that commonly come along with doing a case study are accessing data, which is most often free, and the time to put it together. Even if in-person interviews are conducted, costs are minimal. This is an easy way for you to gather data without spending a lot of money.

2. Case Studies Can Be Done Remotely

Another pro to conducting case studies is that they can be done remotely. This way, you can gather a variety of data from a wide base much more easily. Research can be done via email, through a survey conducted online, or even over social media.

You can even conduct interviews remotely, over the phone or video chat. This is helpful for many companies whose customers are not located in one general area. It also gives you a much broader range of data to pull from.

3. They Can Turn Opinions Into Facts

Case studies provide you with data in real time. Researchers are able to take their opinions and turn them into verifiable data. They’re able to do this because there are conclusive negative or positive outcomes.

The New Rules of Marketing and PR: How to Use Social Media and Viral Marketing to Reach Buyers Directly by David Scott is an excellent book on marketing that has real-life case study examples.

Researchers also can single out a specific event and gather specific details about the process. This provides extra credibility to any outside observer. Using these facts through case studies in your marketing strategy is one of the most powerful ways to use social proof on your website .

3 Cons of Case Studies

Of course, there are some potential drawbacks to case studies.

1. They Can Take Longer to Analyze

The process by which data is collected for case studies can take a little bit longer than other research methods. Case studies often have a large amount of data and it simply takes a long time to sift through.

Because case studies often rely on information from participants, it can take a long time. Participants may not fully answer a question or may skip entire portions of a survey or questionnaire. Researchers have to verify the information so results are accurate. This process can take a long time.

2. Case Studies Can Be Inefficient

There are a lot of moving parts to case studies. Case studies require the participation of researchers and interviewees. It can also be difficult to efficiently gather data from participants. Some people may not give in-depth enough answers or will struggle to understand questions.

Researchers may need to intervene if participants talk too much or go on too many tangents during in-person interviews. They will need to steer the conversation in the right direction without being overbearing. If researchers aren’t sure how to do these tasks, incorrect data may be collected.

At the same time, it’s important for case studies to be on the right topic. Just as the wrong topic is one of the webinar mistakes to avoid, the same is true for case studies or any other marketing efforts you’re doing. It needs to be relevant to your target audience. In the context of case studies, they need to show benefits and results potential customers in your target audience will care about.

3. They’re Labor-Intensive

Case studies require researchers who have a good grasp of several skills, including language, personal, analysis, etc. skills, in order to collect data. These researchers must also be involved in every aspect of collecting data. Reading files, conducting interviews, and compiling surveys can be a very intense job. It’s important to have a solid team to balance the load so no one becomes too overwhelmed.

These are just a few pros and cons of case studies. Running case studies helps showcase results to potential customers and provides some evidence to back up the authority and trustworthiness of your business. They can also help inform your marketing strategy, giving you a much clearer plan. For help with your website design, development, and marketing, contact us today for a meeting of the MINDs!

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Top Business Case Studies Of All Time: Pros and Cons

Running a business is not easy. Entrepreneurs go through a lot of challenges. This way, business owners can never be fully prepared to face the challenges lying ahead. But does this mean they should bury their heads in the sand and hope for the best? Hope is not a good strategy, and some degree of preparedness will always come in handy.

Luckily, your business is not the first and won’t be the last. Millions of entrepreneurs have set up businesses over the years, and you can learn from some of the challenges they went through to cut your journey by half.

Most of these challenges were when huge decisions had to be made, and the implications are either rewarding or wrecking. If you run a business, you will come across tough times as it is a matter of when and not if.

This article will look at some of the top business case studies and help you learn a thing or two about the problematic situations your predecessors went through and the decisions they made. The idea here is not to copy-paste the conclusions but double click into the logic behind them to help you understand what is good for your business.

We could highlight a million case studies here, but we will break the chosen few into how they affect the different business units vital for success.

Human Resources Case Study; How Atlassian Used Data to Attract More Qualified And Diverse Graduate Candidates

Atlassian is a global company that produces a suite of online collaboration tools, most notably Stride, Trello , and Jira . The company ’s mission is to unleash the potential in every team, which from the onset outlines the massive focus on the people working there.

Diversity and Inclusion are becoming massive issues in the human resources world, as companies strive to achieve this to improve their products and services.

Why Diversity and Inclusion?

Evidence shows that diverse teams perform better. The products and services rolled out by any company are often a reflection of the employees. Well, they are the ones that think through the user journeys, customer experience, and features, and it is in the best interest of any company to have a workforce that relates to their customer base.

What Did they Do?

Atlassian identified critical problems behind their lack of diversity. They include a male-centric employer branding, a limited number of female candidates for advertised positions, and possible bias during the recruiting process.

Atlassian decided to take a bold and data-heavy approach to hire more diverse and qualified candidates into their teams. They rolled out solutions that directly affect the issues highlighted above.

The first one was to tackle the Atlassian employer branding. There was a need to change the employer perception to make it more diverse, initiated by putting images on the career pages that represented a more diverse team of employees.

They also emphasized that Atlassian gives people across all walks of life opportunities to take their careers to the next level. This resulted in more people visiting the career page to feel more comfortable applying for the positions since they believed that Atlassian is a diverse employer. The key headline was “Atlassian is for everyone.”

On the issue of a limited number of female applicants, the campus recruiting team implemented changes to their campus campaigns to encourage interested applicants to apply. They ensured that these campaigns had strong female representatives, which is vital to inspire ladies to rise and apply for the positions.

Additional measures included sponsoring the Women in Engineering Scholarship on top of the existing ones and engaging with women tech societies in Australia through events and mentoring sessions.

The last issue, unconscious bias, was addressed by moving away from interviewing for the best cultural fit. It was established to be an ambiguous term that encouraged groupthink, exclusions and team blind spots.

The solution was to interview based on how values were aligned. In the new interview format, candidates were assessed using questions that signal behaviors that are successful in the company—this standardized the process and eliminated bias based on personal style and preference.

As a result, the best candidates showed they could work openly, had greater empathy and embraced positive change.

Key Takeouts

The changes were successful, as seen from the representation of women and other minorities improvement in their graduate hiring. 57% of the global Gradlassian class were women, and 33% of US technical interns identified as colored.

The limitation was on the persons with disabilities.

Companies can learn a few things from this case study to experiment with their new Diversity and Inclusion initiatives. Progress is better than perfection, and it is a journey that takes time to reap the rewards. Always be comfortable starting small as it allows you to expand what works and change what does not.

