research writing methodology pdf

Research Methodology and Scientific Writing

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C. George Thomas 0

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India

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Provides tips to improve the writing skills for research students
Deals with most interdisciplinary fields in Research such as Problems, Writing Proposals, Funding, Selecting Designs, Literature and Review, Collection of Data and Analysis, and Preparation of Thesis
Discusses the latest on the use of information technology in retrieving and managing information

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About this book

Research: Meaning and Purpose

The Roadmap to Research: Fundamentals of a Multifaceted Research Process

Research Questions and Research Design

Research Problems
Writing Proposals
Selecting Designs
Literature and Review
Collection of Data and Analysis
Preparation of Thesis

Table of contents (24 chapters)

Front matter, research: the search for knowledge.

C. George Thomas

Philosophy of Research

Approaches to research, major research methods, experimental research, collection and analysis of data, planning and writing a research proposal, publications and the library, academic databases, the literature review, preparation of research papers and other articles, the structure of a thesis, tables and illustrations, reasoning in research, references: how to cite and list correctly, improve your writing skills, use appropriate words and phrases, punctuation marks and abbreviations, units and numbers, authors and affiliations, about the author, bibliographic information.

Book Title : Research Methodology and Scientific Writing

Authors : C. George Thomas

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64865-7

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Education , Education (R0)

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-64864-0 Published: 25 February 2021

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-64867-1 Published: 25 February 2022

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-64865-7 Published: 24 February 2021

Edition Number : 2

Number of Pages : XVII, 620

Number of Illustrations : 25 b/w illustrations

Topics : Engineering/Technology Education , Writing Skills , Thesis and Dissertation

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The Process of Research Writing

(19 reviews)

Steven D. Krause, Eastern Michigan University

Publisher: Steven D. Krause

Language: English

Formats Available

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Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Kevin Kennedy, Adjunct Professor, Bridgewater State University on 12/2/22

I think this book would make an excellent supplement to other class material in a class focused on writing and research. It helps a lot with the "why"s of research and gives a high-level overview. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

I think this book would make an excellent supplement to other class material in a class focused on writing and research. It helps a lot with the "why"s of research and gives a high-level overview.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The book is accurate, and talks a lot about different ways to view academic writing

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

This would be quite relevant for a student early on the college journey who is starting to complete research-based projects.

Clarity rating: 4

The text is clear and concise, though that conciseness sometimes leads to less content than I'd like

Consistency rating: 5

The book is consistent throughout

Modularity rating: 4

I could use the first chapters of this book very easily, but the later ones get into exercises that my classes wouldn't necessarily use

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The book is organized from the high level (what is academic writing with research) to the more specific (here are some specific exercises)

Interface rating: 3

I don't like the flow from contents to chapters, and they feel distinctly text-based. This is a no-frills text, but that's ok.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

I didn't note anything glaringly obvious

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

I think that this text stays away from the cultural and focuses mostly on the cognitive. This prevents offensive material, though it may make it less appealing to students.

Reviewed by Julie Sorge Way, Instructional Faculty, James Madison University on 11/23/21

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Overall, I think this book’s strongest suits are its organization, clarity, and modularity. It is useful and adaptable for a wide range of courses involving a research component, and as the book itself argues, research is a part of most learning at the university level, whether or not a single traditional “research paper” is the end goal of a course. This is a great book with adaptable and useful content across a range of disciplines, and while it is low on “bells and whistles,” the content it provides seems to be relevant, helpful, and also fill a gap among other OER texts that focus more on rhetoric and less on research.

Because this is a book on research writing rather than cutting edge science, etc. it is unlikely to be made inaccurate by the passing of time.

In a desire to move past the simple “Comp II” textbook, Krause’s work here is relevant to a variety of fields. In creating a course with a major-specific research component, many parts of this text are relevant to what I’m doing, and due to its modularity and organization (see below) I am able to make use of it easily and draw students’ attention to the parts that will help them most with our learning objectives.

Clarity rating: 5

Krause’s writing style is uncomplicated and direct. His examples are ones I think most students could relate to or at least connect with reasonably well.

While the book is internally consistent in its tone, level of detail, and relevance to Krause’s original writing goals, in the process of applying it to different courses (as almost inevitably happens with OER materials) it is inconsistently useful for the course I in particular am planning. This is certainly no fault of the book’s. One example would be that it presents MLA and APA format for citing sources, but not Chicago/Turabian.

Modularity rating: 5

Certainly, its modularity is a real strong suit for Krause’s book overall – individual instructors planning different types of coursework that involve writing and research can easily adapt parts that work, and its Creative Commons license makes this even better.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Clear and direct organization is another strong suit in Krause’s text. The information is presented in an orderly and easy to navigate way that allows instructors and students alike to hone in on the most useful information for their writing and research task without spending undue amounts of time searching. This is much appreciated especially in an open access text where instructors are more likely to be “picking and choosing” relevant content from multiple texts and resources.

Interface rating: 4

Simple but clear – basic HTML and PDF navigation by chapter and section. Like many OER texts it is a bit short on visual engagement – the colorful infographics and illustrations many people are used to both in printed textbooks and interacting with internet content.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No errors noted.

Widely relevant (at least in the North American context I have most experience with) but as always, instructors should preview and adapt all material for the needs and context of their own classes and students.

Reviewed by Li-Anne Delavega, Undergraduate Research Experience Coordinator, Kapiolani Community College on 5/1/21

This textbook builds a good foundation for first-year students with topics such as developing a thesis, how to find sources and evaluate them, creating an annotated bibliography, audience, and avoiding plagiarism. While the content is explained well and students are slowly walked through the research process, the textbook ends abruptly ends with a quick overview of the elements of a research essay after students organize their evidence and create an outline. A part two textbook that covers the rest of the writing process, such as structuring paragraphs, how to write an introduction and conclusion, and revising drafts, is needed to help students get to a finished product. As a composition-based textbook, I also felt it could have used a section on building arguments. The true gem of this textbook is its activities/exercises and comprehensive but accessible explanations.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Aside from outdated citations and technology-related content, the process-based writing instruction is accurate and answers common questions from students about research and basic writing. I feel like the questions, checklists, and activities posed are helpful for students to really think through their writing process, and the author explains things without judgment. While students can benefit, I feel that faculty would also benefit from using this as a teaching manual to plan their classes.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

The writing instruction is solid and is still used in many textbooks today. Obviously, the sections on technology and citation are outdated, but some sections still have good reliable advice at their core. For example, search language, unreliable web sources, and collaborating online have evolved, but the concepts remain the same. I would cut those sections out and just take what I needed to give to students. The author has no plans to update this book, and someone would need to rewrite many sections of the book, which is not easy to implement.

The book is largely free of jargon and terms are clearly explained. The author's tone is casual and conversational when compared to other textbooks, which makes it more accessible to students and acts as a guide through the research process. However, it does lend itself to longer sections that could use heavy editing and it does sound like a mini-lecture, but I liked the way he thoroughly explains and sets up concepts. His tone and style are a bit inconsistent as others have noted.

The book is very consistent since research and writing terminology is the same across most disciplines. If you're a composition instructor, you'll find the framework is just common writing pedagogy for academic writing: focus on the writing process, freewriting, peer review, audience, revision, etc.

This book was intended to be modular and chapters are mostly self-contained, so it is easy to use individual chapters or change the sequence. There are unusable hyperlinks in each chapter that refer to other sections, but those are additional resources that could be replaced with a citation guide or other common resources. Sections, activities, examples, and key ideas are clearly labeled and can be used without the rest of the chapter. However, some writing concepts, such as a working thesis, are mentioned again in later chapters.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

Parts of the book are easily identifiable and the content within the chapter flows easily from one concept to the next. I felt that some of the chapters should have appeared earlier in the textbook. Students would have to wait until chapter 10 to learn about the research essay. Revising a working thesis comes before categorizing and reviewing your evidence. The peer-review chapter that advises students to read sections of their writing aloud to catch mistakes comes before brainstorming a topic. However, the sequence will depend on the instructor's preference. An index or a complete, searchable text would have helped so you don't need to guess which chapter has the content you need.

The PDF is the more polished and easier to read of the two versions. Overall, the PDF was well laid out, with clear headers and images. I found the colored boxes for the exercises helpful, though a lighter color would make the text easier to see for more students. The text uses different styles to create organization and emphasis, which made some pages (especially in the beginning) hard to read with the bolded and italicized clutter. I would have loved a complied version with all the chapters.

The HTML version is difficult to read as it is one long block of text and the callouts and images are not well spaced. There is, unfortunately, no benefit to reading the web version: no clickable links, dynamic text flow, or navigational links within each page so you will need to go back to the TOC to get the next section.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

The book has grammatical and mechanical errors throughout but does not impact content comprehension. Other reviewers here identified more notable errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

The language, examples, and references were generally ok, but the overall textbook felt acultural. Some consideration was taken with pronouns (relies on they/them/their) and gender roles. As others pointed out, there are many areas that could have used diversified sources, topics, references, examples, and students. Some of the textbook's activities assume able-bodied students and sections such as peer collaboration would benefit from a more nuanced discussion when he brought up resentment over non-contributing members, being silenced, and access to resources. There are a few red flags, but one glaring example is on page 5 of chapter 10. An excerpt from an article titled “Preparing to Be Colonized: Land Tenure and Legal Strategy in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii”(which includes the sentence, "Why did Hawaiians do this to themselves?") was used to show students when to use "I" in writing.

Overall, this is a good resource for writing instructors. As this book was written in 2007, faculty will need to cut or adapt a fair amount of the text to modernize it. It is not a textbook to assign to students for the semester, but the textbook's core content is solid writing pedagogy and the focus on using activities to reflect and revise is wonderful. Those outside of composition may find the basic exercises and explanations useful as long as students are primarily working out of a more discipline-specific (e.g., sciences) writing guide.

Reviewed by Milena Gueorguieva, Associate Teaching Professor, University of Massachusetts Lowell on 6/28/20

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This is a process based research writing textbook, a rarity among composition textbooks. It is often the case that foundational writing courses are supposed to cover process and then, very often, instructors, students and textbook authors all forget that process is important when they have to dive into the technical aspects of conducting and writing about and from research, usually in a 'second course' in the first year writing sequence. This is not the case with this book: it is a thoughtful, comprehensive exploration of writing from research as a multi-step recursive process. This approach can help students solidify the knowledge and skills they have acquired in prior courses, especially the multi-step recursive nature of writing as a process while developing a set of strong writing from research skills.

The foundations of research writing are presented in an accessible yet rigorous way. The book does away with the myth of research writing as something you do after you think about and research a topic. The author articulated this idea very well, when he wrote, ”We think about what it is we want to research and write about, but at the same time, we learn what to think based on our research and our writing.”

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

Overall, an excellent handbook (it can be used non-sequentially); however, some of the information on database searches and working with popular internet sources as well as collaborative writing (especially as it relates to the use of technology) needs updating.

The appropriately conversational tone translates complex academic concepts into easy to access ideas that students can relate to. The same is true for the many activities and exercises that demonstrate a variety of real life applications for the research skills presented in the book, which helps students see that research and research based writing happen everywhere, not just on campuses , where students seem to write for an audience of one: the professor who assigned the paper.

The material presented is rigorously and consistently presented in various modes: text, activities and exercises.

It can be used in a variety of ways; it has excellent modular stucture.

Excellently organized: reviews and expands on what students might already know about academic writing as a process; introduces the fundamentals of research and research writing and then uses both of these sets of skills in various research projects.

Although it has some very useful and appropriate visuals , the text could have been more user friendly; it is difficult to follow.

Excellently proof-read,

the book is culturally sensitive and contains appropriate examples and/or references.

An overall excellent composition text that provides useful exercises and assignments (such as the antithesis essay) that can help students build complex and nuanced arguments based on research. Highly recommend!

Reviewed by Valerie Young, Associate Professor, Hanover College on 3/29/20

This text is both general and specific. General enough for use in a variety of courses and disciplines, specific enough to garner interest for faculty who want to teach students the fundamentals and more nuanced aspects of research writing. The basics are here. The text could be assigned in specific modules. The text will benefit from an update, especially in regards to references about collaborative writing tools and internet research. The text is missing a chapter on reading research and integrating research into the literature review process. This is a relevant skill for research writing, as student writers often struggle with reading the work of others to understand the body of literature as a foundation for their own assertions.

The content and information seems like it could be helpful for any undergraduate course that has a research writing project. The unique aspects of this book are its features of collaborative and peer review writing practices and all of the exercises embedded in the text. The author gives examples and writing exercises throughout the chapters. These examples could serve inexperienced students quite well. They could also annoy advanced students.

There are some references to the World Wide Web and the Internet, and library research that seem a bit outdated. There isn't much advanced referencing of commonly used internet research options, such as Google Scholar, citation apps, etc.

Clarity rating: 3

Some points are clear and concise. Other pieces go into too much detail for one chapter page. Because the pages are long, and not all content will be relevant to all readers, the author could consider using "collapsible" sections. This could be especially relevant in the APA & MLA sections, offering a side-by-side comparison of each or offering overviews of style basics with sections that open up into more details for some interested readers.

Consistency rating: 4

no issues here

Modularity rating: 3

The chapters are relatively concise and each starts with an overview of content. The web format does not allow for much navigational flow between chapters or sections. It would be great to hyperlink sections of content that are related so that readers can pass through parts of the text to other topics. It does look like the author intended to hyperlink between chapters, but those links (denoted "Hyperlink:" in the text) are not functional.

Overall flow is appropriate for an interdisciplinary lens. Readers can move through as many or as few sections as needed. The chapter topics and subtopics are organized fairly comprehensively, and often by questions that students might ask.

Interface rating: 2

The long blocks of text in each chapter aren't very reader friendly. Also, once the reader gets to the end of the long page / chapter, there is no navigation up to the top of the chapter or laterally to previous or next content. Text doesn't adjust to screen size, so larger screens might have lots of white space.

no issues noticed. Some examples could be updated to be more inclusive, culturally diverse, etc.

This book has some good lessons, questions, and suggestions for topics relevant to research writing. The text could benefit from a more modern take on research writing, as some of the topics and phrases are dated.

Reviewed by Jennifer Wilde, Adjunct instructor, Columbia Gorge Community College on 12/13/18

The text is a wonderful guidebook to the process of writing a research essay. It describes the steps a college writer should take when approaching a research assignment, and I have no doubt that if students followed the steps outlined by the text, they would be sure to succeed in generating a quality thesis statement and locating appropriate sources. It is not comprehensive in that it has very little to say regarding composition, clarity and style. It does not contain an index or glossary.

Sections on MLA and APA format are inaccurate in that they are outdated. It would be preferable for the text to refer students to the online resources that provide up to date information on the latest conventions of APA and MLA.

The bulk of the chapters are timeless and filled with wisdom about using research to write a paper. However, the book should contain links or otherwise refer students to the web sources that would tell them how to use current MLA/APA format. There are some passages that feel anachronistic, as when the author recommends that students consider the advantages of using a computer rather than a word processor or typewriter. The sections on computer research and "netiquette" feel outdated. Finally, the author describes the differences between scholarly sources and periodicals but does not address the newer type of resources, the online journal that is peer-reviewed but open access and not associated with a university.

The writing is strong and clear. Dr. Krause does not indulge in the use of jargon.

The different sections open with an explanation of what will be covered. Then, the author explains the content. Some chapters are rather short while others are long, but generally each topic is addressed comprehensively. In the last several chapters, the author closes with a sample of student work that illustrates the principles the chapter addressed.

The text is divisible into sections. To some extent the content is sequential, but it is not necessary to read the early chapters (such as the section on using computers, which millenials do not need to read) in order to benefit from the wisdom in later chapters. I used this text in a writing 121 course, and I did not assign the entire text. I found some chapters helpful and others not so relevant to my particular needs. Students found the chapters useful and discrete, and they did not feel like they had to go back and read the whole thing. The section on writing an annotated bibliography, for instance, could be used in any writing class.

The topics are presented in the order in which a student approaches a writing assignment. First, the author asks, why write a research essay, and why do research? Next, the author addresses critical thinking and library/data use; quoting, summarizing and paraphrasing; collaboration and writing with others; writing a quality thesis statement; annotating a bibliography; categorizing sources; dealing with counterarguments, and actually writing the research essay. It's quite intuitive and logical. It seems clear that this author has had a lot of experience teaching students how to do these steps.

The interface is straightforward, but I could not locate any hyperlinks that worked. Navigation through the book was no problem.

The book is well written overall. The writer's style is straightforward and clear. There are occasional typos and words that feel misplaced, as in the following sentence: "The reality is though that the possibilities and process of research writing are more complicated and much richer than that." There should be commas around the word "though", and the tone is fairly conversational. These are extremely minor issues.

The examples feel inclusive and I was not aware of any cultural insensitivity in the book overall.

The book is really helpful! I particularly appreciate the sections on how to write an annotated bib and a good thesis statement, and I think the sections on writing a category/evaluation of sources, working thesis statement, and antithesis exercise are unique in the large field of writing textbooks. The book contains no instruction on grammatical conventions, style, clarity, rhetoric, how to emphasize or de-emphasize points, or other writing tips. In that sense, it is not a great text for a composition class. But I think it's extremely useful as a second resource for such a class, especially for classes that teach argumentation or those that require an analytic essay. I feel it is most appropriate for science students - nursing, psychology, medicine, biology, sociology. It is less likely to be useful for a general WR 121 class, or for a bunch of English majors who largely use primary sources.

