kerala vernacular architecture case study

The Vernacular Architecture of Kerala: A Case Study of Mishkal Mosque of Calicut, India

By Kenner N. Carmody ( Master in Design Studies / Energy & Environment , Class of 2019), through the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture Research Fellowship 2019

This exhibition is designed to provide a small insight and broad introduction to the climate, culture, and context of Kerala and the city of Calicut through drawings and photographs.

The heat during the summer season in Kerala is brutal. The sun, almost vertical in the sky at this latitude, shines relentlessly on the Grand Bazaar Market in Calicut at midday. In fact, the local government prohibits manual labor during these afternoon hours, but judging by the ferocious loading of trucks, motorbikes and handcarts, nobody has taken notice. Calicut, a bustling maritime city on the Malabar Coast of India, has existed under this stroke-inducing sunlight since the dawn of the medieval spice trade, when Arab traders first introduced Islam to the Indian subcontinent, not by war and conquest, but rather by trade and commerce. Save for the effects of benign neglect witnessed by the aging architecture and infrastructure here, not much has changed in the old quarter of this city. Indeed, in the early morning hours, before the onset of cacophonous motorbike, truck, and automobile traffic – one can imagine the city sounds and smells much as it did well before the industrial age.

The genesis of this research began as an effort to document a building representative of a regional style of architecture not largely published within the domain of vernacular timber construction. Mishkal Mosque, a 16th-century laterite (an earthen block that is cut out of the ground to form masonry blocks in the region) and timber building in Calicut, was selected for its exemplar building tectonics, qualities of light and shade, and its material composition considering its unique position in India. This research not only aims to contribute to general scholarship on architecture in the region, but also endeavors to make contributions to the methodologies for the study of historic vernacular buildings as well as framing larger questions around preservation, maintenance, and building types. To date, the vernacular buildings in Kerala have been studied for their religious and cultural significance as well as their relationship to broader art and architectural heritage, but their detailed material composition, tectonics, and environmental and geographical relationship to the people and landscape remain under examined.

Composed of a tiered timber superstructure set atop coursed laterite stone masonry at the ground floor (rendered with mud-lime plaster), Mishkal Mosque is one of the oldest and largest of Kerala style mosques and is located at the center of the historic Mappila Muslim quarter in Calicut, called Kuttichira. Unlike any other architecture on the Indian subcontinent, this architectural style is a combination of various features born of its local tropical climate and context. Proportionally, the building exhibits more roof than it does façade, as the building consists of a series of tiered volumes, each wrapped by an umbrella-like assemblage of timber rafters and clay tile shingles – with each tier resting on the one below. Shading the building is paramount: Even at the second floor veranda, one must almost lay prone to steal a view to the exterior, as the roof reaches as far as possible beyond the exterior masonry walls, further compressing the already narrow balcony space. Supported principally by the masonry walls that extend beyond the ground floor, the slender columns at the veranda serve to tie the roof down more than transfer any vertical loads to the ground. Instead, this barely habitable zone acts as a buffer, a thickened zone within the building façade that shields the second level of the building from the nearly vertical year-round solar radiation, as well as the almost equally intense indirect horizontal solar radiation abundant in the region. The third and fourth levels of the building are underused or even unused spaces in the building. They do however, contribute to the mosque’s monumental scale. And even as they are underused spaces in the building, the third and fourth levels are treated with equal consideration when examining how they address the tropical monsoon climate and context. Both the third and fourth levels of the building use horizontal latticed screen walls that provide access to views while reducing glare from both the direct and indirect sunlight. The roof framing on the fourth level at the hip roof is perhaps the most unique feature of the building’s timber framing. The roof framing at the hip roof bears on a single timber drum which holds the rafters in place. According to local building tradition, and my conversations with local carpenters, one may not call oneself a master builder until this particular joint has been successfully constructed.