Marketing – The Coca Cola Marketing Case Study

Coca Cola is one of the leading global brands, and a lot can be learned from its strategy and how it has evolved over the years to meet customer needs while still staying true to its promise and identity.

A Brief History of Coca-Cola

Coca Cola was first started in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1886 by Dr John Pemberton at Jacob’s pharmacy. In that year, he only sold nine drinks. Today, it has affiliations with 500 brands selling 17 billion drinks in over 200 countries every day.

When the product first got to market, it was a syrup at 5 cents a glass. It was changed to a carbonated drink that was seen to be refreshing and delicious.

Dr Pemberton brought on board a partner Frank Robinson who helped change the name to Coca Cola. Dr Pemberton did not realize the potential of his business and kept on selling portions of it to partners, most notable Mr. Chandler, who later moved to acquire complete control of the company.

What Audience Segment Does Coca-Cola Target?

It is safe to say Coca-Cola has a product for every segment. Its brands range from sparkling soft drinks to beverages. The customers are everyday people with varying tastes and preferences. Flagship products like Diet Coke are popular among other youth, while those above 35 still relate to them since they know the brand from their childhood days.

The different beverages have a minimum target of 12 years, as the company is reducing advertising that targets children younger than that. Geographical segmentation is huge as the company aims to market the right products for the people living in a specific geographical region.

What is the Coca-Cola Marketing Strategy?

The whole Coca Cola marketing strategy is based on “happiness.” The terms Coca Cola in mandarin translate to “Delicious Happiness.” This is the brand promise the entire company revolves all the marketing campaigns on. It strives to bring people together and create happy moments in their lives.

This is the global strategy that is curated to fit the different countries Coca Cola is sold across the globe. Over the years, Coca Cola expanded its global reach by acquiring some brands locally. For instance, it took over Parle Foods and other smaller brands like Thumbs Up, Limca and Mazaa.

Coke was marketed as a temperance drink in the early days due to the laws against alcoholic drinks in Atlanta. It was a refreshing drink that cured anxiety, headaches, indigestion with addiction. Cocaine was removed from Coke in 1903.

Chandler, who later acquired the full rights, was a marketer by profession and took things a notch higher. While distributing Coke, he also moved complimentary coupons, souvenir calendars, and books to depict the trademark logo and increase its visibility in various spaces.

The idea of the bottle was a milestone since initially; Chandler only sold Coke on soda fountains. Two innovative minds, Benjamin Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead, secured rights at $1 to sell Coca Cola in bottles.

By that time, it was so famous in the United States that imitations quickly found their way into the market. Initial campaigns like “Accept no Substitutes” and “Demand the genuine” seemed generic, and there was a need to differentiate.

In 1916, the first unique bottle was made by the Root Glass Company in Indiana. This design has undergone very minimal changes to date.

In 1919 the company was sold to Robert Woodruff, who had a global outlook and planned to make Coca Cola available to anyone anywhere while differentiating it as a premium brand.

Some of the critical aspects of the Coca Cola marketing strategy include;

The shape of the bottle has remained consistent over time. Everyone across the globe relates to the same coke bottle, which is the same since 1915.

The font and logo used to type the names Coca Cola has not changed for a long time. The logo was first designed in 1923 when the company leveraged the Spenserian script, used by accountants only.

Pemberton’s accountant, Frank Robinson, designed this logo using his writing, and it has stuck to date. This was not common with other brands, and their logo stood out from the competition.

Branding for Coca Cola was done in a way that it did not directly compete with other beverages. It was positioned as an experience of joy and happiness, which intrigues more customers and drives brand affinity globally.

The Marketing Mistake by Coke

One notable date in Coke’s marketing history is 23rd April 1985. All the years of brand building and connection to customers showed this day as Coca Cola made a grave marketing mistake. At this time, the number one competitor, Pepsi, was eating into Coke’s market share, which tempted the leaders to shake a few things.

The public shifted their preference to soft drinks and non-cola beverages, which made Coca Cola’s core product drop. Quickly, the people responsible did some blind taste tests and figured out that customers preferred the sweeter Pepsi. They promptly changed their recipe, and after doing a few tests, the new recipe beat the old one pants down.

Similar tests were done with Pepsi, and more people preferred the new Coke. Feedback was collected from focus groups, and a few people were angry at the change and said they would no longer buy anything else from Coca Cola.

The data was there, and all the tests were done, so Coca Cola did the logical thing and launched the new Coke in New York. Sales rose in the first few weeks, and the leaders pat each other’s backs at the impressive job they had done. And then things started going South.

Analysis showed that the new Coke would save the company and help regain market share, but two things were overlooked; emotion and branding. The few members who expressed anger appeared to be a minority statistically, but the power of opinion from like-minded individuals and voice of dissent was too loud to ignore.

The headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, received almost 1500 calls a day, up from an average of 400. It became messy, and the leaders realized that customers had an emotional attachment to the Coke brand that led to this anger besides taste.

They were forced to quickly revert to the old recipe, calling it Coke Classic. The company’s 100 plus years of brand building on stadiums, coolers, sweatshirts made people love Coke to the extent where changing it was a grave mistake.

Business and Revenue Model – A Case Study of Facebook

Facebook is one of the leading tech companies globally, and honestly, not many people thought it would rise to the levels it is operating in today. In this case study, we look at the Facebook business model and how it has evolved over the years to create the giant that it is today.

Social networks are not new, but the bad of digitization change this space significantly. Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Myspace, and Wechat did not really introduce any concept to the world, but they took the social aspect of human interaction on digital platforms and expanded connections globally.

Our thoughts, ideas, opinions, gossip, and videos were no longer viewed by close friends and family members but by people living in different corners of the world. These companies took a step further and transformed a regular human interaction into a sustainable business model that drives some of today’s top tech companies.

A Brief History of Facebook

Facebook was developed in 2003 by Mark Zuckerberg. He was still in college, and he created it as a game to compare photos of cute girls and allow people to comment on the hotter ones. This story was brought to life by the famous movie The Social Network .

After this reasonably controversial introduction, Facebook was launched as an internal social network for Harvard students in 2004. It was only opened for the public two years later after a series of large investments and lawsuits that threatened to hinder its ability to accept users from the public.

One of the most notable lawsuits was another Harvard-based social networking site called Harvardconnection that later changed to Connectu. It was alleged that mark Zuckerberg used their code to develop Facebook while working on a contract he had been offered to help build that site.