Reviewed by Jess Magaña, Assistant Teaching Professor, University of Missouri-Kansas City on 6/19/18

This is a comprehensive introduction to planning and writing research papers. The suggested activities seem helpful, and the lack of an index or glossary does not interfere with understanding. read more

This is a comprehensive introduction to planning and writing research papers. The suggested activities seem helpful, and the lack of an index or glossary does not interfere with understanding.

The information is accurate and straightforward.

Some information is out of date, such as the section regarding email, but the main concepts are well explained and relevant. An instructor could easily substitute a lecture or activity with updated information.

The clarity is excellent.

There are no inconsistencies.

The text is organized in a way that lends itself to changing the order of chapters and adding and subtracting topics to suit the needs of each class.

The progression of chapters is logical.

Interface rating: 5

The "hyperlinks" helpfully direct readers to related topics (although these are not actual links in the online version), which contributes to the modularity of the text.

There are a few errors, but none that significantly obscure meaning.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This text could use updated examples showing greater diversity in authors and work. I recommend instructors find supplementary examples relevant to their classes.

I intend to use this text in my courses, supplemented with a few activities and more diverse examples to suit my students' needs.

Reviewed by Sheila Packa, Instructor, Lake Superior College on 2/1/18

The text is a comprehensive guide to research for students in College Composition courses. The text is concise and interesting. Critical thinking, research and writing argument are integrated into his suggested assignments. The author covers... read more

The author covers the research question, library resources, how to paraphrase and use quotes, and collaborative writing projects. There are suggested exercises in the process of research, such as a topic proposal, a guide to developing a strong thesis statement, a full exploration of refutation (called the antithesis), the critique or rhetorical analysis, the annotated bibliography, and a guide to help students to accumulate a good assortment of sources. MLA and APA documentation is covered. Note that this text is published in 2007. Therefore, I recommend the use of MLA 8 Handbook for up-to-date guidelines for correct documentation. The Research Paper is full explained. In the chapter, Alternate Ways to Present Research, the author focuses on a Portfolio. He discusses web publication of research and poster sessions.

I value the clarity of ideas. The text is error-free, and I like the example essays written by students that will serve to inspire students.

The content is relevant. The author guides students through the process in a way that is easy to understand and also academically rigorous. The MLA 8 Handbook is a needed supplement (and that is affordable).

The writing is clear and concise. The organization of the chapters is logical and leads the students through steps in the process of research, writing a reasoned argument, and professional presentation of the research.

Terminology is clear and the framework for research is clear and sensible.

The book's modularity is definitely a strength. It's possible to use chapters of the text without using the entire book and to omit chapters that are not a focus of the instructor.

This book has a logical arrangement of chapters and the assignments are valuable.

The interface is great. It's readable online or in pdf form.

No grammatical errors. There is one detail that reflects changing rules of documentation. In MLA, titles of books, magazines, and journals are now italicized instead of underlined. In this text, they are underlined.

The text is free of bias or stereotypes.

Reviewed by Jennie Englund, Instructor, Composition I & II, Rogue Community College, Oregon on 8/15/17

Twelve chapters are broken into multiple parts. On Page 3 of the Introduction, the text emphasizes its purpose as an "introduction to academic writing and research." The following chapters present more than substantial information to give... read more

Twelve chapters are broken into multiple parts.

On Page 3 of the Introduction, the text emphasizes its purpose as an "introduction to academic writing and research." The following chapters present more than substantial information to give introductory (even well into master) research writers a foundation of the basics, as well as some detail. It differentiates itself as "Academic" research writing through thesis, evidence, and citation. Two of these concepts are revisted in the conclusion. The third (thesis) has its own section, which this reviewer will use in class.

I'm grateful to have reviewed an earlier electronic text. This provided the ability to compare/contrast, and note that this particular text was more comprehensive and in-depth than the guide I had previously reviewed (which was more of a framework, good in its own right.)

Had the guide contained a thorough section on revision, I'd give it a perfect score! Thus, the book very very nearly does what it sets out to do; it provides most of The Process of Research Writing.

Retrieval dates are no longer used on the APA References page. This reviewer would have preferred titles italicized instead of underlined.

The text opens with an introduction of the project, by its author. The project began in 2000 as a text for a major publishing house, but eventually landed via author's rights as an electronic text. Therefore, essentially, the book has already been around quite a while. This reviewer concludes that time, thought, and execution went into publishing the material, and predicts its popularity and usability will grow.

Timeless, the guide could have been used with small updates twenty years ago, and could be used with updates twenty years from now.

The guide could be used as the sole text in a composition course, supplemented by more formal (as well as APA) examples.

The text is organized into 12 chapters; it logically begins with "Thinking Critically about Research," and concludes with "Citing Your Research Using MLA or APA Style." The text includes most of what this reviewer uses to teach academic research writing. However, the book omits the editing/revising process.

The guide poses purposeful questions.

On Page 7 of the Introduction, the text reports being "organized in a 'step-by-step' fashion," with an invitation to the reader to use the book in any order, and revisit passages. The reviewer found the organization to be consistent and as systematic as the actual composition of an academic research paper.

The meat of the text begins with the definition and purpose of "Research." Immediately, a nod to working thesis follows, which is revisited in Chapter 5. Sources are examined and classified into a chart of "Scholarly Versus Non-scholarly or Popular Sources." The segment on "Using the Library" would complement a course or class period on library usage.

The Table of Contents is fluid and logical. Within the text, concepts are revisited and built upon, which the reviewer appreciates. Examples and exercises are given.

Chapter 10 contains an outline of a student research paper (which follows). The paper examines the problems with and solutions for university athletics. The paper is in MLA format. Tone is less formal than this reviewer would use as an example of academic research writing. The reviewer would have welcomed an example of an APA paper, as well.

The last chapter fully realizes instruction introduced at the beginning: citation defines academic writing, and academic writers credit their sources, and present evidence to their readers. I wish this last part emphasized thesis again, too, but in all, it is a very structured, reader-friendly guide.

Charts are integrated and understandable, though the majority of the book is text.

This review found some grammatical errors including capitalization. Book/journal/magazine/newspaper titles are underlined in lieu of italicized.

Student examples include Daniel Marvins, Ashley Nelson, Jeremy Stephens, Kelly Ritter, Stuart Banner, and Casey Copeman. Most examples of citations are from male authors. Text would benefit from multi-cultural authors. Examples/topics include The Great Gatsby,African-American Physicians and Drug Advertising, Cyberculture, ADHD, Diabetes, Student-athletes, and Drunk Driving.Examples are culturally appropriate and multi-disciplinary. Consistent pronoun used: he/him/his

Third-person narration is used; the author addresses the reader directly (and informally). While this perhaps makes a connection between the author and the reader, and adds to understanding, it does not reflect academic research writing, and may confuse beginning writers?

Chapter 5, "Writing a Working Thesis," is among the most clear, comprehensive, and straightforward instruction on the topic this reviewer has seen. I will use this section in my Composition I and II courses, as well as Chapters 1, 3, and 12. I wish this form had a place to rate usability. In that case, this guide would score highly. I commend Dr. Krause's execution and composition, and applaud his sharing this at no cost with the academic community.

Reviewed by Marie Lechelt, ESL/English Instructor and Writing Center Co-director, Riverland Community College on 6/20/17

"The Process of Research Writing" is a textbook that includes all of the major topics covered in most college research writing courses. The style of writing makes it easily understood by students. Depending on your focus in your writing class, you may want to supplement this text with more about argumentative writing. Other writing models, homework exercises, and classroom activities found by the instructor would also compliment the use of this text. While I would not use this textbook in my course from start to finish, I would jump around and use a variety of sections from it to teach research writing. This text could be used for a beginning writing class or a second semester writing course. Based on my students writing experiences and abilities, I would eliminate or include certain sections. There is no index or glossary included. The hyperlinks to other sections also do not work.

The content is accurate and error-free. I didn't detect any biased information either. The MLA and APA information have changed since this book was published. The peer review work, plagiarism, critiquing sources, and many more of the topics are almost exactly what I teach to my students. This format will work well for them.

While most research writing content does not change over time, there are many parts of this book that could be updated. These include examples (The Great Gatsby), hyperlinks, and references to technology. The technology aspect is especially important. Since technology is constantly changing, most textbooks (print and online) are out of date as soon as they are printed. Because of this, teachers are constantly having to use supplemental material, which is fine. Just like our class websites, we have to update this information every semester or even more often. If you choose to use this textbook, keep in mind that this will be necessary. The MLA/APA information is also out of date, but this is also to be expected.

Clarity is one of the benefits of this textbook. Although the style is somewhat informal, it included appropriate topics and terminology for students learning to write research essays. Students can understand the topics with one or two readings and discuss the topics in class. There were a few places that seemed like common knowledge for students at this level, like the library or using computers. Unfortunately, we do still have students who do not come to us having already learned this information. So, I don't think these sections would have a negative impact on other students. Students can also be given optional sections to read, or as I plan to do, the teacher can skip around and only assign some sections.

The majority of the terminology is common knowledge in research writing teaching. The text is fairly informal in writing style, which I believe is an advantage for students. Many times, students will read a text and then I will need to explain the terminology or ideas in depth in my lectures. Since I prefer to complete activities and work on students' writing in class, instead of lecturing, this book will work well. The chapter on the "Antithesis" was new to me. While I have taught these ideas, I have not used this term before. This is a chapter I may not use and instead include supplemental material of my own.

The chapters are divided clearly and could be separated quite easily to use as individual units in a writing class. If the hyperlinks worked though, they would be helpful. Exercises build upon one another, so one could not assign a later exercise without students first understanding the other sections of the text. I plan to use this text in a research writing class, and I will be skipping around and only using some sections. I do not believe there will be any problem with this. While students may at first feel that starting on Chapter 4 might be strange, they are very adaptive and should have no difficulties with this format.

The Table of Contents is clear and easily understood. Each chapter follows a logical sequence, and students will be able to transition from one topic to another without difficulty. The use of charts, headings, bold, highlighting, and some other visual aids help the reader to understand what is most important to remember. Although, this could be improved upon with the use of color and graphics. While the content is valuable, I would most likely skip around when using this book in the classroom. While the author begin with an introduction and then jumps right into research, I focus on topic selection and thesis writing before research begins. Of course, as the author mentions, students will go back to their thesis and research many times before finishing the writing process.

The text is easily navigated, and students would be able to follow the topics throughout. The lack of graphics and color is noticeable and detracts from the content. In a world of advanced technology where students click on hundreds of websites with amazing content each week, online textbooks need to meet this standard. This textbook is similar to a traditional textbook. Some links are also inactive.

There were some typos and small grammatical errors but no glaring instances. They also did not impact understanding.

This book contained no offensive language or examples. However, we have a lot of diversity in our classrooms, and this is not reflected in the book. Expanding the examples or including links to diverse examples would be helpful.

I will be using this text in a second semester writing class. It has valuable information about research writing. I believe it could also be used for a first semester writing class. As mentioned above, I will use sections of the text and skip around to accommodate the needs of my students. Supplemental materials will also be needed to meet current technology needs.

Reviewed by Betsy Goetz, English Instructor, Riverland Community College on 6/20/17

The text covers all subject areas appropriately. read more

The text covers all subject areas appropriately.

Overall, the text is accurate.

Relevant and current.

I liked the clarity of the text, especially the specific exercises for students to apply the theory they have learned.

This text is consistent -- good terminology!

Clear sections to focus on key points of research writing.

Well organized.

Not confusing

Overall, lacking grammatical errors.

Relevant -- research writing and thesis building are timeless.

Reviewed by Karen Pleasant, Adjunct Instructor, Rogue Community College on 4/11/17

The textbook covered the basics of writing a research paper (the term "essay"is preferred by the author) and would be appropriate for an introductory college writing course, such as WR 121 or WR 122. A table of content is provided, but there is no glossary. The textbook guides a student from exploring the initial topic selection through the finished product, although I would have liked the use of citations to be covered in more depth. If I chose this as the textbook for my class I would also need to add supplemental materials about thoroughly developing an argument as well as revising a paper.

The author presented the material in an unbiased manner and does so in a way that provides high readability for students with little to no background in writing a research paper. Excellent examples are provided to reinforce concepts and thoughtful, creative collaborative exercises round out each chapter to give practice in skill mastery. Both MLA and APA formatting styles are included, but the APA section needs to be updated. The book was published in 2007 and many of the APA guidelines have changed., including the preference for using italics versus underlining for book and journal titles.

Each chapter is self-contained and stands alone and , therefore, could easily be updated. Most of the information is relevant and could be used indefinitely. I like that Chapter 11 recommended alternate ways to present the research and suggested more contemporary technology based methods. Chapter 12, about APA and MLA citations, is the chapter that currently needs to be updated and would need to be checked for accuracy annually against the latest APA & MLA guidelines. As it reads, I would handout current materials for APA citation sessions and not use this chapter in the book.

The book is well organized and is very user friendly. I think students would enjoy reading it and be able to relate readily to the content. Examples given and exercises provided help to clarify the content and reinforce the concepts for students. The textbook flows well from selection of initial topic ideas to finished product and will help students to work through the process of writing a research paper.

New terms are thoroughly explained and are used consistently throughout the textbook. The knowledge students gain as they progress through the book feels logical and organized in a usable fashion.

The text is organized so that each chapter stands alone and the order the information is presented can be easily modified to fit the needs of an instructor. The book is that rare combination of being equally functional for both student and instructor.

The topics are presented as needed to guide students through the process of writing a research paper, but could be done in another order if desired. Bold and boxed items are used to emphasize key concepts and chapter exercises.

The textbook is visually appealing and easy to read with adequate use of white space and varied font sizes. I explored the textbook via the PDF documents, which were easy to download, although the hyperlinks were not accessible.

There were noticeable grammatical errors.

The textbook is inclusive and accessible to all and didn't have any content that could be deemed offensive. The approachable layout and writing style make the textbook relevant to college students from a variety of backgrounds.

I would definitely adopt this open textbook for my writing classes. The author provided some wonderful ideas for teaching about research papers and I found many chapter exercises that I would be willing to incorporate into my class . I am especially intrigued by the use of writing an antithesis paper as a lead in to adding opposition to the research paper and look forward to getting student input and feedback about some of the alternative ways to present their research. Compared to textbooks I have used or perused in the past, this book seems more inviting and user friendly for students new to writing college level research papers.

Reviewed by VINCENT LASNIK, Adjunct Professor, Rogue Community College on 4/11/17

This comprehensiveness is one of the strengths of The Process of Research Writing. The Table of Contents (TOC) is fine—and each separate chapter also reproduces the contents listing from high-lever through low-level subsections at the beginning of each chapter. This duplicate listing feature helps orient students to what is covered (and what is not) for every chapter in-context. Yes—It is a fair evaluation that there can generally be easy-to-fix, quickly recognizable updates, enhancements, and notable improvements to virtually any textbook 10-15 years after its initial publication date (particularly related to changing terminology and nomenclature within the dynamic English lexicon, technology applications (databases, websites, ‘search engines,’ current good ‘help sites’ for students learning the latest iteration of APA style for manuscript formatting, in-text citations, and end references, etc.)—and the Krause text is a prime candidate for such a thorough revision. For example, digital object identifiers (the doi was first introduced circa 2000) did not become widely/pervasively established until well into the first decade of the 21st century; the ‘doi’ is an ubiquitous standard today in 2017. Nevertheless, many of the basic (boilerplate) concepts are clearly noted and credibly, coherently explained. The text could use some effective reorganization (as I note elsewhere in my review)—but that is arguably a subjective/personalized perspective more related to the way we approach writing instruction and student academic development at Rogue Community College—and perhaps less of a global/universal criticism.

See my comments in other sections that impact this issue. Overall, Krause’s text appears, “accurate, error-free and unbiased.” There are no obvious problems with this observation/contention. Some of the ‘out-of-date’ specifics in the text need updating as I note in detail in my other comments.

Most of the text describes research-writing strategies that are fairly well-established if not generic to the undergraduate English composition content area; thus, the overall longevity of the existing text is good. I have suggested, however, that any such ‘how-to’ guide should be updated (as this particular version) after its first decade of publication. The content for online research, for example, reflects an early 2000s perspective of emerging technology terms (e.g., defining blogs as “web-logs” is easily 12-15 years behind the use of the term in 2017), and some of the online websites mentioned are no longer relevant. These types of ‘out-of-date’ past-referents/links, however, can be easily updated to 2017+ accuracy. I have made a few suggestions about such an update—including my offer to assist Steve Krause (gratis and pro bono) in this update should my collaboration be desired. Otherwise, Krause might go the more open ‘peer review’ route and assemble a set of active teachers, instructors, and adjunct professors (such as me) who are on the ‘frontlines’ of current praxis for research-based, critical thinking, problem-oriented writing courses across the 11th-12th grade and through the undergraduate and workforce education community.