To observe all of this, I visited the mosque during the peak of the summer dry season just before the summer monsoon season begins, when not a single cloud is present in the sky. Upon entering the mosque from the south side, the ground floor masonry walls break the searing daylight sun. A continuous gallery protects the principal worshiping spaces of the building, forming a solid façade, punctuated only by modest doorways guarded with solid teak door panels. The transition from outside to inside of the building is immediately palpable, with an almost blinding transition from white light to a pitch darkness as one’s eyes adjust to the contrasting conditions. There is an immediate sense of refuge upon entering the ante chamber and main prayer hall at the ground floor, as there is a clear sense of the local architecture’s ability to banish direct sunlight from the building’s interior. The building is organized as a sequence of vertical rooms that increase in height as one ascends the building through series of stairs that separate one floor from another. Qualities of light, shade, and thermal comfort are also stratified vertically. As one moves from the ground and second floor, with their heavy mass and punched openings to the lightweight third and fourth levels of the building which exhibit a softer light and more well-ventilated spaces enabled by light-diffusing louvers and an enclosure made entirely of timber – save for the clay tile roofing.

Vernacular Architecture of Kerala: Learning Sustainability from the Best

Table of Contents

Introduction to Vernacular Architecture

Vernacular architecture is a style of architecture that is designed and built for the needs of people, with locally available materials, reflecting upon the culture of the place. Vernacular architecture is specific to a region and climate. In theory, a vernacular building is built without the guidance of a professional, like an architect. Thus, vernacular architecture is cost-effective, climate-responsive, modest, sustainable, and a reflection of the culture of the place. 

Introduction to Kerala and its Architecture

Kerala is the twenty-fifth largest state in India, in the area surrounded by Karnataka on the northeast, Tamil Nadu on the east, and the Arabian Sea on the west. With a coastline of around 600km of the Arabian sea, Kerala is known for its spectacular flora and fauna, backwaters, and respect for its culture. Kerala prides itself for being the flag bearer for not just how a culture can respect its past, but also march forward with growth & progress as well. Kerala’s vernacular architecture, which is still heavily practiced throughout Kerala and some of south India, is one such inspiration for all. It is in striking contrast with the Dravidian Architecture followed in other parts of South India and is strongly influenced by Indian Vedic architectural science (Vastu Shastra).

History and Origin 

Kerala gets its indigenous style of architecture from all climatic, geographical, and historical factors. Favored by generous rains because of monsoon and bright sun, this land is lush green with foliage and rich in beast life. In the uneven terrain of this region, mortal habitation is distributed thickly in the rich low- lands and sparsely towards the hostile mounds. Heavy rains have brought in presence of large water bodies in form of lakes, gutters, backwoods, and lagoons. The climatic factors, therefore, made its significant benefactions in developing the architecture style, to fight the wettest climatic conditions coupled with heavy moisture and harsh tropical summers. Geographically, Kerala is a narrow strip of land lying in between the seacoast of peninsular India and confined between the towering Western Ghats on its east and the vast Arabian ocean on its west. History also played its benefactions on the Kerala architecture. The towering Western Ghats on its east have successfully averted influences of bordering Tamil countries into present-day Kerala in after times. While the Western Ghats insulated Kerala to a lesser extent from Indian conglomerates, the exposure of the Arabian ocean on its east brought in close connections between the ancient people of Kerala with major maritime societies like Egyptians, Romans, Arabs, and so on. Kerala’s rich spice polish brought it a center of global maritime trade until the ultramodern ages, helping several transnational powers to laboriously engage with Kerala as trading mates. This helped in bringing in influences of these civilizations into Kerala’s architecture.

Different types of Kerala Architecture

The architecture of Kerala is divided into two parts, Nalukettu and Ettukettu. 

Nālukettu is the home of generations of joint family kinfolk or Tharavadu, where many generations of a matrilineal family lived. These types of structures are observed in the Indian state of Kerala. The traditional architecture of Kerala is a rectangular structure where four blocks are joined with a central, open to the sky courtyard. 

The four halls on each side are named Vadakkini (northern block), Padinjattini (western block), Kizhakkini (eastern block), and Thekkini (southern block). The architecture was especially provisioned to large families of the traditional tharavadu, to live under one roof and enjoy the commonly owned facilities and services of the marumakkathayam homestead.