When it was officially launched in 2004, users could do three basic things, which are still the core functionality of the social network. They are;

• Create a profile with a picture and personal information
• Check out other people’s profiles
• Add people as friends

Today the consumer benefits outlined by Facebook are;

• Connect and share with your friends
• Discover and learn
• Express yourself
• Stay connected everywhere

Value Proposition for Businesses

Very few people understood how Facebook would make money, but the owner clearly had a long-term vision. It is incredible since Facebook operated for at least nine years before finally rolling out a revenue model.

The revenues generated by Facebook are huge, and it can be argued that they’ve made up for the years they took to build the company and ensure operations what right to support their revenue model.

The first notable instance where Facebook monetized its operations was when it held its initial public offering on 18th May 2012 . This was the biggest IPO for an Internet company, with the marketing capitalization hitting highs of 104 billion dollars.

In a statement rolled out by Facebook, the value proposition to businesses was,’ marketers can engage with over 1 billion monthly active users on Facebook or subsets of our users based on information people have chosen to share with us, for instance, age location, gender or interests.

We offer marketers a unique blend of relevant social context and engagement to improve the value of the advertisements.’

Facebook Revenue Model

Facebook makes its money from an advertisement-based revenue model. Marketers can leverage the number of users on Facebook based on age, gender, location and interests to ensure that the messages get across to the most relevant audiences.

It also offers alternative payment methods such as cost per click and cost per impression while allowing trusted referrals to boost credibility.

During its launch, Facebook promised to remain the same for users. It vowed to stay clean and clutter-free, not send users information, retain control over their customer experience, and not overloading users with ads.

Part of the strategy was to expand the global community by venturing into less penetrated but large markets, such as Brazil, India, and Japan. It also improved its mobile platform as part of a plan to make this social network more engaging and readily available to your users.

It created a Facebook platform which is an open system where developers can come up with plugins and API’s to improve operations.

Facebook takes pride interest as a cornerstone of its business. As a result, it’s dedicated significant resources to improve user trust by placing policies to protect privacy, enhance the user experience and safeguard the users’ data.

It’s previously learned from its early mistakes, notably on 14th December 2005, two MIT students accessed over 70,000 Facebook profiles from four schools.

In September 2006, when new user feeds were launched, users gave a lot of feedback about how their everyday experience with the feed had been interrupted as it was cluttered and overwhelming. Facebook quickly moved to reverse this change and reverted to the old feed.

Many upcoming tech companies can learn a lot from Facebook’s business model. Its path to the top has not been easy, and it has been involved in multiple lawsuits that have threatened its existence, but it came out stronger, and the leadership learned a lot from those pitfalls. Facebook’s success can be broken down into essential factors, one of which being a defined growth strategy from day one.

By initially opening to Harvard students, then to other university students, and eventually to the public, the network sold itself, and Zuckerberg had a clear plan to increase the number of users.

Facebook offers a value proposition centered on improving personal and professional relationships. Facilitating the connection between friends encourages users to create a relationship network, which has been a critical enabler behind Facebook’s advertising over the years.

By collecting user preference data on the network, Facebook enabled marketers to target key demographics based on their preferences.

This way, marketing didn’t feel enforced as users related to the products and services shown on their feed. Lastly, we cannot underestimate the significance of their leader Mark Zuckerberg who has been an ever-present figure throughout Facebook’s journey.

He has demonstrated his strategic leadership skills or on several occasions, and he’s a good representation of what Facebook is today.

Benefits and Downsides of Case Studies

No matter how small or big it is, your business can employ this method to analyze some of the success stories and get more insight into the methods used while learning for the future. They are a valuable form of research for all industries and fields. Today, we will list some of the benefits and downsides of the case study method for businesses.

Advantages of Case Studies

Extensive study.

A case study is simply an intensive study of the subject matter. It involves investigation and exploration of an event thoroughly and deeply unearth the insights behind it. A well-done case study will give you an in-depth analysis of an event or situation, especially for subjects that cannot be recreated physically.

Businesses face problems where they come out stronger or worse depending on their approach. While it is easy for the people involved in such processes to reflect on what they did or what they did not do, others in the business might not have the privilege of knowing the internal processes that led to those decisions.

Here a case study can help unearth the defining moments in those processes and serve as an excellent lesson to others within the business and around the world.

Stimulates New Research

Case studies are good ways to trigger new research. In most cases, research is never conclusive, resulting in more questions than answers. A new case study can be completed, and if the findings are valuable, it can lead to more advanced research in that field. Today we credit most of the achievements across the globe to research built on to previous ones.

With every new solution comes a different problem, and the people taking up the challenges are better placed to do better research if the previous one was deep and full of insights.

Challenging Established Ideas

Most success stories today are founded on our predecessors’ theories and ideas. However, we should not be comfortable with those ideas and shut down our creative minds since the possibilities are endless. Case studies are an excellent way to question established ideas or theories by giving divergent ones or poking holes into the existing ones to pave the way for better and improved ideas.

Businesses can particularly leverage this advantage as they strive to increase their competitive advantage and improve the value proposition. Innovation as we know it is mainly credited to bold people that went on the extra step to challenge established ideas.

Provide New Insight

Case studies are the ideal tool to offer new insight. It is not easy to take a large group of people through the entire process used to develop something or arrive at a specific decision. A case study can help circulate this insight to the relevant parties and pass the learnings quickly to help handle similar situations better in future.

Businesspeople face so many problems that seem challenging and impossible. However, most of those challenges are conquered thanks to the blend of great people, tools, resources, and environments. Insights from such case studies can help highlight the importance of certain things in such business processes and then the elements required to improve the chances of success.

Disadvantages of Case Studies

Hard to replicate.

Case studies are suitable for the lessons, but they cannot be replicated. So many factors dictate the way things go, and some of them are outside your business control.

This way, the lessons applied from those case studies might not even be helpful to your current situation. People reading case studies need to be careful and understand this as it is easy to pick up things that will only derail you and not help you.

Possible Researcher Bias

Like any other research, some case studies are highly biased. All researchers have an objective when making a case study, and some do it to drive a certain point. A good case study should be done objectively by an independent party, but this it’s not always the case.

Bias can come in during the objective setting, data collection or data analysis. Regardless of where the best comes in, it will always make the case study lean towards a conclusion which can mislead the people reading it.

Frequently Asked Questions

Question: what does a great business case study include.

Answer: An excellent case study should pull readers to try and engage with it, and it includes; The who, i.e. the company in question The why, i.e. the reason why the case study is being written The when, i.e. the period the case study was done The products and services involved The challenge at hand The solution or lack thereof The conclusion and lessons to be learnt

Question: Why should I Read a Business Case Study?