The text is written is a clear, credible, and cogent prose throughout. This is one of the particular strengths of Krause’s text—and recursively provides an exemplar for well-written composition. On occasion, the clarity for students might be improved by additional ‘real-world examples’ (i.e., more ‘showing rather than mere abstract telling) explicating some obtuse concepts and numerous rules (e.g., for research strategy, proofreading/editing, using search engines and conducting library research, etc.)—but a similar constructive criticism could easily be made of nearly all similar sources.

The text wording, terminology, framework and process emphasis are highly consistent. There are overlaps and dovetailing (i.e., redundancy) in any/every college textbook—but Krause keeps these to a minimum throughout. Some updating of terminology would be appropriate, useful, and needed as I note throughout my OER review.

The text is superb in this regard. The chapters and exercises are highly modular—which supports the customized reorganization I apply myself in my own courses as noted in my other comments. Numerous subheads and special highlighted ‘key points’ textboxes augment this modularity and improve the narrowing of assigned readings, examples, and exercises for most writing courses. The Process of Research Writing is clearly not, “overly self-referential,” and can easily be, “reorganized and realigned with various subunits of a course without presenting much disruption to the reader” by any instructor.

One of the principal weaknesses of the set of chapters is that the given ‘table of contents’ structure is conceptually disjointed—at least insofar as my research writing course is designed. Therefore, to provide a more coherent, logical sequence congruent to the course organization of my Writing 122 (this is an intermediate/advanced-level English Composition II)—it was necessary to assign a completely different order of The Process of Research Writing (Krause, 2007) high-level chapters/pages for weekly course reading assignments as follows:

Week One: Table of Contents; Introduction: Why Write Research Projects?; and Chapter 1: Thinking Critically About Research; Week Two: Chapter 2: Understanding and Using the Library and the Internet for Research. These three starting chapters were reasonable to introduce in Krause’s original sequence. Continuing into Week Two, I also added Chapter 4: How to Collaborate and Write with Others (but I highlighted limited/specific passages only since WR122 does not emphasize collaborative prose composition activities and extensive group-writing projects using such apps as Google Docs). Week Three: I then assigned Chapter 10: The Research Essay—since it was important to orient students to the intrinsic, namesake umbrella concept of researching and writing the research essay—the essential focus of the course I teach. IMPORTANT NEED TO RESTRUCTURE THE OER as it exists: Viewed from a course rationale and content/skill acquisition conceptual level—I have no idea why Krause did not place ‘Writing The Research Essay’ as high as Chapter 2. It comes far too late in the book as Chapter 10. This is actually where the chapter belongs (in my view); the other topics in the remaining Chapters’ (2—12) would more cogently and effectively proceed after first exploring the high-level nature of the research essay task in the first place. The subsequent skills for conducting Online Library Research; Quoting, Paraphrasing, Avoiding Plagiarism, creating a testable ‘Working Thesis,’ producing an Annotated Bibliography (some courses also use a précis assignment), Evaluating and Categorizing Sources, etc.—are realistically supporting, scaffolding, and corroborating functional/operational skills designed to design, research, and produce the research-based essay project. Therefore—from a project-based and problem-oriented pedagogical strategy/approach—a sound argument could be proffered that putting Chapter 10 second in a reordered book would help students on many levels (not the least being engaging interest and promoting contextual understanding for why learning the content of the remaining chapters makes sense and can be critical/applicable to the research-writing process.

Continuing on my own WR122 course text-sequence customization—in Week Four—we move into the attribution phase of the writing process in Chapter 3: Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism. Logically, we then move (in Week Five) to Chapter 5: The Working Thesis so students can ask significant/original questions and determine a point of departure into their research essay. This seemed like a good time to add the concept of ‘opposition views’ (i.e., counter-claims, rejoinder and rebuttal) discussed in Chapter 8: The Antithesis. In Week Six—we moved into essay formatting, in-text citation and end references, so Chapter 12: Citing Your Research Using MLA or APA Style {(focusing on reading pp. 1-2 (brief overview), and pp. 18-33 about APA style)} was assigned. In addition, students also perused Chapter 7: The Critique preceding a related argumentative assignment (i.e., a movie review project). For Week Seven (concurrent with an annotated bibliography project for the main term paper—students read Chapter 6: The Annotated Bibliography, and Chapter 9: The Categorization and Evaluation (of sources) that was ostensibly/logically relevant to the annotated bibliography project. Concluding the course for Weeks Eight-Eleven—there were new required readings. Students were instructed to review previous readings in The Process of Research Writing (Krause, 2007)—time permitting. Also Note: Chapter 11: Alternative Ways to Present Your Research is completely optional reading. It is not particularly applicable to this course; there is a student’s self-reflection about the research process on pp. 3-11 that may have some nominal merit, but it notes MLA style (versus my course’s use of APA 6th edition style only) and is in any case not required.

The text is not fancy; standard black and white (high-contrast) font used throughout. For emphasis of key points, Krause does use special ‘highlight boxes’ with gray background, a thick black stroke on the outside of the rectangular textbox. While the gray level might be lowered (in the update) for improved contrast—the true-black, bulleted, bolded key-terms are easy to perceive/read. The only criticism I have is the distracting overuse of quotation mark punctuation for emphasis; this should be corrected in any updated version. Otherwise, most of the book’s interface presentation supports a good user (student) experience, good printability, and good accessibility per ADA and general disability (e.g., visually impaired learners) protocols.

There are no significant/glaring occurrences of grammatical errors in the text. I am not a ‘grammar snob’ in any case. The prose seems clear, cogent, thoughtful, well-written; it generally uses solid grammar, mechanics, and punctuation. The exception is the overuse of a somewhat casual/conversational tone combined with (what is more of a recognizable issue) a distracting overuse of quotation marks—many of which are simply neither needed nor helpful; most could be quickly removed with an immediate improvement to readability.

I do not see significant, relevant, or glaring faux pas pertaining to any biased disrespect for multiculturalism. All persons (e.g., races, ethnicities, genders, sexual orientations, and cultural backgrounds) are equally respected and appreciated. The content area (English composition) is very amenable to a relatively generic, culture-free perspective—and Krause’s examples and prose is well-within any applicable standards of post-modern, scholarly, formal non-fiction in written Standard English.

[1] The Process of Research Writing was ostensibly presented/published to Creative Commons in 2007. No identifiable part/portion of the original edition text appears to have been updated (changed, modified, or improved) since then (i.e., at least 10 years); This is perhaps the single, most apparent flaw/weakness for this textbook. An in-depth revision to 2017 post-rhetorical model essay-writing standards and APA conventions would be invaluable—and quite bluntly—is sorely required. A newly updated Version 2.0 for 2017-18 should be critically planned (and scheduled or already ‘in progress’ if it is not already).

[2] There are many insightful, practical, and high-value approaches to the research writing process; in this regard—the nominal OER title is superbly appropriate for late high-school and beginning college (undergraduate) research essay projects. Even though some of the technical components (e.g., APA style) require updating/revision (which makes basic, reasonable sense after a ‘decade on the shelf’ for any academic research writing source)—Krause’s chapters can effectively replace many expensive, glossy college entry-level textbooks! After presenting the core concepts in a coherent and self-evident manner, Krause supplies a plethora of examples to illustrate those concepts. Then (and this is one of the true strengths of this OER)—each chapter (particularly Chapters 5-10) highlights student-oriented exercises to practice those same core concepts). Because of this latter emphasis—the Krause OER is ‘learner-centered’ (as opposed to ‘content centered’), problem-oriented and performance-oriented as well—providing opportunities for creative, resourceful teachers to adapt/adopt the OER to course assignments.

[3] There does not appear to be a single (standalone) PDF for this OER. This is a notable flaw/weakness for this textbook. Conversely, however, although a single PDF would have some convenient ‘easier downloading’ advantages for students—having separate chapters affords every teacher to create a customized chapter-order (as I have efficiently done to correspond to my course design). The chapters support excellent modularity and the accompanying exercises/examples demonstrate the concepts Krause explicates with a fine degree of granularity for any teacher. Thus—integrating any textbooks or teaching/learning resources (like OERs) always has tradeoffs—plusses and minuses, positives and negatives. The obvious key, therefore, is taking the liberty of using the OER as a supporting scaffold or buttress to an instructor’s original design concept—rather than the foundation around which a course can be designed.

[4] Some minor weaknesses for prose instruction are (a) Krause’s acceptance of passive, sophomoric signal phrasing (i.e., According to X…)—as opposed to strong, active voice such as ‘’X found…’; and (b) a general overuse of quotation marks throughout the book. This is not meant as a harsh criticism—merely an observation that readability could be improved with a newer version that eliminates most quotation marks (Note: In APA style—these punctuation symbols are only used for verbatim quotes. This makes for a cleaner, clearer manuscript).

[5] One of the solid/helpful strengths of the book is a relatively accurate presentation of APA style for in-text citation and end references (Chapter 12). It appears that like many academics—Krause is more familiar and comfortable with the Modern Language Association’s MLA style/formatting. No problem there—I was simply trained on APA beginning in 1984 so it is native to me; I also use the latest version of APA style in all of my writing (college composition) courses. Thus—it should come as no surprise there are a number of obvious APA-associated inaccuracies including (but limited to): (a) meekly accepting ‘n.d.’ (no date) and ‘n.a.’ (no author) sources when a little investigative research by the student (and adherence to the APA rule hierarchy for dates and authors) would easily come up with a sound date and author. Another error (b) seems to be more typographic (formatting) and/or refers to an earlier edition of APA style: the end references in the PDF (and html versions?) use underline in place of italics. The 2011 APA 6th edition style does not use underline in the end references. There are other small (faux pas) errors such as (c) noting generally inaccessible proprietary online databases and servers (again—no longer done in APA). A thorough, meticulous updating of this OER source would probably take care of many of these APA-error issues. I’d be happy to work with Steve on this update at any time.

[6] I use Amy Guptill’s Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence by Amy Guptill of State University of New York (2016) for my English Composition I course that emphasizes general essay writing and a simple research-supported argumentative essay. I teach that course using the following assigned readings: Week One: Chapter 1 (Really? Writing? Again?), pp. 1-7, and Chapter 2 (What Does the Professor Want? Understanding the Assignment), pp. 9-18; Week Two: Chapter 6 (Back to Basics: The Perfect Paragraph), pp. 48-56; Chapter 7 (Intros and Outros), pp. 57-64; Week Four: Chapter 9 (Getting the Mechanics Right), pp. 75-85; Week Five: Chapter 8 (Clarity and Concision), pp. 65-73; Week Six: Chapter 3 (Constructing the Thesis and Argument—From the Ground Up), pp. 19-27; Week Seven: Chapter 4 (Secondary Sources in Their Natural Habitats), pp. 28-37; Week Eight: Chapter 5 (Listening to Sources, Talking to Sources), pp. 38-47. I then switch over to Krause’s OER for my English Composition II course. At Rogue Community College, Writing 122 emphasizes intermediate essay writing and analytical, more rigorous and original research-based essays involving critical thinking. I completely reordered the chapters as described above to fit into my course design. I like Krause’s individual ‘modular’ chapters—but the particular ‘scope and sequence’ he uses are debatable. Overall, however, The Process of Research Writing easily and effectively substitutes/replaces other costly tomes from for-profit academic publishers—even those that offer bundled DVDs and online-access to proprietary tutorial sources. Used in conjunction with other freely available PDF OERs, websites, YouTube videos, tutorial/practice sites from innumerable libraries, blogs (e.g., the APA Blog is particularly helpful)—as well as original/customized sources created by individual instructors for their own courses—the Krause book offers a good, solid baseline for developing research-based writing competencies particularly appropriate for the first two years of college.

Reviewed by Amy Jo Swing, English Instructor, Lake Superior College on 4/11/17

This book covers most of the main concepts of research writing: thesis, research, documenting, and process. It's weak on argument though, which is standard in most research composition texts. The book provides a clear index so finding information is relatively easy. The other weak spot is on evaluation evidence: there is a section on it but not comprehensive examples. Students in general needs lots of practice on how to evaluate and use information.

The information is accurate mostly except for the APA and MLA section. Writing and research writing haven't changed that much in a long time. It's more the technology and tools that change.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

The ideas about research and writing in general are fine, However, the references to technology and documentation are very out of date, over 10 years so. Students use technology very differently than described in this text, and the technologies themselves have changed. For example, the author talks about floppy disks and AOL messenger but not about Google Drive, Wikipedia, Prezi, or how to use phones and tablets while researching. Our students are digital natives and need to understand how to use their devices to write and research.

The book is quite readable in general. Concepts are easy to understand. Sometimes, they are almost too simple like the section explaining what a library is. Students might not be sophisticated library users, but they understand in general how they work. The chapters are concise, which is nice for student use too.

Except for pronoun use, the book is consistent in tone and terms. Not all the terms are ones I use in my own teaching, and it would be nice to see explanation of more argument/research frameworks like the Toulmin Model of argument.

The chapters are pretty self-contained and clear as individual units. I can see including certain chapters and leaving out others that aren't as relevant to my teaching style or assignments. One could easily assign the chapters in a different order, but students ask lots of questions when you assign chapter 6 first and then weeks later, assign chapter 2 or 3.

The basic chapters make sense in terms of how they are created and categorized but the order is problematic if an instructor were to assign them in the order presented. For example, the chapter on creating an annotated bibliography comes before the one on documenting (APA/MLA). Students can't complete an annotated bibliography without knowing how to cite sources. Same with evaluating sources. There is so much information on locating sources before any clear mention is made of how to evaluate them. I find that is the weak spot with students. If they learn how to evaluate sources, it's easier to find and locate and research effectively.

Not many images. Students really like info-graphics, pictures, and multi-media. The hyperlinks to other sections of the book do not work in either the PDF or HTML versions. I do like some of the illustrations like mapping and how research is more a web than a linear process. For an online textbook, there aren't a lot of hyperlinks to outside resources (of which there are so many like Purdue's OWL and the Guide to Grammar and Writing).

There were quite a few errors : comma errors, spelling (affect/effect), some pronoun agreement errors, capitalization errors with the title in Chapter Four. The author also uses passive voice quite a bit, which is inconsistent with the general familiar tone. In some chapters, there is constant switching between first, second, and third person. I focus much on point of view consistency in my students' writing, and this would not be a great model for that.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

There is no cultural offensiveness but not much diversity in examples and students names either. Marginalized students (of color, with disabilities, of different sexuality or gender) would not see themselves reflected much.

This is a good basic reference on the process of writing and research. However, it would not be too useful without updated information on technology and documentation. As a web-based text, it reads more like a traditional physical textbook.

Reviewed by Jocelyn Pihlaja, Instructor, Lake Superior College on 2/8/17

The length and scope of this book are appropriate for a semester-long research writing course, with twelve chapters that move from foundational concepts into more specific skills that are needed for the crafting of a paper incorporating MLA or APA citation. In particular, I like that the early chapters cover the questions of "Why Write Research Papers?" and how to think critically, the middle chapters provide specific activities in the skills of quoting and paraphrasing, and the later chapters bring in assignments (such as writing an annotated bibliography) that help students practice and build content for their ultimate paper.There is no index or glossary to this book; however, the table of contents provides an overview of the chapters that guides navigation well.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

In terms of the thinking, this book's information is logical and sound. The explanations of concepts and activities read easily and do a fine job of explicating the why and how of research writing. In a few places, however, the word "effected" is used when it should be "affected." Editing also is needed when the author uses phrases such as "in the nutshell" instead of "in a nutshell." As well, in Chapter 4, there is pronoun/antecedent disagreement when the author uses "their" to refer to "each member." Also, each chapter contains at least one "Hyperlink" to supplemental information, yet the hyperlinks are dead. For the most part, the text is clean and well edited, but we English teachers are line-editing sticklers, so even small, occasional errors stand out. Overall: the ideas presented are accurate and free of bias, yet there are a few, niggling errors.

When it comes to relevance and longevity, this book is problematic. In fact, it is so outdated as to be unusable, at least for this instructor. Certainly, the concepts presented are solid; they don't change with passing years. However, typographically, the book is passe, as it uses two spaces after periods. Even more troubling is that it refers to the Internet as "new" and comes from a point of view that sees this thing called "the World Wide Web" as novel while also noting students might want to rely on microfilm and microfiche during their research. In another example, the author suggests to students that a benefit of writing on computers is that they can share their work with each other on disc or through email. Truly, such references make the book unusable for a class in 2017. Another issue is that the Modern Language Association has updated its guidelines several times since this book's publication; ideally, a text used in a research writing class would cover, if not the latest guidelines, at least the previous version of the guidelines. A full rewrite of the book is necessary before it could be adopted. As the book currently stands, students would roll their eyes at the antiquated technological language, and the teacher would need to apologize for asking students to read a text that is so out-of-date.

The writing in this book is both accessible and intelligent. It's eminently readable. Specifically, the inclusion of things like an "Evidence Quality and Credibility Checklist" at the end of Chapter 1 and the continual use of grey boxes that highlight major concepts is very good. Also extremely helpful are the examples of student writing that end nearly every chapter; these models demonstrate to readers what is expected from each assignment. Finally, the explanations of quoting and paraphrasing are superior -- so clear, so easy for students to digest. Were it not outdated in terms of technological references, I would definitely consider using this book in my classes due to the clarity of the prose.