Ettukettu, which is eight halls with two central yards) or Pathinarukettu, which is sixteen halls with four central yards, is the further elaborate forms of the same architecture. Every structure faces the sun, and in some well-conditioned designed nalukettu, there’s excellent ventilation as well. Temperatures, indeed in the heat of summer, are markedly lower within the nalukettu.

Elements of Nalukettu and Ettukettu

It’s a structure containing a door, forming part of the boundary wall for the house with a tiled roof on top. It’s the formal entry to the site with the house. 

It’s the porch of the house led by steps. Traditionally, it has a pitch-tiled roof with pillars supporting the same. 

Chuttu gallery

In Kerala architecture, the poomukham is accompanied by an open passage, the chuttu gallery, which leads to either side of the house surrounding it. 

Charupadi 

Along the chuttu gallery and the poomukham are traditionally sculpted, rustic, wooden, or cement benches. These benches are called charupadi. 

Ambal Kulam

Nearly every Nalukettu has its own Kulam or Pond for bathing of its members. At the end of Chuttu verandah, there is a small pond constructed with debris on sides where lotus or Ambal is planted. The water bodies are maintained to maintain energy flow inside. 

Nadumuttam 

A typical Nadumuttom of Kerala Nalukettu is a courtyard placed at the prime center of the Nalukettu. This is surrounded by an open corridor square-shaped, in the exact middle of the house dividing the house into its four sides.

Key Features of Vernacular Architecture of Kerala

Orientation and planning.

Kerala experiences a hot and humid climate and hence the orientation of the building becomes one of the crucial aspects of planning. 

The building should face the direction of the prevailing winds rather than the sun. This helps in maintaining cross ventilation in a humid climate. Houses preferably face East direction according to the direction of prevailing winds. 

Cross ventilation

The juxtaposition of open-and-closed spaces in a way to allows a continuous flow of air.

Being in a tropical climate, cross ventilation plays an important role in creating comfortable spaces. The presence of high moisture content in hot air causes discomfort for the user. 

Courtyard spaces are extensively used in houses of Kerala of all scales. It helps in achieving passive cooling and reduces the dependence on HVAC systems. It also helps to induce continuous air movement.

Openings in walls facing each other and internal partitions help in increasing cross-ventilation. Using vertical louvers and large window shutters helps to reduce thermal discomfort with ample daylight.  

Solar Shading

The temperature in Kerala can rise to up to 40 degrees Celsius in summers . Therefore, sun shading strategies and elements become vital. 

Traditional buildings in Kerala have an internal and external verandah. The external verandah acts as buffer space to reduce direct exposure to sunlight, whereas the internal verandah allows light to enter the building via a courtyard.

The east and west façade should be least exposed to the sun to prevent late afternoon and early morning heat. One way is to have dense tree plantations around these façades.

Overhangs, louvers, canopies, and so on are used for shading. Shading devices for doors and windows are also used to avoid solar heat gain.

Roof Insulation

The most distinctive visual form of Kerala’s architecture is the high, steep sloping roof with eaves constructed to shade the walls of the house and to repel the heavy thunderstorm, typically laid with tiles or thatch, and supported on a roof framework made of hardwood and timber. Structurally, the roof frame is supported on the pillars standing on a raised platform from the ground, for protection against moistness and insects in the tropical climate. Many times, the walls are also made of timber, locally available in Kerala. 

Gable windows were introduced at either end of the roof to maximize attic ventilation of the room when the ceiling was incorporated for these spaces. Most structures of Kerala appear to be low height visually, because of high, steep sloping of roofs, which cover walls from rains and direct sunshine. 

Prevention from Rain

Kerala receives heavy rainfall for a significant part of the year which requires effective solutions to endure the extreme climatic conditions.

Buildings should be placed at a high plinth to restrict water from entering inside. Sloping roof should be provided to avoid the accumulation of rainwater on the surfaces.