Answer: The main reason to read a case study is to learn and understand how businesses approach different situations. Think of it as a learning session, where you widen your exposure and get more insight on how to approach your journey. Do not read case studies and try to replicate what other businesses do but be wise to borrow the good and avoid the bad for your benefit.

Look into the credibility of a case study if you wish to avoid some of the downsides, such as researcher bias and flawed data analysis.

Question: How is a Case Study Different from a Survey?

Answer: Both methods are used to collect information and derive meaningful conclusions. The key difference between the two is that case studies provide rich descriptive data and are often more comprehensive than surveys.

On the other hand, surveys are more statistically significant than case studies. The two can be used together as a case study can include results from a survey.

Some of the top case studies today have been listed above, and numerous others are available depending on the specific business area you need insight. Companies such as Coca Cola have different case studies highlighting how they overcame challenges and some of the mistakes they made over the years.

When looking for case studies, try to narrow it down to a topic that you think you need more insight on and find out the top ones there. As you run your business, case studies can be a great way to document some of your success stories and highlight the lessons for future reference.

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7 Pros and Cons of Case Studies

Many researchers have faith on case studies as they often base their findings on the data that they gather. However, not all people find this procedure quite effective and reliable as some consider this as a bias method that should only provide insinuated findings. To learn more about the significance of case studies, here are some of the pros and cons that you can use to determine if this is indeed useless or otherwise.

List of Pros of Case Studies

1. Shows Client Observations The essence of case studies is that it can fully show the experience of the observer in the program. This can also show the input processes and results. For this reason, it can support the theory that surrounds the thought which requires the importance of case studies.

2. Influential Way to Portray Something If a researcher wants to prove something to any person, it is his or her initiative to influence outsiders to believe. By presenting case studies, it will give an idea to a certain audience that the experiment or observation being done is indeed reliable and true. Most of the time, when a case study has been presented, it sends out a message to the reader that it is already of great importance and reliability.

3. Makes Practical Improvements The creation or gathering of data to come up with a conclusion should be a way of making practical improvements. If a person would want to support his or her belief or understanding of something, reliable findings must be presented. Hence, it is necessary to release a case study in order to increase the understanding of people who are unfamiliar with a particular notion.

List of Cons of Case Studies

1. Lack the Essential Insights Oftentimes, case studies lack the insights regarding what was happening in the company being the subject. In contrast, those that are written from the outer part of the company looking in should be considered unbiased. Meanwhile, those written from an inner point of view may have already been thoroughly sanitized by its legal department, communications group and public relations firms.

2. Unrealistic as a Definitive Roadmap Case studies can sometimes be used either way when doing things. Despite being so tempting to apply clear definition, doing so can force you to disregard the almost infinite count of unique inputs and circumstances surrounding any given situation.

3. Encourage to Imitate than Inspire When relying much on case studies, there is a tendency to imitate rather than to inspire which is a dangerous situation to be. So, presenting a case without formal study might just be the inspiration that people require to apply their own ideas and observations compared to relying on the analysis of other people. Thus, it will lead to inspire other people to write case studies one day.

4. Doesn’t Apply to Similar Cases At some point, people would think that similar case studies have the same findings and results. In contrast, this does not guarantee that the findings presented would be applicable to others with similar cases.

Watch CBS News

Supreme Court overturns Chevron decision, curtailing federal agencies' power in major shift

By Melissa Quinn

Updated on: June 28, 2024 / 1:48 PM EDT / CBS News

Washington — The Supreme Court on Friday overturned a landmark 40-year-old decision that gave federal agencies broad regulatory power, upending their authority to issue regulations unless Congress has spoken clearly. 

The court split along ideological lines in the dispute, with Chief Justice John Roberts writing for the conservative majority. Justices Elena Kagan, Sonia Sotomayor and Ketanji Brown Jackson were in dissent. Kagan read portions of her dissent from the bench.

The court's ruling in a pair of related cases is a significant victory for the conservative legal movement, which has long aimed to unwind or weaken the 1984 decision in Chevron v. National Resources Defense Council. Critics of that landmark ruling, which involved a challenge to a regulation enacted by the Environmental Protection Agency under the Clean Air Act, have said the so-called Chevron doctrine gives unelected federal bureaucrats too much power in crafting regulations that touch on major areas of American life, such as the workplace, the environment and health care.

"Chevron is overruled. Courts must exercise their independent judgment in deciding whether an agency has acted within its statutory authority, as the [Administrative Procedure Act] requires," Roberts wrote for the court. The chief justice called the earlier decision a "judicial invention that required judges to disregard their statutory duties."

The framework required courts to defer to an agency's interpretation of laws passed by Congress if it is reasonable. Calls for it to be overturned came from not only conservative legal scholars, but some of the justices themselves who have said courts are abdicating their responsibility to interpret the law. 

The Supreme Court's reversal of the Chevron decision also further demonstrates the willingness of its six-justice conservative majority to jettison decades of past rulings. In June 2022, the court overturned Roe v. Wade , dismantling the constitutional right to abortion, and in June 2023, it ended affirmative action in higher education .

"In one fell swoop, the majority today gives itself exclusive power over every open issue — no matter how expertise-driven or policy-laden — involving the meaning of regulatory law," Kagan wrote in a dissent joined by Sotomayor and Jackson. "As if it did not have enough on its plate, the majority turns itself into the country's administrative czar."

The challenge to Chevron deference

The dispute that led to the court's reevaluation of the Chevron doctrine stemmed from a 2020 federal regulation that required owners of vessels in the Atlantic herring fishery to pay for monitors while they're at sea.

These at-sea monitors, who collect data and oversee fishing operations, can cost more than $700 per day, according to court filings.

The National Marine Fisheries Service implemented the rule under a 1976 law, arguing that the measure allows it to require fishing vessels to cover the cost of the monitors. But companies that operate boats in New Jersey and Rhode Island challenged the regulation in two different federal courts, claiming the fisheries service lacked the authority to mandate industry-funded monitoring.

The federal government prevailed in both challenges, and the fishing companies asked the Supreme Court to step in and overrule Chevron.

The industry-monitored fishing program was suspended in April 2023 because of a lack of federal funding, and the fishermen were reimbursed for associated costs. Jackson recused herself from one of the two Chevron cases before the court.

Concerns about a ruling

While the conservative legal movement decried the growth of the so-called administrative state, the Supreme Court's decision to reconsider the Chevron ruling sparked concerns that unwinding or even limiting the framework would threaten the ability of federal agencies to craft regulations on issues like the environment, nuclear energy or health care. 