Consistency rating: 3

For the most part, the book is well structured and consistent in its design and layout. Each chapter provides general explanation of a concept, moves into a specific assignment, and ends with an example or two of student responses to that assignment. Very quickly, readers know what to expect from each chapter, and there's something comforting about the predictability of the layout, especially in a book that is being read on a screen, using scrolling. When it comes to the terminology, my only note would be that the book starts out using a relaxed second-person point of view, addressing students as "you," but then, at the end of Chapter 2, the author suddenly begins also using the first-person "I." This first-person point of view continues throughout the book, so it becomes consistent from that point on, but for me as a reader, I never quite adjusted to that level of informality, particularly when all the sentences using "I" could easily be re-written in the third person. Before reading this text, I hadn't really considered what I like in a book, but now I know: because I want the text to model the ideal, I would prefer a more formal (and consistent) point of view. Today's students struggle to create essays that don't include "you" or "I" -- even when they very consciously are trying to avoid those words. Learning to write from the third person POV is surprisingly challenging. Therefore, my personal preference would be a textbook that consistently models this approach.

The chapters in this book are of a perfect length -- long enough to develop the ideas and present comprehensive explanations yet short enough to be ingested and excised. Put another way, I could see grabbing bits and pieces of this text and using them in my classes. For instance, without adopting the entire text, I still could pull the instructions for the Anti-Thesis essay or the Annotated Bibliography, or I could use the explanation of the purpose of collaboration. Indeed, the chapters and exercises in this book are tight "modules" that allow an instructor to pick and choose or to reorganize the chapters to better fit with an individual course structure. For me, although I won't use this entire text, I can envision incorporating pieces of it into my teaching.

The organization of this book is one of its greatest strengths. It starts with a broad overview of research into an exploration of the process behind seeking out reputable sources, weaves in a few shorter essay assignments that serve as building blocks for a longer paper, and culminates with the ideas for a final, capstone research project -- something that naturally grows out of all the previous chapters. Each chapter in the text flows easily out of the chapter before it. One of this text's greatest strengths is how each successive chapter builds on the concepts presented in the previous chapters.

As noted earlier, the hyperlinks in the book don't work. As well, the screenshots included in the book are blurry and add little, except frustration, to the content. Outside of those issues, though, the book is physically easy to read and navigate, largely thanks to the easy clicking between the table of contents and individual chapters.

As suggested earlier, the book, as a whole, reads easily, yet there are some errors with the homonyms "effected" and "affected," along with pronoun/antecedent disagreement. I also noticed a handful of places where there are extra spaces around commas (in addition to the use of two spaces after periods).

This text is definitely not insensitive or offensive; its tone is fair and balanced, free of bias. On the other hand, this book does not really bring in examples that address diversity. Students reading this book will not see acknowledgment of different races, ethnicities, sexual preferences, or personal histories. Thus, in addition to updating the references to technology, if this book were rewritten, it also could more deliberately address this lack. As it is, the content of this book does feel whitewashed and free of cultural relevance.

There is a lot of promise in this text because the explanations and assignments are so good. But unless it is updated, I don’t see it as usable in a current classroom.

Reviewed by Leana Dickerson, Instructor , Linn Benton Community College on 2/8/17

The author certainly outlines and examines elements of research writing, and does so in a very clear, organized, and thoughtful way. There is no glossary or index included in the text, but the chapters and headings in the table of contents and at the beginning of each section very clearly outline what is to be expected from the text. Most all of the concepts are very thoroughly explained and examined including topics that typically are glossed over in research writing texts, including the opposition to argument, close reading, and the importance of research writing to a variety of career pathways. Although thorough in what is present, there are some issues that I would want to touch on with my research students including developing effective argument, logical organization, and examples of the revision process.

The information in this text is accurate and adequately explained. It seems readily accessible for any college age student, but doesn’t expect students to come with a background in research or writing. MLA formatting for works cited pages is up to date, and even addresses the fact that the format for citation changes regularly and points to appropriate resources outside of the text. The only formatting issue that I noticed were some in-text citations (examples throughout early chapters) that included a comma which is no longer expected by the MLA. In the works cited section (and throughout, in examples) when referring to book titles, the author does use the underline function instead of an italicized book title; the author also refers to the use of either italic or underlined differentiation, yet MLA suggests italics in text form.

The content of this text is very straight forward and although essentially up to date, may need updates as relevant technology develops. Updates should be simple and clear to implement as needed because of the strict organization of each chapter.

I found the content clarity in this text to be refreshing for college age students. Often, as an instructor, I ask my students to read a text and then I must re-visit the content in lecture format to ensure that my students are not lost on terminology or foundational knowledge. This text does not assume any prior knowledge from the reader, but also does not feel rudimentary. The formatting and highlighted importance of some information also provided clarity and consistency throughout. The author paced information well, building on major concepts from the beginning and returning to them throughout. The final stages of the text bring students to a major essay that easily shows how each concept included throughout the text can weave into a larger project.

This text is consistent, and feels organized with format, terminology, and the building of content from beginning to end.

The sections in this text are easily broken into segments that can be taught or read at any point throughout the writing process. The text does build on exercises from the beginning to the end, but each of these can be taken out of a linear timeline and used for multiple kinds of projects. The author actually refers to this organization in text, making it clear how each element can work alone or for a streamlined project.

Concepts build upon one another, and yet can be returned to (or jumped to) out of order and still be easy to access and utilize. The text is broken up nicely with bolded, bulleted, or boxed items which designate a stopping point, a discussion to consider, or important details or concepts to focus on.

The layout and navigation of this text online is very accessible, organized, and easy to read. The text PDFs often open in a full browser window, other times they open as PDF documents, but either way include a clean, streamlined format. The text does not seem to be able to be downloaded, making it potentially difficult for students to access without internet access. One issue that I did encounter was that in PDF format, or in html, hyperlinks do not function.

The text is clear, free of grammatical errors, and flows well.

This text is relevant to all audiences and very approachable for college age students.

I found this text to be a refreshing change from what is typically find in research textbooks; it’s relevance to more than just the assignment will help students connect research to the broader concept of academia and other facets of their lives. The antithesis section is a useful way for students to really engage with an opposing opinion and how they can then incorporate that into a successful research project. Also, the differing ways of presenting research I found to be useful for students to think about their project beyond a stapled stack of pages, and to expand that to differing modes of communication and presentation. I look forward to being able to use this text with students.

Reviewed by Samuel Kessler, Postdoctoral Fellow, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University on 2/8/17

"The Process of Research Writing" covers most of the areas students need to understand as they begin research writing at a college level. It has explanations of theses, bibliographies, citations, outlines, first paragraphs, etc. There is no index or glossary, the latter especially being something that would have been very helpful and easy to put together. Krause has many useful definitions and quick-help guides throughout the text, but they are so scattered and ineffectively labeled that it can be very difficult to find them without reading through whole chapters in one's search. On the whole, buried inside these pages, is a very effective guides to *teaching* about research writing. In truth, this book is a teacher's introduction to a class (or, more realistically, three or four class sessions) devoted to college-level academic writing. Unfortunately, there are a lot of words that one has to get through to find all these subject, which can make for tough going.

Based on the questions and errors I see my students making, Krause has done a strong job of highlighting the basics of proper academic research. He spends much time on sources, especially on learning to differentiate between scholarly, trade, and journalistic sources, as well as how to steer clear and note the signs of online schlock (i.e. much of the internet). His tips for peer-to-peer editing and self-reflexive assignments are just the sort of things our students needs help working on.

This is a strange book. The portions that are about implementing class assignments or explaining terms like thesis and antithesis, as well as the examples of an outline or a good first paragraph, are all excellent tools for a classroom.

But there are so many instances of irrelevant or outdates explanations. No college student today needs to read about why writing on a computer is a useful thing to do. No student needs to read about how email can be a tool for academic exchange. A section on using computers for research? On how to copy and paste within a word document? (And no-one calls it the "World Wide Web".) These are issues for the late 90s, not for students in the second decade of the twenty-first century.

There is also a fair amount that is personal and peculiar to the author: a discussion of why he uses the term "research essay" instead of "research paper"? That is just wasted space, and actually without the argumentative merits of a research thesis that he had been teaching up to that point.

For students at research universities, or even at second-tier state and private colleges, the information about libraries and library catalogues changes so quickly that I could never assign those passages. Instead, we'll spend class time looking at our specific library interface. And often, so much material is being sent off-site these days that in many humanities fields its not even possible to scan the shelves any longer. And in science, books are almost irrelevant: online access journals are where the latest research is stored. A bound edition of *Science* from the 1970s contains very little that's important for a scientific research paper written in 2016--unless that paper is about the history of some form of experiment.

Krause writes in a folksy, breezy second-person. Now, so does Tom Friedman of the Times, though that is one of the main criticisms of his otherwise insights books. Krause has a tendency to be overly wordy. This book should more closely resemble Hemingway than Knausgaard in order to be practical. For students who have Facebook etc. open while they're reading this book, every sentence that's not directly relevant will make their minds wander. There are so many sentences that simply need to be cut. To use this book, I'd need to cut and paste just the relevant passages. And without an index or glossary, assigning sections to students is very hard.

"The Process of Research Writing" is internally consistent. Krause maintains the same tone throughout, and defines terms as he goes along. The chapters vary considerably in length, with the short chapters always being more useful and focused, with less superfluous verbiage and fewer authorial quirks.

Modularity rating: 2

"The Process of Research Writing" is a very difficult text to use. The HTML and PDF versions are identical, which defeats the unique way the internet functions. I read this book on both Safari and Chrome, and in neither browser do the hyperlinks work. The tables of content at the heads of each chapter do not link to their respective sections. The projects, assignments, and definitions do not appear in different windows, which would make them possible to keep open while continuing on in the book. There are many instances in which moving back and forth between sections would be very helpful, and that is simply not possible without having multiple windows of the same book open and going between them that way--something that is very clumsy. And again, there are so many superfluous words that even assigning specific chapters means getting through a lot of talk before actually encountering the various hints, tricks, and explanations that are important for learning how to do college-level research.

"The Process of Research Writing" reads like a series of lectures that are meant to be give in a large lecture class, with assignments appended throughout and at the ends. The order of the books is, overall, what one would expect and need for teaching the basics. However, there is a good deal in Chapter 10 that should have appeared earlier (outlines, for instance), and that becomes part of one long chapter that is difficult to use and should have been divided into smaller sections.

As mentioned, in neither Safari nor Chrome do the hyperlinks work. And there appears to have been no planning for links from the chapter tables-of-content to their various associated sections. This makes it very difficult to get between sections or to return to where one was after going somewhere else in the book. Further, there are many links on the internet that remain stable over long periods of time. The Library of Congress, for instance, about which there is a section concerning its cataloguing system, should have a link. As should WorldCat, which for many people who do not have access to a major research library is the best place for learning about texts. Many services like LexusNexus, ABC Clio, and the NY Times archive all also maintain stable websites that should be externally linked.

Except for a smattering of typos, the book has fine (though informal) grammar. This is not a text that could also be used to demonstrate high-level academic writing.

There is nothing culturally offensive here in any way.

In many ways, this is a much better book for teachers of first-year students than for the students themselves. There are many sections of this book to pull out and assign, or to read together in class, to help students gain an understanding of college-level research. But this is not a book I'd ever assign to my students in total. The suggestions for in-class and homework assignments are all high quality pedagogy. But students shouldn't read about their own assignments--they should just do them. Departments can give this book to first-year professors to help them create class periods where they teach their students how to write papers. That would be an excellent use for this text. But as a book for students themselves, I cannot recommend it.

Reviewed by Margaret Wood, Instructor, Klamath Community College on 8/21/16

The book thoroughly covers the material that first-year college research writers need to know including an introduction to basic academic research concepts, searches and source evaluation from library and web resources, a thorough discussion of summary, paraphrase and direct quotation, collaboration and peer review, topic selection, hypothesis and thesis development, annotated bibliography, text analysis and evaluation, engaging seriously with opposing viewpoints, working with evidence and attributes of evidence, the components of a traditional research essay, alternative forms of presentation (web-based project), and finally MLA and APA documentation. There are also hyperlinks to help readers move to relevant information in other chapters.

While concepts like ethos, logos, and pathos are mentioned in passing, they are not deeply developed. Other topics I generally teach alongside research which are not covered include strategies for defining terms, inductive and deductive logic, and logical fallacies.

I did not identify any inaccuracies or biases. There are areas where focus may be a bit different. For example, the model my institution uses for annotated bibliographies uses the rhetorical precis as a summary model, and also encourages a brief evaluative analysis. On the other hand, the emphasis given to the antithesis is new to me, and looks like a very good idea. I did identify a couple of grammatical issues -- two cases of "effect" instead of "affect", and one pronoun agreement problem.

Good writing principles don't tend to change that much. The discussion of the Web-based research project is very timely.

The book is written in a conversational style which should be easy for students to understand. All technical terms are clearly explained. There are also aids for comprehension and review including: a useful bulleted list at the beginning of each chapter outlines material covered in that chapter; highlighted boxes which provide guidance for class discussion on the topic; sample assignments; easy-to-read checklists of key points.

The text is entirely consistent. Hyperlinks help to connect key points to other chapters.

The material is subdivided into clear and appropriate chapters; moreover, the chapters provide clear subheadings. However, I did identify one instance where subheadings indicated material that is not present in chapter four: Three Ideas for Collaborative Projects * Research Idea Groups * Research Writing Partners * Collaborative Research Writing Projects.

Also, as previously mentioned, some material that I would like to include is not covered in this text.

I feel that chapter 3 should be placed later, at a point in the term where students have actually begun the writing process.

Images, though used infrequently, are blurry, and hyperlinks, at least as I was able to access them, did not appear to be active.

Mentioned above -- two "effect"/"affect" issues and one issue of pronoun agreement

I did not identify any culturally insensitive issues. The one essay topic used throughout, a thesis involving The Great Gatsby, I did not find particularly relevant, since my institution excludes literature from its research projects.

Solid and thorough advice on research writing. Quite heavy on text, but advice is useful and frequently innovative.

Reviewed by Laura Sanders, Instructor, Portland Community College on 8/21/16

The text offers a comprehensive discussion of all the elements of writing a research project. The author covers evaluating sources, using library research, incorporating research into essays, collaborative work, creating a thesis, as well as... read more

The text offers a comprehensive discussion of all the elements of writing a research project.

The author covers evaluating sources, using library research, incorporating research into essays, collaborative work, creating a thesis, as well as writing annotated bibliographies, close reading, opposition, alternative project formats, and citing sources.

Although there is no index or glossary, the text is organized in discrete chapters available on the site as HTML or PDF for easy navigation.

Although I found no inaccuracies, both the APA and MLA handbooks have been updated since the versions used in this text.

Most of the content will not be obsolete any time soon, but the citation chapter is not based on recent APA and MLA handbooks.

The section on alternative ways to present research (Chapter 11) could be updated to include YouTube, Prezi, and more recent technology.

The modular format would make it very easy to update.

The text is written at a level that is appropriate for the target audience, college students who need to build research and writing skills.

This text is internally consistent.

I consider the modules to be one of the main strengths of the text. The sections have useful subheadings.

It would be easy to select specific chapters as course readings.

The chapters follow an intuitive sequence of developing a paper from topic to research to draft.

This text is easy to navigate.

I found no grammar errors.

There are ample opportunities here to add cultural diversity to the sample topics and writing tasks.

I am thrilled to offer this text to my students instead of the incredibly expensive alternatives currently available.

I am particularly interested in using this book for online writing courses, so students who desire more thorough discussion of particular stages of writing a research project could build or refresh foundational skills in these areas.

Introduction
Chapter One: Thinking Critically About Research
Chapter Two: Understanding and Using the Library and the Internet for Research
Chapter Three: Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
Chapter Four: How to Collaborate and Write With Others
Chapter Five: The Working Thesis Exercise
Chapter Six: The Annotated Bibliography Exercise
Chapter Seven: The Critique Exercise
Chapter Eight: The Antithesis Exercise
Chapter Nine: The Categorization and Evaluation Exercise
Chapter Ten: The Research Essay
Chapter Eleven: Alternative Ways to Present Your Research
Chapter Twelve: Citing Your Research Using MLA or APA Style

Ancillary Material

About the book.

The title of this book is The Process of Research Writing , and in the nutshell, that is what the book is about. A lot of times, instructors and students tend to separate “thinking,” “researching,” and “writing” into different categories that aren't necessarily very well connected. First you think, then you research, and then you write. The reality is though that the possibilities and process of research writing are more complicated and much richer than that. We think about what it is we want to research and write about, but at the same time, we learn what to think based on our research and our writing. The goal of this book is to guide you through this process of research writing by emphasizing a series of exercises that touch on different and related parts of the research process.

About the Contributors

Steven D. Krause grew up in eastern Iowa, earned a BA in English at the University of Iowa, an MFA in Fiction Writing at Virginia Commonwealth University, and a PhD in Rhetoric and Writing at Bowling Green State University. He joined the faculty at Eastern Michigan University in 1998.