Commonly Used Materials

Kerala architecture uses local materials that are locally available and also sustainable. Some of the commonly used building materials in the Kerala area are bamboo , earth, lime, timber, leaves, and so on.

Laterite is a hardened earth layer formed because of the weathering action of acid jewels. It is dug out from the earth and its compressive strength can be significantly higher than that of burnt clay bricks. It is non-porous and has poor water retention capacity. It is found 3 to 15 meters below the ground. The top one to two meters is soft, and the bottom merges with the clay layer. Laterite can be called the “Blessing of Kerala” since 80 percent of the state is covered with it. In Kerala, the foundations were erected with laterite blocks. 

Laterite has been extensively used for constructing the superstructure. Using burnt bricks for construction was rare, except with a few palaces. Currently, the laterite blocks can be machine cut as well. The advantage of these machine-cut blocks is that they have much higher compressive strength. The disadvantage is that these have to be transported over a long distance, ergo the process involves further energy.

Lime, which was obtained from shells, was burnt in kilns and used as mortar in structures in Kerala. It was produced by beating it round with a stiff bristle encounter, after adding water. It was beaten with a special rustic tool in tanks specifically made for this purpose. This process helped to increase its strength and plasticity, reducing the amount of water to be added. This is beneficial as the strength of lime further improves when lower water is used, and when it’s air-dried. Many organic details were also added to increase the strength of the lime, hence the mortar. 

In theory, it is believed that lime has a lot of disadvantages like slow setting, not having enough strength, and so on. But, in contrast, lime is significantly sustainable as a binding material, as various studies show that it is much lower energy-consuming when compared with cement. Cement is a high energy-consuming material with limestone as one of the main constituents for its manufacture. When cement is used as mortar in a wall, the bricks cannot be recovered for play, if the structure is demolished latterly. If lime is used, the bricks can be reused, which eventually makes lime mortar more sustainable.

Granite is the most common stone used for construction in Kerala. Traditional Kerala houses use a granite slab below the ground to avoid the risk of dampness. Whereas thatch or clay tiles on the sloped roof, keep it dry. 

The state does not have deposits of limestone or sandstone. Granite is a hard stone and is used in the foundations. It has been infrequently used for the superstructure until lately. 

In the olden days, it was a locally available material, but now big quarries have come up in the western ghats, many of whom are present in vulnerable and fragile areas. Granite that is being excavated from these places is not sustainable, because of the adverse impact it causes on our terrain as landslides and other natural disasters.

Timber is one of the most used structural materials in Kerala. It was extensively available in many kinds and with high durability as well. Teak, jack wood, Anjili wood, and Thembavu were some of the commonly used types of timber. 

Structures with timber walls were constructed in Travancore till about 100 years ago. The vernacular architecture of Kerala considerably uses timber for walls, doors, windows, intermediate floors, and roofs. 

The biggest advantage of timber is that by using them in our buildings, the carbon gets locked. Trees are the only things that can convert carbon dioxide in the atmosphere into oxygen. If timber is allowed to decay or used as firewood, then the carbon is released back into the atmosphere, completing the carbon cycle.

Every timber that we use in our structures needs not be sustainable. However, also it is less sustainable if the source of the timber is from cutting down virgin forests.

In earlier times, several large structures were constructed using earth or mud. The sun-dried mud bricks may be used for the alternate story of a two-story structure, with the ground bottom made of laterite. They may also be used for the less important corridor of structures. Using earth blocks (without ramming or sun-dried bricks) was popular among the poorer sections of society. 

Many structures constructed with laterite also use earth as mortar to save the cost of construction. The general print of the public is that a structure with earth blocks is sustainable. But most times, it need not be true. 

The cost of the superstructure of a structure is only 15-20 percent of the overall cost of construction, meaning the rest of the structural units need not be sustainable at all. When the earth from the structure point is used, it becomes very sustainable. But if the material has to be transported over a distance, also the embodied energy will go over, reducing the sustainability factor. Strengthening of earth blocks by cement will also reduce the sustainability aspect. If interlocking earth blocks are used, also the sustainable character will be more since no cement mortar is involved.