Proponents of the doctrine have argued that agencies have the expertise and experience to address gaps in the laws enacted by Congress, especially when it comes to administering programs that serve broad swaths of the population. Overturning Chevron would make it more difficult for the federal government to implement the laws passed by Congress, its backers warned.

Kagan, in dissent, accused the conservative majority of usurping the power the legislative branch gave to agencies to make policy decisions and putting judges in the center of the administrative process on all manner of subjects.

"What actions can be taken to address climate change or other environmental challenges? What will the nation's health-care system look like in the coming decades? Or the financial or transportation systems? What rules are going to constrain the development of A.I.?" she wrote. "In every sphere of current or future federal regulation, expect courts from now on to play a commanding role."

The Biden administration urged the Supreme Court to leave Chevron deference intact, calling it a "bedrock principle of administrative law." Justice Department lawyers argued that the framework allows experts at federal agencies to interpret statutes, and have said they, not judges, are better suited to respond to ambiguities in a law.

Chevron doctrine has been applied by lower courts in thousands of cases. The Supreme Court itself has invoked the framework to uphold agencies' interpretations of statutes at least 70 times, but not since 2016.

Roberts wrote for the court that its decision reversing Chevron would not call those questions those prior cases. But with Chevron overruled, Kagan warned of new legal challenges to longstanding agency interpretations that had never previously been targeted.

The pair of disputes were among several others that the justices are deciding this term that involve the power of federal agencies. They also weighed the constitutionality of internal legal proceedings at the Securities and Exchange Commission, which threatened to upend the work of administrative law judges in various federal agencies, as well as whether the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives lacked the authority to outlaw bump stocks under a 1934 law that regulated machine guns.

The court ruled in a divided 6-3 decision that the ATF did go too far when it banned bump stocks, invalidating the rule put in place during the Trump administration.

Melissa Quinn is a politics reporter for CBSNews.com. She has written for outlets including the Washington Examiner, Daily Signal and Alexandria Times. Melissa covers U.S. politics, with a focus on the Supreme Court and federal courts.

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Daily Multivitamin Use In Healthy Adults Doesn’t Decrease Risk Of Death, Study Suggests: What To Know About Pros And Cons Of Multivitamins

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Researchers suggest Americans get their nutrients from food rather than supplements after a new study found daily multivitamin use doesn’t decrease the risk of death, which is the newest research in the long debated topic about the benefits of multivitamins.

a handful of vitamins.

The researchers used the health records of over 390,000 participants with a median age of 61.5 years who were generally healthy, had no history of chronic disease and were followed for over 20 years, according to the study published Wednesday in JAMA Network Open.

People with healthier lifestyles and those who are sick may have an increased chance of taking multivitamins, so the researchers mitigated these effects so they didn’t have an impact on the study’s results.

The group of participants who took daily multivitamins had lower BMIs and better sleep quality than the participants who didn’t use daily multivitamins, and were slightly more likely to be college educated.

However, the study found those who took daily multivitamins had 4% higher mortality risk for all causes, though there were no differences in mortality risks from cancer, heart disease or cerebrovascular diseases like stroke, aneurysms.

Since the study’s population consisted of generally healthy adults, the researchers noted further research must be done to include other groups like people with nutrient deficiencies, and to evaluate the potential impact of regular multivitamin use on other health conditions associated with aging.

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Crucial Quote

“Refocusing nutrition interventions on food, rather than supplements, may provide the mortality benefits that multivitamins cannot deliver,” researchers with the National Cancer Institute wrote as part of a commentary on the JAMA study. “Vegetables, fruits, legumes and cereal grains are staples in areas of remarkable longevity.”

Is There Any Evidence Multivitamins Work?

Though the benefits of multivitamins have been a long debated topic, over 31% of Americans 19 years and older take multivitamins . Men who take daily multivitamins may have an 8% lower cancer risk and a lower risk of developing cataracts, according to a previous JAMA study . Several studies have found multivitamins can improve memory in older adults. Multivitamins may also offer benefits for those with mood disorders. Older male participants who took multivitamins over an eight-week period had significant reductions in depression and anxiety compared to the placebo group, according to research published in Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical & Experimental.

What Vitamins May Actually Work?

Taking standalone vitamins may provide some benefits. Doctors recommend patients with vitamin deficiencies like vitamin D take supplements, especially those with lactose intolerance, milk allergies, fat absorption issues and people with darker skin tones and more melanin, according to Yale Medicine. Vitamins are also useful during pregnancy: Pregnant women can benefit from taking prenatal vitamins containing vitamin D and calcium to help the baby’s teeth and bones grow, according to the Mayo Clinic.

Are Multivitamins Regulated By The Fda?

Multivitamins, herbs, minerals and other dietary supplements are not approved by the Food and Drug Administration, though the FDA regulates them. However, most of the regulation happens after they hit the shelves, and many companies manufacture and sell multivitamins without notifying the FDA.

$177.5 billion. That’s how much the global dietary supplement industry was worth in 2023, according to market research firm Grand View Research. This number is expected to grow by 9% between 2024 and 2030.

Key Background

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force concluded in 2022 there was “little to no benefit” in taking vitamins and mineral supplements, and recommended against the use of beta carotene or vitamin E supplements for the prevention of cardiovascular disease or cancer. Multivitamin use did not reduce the risk of cancer or heart disease in participants in a 2021 study by the USPSTF. Researchers also found taking iron supplements—which is added to many multivitamins—can lead to iron overload and increase the risk of diabetes, dementia and heart disease.

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Digital Marketing or Affiliate Marketing: Which One Delivers Better ROI?

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In today’s digital world, customer acquisition and retention are challenging😮‍💨, especially when a business includes an online platform. However, digital marketing and affiliate marketing make customer engagement easy online by utilizing the expansive opportunities of the Internet. 

Likewise, Digital marketing uses digital channels to promote and sell products, while affiliate marketing works by partnering🤝 with other businesses .

But how do businesses make sure that their marketing efforts pay off?🤔 Well, Understanding Return on Investment (ROI) is the key to turning marketing activities into profitable ventures. 

In this blog, let’s dive deep into digital and affiliate marketing and explore why ROI is crucial for success and which is better for you.

🔐KEY HIGHLIGHTS:

• Digital and affiliate marketing strategies utilize the Internet to enhance customer engagement by promoting their services and products.
• Return on Investment is the key element for any business to thrive.
• The key digital marketing strategies are search engine optimization, email marketing, pay-per-click advertising, and social media marketing.
• Affiliate marketing involves key strategies such as social media influencers, loyalty and cashback programs, affiliate websites, and blogs.