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Here's What You Need to Understand About Research Methodology

Research methodology involves a systematic and well-structured approach to conducting scholarly or scientific inquiries. Knowing the significance of research methodology and its different components is crucial as it serves as the basis for any study.

Typically, your research topic will start as a broad idea you want to investigate more thoroughly. Once you’ve identified a research problem and created research questions , you must choose the appropriate methodology and frameworks to address those questions effectively.

What is the definition of a research methodology?

Research methodology is the process or the way you intend to execute your study. The methodology section of a research paper outlines how you plan to conduct your study. It covers various steps such as collecting data, statistical analysis, observing participants, and other procedures involved in the research process

The methods section should give a description of the process that will convert your idea into a study. Additionally, the outcomes of your process must provide valid and reliable results resonant with the aims and objectives of your research. This thumb rule holds complete validity, no matter whether your paper has inclinations for qualitative or quantitative usage.

Studying research methods used in related studies can provide helpful insights and direction for your own research. Now easily discover papers related to your topic on SciSpace and utilize our AI research assistant, Copilot , to quickly review the methodologies applied in different papers.

Analyze and understand research methodologies faster with SciSpace Copilot

The need for a good research methodology

While deciding on your approach towards your research, the reason or factors you weighed in choosing a particular problem and formulating a research topic need to be validated and explained. A research methodology helps you do exactly that. Moreover, a good research methodology lets you build your argument to validate your research work performed through various data collection methods, analytical methods, and other essential points.

Just imagine it as a strategy documented to provide an overview of what you intend to do.

While undertaking any research writing or performing the research itself, you may get drifted in not something of much importance. In such a case, a research methodology helps you to get back to your outlined work methodology.

A research methodology helps in keeping you accountable for your work. Additionally, it can help you evaluate whether your work is in sync with your original aims and objectives or not. Besides, a good research methodology enables you to navigate your research process smoothly and swiftly while providing effective planning to achieve your desired results.

What is the basic structure of a research methodology?

Usually, you must ensure to include the following stated aspects while deciding over the basic structure of your research methodology:

1. Your research procedure

Explain what research methods you’re going to use. Whether you intend to proceed with quantitative or qualitative, or a composite of both approaches, you need to state that explicitly. The option among the three depends on your research’s aim, objectives, and scope.

2. Provide the rationality behind your chosen approach

Based on logic and reason, let your readers know why you have chosen said research methodologies. Additionally, you have to build strong arguments supporting why your chosen research method is the best way to achieve the desired outcome.

3. Explain your mechanism

The mechanism encompasses the research methods or instruments you will use to develop your research methodology. It usually refers to your data collection methods. You can use interviews, surveys, physical questionnaires, etc., of the many available mechanisms as research methodology instruments. The data collection method is determined by the type of research and whether the data is quantitative data(includes numerical data) or qualitative data (perception, morale, etc.) Moreover, you need to put logical reasoning behind choosing a particular instrument.

4. Significance of outcomes

The results will be available once you have finished experimenting. However, you should also explain how you plan to use the data to interpret the findings. This section also aids in understanding the problem from within, breaking it down into pieces, and viewing the research problem from various perspectives.

5. Reader’s advice

Anything that you feel must be explained to spread more awareness among readers and focus groups must be included and described in detail. You should not just specify your research methodology on the assumption that a reader is aware of the topic.

All the relevant information that explains and simplifies your research paper must be included in the methodology section. If you are conducting your research in a non-traditional manner, give a logical justification and list its benefits.

6. Explain your sample space

Include information about the sample and sample space in the methodology section. The term "sample" refers to a smaller set of data that a researcher selects or chooses from a larger group of people or focus groups using a predetermined selection method. Let your readers know how you are going to distinguish between relevant and non-relevant samples. How you figured out those exact numbers to back your research methodology, i.e. the sample spacing of instruments, must be discussed thoroughly.

For example, if you are going to conduct a survey or interview, then by what procedure will you select the interviewees (or sample size in case of surveys), and how exactly will the interview or survey be conducted.

7. Challenges and limitations

This part, which is frequently assumed to be unnecessary, is actually very important. The challenges and limitations that your chosen strategy inherently possesses must be specified while you are conducting different types of research.

The importance of a good research methodology

You must have observed that all research papers, dissertations, or theses carry a chapter entirely dedicated to research methodology. This section helps maintain your credibility as a better interpreter of results rather than a manipulator.

A good research methodology always explains the procedure, data collection methods and techniques, aim, and scope of the research. In a research study, it leads to a well-organized, rationality-based approach, while the paper lacking it is often observed as messy or disorganized.

You should pay special attention to validating your chosen way towards the research methodology. This becomes extremely important in case you select an unconventional or a distinct method of execution.

Curating and developing a strong, effective research methodology can assist you in addressing a variety of situations, such as:

When someone tries to duplicate or expand upon your research after few years.
If a contradiction or conflict of facts occurs at a later time. This gives you the security you need to deal with these contradictions while still being able to defend your approach.
Gaining a tactical approach in getting your research completed in time. Just ensure you are using the right approach while drafting your research methodology, and it can help you achieve your desired outcomes. Additionally, it provides a better explanation and understanding of the research question itself.
Documenting the results so that the final outcome of the research stays as you intended it to be while starting.

Instruments you could use while writing a good research methodology

As a researcher, you must choose which tools or data collection methods that fit best in terms of the relevance of your research. This decision has to be wise.

There exists many research equipments or tools that you can use to carry out your research process. These are classified as:

a. Interviews (One-on-One or a Group)

An interview aimed to get your desired research outcomes can be undertaken in many different ways. For example, you can design your interview as structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. What sets them apart is the degree of formality in the questions. On the other hand, in a group interview, your aim should be to collect more opinions and group perceptions from the focus groups on a certain topic rather than looking out for some formal answers.

In surveys, you are in better control if you specifically draft the questions you seek the response for. For example, you may choose to include free-style questions that can be answered descriptively, or you may provide a multiple-choice type response for questions. Besides, you can also opt to choose both ways, deciding what suits your research process and purpose better.

c. Sample Groups

Similar to the group interviews, here, you can select a group of individuals and assign them a topic to discuss or freely express their opinions over that. You can simultaneously note down the answers and later draft them appropriately, deciding on the relevance of every response.

d. Observations

If your research domain is humanities or sociology, observations are the best-proven method to draw your research methodology. Of course, you can always include studying the spontaneous response of the participants towards a situation or conducting the same but in a more structured manner. A structured observation means putting the participants in a situation at a previously decided time and then studying their responses.

Of all the tools described above, it is you who should wisely choose the instruments and decide what’s the best fit for your research. You must not restrict yourself from multiple methods or a combination of a few instruments if appropriate in drafting a good research methodology.

Types of research methodology

A research methodology exists in various forms. Depending upon their approach, whether centered around words, numbers, or both, methodologies are distinguished as qualitative, quantitative, or an amalgamation of both.

1. Qualitative research methodology

When a research methodology primarily focuses on words and textual data, then it is generally referred to as qualitative research methodology. This type is usually preferred among researchers when the aim and scope of the research are mainly theoretical and explanatory.

The instruments used are observations, interviews, and sample groups. You can use this methodology if you are trying to study human behavior or response in some situations. Generally, qualitative research methodology is widely used in sociology, psychology, and other related domains.

2. Quantitative research methodology

If your research is majorly centered on data, figures, and stats, then analyzing these numerical data is often referred to as quantitative research methodology. You can use quantitative research methodology if your research requires you to validate or justify the obtained results.

In quantitative methods, surveys, tests, experiments, and evaluations of current databases can be advantageously used as instruments If your research involves testing some hypothesis, then use this methodology.

3. Amalgam methodology

As the name suggests, the amalgam methodology uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches. This methodology is used when a part of the research requires you to verify the facts and figures, whereas the other part demands you to discover the theoretical and explanatory nature of the research question.

The instruments for the amalgam methodology require you to conduct interviews and surveys, including tests and experiments. The outcome of this methodology can be insightful and valuable as it provides precise test results in line with theoretical explanations and reasoning.

The amalgam method, makes your work both factual and rational at the same time.

Final words: How to decide which is the best research methodology?

If you have kept your sincerity and awareness intact with the aims and scope of research well enough, you must have got an idea of which research methodology suits your work best.

Before deciding which research methodology answers your research question, you must invest significant time in reading and doing your homework for that. Taking references that yield relevant results should be your first approach to establishing a research methodology.

Moreover, you should never refrain from exploring other options. Before setting your work in stone, you must try all the available options as it explains why the choice of research methodology that you finally make is more appropriate than the other available options.

You should always go for a quantitative research methodology if your research requires gathering large amounts of data, figures, and statistics. This research methodology will provide you with results if your research paper involves the validation of some hypothesis.

Whereas, if you are looking for more explanations, reasons, opinions, and public perceptions around a theory, you must use qualitative research methodology.The choice of an appropriate research methodology ultimately depends on what you want to achieve through your research.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Research Methodology

1. how to write a research methodology.

You can always provide a separate section for research methodology where you should specify details about the methods and instruments used during the research, discussions on result analysis, including insights into the background information, and conveying the research limitations.

2. What are the types of research methodology?

There generally exists four types of research methodology i.e.

Observation
Experimental
Derivational

3. What is the true meaning of research methodology?

The set of techniques or procedures followed to discover and analyze the information gathered to validate or justify a research outcome is generally called Research Methodology.

4. Where lies the importance of research methodology?

Your research methodology directly reflects the validity of your research outcomes and how well-informed your research work is. Moreover, it can help future researchers cite or refer to your research if they plan to use a similar research methodology.

Consensus GPT vs. SciSpace GPT: Choose the Best GPT for Research

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework: Understanding the Differences

Using AI for research: A beginner’s guide

Research Methodology Example

Detailed Walkthrough + Free Methodology Chapter Template

If you’re working on a dissertation or thesis and are looking for an example of a research methodology chapter , you’ve come to the right place.

In this video, we walk you through a research methodology from a dissertation that earned full distinction , step by step. We start off by discussing the core components of a research methodology by unpacking our free methodology chapter template . We then progress to the sample research methodology to show how these concepts are applied in an actual dissertation, thesis or research project.

If you’re currently working on your research methodology chapter, you may also find the following resources useful:

Research methodology 101 : an introductory video discussing what a methodology is and the role it plays within a dissertation
Research design 101 : an overview of the most common research designs for both qualitative and quantitative studies
Variables 101 : an introductory video covering the different types of variables that exist within research.
Sampling 101 : an overview of the main sampling methods
Methodology tips : a video discussion covering various tips to help you write a high-quality methodology chapter
Private coaching : Get hands-on help with your research methodology

PS – If you’re working on a dissertation, be sure to also check out our collection of dissertation and thesis examples here .

FAQ: Research Methodology Example

Research methodology example: frequently asked questions, is the sample research methodology real.

Yes. The chapter example is an extract from a Master’s-level dissertation for an MBA program. A few minor edits have been made to protect the privacy of the sponsoring organisation, but these have no material impact on the research methodology.

Can I replicate this methodology for my dissertation?

As we discuss in the video, every research methodology will be different, depending on the research aims, objectives and research questions. Therefore, you’ll need to tailor your literature review to suit your specific context.

You can learn more about the basics of writing a research methodology chapter here .

Where can I find more examples of research methodologies?

The best place to find more examples of methodology chapters would be within dissertation/thesis databases. These databases include dissertations, theses and research projects that have successfully passed the assessment criteria for the respective university, meaning that you have at least some sort of quality assurance.

The Open Access Thesis Database (OATD) is a good starting point.

How do I get the research methodology chapter template?

You can access our free methodology chapter template here .

Is the methodology template really free?

Yes. There is no cost for the template and you are free to use it as you wish.

You Might Also Like:

Example of two research proposals (Masters and PhD-level)

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Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

Research Methodology	Research Methods
Research methodology refers to the philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.	refer to the techniques and procedures used to collect and analyze data.
It is concerned with the underlying principles and assumptions of research.	It is concerned with the practical aspects of research.
It provides a rationale for why certain research methods are used.	It determines the specific steps that will be taken to conduct research.
It is broader in scope and involves understanding the overall approach to research.	It is narrower in scope and focuses on specific techniques and tools used in research.
It is concerned with identifying research questions, defining the research problem, and formulating hypotheses.	It is concerned with collecting data, analyzing data, and interpreting results.
It is concerned with the validity and reliability of research.	It is concerned with the accuracy and precision of data.
It is concerned with the ethical considerations of research.	It is concerned with the practical considerations of research.

About the author

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Research Methodology and Scientific Writing

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Introduction
Conclusions
Article Information

Upstaging-induced costs estimated for melanoma include direct, indirect, and total treatment costs and are based on registry data from Italy, Switzerland, and Belgium. Information on direct treatment costs (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ) was available from University Hospital Basel, Switzerland (cost values from unpublished data, and number of patients from the National Agency for Cancer Registration) and the Veneto Region, Italy (cost values from Buja et al, 8 and number of patients from unpublished data). For the calculation of disease burden, previously published data from the Belgian cancer registry were used. 5 Estimation of upstaging rates using prepandemic and peripandemic incidence data from Switzerland and Hungary is shown at the bottom. A range of upstaging rate parameter values were used in this study based on the estimates provided by some recent publications. 6 , 8 Light blue boxes are input data sources; darker blue boxes, input data extracted from those sources grouped into data types; beige boxes, intermediate calculation steps; orange boxes, final calculated values of upstaging costs. Arrows indicate flow of data into different phases of the modeling process; arrows transmitting cost information are solid, arrows transmitting other information, such as rates or parameters, are dashed. GNI indicates gross national income; NHS, National Health Service.

A, American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) upstaging rates were estimated for the perilockdown years and compared with the prepandemic incidence rates. B, AJCC stage-based incidence rates for before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proportions were combined from the Swiss (2020 and 2021) and Hungarian (2020) cohorts. The empirical peripandemic proportions are compared against the incidence rates estimated by the upstaging rate–based model, applied on the prepandemic incidence proportions, with the estimated upstaging rate of 17% (estimated by comparing the peripandemic and prepandemic empirical incidence rates from the 2 cohorts).

a Hungary did not experience lockdown during 2021, so its data have been excluded in subsequent analyses.

A, Additional direct treatment costs were estimated for a 17% upstaging rate based on incidence rates from the Italian registry. 15 Points correspond to the 4 American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stages, their x-axis values represent the proportion of individuals affected for this tumor stage (in percentage), and their y-axis values represent the mean treatment cost at this tumor stage (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). The increase in costs when a person moves up one stage is shown by the arrow. The increases in treatment costs from each stage are represented as rectangular shading, and the width of the rectangle is the proportion of people at a tumor stage who are upstaged and is calculated by multiplying the proportion of individuals affected per tumor stage (x-axis value of the point) with the 17% upstaging rate (empirical data). The height of the rectangular shading is the estimated mean cost increase due to upstaging, shown by the arrow (y-axis). The rise in costs for each stage is therefore the area of the column shading, its width (proportion of people upstaged) × height (cost rise). The total area of the rectangular shading represents the aggregate rise in direct costs due to upstaging. B, Additional indirect treatment costs were estimated for a 17% upstaging rate based on the Belgian registry 5 (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ). The increases in indirect costs for each stage (rectangular shading) are generated from multiplying the width ie, the proportion of individuals affected per tumor stage (x-axis, in percentage) with the height, ie, increase in disability-adjusted life-years per stage. C, This model includes 5 different upstaging rate scenarios, which have been described in literature. 6 , 8 The shading represents the 95% CI of the total costs. The 17% upstaging rate (estimated from empirical data) is shown on the x-axis in red, and its corresponding values are highlighted as squares. The cost model equations are: direct costs (in billions of US$) = 0.0248 × upstaging rate (percentage); indirect costs = 0.4251 × rate; total costs = 0.4499 × rate. D, Estimates of the rise in direct, indirect, and total costs for Europe, obtained from the linear cost model shown in C, for the 17% upstaging rate estimated from empirical data, are shown in blue. We checked the validity of these estimates of additional costs by directly using the prepandemic and peripandemic incidence rates for Switzerland and Hungary (which were also used in estimating the upstaging rate) in conjunction with the stagewise mean costs, to calculate the extent of cost rise during the pandemic without any model assumptions. These estimates are shown in orange. Error bars indicate 95% CIs.

A, The 17% upstaging rate (estimated from empirical data) is highlighted on the x-axis in red. The 8% and 45% upstaging rates are the minimum and maximum rates reported in the literature. Errors bars indicate 95% CIs. B, Data are estimated under the 17% upstaging model.

A, Absolute direct and indirect treatment costs per European country are presented for the 17% upstaging rate. B, Relative direct and indirect treatment costs are displayed in relation to the country’s health expenditure using the 17% upstaging rate. The aggregated estimate for all of Europe is highlighted on the y-axis in red.

eTable 1. Data on Direct Treatment Costs and Prepandemic Melanoma Incidence for Switzerland and Italy

eTable 2. Data on Indirect Treatment Costs and Prepandemic Melanoma Incidence for Belgium

eTable 3. Data on Prepandemic Melanoma Incidence for Hungary, England, and Wales

eTable 4. Data on Melanoma Incidence Before and During the Pandemic for Switzerland and Hungary

eTable 5. Various Characteristics and Indicators for Each Country, Along With Estimated Direct and Indirect Costs, and Years of Life Lost

eTable 6. Estimated Upstaging Rates for Switzerland and Hungary

eTable 7. Schematic Overview of the Calculation Process for Additional Cost Incurred Due to Upstaging

eTable 8. Schematic Overview of the Calculation Process for Upstaging Rate

eReferences.