Influence of Vastu Shastra

One can notice the strong influence of Vastu shastra’ s study on the architecture of Kerala. The basic underlying belief is that every structure erected on earth has its own life, with a soul and personality which is shaped by its surroundings. The most important wisdom which Kerala has developed purely indigenously is Thachu-Shastra (Science of Carpentry) as the easy vacuity of timber and its heavy use of it.

From cattle sheds to trees, everything used to be planned and laid according to the ancient texts of shastra.

In traditional houses, the kitchen is strategically placed in the northeast corner as the prevailing winds blow from the southwest direction. These houses have pitched roofs and if the roof catches fire at any point, it will be blown away by the prevailing winds. A well would also be constructed close to it. In a house with a courtyard, the main living area is always in the southwest part, away from the fireplace. The puja room of the house is placed in the northeast corner and the idols face either east or west direction. 

In two to three-storied houses of Noth Kerala, the northeast part is usually a single storey because of the kitchen. The bedrooms are present upstairs in the southwest direction.

There has been a rapid change in the architectural fraternity in the past two decades. The new trend has been fast-paced racing towards quantity over quality. Using craftsmen has declined considerably.

Therefore, to get out of this present crisis, an architecture typology, like the vernacular architecture of Kerala, that suits the environment, climate, and the people, should be developed. A blend of vernacular architecture with modern needs seems an appropriate solution.

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• Published: 28 April 2021

Resilience of vernacular and modernising dwellings in three climatic zones to climate change

• Khadeeja Henna 1 ,
• Aysha Saifudeen 1 , 2 &
• Monto Mani 1  

Scientific Reports volume  11 , Article number:  9172 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Climate change impacts buildings in multiple ways, including extreme weather events and thermal stresses. Rural India comprising 65% of the population is characterised by vernacular dwellings evolved over time to passively regulate and maintain comfortable indoors. Increasing modernization in rural habitations (transitions) evident from the ingress of modern materials and electro-mechanical appliances undermines the ability of building envelopes to passively regulate and maintain comfortable indoors. While such trends are deemed good for the economy, their underlying implications in terms of climate change have not been adequately examined. The current study evaluates the climate-resilience of vernacular dwellings and those undergoing transitions in response to three climate-change scenarios, viz, A1B (rapid economic growth fuelled by balanced use of energy sources), A2 (regionally sensitive economic development) and B1 (structured economic growth and adoption of clean and resource efficient technologies). The study examines dwellings characteristic to three rural settlements representing three major climate zones in India and involves both real-time monitoring and simulation-based investigation. The study is novel in investigating the impact of climate change on indoor thermal comfort in rural dwellings, adopting vernacular and modern materials. The study revealed higher resilience of vernacular dwellings in response to climate change.

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Introduction.

Climate change and its effect on human health, economy and environment is one of the most widely researched topics in the twenty-first century. Building and construction industry, the highest contributor to global emissions and climate change, is responsible for 39% of the global energy- and process-related emissions, with 17% from residential sector 1 . However, buildings are also the most vulnerable to climate change, especially in progressive and developing regions. Climate change could involve gradual/abrupt changes in temperatures to unprecedented rains, floods and cyclones. It impacts building thermal comfort, alters operating conditions and energy demands while rendering existing appliances inadequate 2 . This impact is evident as altered comfortable temperature conditions and increased heating/cooling energy demand. In 2018, 22% of the global final energy was consumed by residential buildings 1 , with 40% of energy utilization on space conditioning. This is projected to increase by 40% by 2050 over 2010 levels based on International Energy Agency’s (IEA) 6 ºC (6DS) scenario 3 . The energy consumed by buildings varies depending on the climate, lifestyle and building typology. Per capita energy consumed by buildings in prosperous countries in a cold climate zone like the United States or Canada, could be 5–10 times that of low-income countries in a warm climate zone in Africa or Latin America 4 . In 2018, India’s per capita residential energy consumption was less than 0.6 MWh while that of the US was over 10 MWh 5 . While 66% of India’s population resides in rural areas, only 18% of US population is rural 6 . However, unlike in westernised regions, the disparity in energy consumption between rural and urban India is huge (96 kWh in rural areas, 288 kWh in urban areas as in 2009) 7 . A 4 × increase in embodied energy (EE) and a 40 × increase in operational energy (OE) respectively has been observed with buildings transitioning from vernacular to modern 8 . If rural life in India rapidly transitions towards global urban lifestyles, the ecological stresses (resource extraction and greenhouse gas emissions) could exasperate global efforts to mitigate climate change. The national statistics indicate rapid transition from traditional climate-responsive houses constructed using locally available materials towards an urban-like dwellings adopting industry manufactured, energy-intensive materials, disregarding the local climate. In 2001, clay tiles roofs (32.5%) had given way to concrete (29%) by 2011 9 . A growth of 89% in the use of concrete and 76% increase in metal/asbestos roofing sheets has been witnessed between 2001 and 2011.