Table of Contents

Overview Of Digital Marketing

Digital marketing is considered one of the best online marketing strategies and techniques . It involves using different digital channels to promote and sell products and services. With digital marketing strategies, businesses can easily reach their target audience in the digital realm .

Moreover, Digital marketing uses online platforms to connect with customers through targeted campaigns, including websites, social media, search engines, and mobile apps. Similarly, it makes customer engagement fruitful by using strategies like SEO and social media marketing . 

Key Components And Strategies

Digital marketing includes several key components and strategies that help reach large and targeted audiences. Some of the key components and strategies are:

• Search Engine Optimization (SEO): This technique optimizes websites and content to rank higher in Search Engine Results Pages (SERPs) . Therefore, understanding SEO concepts like keyword research, meta tags, content quality, and backlinks is important.
• Email marketing: Email marketing helps businesses connect directly with targeted customers via email . Similarly, it is one of the digital marketing channels with the highest ROI . This strategy uses personalized content , segments its audience , and tracks metrics for its effectiveness.
• Pay-per-click (PPC) advertising: PPC advertisements refer to any paid digital approach on various digital channels. They include Facebook, LinkedIn, SEO, and Google ads, where advertisers pay search engines a fee each time someone clicks on their ad.
• Social media marketing: Social media marketing involves marketing through several platforms, such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, and TikTok. It works by posting regular content on social media platforms and engaging with followers. It also involves paid advertisement to reach the target audience. 
• Content marketing: Content marketing focuses on creating content that fascinates the audience and increases traffic . The content should be rich in quality and engage a defined audience. It can be done through blog posts, articles, podcasts and eBooks.

Pros And Cons

Various advantages and disadvantages of digital marketing are:

• Improves brand loyalty.
• Measure and track results.
• Get quick feedback.
• Enhances customer engagement.
• Global reach
• Competition is high.
• Dependent on technical experts.
• Maintenance costs are high.
• Security and privacy issues may arise.
• Vulnerable to malicious activities.

Overview Of Affiliate Marketing

Affiliate marketing is performance-based marketing in which businesses affiliate with third parties like entrepreneurs, influencers, and bloggers to promote their services and products. Likewise, third parties promote using websites, email, or social media platforms and earn a commission through business.

Furthermore, affiliate marketing is a marketing strategy that quickly catches the audience’s interest . Affiliates also work hard to market the products, as their earnings are directly tied to the reach of the targeted audiences. 

Affiliate marketing is the unique strategy for making affiliates work and drive traffic through promoting brands and services. Here are the key components and strategies of affiliate marketing:

• Affiliate websites and blogs: Web-based platforms considered affiliate marketing include websites and blogs that post content like product reviews . Similarly, these platforms ensure they drive the right traffic via SEO and create relevant content .
• Social media influencers: Influencers introduce products to their followers and potential consumers through social media like Instagram, YouTube, etc. Influencer marketing means using the popularity and the audience’s trust to encourage them to participate in affiliate programs and promote relevant products within the framework.
• Coupon and deal sites: Coupon and deal sites gain popularity among users searching for promotions and individual offers . The affiliates get to share coupons and other sale promos, which drive visitors to buy products while paying a commission on every clicked link .
• Loyalty and cashback program: Some loyalty and cashback programs seek to convert the purchase amount into points or cash . Hence, customers are offered bonuses to come shopping , and for every sale that an affiliate brings to the site, the affiliate gets a cut.

For instance, one of the highest-paying Affiliate Marketing is the KrispCall affiliate program : It offers a generous 30% lifetime recurring commission for promoting its cloud telephony solution. With a 90-day cookie duration and transparent reporting, affiliates can earn substantial income by referring KrispCall to their audience.

Pros And Cons Of Affiliate Marketing

Here are some advantages and disadvantages of affiliate marketing:

• Minimal/Zero investment.
• No experts are needed.
• Low investment cost.
• Billion-dollar business.
• Convenient and flexible.
• Dependent on platforms.
• It needs patience and hard work.
• No control over the competition.
• Quantity approach.

Comparing Roi: Digital Marketing Vs Affiliate Marketing

Digital marketing and Affiliate marketing both deliver high ROI when executed effectively. Here is a case study of digital marketing and affiliate marketing with examples to help you understand these marketing strategies more clearly and precisely.

Digital Marketing: Case Study

To increase sales, a retail company invests in and promotes its products through advertisement, especially through social media and e-mail marketing. It uses ROI as its key metric by analyzing the revenue from these channels compared to the costs invested.

For example, company A spends £10,000 on social media ads and email campaigns. The social media ads generate £30,000 in sales with 200% ROI. Similarly, the email campaigns generate £20,000 with a 100% ROI.

Affiliate Marketing: Case Study

An online software service partners with affiliates who advertise for its subscription-based services . Furthermore, an affiliate receives compensation for every sale made by the site.

For instance, company B usually pays its affiliates up to 25% of the total sales of the products they promote. £5000 is spent on affiliate commissions, while the affiliates contribute to £ 50,000 of subscription sales with an impressive 900% ROI.

Factors Influencing ROI

The factors affecting ROI based on digital marketing and affiliate marketing are:

Digital Marketing

• Targeting and Audience Segmentation: Targeting and audience segmentation ensure the marketing strategies successfully reach the right audience. In other cases, this factor shows reasonable conversion rates and enhances the ROI. 
• Channel Effectiveness: Different channels, such as Search Engine Optimization and Pay-Per-Click , vary in cost and efficiency. However, mixing these channels can increase effectiveness and enhance ROI . 
• Content Quality and Engagement: If the online content is well-researched, relevant, and interesting to the target market, it can perform much better. Content-rich in quality attracts more customers and generates a higher number of conversions.
• Conversion Optimization: Enhancing the landing pages and users’ experiences increases conversion rates, achieving optimum returns on investments.

Affiliate Marketing

• Commission Structure: The rate of commission and the kind of commissions given to affiliates impact overall profitability . Probably, impacting the profit of the marketing strategy leads to impacting the return on investment as well. 
• Affiliate Selection: Affiliate traffic typically originates from internet users interested in the products offered online. So, selecting the right affiliates increases sales and return on investment.
• Tracking and Attribution: Proper affiliate sales tracking ensures that the sale pixels are accurately recorded and assigns traffic to the correct affiliates . This means that everyone is paid fairly, thereby helping improve the ROI.
• Long-term Value (LTV):   Influencing the variable of customer lifetime value while receiving customers from affiliate programs can be another way of enhancing ROI through affiliate marketing.