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Maul LV , Jamiolkowski D , Lapides RA, et al. Health Economic Consequences Associated With COVID-19–Related Delay in Melanoma Diagnosis in Europe. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(2):e2356479. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.56479

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Health Economic Consequences Associated With COVID-19–Related Delay in Melanoma Diagnosis in Europe

1 Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
2 Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
3 Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
4 Division of Pediatric Dermatology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany
5 Robert Larner, MD, College of Medicine at the University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
6 Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown
7 Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Kiel, Germany
8 Center for Dermatooncology, Department of Dermatology, Eberhard Karls University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
9 Division of Cancer Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
10 The Christie NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, United Kingdom
11 Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston
12 Istituto Nazionale Tumori, IRCCS, Fondazione G Pascale, Naples, Italy
13 Melanoma Institute Australia, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
14 Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
15 Royal Prince Alfred Hospital and NSW Health Pathology, Sydney, Australia
16 Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
17 Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
18 Department of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, Medical Center–University of Freiburg, Germany
19 Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
20 University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
21 Institute of Law and Economics, University of St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
22 Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University of Szeged, Szent-Györgyi Albert Medical School, Szeged, Hungary
23 Soft-Tissue, Peritoneum and Melanoma Surgical Oncology Unit, Istituto Oncologico Veneto – IRCCS, Padua, Italy
24 Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
25 National Agency for Cancer Registration, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
26 Foundation National Institute for Cancer Epidemiology and Registration, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
27 Department of Dermatology and Allergy, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
28 Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, Via Loredan, Padova, Italy
29 School of Mathematics and Statistics, Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
30 Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, and UCL Genetics Institute, University College London, London, United Kingdom

Question What were the consequences associated with delays in melanoma screenings during pandemic-related lockdowns, in terms of years of life lost and economic costs?

Findings This economic evaluation using population data from 31 European countries estimated that delayed melanoma diagnoses due to pandemic lockdowns were associated with 111 464 years of life lost, incurring additional costs of US$7.65 billion, signifying a significant burden on European health care.

Meaning These findings highlight the need for sustained prevention strategies and the substantial public health and economic implications of delayed melanoma diagnosis during pandemics.

Importance The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in delayed access to medical care. Restrictions to health care specialists, staff shortages, and fear of SARS-CoV-2 infection led to interruptions in routine care, such as early melanoma detection; however, premature mortality and economic burden associated with this postponement have not been studied yet.

Objective To determine the premature mortality and economic costs associated with suspended melanoma screenings during COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns by estimating the total burden of delayed melanoma diagnoses for Europe.

Design, Setting, and Participants This multicenter economic evaluation used population-based data from patients aged at least 18 years with invasive primary cutaneous melanomas stages I to IV according to the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) seventh and eighth editions, including melanomas of unknown primary (T0). Data were collected from January 2017 to December 2021 in Switzerland and from January 2019 to December 2021 in Hungary. Data were used to develop an estimation of melanoma upstaging rates in AJCC stages, which was verified with peripandemic data. Years of life lost (YLL) were calculated and were, together with cost data, used for financial estimations. The total financial burden was assessed through direct and indirect treatment costs. Models were building using data from 50 072 patients aged 18 years and older with invasive primary cutaneous melanomas stages I to IV according to the AJCC seventh and eighth edition, including melanomas of unknown primary (T0) from 2 European tertiary centers. Data from European cancer registries included patient-based direct and indirect cost data, country-level economic indicators, melanoma incidence, and population rates per country. Data were analyzed from July 2021 to September 2022.

Exposure COVID-19 lockdown-related delay of melanoma detection and consecutive public health and economic burden. As lockdown restrictions varied by country, lockdown scenario was defined as elimination of routine medical examinations and severely restricted access to follow-up examinations for at least 4 weeks.

Main Outcomes and Measures Primary outcomes were the total burden of a delay in melanoma diagnosis during COVID-19 lockdown periods, measured using the direct (in US$) and indirect (calculated as YLL plus years lost due to disability [YLD] and disability-adjusted life-years [DALYs]) costs for Europe. Secondary outcomes included estimation of upstaging rate, estimated YLD, YLL, and DALY for each European country, absolute direct and indirect treatment costs per European country, proportion of the relative direct and indirect treatment costs for the countries, and European health expenditure.

Results There were an estimated 111 464 (range, 52 454-295 051) YLL due to pandemic-associated delay in melanoma diagnosis in Europe, and estimated total additional costs were $7.65 (range, $3.60 to $20.25) billion. Indirect treatment costs were the main cost driver, accounting for 94.5% of total costs. Estimates for YLD in Europe resulted in 15 360 years for the 17% upstaging model, ranging from 7228 years (8% upstaging model) to 40 660 years (45% upstaging model). Together, YLL and YLD constitute the overall disease burden, ranging from 59 682 DALYs (8% upstaging model) to 335 711 DALYs (45% upstaging model), with 126 824 DALYs for the real-world 17% scenario.

Conclusions and Relevance This economic analysis emphasizes the importance of continuing secondary skin cancer prevention measures during pandemics. Beyond the personal outcomes of a delayed melanoma diagnosis, the additional economic and public health consequences are underscored, emphasizing the need to include indirect economic costs in future decision-making processes. These estimates on DALYs and the associated financial losses complement previous studies highlighting the cost-effectiveness of screening for melanoma.

According to the global cancer observatory, melanoma was the seventh most frequent cancer entity in Europe in 2020. 1 The median monthly growth rate of cutaneous melanomas varies between 0.1 mm for superficial spreading melanomas and 0.5 mm for nodular melanomas, while rapid growth is associated with tumor thickness, being an older man, and having fewer than 50 nevi. 2 The potential to metastasize is highly variable depending on the growth rate, ranging between 1 month to more than 5 years. 3

The COVID-19 pandemic and corresponding lockdowns have posed a significant challenge to health care access, including for elective skin cancer screenings. This limitation on secondary cancer prevention strategies raises concerns about a postlockdown increase in cancer diagnoses, including melanoma. According to a modeling estimation based on US outpatient health record reviews covering 4.7 million patients, the mean pandemic-related diagnostic delay of cutaneous melanomas was 1.8 months. 4

Every disease carries associated economic costs. While direct costs are treatment-related medical costs, indirect costs are economic losses resulting from reduced productivity. Indirect treatment costs can be calculated using disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), with 1 DALY equal to 1 year of healthy life lost. DALYs are calculated as the sum of years of life lost (YLL) and years lost due to disability (YLD) for patients living with a health condition. 5 A previous Australian modeling study of direct health care costs estimated an increase in these costs for treating the T1 melanoma population diagnosed in 2020 to be US$6.8 million (A$9.1 million) higher following a 3-month delay and US$27.3 million (A$36.4 million) higher following a 6-month delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 6 Another national population-based modeling study from England evaluated excess cancer deaths due to diagnostic delay during the COVID-19 pandemic across 4 major cancer types (breast, lung, bowel, and esophageal cancer) and estimated additional productivity losses of US$142.8 million (£103.8 million) in the next 5 years. 7 In this study, we aimed to better elucidate potential societal and economic bearings of a pandemic-related delay in melanoma diagnosis by investigating the total burden for Europe using YYL as well as direct and indirect costs.

This economic evaluation was approved by the Northwest and Central Switzerland Ethics Committee with a waiver of informed consent because this research does not fall under the Human Research Act. This report meets the criteria for each item in the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards ( CHEERS ) reporting guideline .

For this international, population-based modeling approach, we included patient-based direct and indirect cost data, country-level economic indicators, cutaneous melanoma incidence rates per country, and population per country numbers ( Figure 1 ). We obtained databases on a total of 50 072 patients from sources outlined in eTables 1 to 3 in Supplement 1 . Our input data included patients with melanoma with American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stage information for the direct treatment costs calculation from the University Hospital Basel, Switzerland, from 2017 to 2020, and the Veneto Region in Italy from 2016. 8 Further, we included data on melanoma incidence from the Swiss National Cancer Registry from 2013 to 2015, from Hungary from 2019, from National Health Service England from 2015 to 2017, 9 and from Public Health Wales from 2016 to 2017. 10 Indirect treatment costs and melanoma numbers were collected from the Belgian Cancer Registry from 2009 to 2011. 5 We included patients aged 18 years and older with invasive primary cutaneous melanomas stages I to IV, according to the AJCC seventh and eighth editions, including melanomas of unknown primary (T0). 11 - 13 Additional information is provided in eTable 1 and eTable 4 in Supplement 1 .

As a reaction to the COVID-19 pandemic, restrictions concerning many areas of daily life were installed by many countries, beginning in March 2020. For example, access to medical institutions was strictly limited to the treatment of emergency situations, such as myocardial infarction, mainly to create capacity to care for the sudden large number of patients with COVID-19. The types of restrictions and their duration varied greatly from country to country. In our study, we refer to the following lockdown scenario: elimination of routine medical examinations and severely restricted access to follow-up examinations for at least 4 weeks.

The definition of upstaging is reclassification of the stage of cancer to a higher, more advanced stage based on clinicopathological characteristics according to previous publications. 14 We used lockdown-related postponements and cancellations resulting in delay of melanoma diagnosis as reasons for upstaging.

Numbers of patients at each melanoma stage were taken from cancer registry databases (eTables 1-3 in Supplement 1 ), and their proportions were taken as estimates of incidence rates of each melanoma stage ( Figure 2 A). These proportions were combined with per-stage estimates of indirect costs (Belgian data) (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ) or direct costs (Italian and Swiss data) (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ) to perform an upstaging calculation ( Figure 3 A and B) to obtain an estimate of additional cost due to upstaging. Calculation examples of the estimation of additional indirect costs (as YLL) due to upstaging additional and of direct costs due to upstaging are outlined in the eMethods and eTable 7 in Supplement 1 . All calculations were performed using R statistical software version 4.2.0 (R Project for Statistical Computing), with packages tidyverse and ggplot2.

Figure 1 and Figure 3 A and B explain calculation of additional costs incurred due to upstaging. For estimating the additional indirect cost due to upstaging in life-years for a specific upstaging rate ( u ), we used stage-wise indirect costs calculated as DALYs using Belgian data and incidence rates from 6 registries. By doing the calculations then using the mean of the estimates, we approximated the use of a mean incidence rate across the European Union. DALYs, in our study, encompass both the health-related restrictions and the estimated financial costs of delayed melanoma diagnosis. In addressing the concept of discounting DALYs, we acknowledge the complexity and debate surrounding this issue. Discounting future earnings against economic growth is a nuanced process, and assumptions regarding growth rates and discount rates can significantly impact cost-effectiveness analyses. However, for pragmatic reasons and to account for inherent uncertainties, we have assumed, as a starting point, that these forces may neutralize each other. Using the country’s gross national income (GNI) per capita as a basis implicitly considers labor market participation. In economies with weaker labor metrics, the GNI per capita is understandably lower, indirectly reflecting the economic productivity and participation rates.

Simultaneously, there are ethical concerns of discounting DALYs. The process raises critical questions about fairness across generations, the potential undervaluation of long-term health benefits, and its impact on vulnerable groups, including individuals facing economic or social disadvantage, living in certain geographical locations, very young and very old individuals, women and girls, ethnic and cultural minority populations, persons with disabilities, and migrants and refugees, all of whom often experience higher DALYs due to social factors, like limited health care access, poor living conditions, discrimination, and specific health risks related to their situations. Moreover, discounting might conflict with societal values by potentially undervaluing future health outcomes. Given these considerations, and to avoid undervaluing interventions with long-term benefits, we have chosen a cautious approach by not discounting our DALYs. While DALYs do not explicitly include labor force participation metrics, they indirectly consider the impact of health conditions on productivity. Severe health conditions or disabilities, as captured by DALYs, affect an individual’s ability to participate in the labor force, thereby influencing their productivity and economic contributions. Therefore, our approach seeks to balance the practicality of economic evaluation with the ethical considerations surrounding the use of DALYs. By using this approach, we aim to provide a comprehensive and thoughtful analysis that respects the complexity of this topic. We believe that this balanced approach enhances the robustness and relevance of our findings in the context of delayed melanoma diagnosis during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In addition to our health-related data from Belgium, a 2022 report from the US using data from 1990 to 2017 16 indicated that melanoma-related DALYs have not changed significantly and do not vary substantially between the US and Belgium. Hence, we consider the Belgian data still relevant for our analysis.

To estimate indirect financial costs of delayed melanoma diagnosis, we converted these estimates from life-years per person (DALY units) to euro by multiplying life-years per person by GNI per capita per country. 17 Each DALY lost thus creates a financial cost equivalent to the country’s GNI per capita. Note that unlike gross domestic product (GDP) per capita or mean wages, GNI per capita provides a comprehensive account for residents’ incomes. We then multiplied these numbers by net melanoma incidence for each country to calculate net additional indirect cost due to upstaging (in euro), based on previous models. 17 While future earnings should in principle be discounted, assuming economic growth and increasing wages, there is also a counterforce. Direct costs from each source were converted to direct costs (in euro) for each target country by using GDP, health expenditure (HE), and purchasing power parity, resulting in a standardized cost value for each country, based on previous models. 17

The cost value for a country can be obtained 6 different ways, using each of the 2 source country’s costs (Italy or Switzerland) and any of the 3 economic indicators (GDP, HE, or purchasing power parity). For each set of cost values per melanoma stage, an estimate of the additional direct cost due to upstaging was calculated following the modeling procedure. We calculated the mean of these estimates and multiplied by the net melanoma incidence for each country to calculate the net additional direct cost due to upstaging in a country (in euro). All calculated monetary costs were finally reported in US dollars, converting all euro numbers to US dollars using a conversion rate of €1 to $1.11, the mean exchange value during the year 2020.

Probabilistic sensitivity analysis was used to represent the modeling uncertainty and produce 95% CIs. Detailed methods are described in the eMethods, eTable 7, and eTable 8 in Supplement 1 . Population sizes and economic indicators are outlined in eTable 5 in Supplement 1 . A similar approach was used across primary cutaneous melanoma tumor thickness categories (ie, AJCC T categories).

Certain countries, including Germany and Italy, have experienced a decrease in melanoma diagnoses from March to May 2020 (Germany) and May to July 2020 (Italy), 15 , 18 suggesting an impending increase in advanced-stage melanoma. Detailed upstaging rate estimates for melanoma were available from 2 studies based on AJCC T categories (not considering N and M stages). 6 , 19 The model by Degeling et al 6 was developed using Australian melanoma registry data and considering tumor thickness shifts from primary cutaneous melanoma T1 to T2 category (AJCC seventh edition), with an estimated 8% upstaging rate after a 3-month delay and a 32% upstaging rate after a 6-month delay. Tejera-Vaquerizo and colleagues 19 estimated a 21% upstaging rate in the 1-month delay group, 29% upstaging rate in the 2-month delay group, and 45% upstaging rate in the 3-month delay group using a Spanish data set from an Oncology Department (AJCC eighth edition) and shifts from primary cutaneous melanoma T1 to T4 category. As the 2 studies from the literature 6 , 19 provided the background for our comparisons, we used their different upstaging rates (based on AJCC T categories) in Figure 3 C. We assumed that upstaging rates are equal across all AJCC stages and developed a linear model (eTable 8 in Supplement 1 ). We confirmed our assumption by using our health registry data, in which we detected a 17% upstaging rate for AJCC stages. Cost increases under this model are proportional to the upstaging rate parameter.

From the Swiss and Hungarian data displayed in Figure 2 A, we built a statistical model to estimate the upstaging rate parameter from these prepandemic and peripandemic incidence rates (eTable 8 in Supplement 1 ). The estimated upstaging rates (based on AJCC, seventh edition) were 18.0% in 2020 and 15.8% in 2021 (eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ). Pandemic incidence rates from the University Hospital in Szeged, Hungary, in 2020 were compared with incidences before the pandemic in 2019, when the estimated rate was 16.6% (eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ). We calculated the mean, resulting in an upstaging rate of 16.8% (rounded to 17%), which was used for subsequent calculations. Finally, the association between lockdowns and cancer upstaging rates was verified by using the 2021 data from Hungary, as no lockdowns were introduced in 2021, 20 resulting in a 2021 upstaging rate of only 0.4% (eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ).

We confirmed the interchangeability between the AJCC seventh 11 and eighth editions 12 , 13 (AJCC stage and T categories) (eTable 4 in Supplement 1 ). The variation in estimated rates was not more than 0.5 percentage points (eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ). Since the published DALY calculations are based on the AJCC seventh edition, 5 we used AJCC seventh edition 11 staging for data used in the primary modeling.