You may be interested in🧐: How does VoIP help skyrocket your business ROI?

Which One Should You Choose?

When choosing between digital marketing and affiliate marketing, many factors must be considered. However, the choice will generally depend solely on priorities and the necessity for your business . 

Digital marketing provides control and flexibility , with the ability to directly modify its campaigns to succeed at branding with social media, search engine marketing, and content media. It is particularly suitable for PPC marketing , which drives traffic and sales instantly .

Nevertheless, affiliate marketing costs less money to begin with because you only pay for sales or leads. It is popular among affiliates because it allows them to take advantage of their audiences, providing an extended reach. 

Furthermore, affiliate marketing would be the better choice if you are starting a new business. It reduces costs and expands the reach in the shortest time possible using startup capital. Using this strategy, you don’t have to invest more budget while starting a new company or business.

Moreover, when the business grows after using affiliate marketing strategies, the business owner can reinvest in digital marketing to create brand recognition and market directly to an audience. 

In terms of ROI, it is impossible to compare the brilliance of digital marketing with the versatility of affiliate marketing. However, both digital and affiliate marketing tend to provide users with relatively high rates of return .

Likewise, You can choose these strategies depending on your objectives, overall plans, and activities. To achieve the best results ever and stand firm in this market, implement both and rule your market by achieving better results with a higher ROI on your investment.

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Dinesh Silwal

Dinesh Silwal is the Co-Founder and Co-CEO of KrispCall. For the past few years, he has been advancing and innovating in the cloud telephony industry, using AI to enhance and improve telephony solutions, and driving KrispCall to the forefront of the field.

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The pros and cons of online learning

What to look for in an online course.

By: MIT xPRO

If you’re at a point in your life where you’re considering continuing your education, you may wonder if online learning is the right path for you.

Taking an online course requires a notable investment of time, effort, and money, so it’s important to feel confident about your decision before moving forward. While online learning works incredibly well for some people, it’s not for everyone.

We recently sat down with MIT xPRO Senior Instructional Designer and Program Manager Luke Hobson to explore the pros and cons of online learning and what to look for in an online course. If you’re waiting for a sign about whether or not to enroll in that course you’ve been eying, you just might find it here.

Pros of Online Learning

First, let’s take a look at the true value of online learning by examining some of the benefits:

1. Flexibility

Online learning’s most significant advantage is its flexibility. It’s the reason millions of adults have chosen to continue their education and pursue certificates and degrees.

Asynchronous courses allow learners to complete work at their own pace, empowering them to find the optimal time to consume the content and submit assignments.

Some people are more attentive, focused, and creative in the mornings compared to the evenings and vice versa. Whatever works best for the learners should be the priority of the learning experience.

2. Community

When Luke asks people about their main reason for enrolling in a course, a common answer is networking and community.

Learners crave finding like-minded individuals who are going through the same experiences and have the same questions. They want to find a place where they belong. Being in the company of others who understand what they’re going through can help online learners who are looking for support and motivation during challenging times and times that are worth celebrating.

Some learners have created study groups and book clubs that have carried on far beyond the end of the course-it’s amazing what can grow from a single post on a discussion board!

3. Latest information

“Speed is a massive benefit of online learning,” and according to Luke, it often doesn’t get the attention it deserves.

“When we say speed, we don’t mean being quick with learning. We mean actual speed to market. There are so many new ideas evolving within technical spaces that it’s impossible to keep courses the way they were originally designed for a long period of time.”

Luke notes that a program on Additive Manufacturing , Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality , or Nanotechnology must be checked and updated frequently. More formal learning modalities have difficulty changing content at this rapid pace. But within the online space, it’s expected that the course content will change as quickly as the world itself does.

Cons of Online Learning

Now that we’ve looked at some of the biggest pros of online learning, let’s examine a few of the drawbacks:

1. Learning environment

While many learners thrive in an asynchronous learning environment, others struggle. Some learners prefer live lessons and an instructor they can connect with multiple times a week. They need these interactions to feel supported and to persist.

Most learners within the online space identify themselves as self-directed learners, meaning they can learn on their own with the right environment, guidance, materials, and assignments. Learners should know themselves first and understand their preferences when it comes to what kind of environment will help them thrive.

2. Repetition

One drawback of online courses is that the structure can be repetitive: do a reading, respond to two discussion posts, submit an essay, repeat. After a while, some learners may feel disengaged from the learning experience.

There are online courses that break the mold and offer multiple kinds of learning activities, assessments, and content to make the learning experience come alive, but it may take some research to find them-more on what to look for in an online course later in this article! Luke and his colleagues at MIT xPRO are mindful of designing courses that genuinely engage learners from beginning to end.

3. Underestimation

Luke has noticed that some learners underestimate how much work is required in an online course. They may mistakenly believe that online learning is somehow “easier” compared to in-person learning.

For those learners who miscalculate how long they will need to spend online or how challenging the assignments can be, changing that mindset is a difficult process. It’s essential to set aside the right amount of time per week to contribute to the content, activities, and assignments. Creating personal deadlines and building a study routine are two best practices that successful online learners follow to hold themselves accountable.

Experience the Value of Online Learning: What to Look For in an Online Course

You’ve probably gathered by now that not all online courses are created equal. On one end of the spectrum, there are methods of online learning that leave learners stunned by what a great experience they had. On the other end of the spectrum, some online learning courses are so disappointing that learners regret their decision to enroll.

If you want to experience the value of online learning, it’s essential to pick the right course. Here’s a quick list of what to look for:

• Feedback and connection to peers within the course platform. Interacting regularly with other learners makes a big difference. Luke and the MIT xPRO team use peer-reviewed feedback to give learners the opportunity to engage with each other’s work.
• Proof of hard work. In the online learning space, proof of hard work often comes in the form of Continuing Education Units (CEUs) or specific certifications. MIT xPRO course participants who successfully complete one or more courses are eligible to receive CEUs , which many employers, licensing agencies, and professional associations accept as evidence of a participant’s serious commitment to their professional development.

Online learning isn’t for everyone, but with the right approach, it can be a valuable experience for many people. Now that you know what to look for in an online course, see what Luke and the MIT xPRO instructional design team have to offer by checking out the latest MIT xPRO courses and programs .

Originally published at http://curve.mit.edu on August 8th, 2022.

The pros and cons of online learning was originally published in MIT Open Learning on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.