We included 405 patients from the Department of Dermatology, University Hospital, Basel, Switzerland with cutaneous melanoma AJCC stage IA to IV between January 2017 and December 2021 and 477 patients from the Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary, between January 2019 and December 2021. Both university hospitals offer multimodal treatment options according to the newest guidelines, providing standardized data collection and follow-up. Thus, we used these patients from both tertiary centers for recording the real melanoma costs and the upstaging estimations. These costs included the initial diagnostics and staging procedure as well as the interventions and medications based on the current guideline, follow-up examinations, and supportive care during the first follow-up year. Mucosal melanoma and melanoma in situ (stage 0) were excluded in both tertiary centers. We consider an incorporation of upstaging based on data from 2 countries into our model to extrapolate to all European countries a valid method, since it is based on 2 countries with 2 different health care systems and it covers the range of Eastern and Western European countries with high and lower incomes.

The peripandemic incidence rates estimated by the 17% upstaging rate model (applied on prepandemic incidence rates) are comparable with real peripandemic incidence rates for the 2 countries, since they fall within the 8% to 45% upstaging rates previously reported. 6 , 19 Thus, an upstaging rate of 17% was used for all subsequent upstaging calculations.

We further validate the use of our model by calculating the cost rise directly by using real-life incidence numbers and cost values, without any modeling assumptions. These values and 95% CIs are compared with the cost estimates and 95% CIs from the upstaging rate-based cost model, where the upstaging rate parameter of 17% was used (eMethods in Supplement 1 ).

We estimated 111 464 additional YLL associated COVID-19 lockdown-related delayed melanoma diagnosis in Europe for the 17% upstaging model, ranging from of 52 454 (8% upstaging scenario) to 295 051 YLL (45% upstaging scenario) ( Figure 4 A). Estimates for YLD in Europe resulted in 15 360 years for the 17% upstaging model, ranging from 7228 years (8% upstaging model) to 40 660 years (45% upstaging model). Together, YLL and YLD constitute the overall disease burden, ranging from 59 682 DALYs (8% upstaging model) to 335 711 DALYs (45% upstaging model), with 126 824 DALYs for the real-world 17% scenario ( Figure 4 A).

To understand the bearing of this disease burden for Europe, YLD and YLL are displayed for each of the countries separately (with Figure 4 B showing the 17% real-life scenario). In line with previous data, 5 the contribution of YLDs to DALYs was relatively small (mean, 12.5%) yet important nonetheless. 6

To calculate costs, we estimated additional costs based on our model by calculating the extent of cost increase using stagewise incidence rates. All calculations were based on a specific value of the upstaging rate parameter ( u ), ranging from 8% to 45% as outlined in Figure 3 C. The cost increase was proportional to the upstaging rate parameter (eMethods in Supplement 1 ). The estimates (direct, indirect, and total) for each of the 31 European countries were added to obtain aggregate costs for Europe as a whole.

The lockdown-related delay in melanoma care was associated with upstaging and increasing financial costs for Europe. This cost increase results from an increase of direct ( Figure 3 A) and indirect ( Figure 3 B) costs, which together sum to total costs ( Figure 3 C).

Melanomas are differentiated into 4 stages in the AJCC seventh edition, I through IV. 11 As outlined in Figure 3 A and B and eTables 1 to 4 in Supplement 1 , most melanomas were detected at an early stage (eg, for stage I, 66%; stage II, 24%; stage III, 7%; stage IV, 3%; according to National Health Service England), requiring few invasive diagnostic examinations and rarely treatment beyond surgery. 21 Higher stages require more significant diagnostic examinations, patient visits, and expensive treatments ( Figure 3 A and B). 21 Mean (SD) treatment costs ranged from of €3049 (€7826) for stage I to €66 950 (€42 977) for stage IV in the Italian cohort. 8 The excess costs generated from upstaged lesions are displayed in Figure 3 A (direct costs) and Figure 3 B (indirect costs) and eTable 5 in Supplement 1 . Mean direct and indirect costs in DALYs increased with each stage increase.

Finally, total additional costs were calculated ( Figure 3 C; eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ). The range of the upstaging rate spans from the most conservative 8% upstaging rate (additional direct costs, $0.20 [95% CI, $0.11-$0.34] billion; additional indirect costs, $3.40 [95% CI, $3.07-$3.75] billion; total additional costs, $3.60 [95% CI, $3.24-$3.97] billion) up to the more aggressive 45% upstaging rate (total additional costs, $20.25 [95% CI, $18.25-$22.34] billion; including $1.12 [95% CI, $0.60-$1.92] billion in direct costs and $19.13 [95% CI, $17.25-$21.10] billion in indirect costs). With the actual 17% upstaging rate, our model estimated the total additional costs to be $7.65 (95% CI, $6.89-$8.44) billion, including $0.42 (95% CI, $0.23-$0.72) billion in direct costs and $7.23 (95% CI, $6.52-$7.97) billion in indirect costs.

To validate our model, we used real-world stagewise incidence rates before and during the pandemic from 2 countries in conjunction with the stagewise costs to calculate the extent of cost increase during the pandemic without any model assumptions. The estimated mean (SD) additional costs were $0.51 (95% CI, $0.33-$0.82) billion in direct costs, $6.93 (95% CI, $6.55-$7.32) billion in indirect costs, and $7.43 (95% CI, $6.94-$8.04) billion in total costs ( Figure 3 D). All these values estimated without model assumptions were close to our model estimates with a 17% upstaging rate and fall within each other’s 95% CIs ( Figure 3 D), thereby validating our model.

In addition to the significant increase of total costs, these data shed light on the importance of indirect costs, which were approximately 94.5% of total costs. These indirect costs include sick leave–associated costs, productivity losses due to morbidity, and premature mortality.

Melanoma incidences in Europe show a broad variation, from 7.9 melanomas per 100 000 inhabitants per year in Romania to as high as 50.3 melanomas per 100 000 inhabitants per year in Denmark, according to the European Cancer Information System. Figure 5 presents cost calculations in which the 17% upstaging rate has been applied to 31 European countries, displaying the estimated increase of total treatment costs for all European countries ( Figure 5 A), ranging from $3.08 (95% CI, $2.78-$3.40) million in Malta to $2.14 (95% CI, $1.93-$2.36) billion in Germany. For Europe, this 17% upstaging model estimates total additional costs of $7.65 (range, $3.60 to $20.25) billion. For each country, the estimated net additional direct and indirect costs due to upstaging were added ( Figure 5 ; eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ). Since absolute numbers of patients with melanoma tend to be larger in a bigger country (even if incidences differ), the upstaging-related cost increases are compared with a benchmark value for each European country. We chose national HE as a benchmark and estimated the country-specific additional economic costs ( Figure 5 A; eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ) as fraction of the net HE ( Figure 5 B) anticipating a mean increase of 0.33% (95% CI, 0.30%-0.37%) of the current European HE.

In this economic evaluation, the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown offered a unique chance to assess the social and economic consequences associated with delayed melanoma diagnosis in Europe, focusing on all invasive stages. Our data shed light on how the use of lockdowns as a mechanism to control SARS-CoV-2 infection rates was associated with the progression of other medical conditions.

Our upstaging model allowed us to calculate the additional economic costs associated with delay in melanoma diagnosis. These estimates complement previous studies highlighting the cost-effectiveness of screening for melanoma. 22 Our 17% upstaging scenario was equivalent to 0.33% of the European HE. Indirect treatment costs accounted for 94.5% of total costs in our model, highlighting the hidden financial implications of delaying cancer diagnosis, in accordance with a similar study in the UK from Gheorghe et al, 7 which estimated significant losses in quality-adjusted life-years and increased economic burdens due to excess cancer-related deaths, particularly for major cancers, like breast, colorectal, and lung cancer, using a population-based model. Their approach, using human capital metrics, revealed that the economic outcomes associated with delayed cancer care, on a per-capita basis, exceeded those of COVID-19 deaths. 7 This underlines the critical need for effective cancer care even during pandemic-related health care disruptions. Comparing the increase of direct costs associated with diagnostic delay with the model from Australia, where Degeling et al 6 estimated considerable excess costs over 5 years due to stage progression in cancers, including melanoma, following diagnostic delays, we come to very similar findings. In our model, direct costs increased by 0.018%, while Degeling et al 6 described an increase of 0.0041% of the total HE after a 3-month delay and 0.017% of the total HE after a 6-month delay. 23 This was echoed by international studies that highlighted the exacerbated financial challenges faced by patients with cancer during the pandemic, particularly due to unemployment and economic recession, leading to increased out-of-pocket expenses and potentially foregoing essential treatments. 24 , 25 These studies collectively emphasize the multifaceted impact of delayed cancer diagnoses, resonating with our findings on melanoma in Europe and reinforcing the imperative of maintaining robust cancer screening and care during global health crises.

Lockdown-associated delayed melanoma diagnoses resulted in a significant decline in incidence during the first lockdown period and a rise of newly diagnosed melanoma in the postlockdown phase. 15 , 18 A 2022 population-based nationwide pathology registry analysis found a small shift toward unfavorable pT stages during the first lockdown compared with the pre–COVID-19 period, consistent with our upstaging model. 26 Several studies on other cancers have reported an alarming increase in later-stage cancers in line with our real-world data, associated with reduced survival of these patients. 27 , 28 Thus, concerns about an impending COVID-19–associated cancer pandemic are increasing. 29

Various countermeasures are conceivable to mitigate the consequences of lockdowns; for example, considering increased utilization of virtual health care services for melanoma screening, as well as heightened patient education regarding warning signs of melanoma, might be worthwhile. Artificial intelligence–based digital health applications are also likely to be increasingly used in the future. 30

Our methods can be applied more broadly and contribute to deepening the understanding of the implications of delayed diagnosis of other conditions wherever reliable incidence and cost data are available. 6 Our approach facilitates modeling of the implications in individual countries that may differ in parameters, such as lockdown duration, population size, economic factors, and melanoma incidence.

YLLs due to fatal outcomes of non–COVID-19 conditions are a robust measure for secondary consequences of COVID-19. 31 The estimated 52 454 YLLs to 295 051 YLLs imply a loss of 617 to 3469 full lives of 81.3 years, 32 the mean life expectancy in our sample. These numbers account for YLL rates of 6.7 to 37.7 YLLs per 100 000 population in our model. Comparing these with 2021 estimates by Pifarré et al 31 of YLL due to COVID-19 (15.7 for males and 15.1 for females, using data from 81 countries) is highly concerning, given that our YLL estimates relate to melanoma only.

Furthermore, in 2016, melanoma accounted for 0.065% of the total global indirect costs measured as DALYs. 32 While our model cannot be extrapolated to all other diseases, it seems that the estimated $7.7 billion is only the tip of the iceberg, so the total burden associated with to pandemic-related delayed diagnosis and treatment may be unprecedented, both medically and economically.

The results need to be interpreted with caution due to several modeling limitations, including the impact of simplifying assumptions on estimations based on the extrapolation of results from modeling validation in the real-world setting limited to 2 sites to the rest of Europe. Lockdown definitions varied among different countries regarding duration and specific measure. In the context of a wide range of COVID-19 mitigation measures, combined with a wide range of country sizes, an uncertainty of the upstaging model exists, so the final cost implications may differ from our estimates. In addition, the diversity of European health care systems with differences in treatment access and disease prognosis influence total costs. Furthermore, the estimation of true health care costs is more complex than our models, as mental health is not yet reflected in DALYs. While indirect costs can be estimated from DALYs, there are several other methods that can be used to estimate indirect costs, which results in a limitation of using the DALYs. DALYs do not directly include labor force participation but account for how diseases or disabilities affect life expectancy and quality of life, which can indirectly impact someone’s ability to work. In our analysis, we opted for DALYs combined with GNI per capita over the human capital approach (HCA) to estimate indirect costs. This decision was driven by our intent to capture a more comprehensive picture of outcomes associated with delayed melanoma diagnosis, one that extends beyond mere economic productivity losses. While HCA predominantly quantifies productivity in monetary terms, our approach with DALYs allows for a broader assessment of health impacts, including quality of life and disability factors. This method aligns with our study’s goal to evaluate the multifaceted consequences associated with health care delays, balancing economic assessments with a wider health impact perspective. However, we recognize that this choice might not fully align with traditional economic evaluations focused solely on direct economic outputs, which is a considered limitation of our approach. We did not capture the effects of morbidity and mortality due to COVID-19 in the cost models, resulting in patients with melanoma being considered solely and not also as patients with COVID-19. We also did not consider data on melanoma in situ, as these figures were not available, so our method potentially underestimates the values and associations we report. We excluded mucosal and uveal melanoma due to different TNM and AJCC classification. While we used linear rise assumption as a parsimonious, pragmatic approach for our model, actual melanoma tumor biology is subject to complex, interindividual factors influencing the process of stage progression. Furthermore, melanoma treatment has rapidly evolved over the last several years, with improved patient outcomes but higher treatment costs, which may not have been fully represented in our source data. Additionally, we provide a large range for cost increase estimates to mitigate the risk of inaccuracy in extrapolating these estimates to other countries.

Our economic evaluation provides relevant medical and economic insights about the implications associated with delaying melanoma diagnosis due to suspended screening, which the global COVID-19 pandemic gave us the unique opportunity to investigate. Considering the assumptions and limitations of our methods, our estimates are meant to raise awareness about the importance of skin cancer screenings and the multidimensional costs associated with screening suspension. Thus, while we urge decision-makers to consider the implications of delaying screenings in future pandemic plans to optimize public health and limit possibly severe medical and economic sequelae of containment policy, we most importantly encourage policy-makers to further emphasize the role of preventative medicine on both a personal and economic level.

Accepted for Publication: December 26, 2023.

Published: February 16, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.56479

Corresponding Authors: Elisabeth Roider, MD, PhD, Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Basel, Petersgraben 4, 4031 Basel, Switzerland ( [email protected] ); Kaustubh Adhikari, PhD, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, and UCL Genetics Institute, University College London, Gower St, London, WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Adhikari had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. Drs L.V. Maul and Jamiolkowski contributed equally. Drs Adhikari and Roider contributed equally.

Concept and design: L.V. Maul, Jamiolkowski, Hauschild, Garbe, Augustin, Legge, Mocellin, Adhikari, Roider.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: L.V. Maul, Jamiolkowski, Lapides, Mueller, Hauschild, Garbe, Lorigan, Gershenwald, Ascierto, Long, Wang-Evers, Scolyer, Saravi, Augustin, Navarini, Legge, Balázs Németh, Janosi, Feller, Manstein, Zink, J.-T. Maul, Buja, Adhikari, Roider.

Drafting of the manuscript: L.V. Maul, Jamiolkowski, Lapides, Hauschild, Garbe, Lorigan, Legge, Balázs Németh, Adhikari, Roider.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: L.V. Maul, Lapides, Mueller, Hauschild, Garbe, Lorigan, Gershenwald, Ascierto, Long, Wang-Evers, Scolyer, Saravi, Augustin, Navarini, Legge, Janosi, Mocellin, Feller, Manstein, Zink, J.-T. Maul, Buja, Adhikari, Roider.

Statistical analysis: Jamiolkowski, Legge, Balázs Németh, Feller, Buja, Adhikari, Roider.

Obtained funding: Mocellin, Buja, Roider.

Administrative, technical, or material support: L.V. Maul, Mueller, Garbe, Saravi, Balázs Németh, Janosi, Feller, Zink, J.-T. Maul, Roider.