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June 26, 2024

New twists on tornadoes: Earth scientist studies why U.S. has so many tornadoes

Dan Chavas is an expert at extreme weather: both the climate science that creates the conditions and the physics of the weather itself, including hurricanes, severe thunderstorms and tornadoes. (Purdue University photo/Greta Bell)

WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. — Across the Midwest during the warmer months, studying the sky for signs of storms and tornadoes becomes one of the most popular pastimes.

Dan Chavas , an associate professor in the Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences at Purdue University’s College of Science , takes it further: All day every day, he studies what makes tornadoes tick. Working at the intersection of climate science and meteorology, he looks at the big picture of what causes severe storms and tornadoes — and what dictates where they occur.

“I study both the climate and extreme weather,” Chavas says. “My research asks, ‘Why do we have severe thunderstorms or tornadoes at all?’ There are specific regions on Earth that have more storms, more tornadoes than other places. What creates these stormy regions?”

The central and eastern regions of the United States are among the top spots for severe thunderstorms and form the hot spot for the Earth’s most damaging and frequent tornadoes. Chavas uses real-world computer models to conduct experiments to determine what contributes to the formation of these storms. 

“We have had these decades-old assumptions about what causes storms,” he says. “We’re validating those hypotheses and figuring out what makes North America such a hot spot.”

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

• Would we still have severe thunderstorms over North America if the Gulf of Mexico were filled in with land?
• Cold winters don't mean there’s no global warming
• Future hurricanes may cause havoc inland

Moving heaven and earth

Chavas isn’t a storm chaser. He’s not out there in a weather van topped with satellite wires hunting down individual storms for the insights they might yield. Nor can he grow storms in his lab or unleash tornadoes to understand their anatomy or behavior.

Instead, he harnesses decades of rich, detailed historical data and complex computer models to imagine and test what-if scenarios. He’s a storm tester.

“We use weather and climate models, as well as extensive databases of thunderstorms, lightning strikes, atmospheric data and more, to ask, ‘What if the world was different?’” Chavas says. “We can use these models as laboratories to ask questions like ‘What happens to the weather if you flatten the Rocky Mountains? What about if you fill in the Gulf of Mexico? What aspects of the modern continental and mountain configurations really matter? Let’s actually test this prevailing, conventional wisdom.’” 

Both of those hypotheticals — flattening the Rockies and filling in the Gulf of Mexico — are the focus of studies Chavas and his team have conducted.

For more than 50 years, established wisdom said that the Gulf of Mexico, a source of warm, wet air flowing inland to the east of the Rocky Mountains, plays a major role in the formation of North America’s tornadoes. But no one knew for sure. 

“It was a very reasonable hypothesis,” Chavas says. “There were a lot of very reasonable explanations. But no one had been able to test these 50-year-old ideas because they came about when there weren’t climate models with the necessary computational power. Now we can really start to understand the physics of the situation.” 

When his team virtually filled in the Gulf of Mexico with land , they found that a dry Gulf of Mexico affected the frequency and severity of storms far less than they had expected. Without the Gulf of Mexico, severe thunderstorms shifted eastward from the central Great Plains into Illinois, although they were reduced over southern Texas. 

“Severe thunderstorms and tornadoes form in environments with specific ingredients for how temperature, moisture, and especially wind speed and direction change with height in the atmosphere,” Chavas says. “The climate determines where and when those ingredients can be found together to produce these types of storms. Computer models let us understand why the ingredients are there in the first place and what role they each play in the weather we see.” 

In his most recent study with graduate student Funing Li, just published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the team compared severe weather potential in North America, famous for tornadoes, with South America, which has a geography similar to North America’s and also many severe thunderstorms, but far fewer tornadoes. Their research has been funded by the National Science Foundation and NASA.

They found that the rough texture of the land surface east of the Andes mountains, its roughness determined in part by the hills and tall trees of the Amazon region, may play a large role in preventing tornadoes over central South America. In contrast, in North America many tornadoes form east of the Rockies, where air flows in from the much smoother ocean surface of the Gulf of Mexico. The team first used climate model experiments in which equatorial South America was smoothed to be similar to an ocean surface, which drastically increased central South America’s tornado potential. They also performed experiments in which the Gulf of Mexico region was roughened to be similar to a forested land surface, which strongly suppressed North American tornado potential. 

“A rough surface upstream means that downstream the wind is no longer changing speed and direction with height very strongly near the surface, which we refer to as ‘wind shear,’” Chavas says. “It doesn’t change ingredients for severe thunderstorms, but the wind shear in the 1 kilometer of air above the ground is a critical ingredient for tornadoes.” 

Storm warning

Real weather and real-world applications fascinate Chavas, a fascination born after a storm-torn tree fell on his house in Wisconsin when he was 4 years old.

The real-world implications of his research — what will the weather be like next week, next month, next year and next century — are what drives him.

“If we want to understand how climate change will affect weather in the future, we need to understand how climate determines weather in the first place,” Chavas says. “We don’t have a very good understanding of how climate controls the severe weather we have.”

Understanding how surface roughness and land use changes weather, for example, may enable future humans to better predict — and even partially affect — weather patterns. If the rough land of the Amazon, including a component from the trees of the Amazon, protects South America from tornadoes, could the regrowth of the United States’ eastern forests affect tornadoes, too?

Climate change affects the flow patterns of the atmosphere and moisture distribution on land, Chavas says.

“If we change the land surface and the trajectory of air flowing inland from the Gulf of Mexico, it may have a direct impact on these ingredients that give rise to tornadoes farther inland. When we think about climate change, we think about it getting hotter and the land getting drier. But if the jet stream changes where and how quickly air flows inland, it can change where and how tornadoes form. Places that didn’t see them before may see them more, and places that had more may see fewer,” he says. “We need to understand the weather now to help us better predict the weather of the future.”

About Purdue University

Purdue University is a public research institution demonstrating excellence at scale. Ranked among top 10 public universities and with two colleges in the top four in the United States, Purdue discovers and disseminates knowledge with a quality and at a scale second to none. More than 105,000 students study at Purdue across modalities and locations, including nearly 50,000 in person on the West Lafayette campus. Committed to affordability and accessibility, Purdue’s main campus has frozen tuition 13 years in a row. See how Purdue never stops in the persistent pursuit of the next giant leap — including its first comprehensive urban campus in Indianapolis, the Mitchell E. Daniels, Jr. School of Business, Purdue Computes and the One Health initiative — at https://www.purdue.edu/president/strategic-initiatives . 

Writer/Media contact: Brittany Steff, [email protected]

Source: Dan Chavas, [email protected]

Note to journalists: A video link is available to media who have an Associated Press subscription.

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