Supervision: L.V. Maul, Hauschild, Garbe, Ascierto, Saravi, Navarini, Buja, Roider.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr L.V. Maul reported receiving personal fees from Almirall, Amgen, Eli Lilly, MSD, Novartis, Pierre Fabre, Roche, and Sanofi outside the submitted work and funding from the Research Foundation of the University Hospital Basel and the ProPatient Foundation. Dr Mueller reported receiving personal fees European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology outside the submitted work. Dr Garbe reported receiving personal fees from CeCaVa, MSD, NeraCare, and Philogen outside the submitted work and serving as President of the European Association of DermatoOncology. Dr Hauschild reported receiving grants from MSD/Merck, Philogen, Pierre Fabre, Regeneron, Roche, Sanofi-Genzyme, Novartis Pharma, and Eisai (paid to institution) and personal fees from MSD/Merck, Pierre Fabre, Regeneron, Roche, Sanofi-Genzyme, Novartis Pharma, Eisai, Immunocore, Replimune, and Seagen. Dr Lorigan reported receiving grants from Bristol Meyers Squibb and Pierre Fabre and personal fees from Bristol Meyers Squibb, Pierre Fabre, MSD, and Novartis. Dr Gershenwald reported receiving personal fees from Merck and UpToDate outside the submitted work. Dr Ascierto reported receiving grants from Bristol Meyers Squibb, Roche-Genentech, Pfizer, and Sanofi; personal fees from Bristol Myers Squibb, Roche-Genentech, Pfizer, Sanofi, MSD, Novartis, Merck Serono, Pierre Fabre, Sun Pharma, Sandoz, Immunocore, Italfarmaco, Boehringer Ingelheim, Regeneron, Nouscom, Lunaphore, Medicenna, Bio-Al Health, Replimmune, Bayer, Erasca, and Philogen; and serving as an unpaid consultant for ValoTx outside the submitted work. Dr Long reported receiving personal fees from Agenus, Amgen, Array Biopharma, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers Squibb, Evaxion, Hexal (Sandoz Company), Highlight Therapeutics, Innovent Biologics USA, MSD, Novartis, PHMR, Pierre Fabre, Provectus, Qbiotics, and Regeneron outside the submitted work. Dr Scolyer reported receiving grants from National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia during the conduct of the study; personal fees from MetaOptima Technology, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Evaxion, Provectus Biopharmaceuticals Australia, Qbiotics, Novartis, MSD, NeraCare, Amgen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Myriad Genetics, and GSK outside the submitted work. Dr Augustin reported receiving personal fees from AbbVie, Almirall, Beiersdorf, Eli Lilly, Galderma, LEO, Pfizer, and Sanofi-Genzyme outside the submitted work. Dr Navarini reported receiving personal fees from AbbVie, Almirall, Amgen, Biomed, Bristol Meyers Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, Celgene, Eli Lilly, Galderma, GSK, LEO Pharma, Janssen-Cilag, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, Pierre Fabre Pharma, Regeneron, Sandoz, Sanofi, and UCB outside the submitted work. Dr Manstein reported serving as a consultant for Avava and R2, receiving grants from Shiseido, and owning stock in Blossom Innovations and German Medical Engineering outside the submitted work. Dr Zink reported receiving personal fees from Novartis, Janssen, Eli Lilly, UCB, Bristol Meyers Squibb, and Almirall outside the submitted work. Dr J.-T. Maul reported serving as an advisor or receiving personal fees from AbbVie, Almirall, Amgen, Bristol Meyers Squibb, Celgene, Eli Lilly, LEO Pharma, Janssen-Cilag, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, Pierre Fabre, Roche, Sanofi, and UCB. Dr Roider reported being a shareholder and founder of Maximon and its holding ventures, receiving grants from the Goldschmidt Jacobson Foundation and Swiss National Foundation, and receiving personal fees from Eli Lilly and Galderma. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This work was supported by the Research Foundation of the University of Basel, the ProPatient Foundation, University Basel, and the Goldschmidt Jacobson Foundation, and the Swiss National Science Foundation.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

Additional Contributions: Isabelle Tromme, MD, PhD (Department of Dermatology, Melanoma Clinic, King Albert II Institute, St Luc Hospital, Catholic University of Louvain) and Catherine Legrand, PhD (Louvain Institute for Data Analysis and Modeling, Institute of Statistics, Biostatistics and Actuarial Sciences) provided critical discussion of results. They were not compensated for this work.

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Collect and analyze a consistent core set of ecological data on all forests to view trends over time.
Utilize new and emerging technologies to acquire data through remote sensing and field activities.

FIA completes data collection and analysis work within four main inventories:

The Nationwide Forest Inventory (NFI) : a network of permanent plots, located in non-urban areas that are forested (or capable of being forested). NFI plots are remeasured every 5-10 years depending on location. Information on the site, land use, trees, and both standing and dead trees is collected on all plots. Additionally, information about down woody material, soils and understory vegetation is collected on a subset of plots.
The National Resource Use Monitoring (NRUM) : a survey which collects information on manufacturers that use harvested wood products for reporting on size of facilities, products that are manufactured, manufacturing capacity, and other data points.
The National Woodland Owners Survey (NWOS) : a survey that collects information on private forest landowners to understand why they own the land, what they use it for, and how they are planning on managing their land over time.
Urban Inventory : an inventory program that monitors the Nation’s urban forests, examines social dimensions of urban forests and green spaces, and estimates the industrial and nonindustrial uses of urban wood.

FIA also works with experts from universities and trusted partners to expand research capacity, analytical capabilities, and continually develop and enhance our inventory and monitoring techniques within these inventories.

Program Deliverables

Information and trends are important indicators of the conservation and sustainable management of United States forests, and these trends provide policymakers, partners, and other users a variety of data that inform their land-management decisions over time. Our users can rely on the credibility of our information to make critical land management, policy, and investment decisions. Data outputs include, but are not limited to:

Developing summaries and reports detailing forest health and productivity every five years.
Providing current and historical data across political and administrative boundaries and land ownerships, including urban forests.
Developing data sets and analytical products that include a wide array of forest ecosystem parameters addressing the extent, productivity, health, ownership, and utilization of United States forests.

FIA seeks to address emerging user needs by conducting development research in additional to its operational surveys. Current research focuses on seven strategic areas that were identified in previous legislation and the 2015 FIA Strategic Plan . Three of these research portfolios have successfully been operationalized and are each described above (NRUM, NWOS, and Urban). The other four research portfolios include:

developing estimation and accounting compilation systems and tools,
advancing carbon pool science (including harvested wood products)
leveraging FIA remeasurements and auxiliary information for change estimation and attribution across spatial and temporal scales, and
information carbon management, mitigation, and adaptation activities.
Digital Engagement: The mission of the digital engagement portfolio is to transform FIA's analysis, reporting, and delivery of information. This work is made possible through collaboration with agency and external partners to develop and publish relevant and authoritative data that supports user needs. To see examples of FIA's digital engagement work in action, visit the FIA Geospatial Showcase or learn about the BIGMAP project .
leverage FIA's unique dataset to lead national LULC monitoring,
create a forum for FIA LULC experts to coordinate research within and outside of the program; and
communicate new LULC research to FIA's customers. Visit the FIA Land Resources Explorer to view information on land use, land cover, and change in an interactive map.
a nationwide, experimental series of annual, county level forest area and biomass estimates by 2025, and
area and biomass change by 2027.

National Program Coordination

The FIA Program is implemented across four units located at USDA Forest Service Research Stations: The Northern Research Station, the Pacific Northwest Research Station, the Rocky Mountain Research Station, and the Southern Research Station. National teams of FIA specialists work together to ensure consistency and efficiency in data collection, management, and analysis. They review and implement modifications, additions, or deletions to any component of the National FIA Program. These teams cross four functional areas, known as Bands:

Data Acquisition Band: Focuses on standardization of FIA’s core field data collection across the US. This includes testing new protocols, developing documentation and training programs, and conducting quality assurance. For more information on data acquisition contact the Data Acquisition Band Lead,  Maryfaith Snyder.
Information Management Band: Focuses on data management systems for FIA data, including systems for data collection, data editing and validation, internal and public databases, and web applications that allow all users to access and analyze FIA data. For more information, contact the Information Management Band Lead,  Chad Keyser .
Analysis Band: Focuses on reporting and providing statistically defensible methods for summarizing FIA data, including identification of new variables (either field measured or computed) needed by FIA customers. For more information, contact the Analysis Band Lead,  Randy Morin .
Techniques Research Band: Focuses on improving the efficiency, timeliness, and quality of the FIA program through research that assesses and integrates new technologies and methodologies into current FIA workflows. The band addresses problem areas outlined in the FIA strategic plan or identified by Congress, FIA Program Managers for each unit, or National FIA leadership. For more information on the Techniques Research Band contact the Techniques Research Band Lead,  Hans Andersen .

Background Information and History

The FIA program concept is over 120 years old. The Organic Act of 1897, which established the National Forest System, included provisions for inventory and management of those lands. In 1928, the Forestry Research Act (McSweeney-McNary) directed the Secretary of Agriculture to make and keep current a comprehensive inventory and analysis of the Nation’s forest resources. The Resources Planning Act of 1974 (RPA, PL 93-378) amended the earlier research act. The Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Research Act of 1978 (PL 95-307) replaced earlier Forestry Research legislation but repeated the amendment contained in the RPA and further instructed the Secretary of Agriculture to:

“...obtain, analyze, develop, demonstrate, and disseminate scientific information about protecting, managing, and utilizing forest and rangeland renewable resources in rural, suburban, and urban areas”

The National Forest Management Act of 1976 (PL 94-588) directed the USDA Forest Service to:

“ensure research on and (based upon continuous monitoring and assessment in the field) evaluation of the effects of each management system…”

More recently, in 1999 (Farm Bill, Public Law 105-185) and again in 2014 (Farm Bill, Public Law 113-79), Congress directed the Forest Service to reevaluate its statewide inventory mission and to transition to survey each State annually rather than periodically, with the exception of Interior Alaska and U.S. associated islands of the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean. Additionally, FIA was directed to implement urban forest inventories, improve sub-state estimation precision, and improve the timber product output program among other provisions. In collaboration with partners, FIA developed strategic plans to fully transition into an annualized inventory and comply with other requirements.

User Notifications and Bulletins

FIADB v1.9.1 release is now available. EVALIDator and DATIM Live have been updated as well to accommodate the database changes. Updates include changes to cubic-foot volume, biomass, and carbon estimates. More information about those changes can be found here: Tree Volume, Biomass and Carbon Models.
June 21, 2022: Estimates and statistics based on Alaska borough and census areas may be misleading. FIA's Alaska inventory is ongoing and many survey units have yet to be sampled. The FIA inventory Alaska survey unit boundaries do not follow Alaska’s borough and census area boundaries or ecoregions. The survey units were outlined broadly encompassing major watershed boundaries. Because much of Alaska is not organized into a recognized borough (county equivalent), the FIA program utilizes the Census Bureau Census Area boundaries as the county equivalents in those areas. However, Alaskan borough and municipality boundaries have changed multiple times since the inception of the FIA annualized inventory (~2004). The Census Bureau has also frequently changed Alaskan Census Area boundaries over that same timeframe. Therefore, any FIA reported estimates reflect only the Alaska survey units involved. Any estimates and summary statistics calculated based on borough or Census Area spatial extents may be misleading due to the variability of these features. For more information, please see the supporting documentation here .

Upcoming Events

Forest inventory and analysis science symposium, november 19-21, 2024.

The symposium offers an opportunity for scientific and technical exchange, drawing together a world-class group of partners, practitioners, and scientists with regional, national, and international inventory and monitoring missions. Find more information about the symposium HERE .

Work with Us

FIA work is coordinated and accomplished out of four regional units that cover the nation, including U.S. territories. Staff and contractors complete our work from different locations across the country. For more information on contracts for field work, contact the person associated with the location you are interested in.

Northern (CT, DE, IA, IL, IN, KS, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MO, ND, NE, NH, NJ, NY, OH, PA, RI, SD, VT, WI, WV): Gayle Geiger
Pacific Northwest (AK): Dan Irvine
Pacific Northwest (OR, CA, and WA): Jonny Beals-Nesmith
Rocky Mountain (AZ, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, WY, UT): Maryfaith Snyder
Southern (AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA): Angie Rowe

Data Download

Data/Tool Name	Description
	The FIA DataMart allows visitors to download raw FIA data in comma delimited tables, SQLite databases, and customizable batch estimate workbooks. The DataMart map also provides a quick visual reference for the most recent data available for each state or inventory area.
	The NRUM data download allows users to access files that contain data from both the Timber Products Output (TPO) and Harvest Utilization (HU) studies, combined with FIA inventory data and residential firewood estimates derived from the U.S. Department of Energy residential energy consumption survey
	Urban DataMart allows visitors to download raw urban data, as well as Urban FIADB User Guides.

Data Analysis Tools

Data/Tool Name	Description
	The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program produces an annual business report aimed at ensuring accountability and transparency to Congress and the public. This dashboard summarizes key financial, partner, and plot measurement information from the business report in an interactive format designed to make it easier for stakeholders to explore the data.
	A showcase of FIA maps, tools, data and applications.
	The Land Resources Explorer is an interactive, user-friendly suite of tools for viewing land area estimates and maps from multiple information sources, including information on land use, land cover, and change.
	The Design and Analysis Toolkit for Inventory and Monitoring (DATIM) provides four modules: an analysis tool for inventory and monitoring (ATIM) used for creating tables; a spatial intersection tool (SIT); a design tool for inventory and monitoring plans (DTIM); and a data compilation system (DCS) to add FVS, R, or SQL derived attributes to DATIM datasets.
	EVALIDator and FIADB-API allows users to produce a large variety of population estimates and their sampling errors based on the current FIA database. Estimates can be produced as totals (e.g. number of trees) or as ratios (e.g., number of trees per acre of forest land).
	FIA DataMart allows visitors to download raw data files, standard tables, SQLite databases, and a desktop EVALIDator reporting tool. DataMart also provides access to the FIA State reports, FIADB load history, API EVALIDator, and FIADB User Guides.
	Allows users to view FIA state fact sheets through an interactive tool. Click on the desired state to produce a real-time fact sheet based on current FIA data.
	The TPO Interactive Tool includes estimates of timber products, logging residue, mill residue, residential fuelwood, and other removals based on the selected area.
	Data include state-wide production, products, number of primary mills and types, roundwood exports/imports, and retained production.
	Wood Flow Fact Sheets allows visitors to view statewide timber products output and use information, with detailed roundwood exports/imports and retained production.
	This tool generates plots and tables for user selected survey question, cycle (i.e. time period), and geography (e.g. national-, regional-, or state-level summaries).
	My City's Trees enables anyone to access Urban FIA data and produce custom analyses and reports. Currently, My City's Trees includes information for all targeted cities with a complete certified dataset.

Data Consultations and Requests

Data/Tool Name	Description
Data Consultations and Requests
	In order to protect the privacy of landowners and the integrity of the FIA sample, the exact coordinates of plot locations are kept confidential. Exact plot locations are protected by federal law. Therefore, actual FIA plot locations are very rarely shared and only under a specific, limited set of circumstances. Visit the Spatial Data Services page to learn more.

Key Personnel

National contacts.

Linda S. Heath

Renate Bush

Sara A. Goeking

Donavon A. Nigg, Jr.

Regional program managers.

Burl Carraway

Charles H. (Hobie) Perry

Sharon Stanton

Michael j. wilson, the inventories, nationwide forest inventory (nfi).

National Resource Use Monitoring (NRUM)

National woodland owner survey (nwos).

Urban Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

Sampling and estimation documentation.

J.A. Westfall, J.W. Coulston, G.G. Moisen, H.-E Andersen. 2022. Sampling and estimation documentation for the Enhanced Forest Inventory and Analysis Program: 2022

Business and Organizational Documents

Forest Inventory and Analysis Strategic Plan

2022 forest inventory and analysis business report.

2021 Forest Inventory and Analysis Business Report

Additional resources, forest inventory and analysis glossary - standard terminology, the forest inventory and analysis database user guide (nfi), contributions to national and global reporting.

Resources Planning Act (RPA)

FIA data is analyzed on a five-year cycle to produce The Forest Resources of the United States , a supporting document to the RPA Assessment that contains information on the status, condition, and trends in the Nation’s Forest resources.

National Report on Sustainable Forests

FIA data is an essential foundation for the National Report on Sustainable Forests and its 54 indicators of forests sustainability, particularly those indicators covering forest extent, structure, and productivity. Without FIA data, the National Report would not be possible.

FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment

Data concerning the state of the Nation’s forests reported by the United States to the Global Forest Resources Assessment and assembled by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UN-FAO) come almost exclusively from the Forest Inventory and Analysis Program.

Greenhouse gas inventories to the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change

FIA estimates of carbon in forests are crucial for the U.S. national reporting of greenhouse gas inventories to the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change.

The North American Forest Database

A platform for enhanced North American forest inventory and monitoring data integration that complements the national forest assessment tools of Canada, Mexico and the USA and the UN FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA).

Carbon Assessments

The Forest Service produces the authoritative research, analyses, and tools for carbon monitoring and estimation across the nation The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program is the foundation for data on forest carbon stocks and fluxes at all scales, from farm scale to the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory reporting for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Forest Sustainability Reporting for the Montreal Process, carbon assessment across National Forests and Grasslands, and beyond.

Fifth National Climate Assessment

The Fifth National Climate Assessment is the US Government’s preeminent report on climate change impacts, risks, and responses. FIA scientists and FIA data contributed to the sections related to forests.

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Research Methodology and Scientific Writing

Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India

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Research: Meaning and Purpose

The Roadmap to Research: Fundamentals of a Multifaceted Research Process

Research Questions and Research Design

Table of contents (24 chapters)

Philosophy of Research

The Process of Research Writing

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Table of Contents

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Here's What You Need to Understand About Research Methodology

Table of Contents

What is the definition of a research methodology?

The need for a good research methodology

What is the basic structure of a research methodology?

1. Your research procedure

2. Provide the rationality behind your chosen approach

3. Explain your mechanism

4. Significance of outcomes

5. Reader’s advice

6. Explain your sample space

7. Challenges and limitations

The importance of a good research methodology

Instruments you could use while writing a good research methodology

a. Interviews (One-on-One or a Group)

c. Sample Groups

d. Observations

Types of research methodology

1. Qualitative research methodology

2. Quantitative research methodology

3. Amalgam methodology

Final words: How to decide which is the best research methodology?

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Research Methodology

2. What are the types of research methodology?

3. What is the true meaning of research methodology?

4. Where lies the importance of research methodology?

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Research Methodology Example

FAQ: Research Methodology Example

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Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology

Structure of Research Methodology

Research Methodology Types

Quantitative Research Methodology

Qualitative Research Methodology

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

Case Study Research Methodology

Action Research Methodology

Experimental Research Methodology

Survey Research Methodology

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

Research Methodology Example

How to Write Research Methodology

When to Write Research Methodology

Applications of Research Methodology

Purpose of Research Methodology

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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