While vernacular dwellings have evolved to passively maintain comfortable indoors, modern dwellings inevitably rely on energy-intensive appliances for comfort. Modern buildings tend to be energy-intensive and result in huge emissions through their lifecycle. Residential energy consumption in India in 2014 was 50 times that in 1971 10 . Such increase could cripple global efforts to mitigate climate change. On the other hand, vernacular dwellings could hold key solutions for mitigation and adaptation to climate change, given their capability to withstand wider temperature variations with lower lifecycle energy-resource intensity 11 . This study attempts to assess the thermal performance of vernacular dwellings in three climate zones in India and the effect of material transitions on the thermal performance of these dwellings. The study also investigates the impact of climate change on their performance.

Literature review

The effect and severity of climate change on thermal comfort in dwellings can be measured as change in heating and/or cooling demand and resulting energy consumption. Severe cold climates are expected to witness reduction in heating demands, while warmer climates are expected to witness considerable increase in cooling demand 12 . The impact of climate change also varies according to building type. Wang and Chen 13 , studied impact of climate change on seven commercial buildings and two residential buildings in different climate zones across the US and found a net increase in energy consumption in warm and moderate climates while a net decrease in energy consumption in colder climates. Karimpour et al. 14 investigated the impact of different building envelope (insulation and glazing) configurations in mild Australian temperate climate on energy consumption in current and future climates and recommended higher insulation, double glazing and low emittance glass in response to increased cooling energy demand. Huang and Gurney 15 studied US building stock, focusing on commercial building types, across three building age classes- pre-1980, post-1980 and new-2004, to understand their performance under climate change. The buildings equipped with the newest technology with more energy efficient equipment and better insulation exhibited higher efficiency in maintaining comfortable indoor environment.

Naturally ventilated (NV) vernacular dwellings constructed using local materials have lower embodied energy and ecological footprint. Mani et al. 16 estimated the ecological footprint of conventional dwellings to be 2.5 times that of traditional dwellings in West Bengal, India. Vernacular buildings also tend to be resilient in wider range of temperatures in providing comfort when compared to conventional buildings 17 , 18 , 19 . Dili et al. 20 studied vernacular and conventional dwellings in Kerala, India, with warm-humid climate, and confirmed that vernacular dwellings outperformed conventional dwellings in maintaining indoor comfort across seasons. Shastry et al. 21 studied the impact of modern transitions on rural dwellings in West Bengal, India, and found an increase in average indoor temperatures from 7 to 10 °C. Given the lower EE and OE energy and higher resilience to maintain indoor thermal comfort in response to wider variations in weather conditions, vernacular dwellings could hold important insights for mitigation and adaptation to climate change.

Methodology

India is broadly classified into five climatic zones- hot-dry, warm-humid, composite, temperate and cold 22 . In this study, three distinct villages belonging to warm-humid, temperate and cold climate zones have been selected to represent warm, moderate and cold climatic conditions in India, respectively. A typical vernacular dwelling from each village was selected for detailed investigation into climate-resilience. Real-time indoor air temperatures at different locations in the dwellings were recorded at 30-min intervals using calibrated Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) data loggers (0.05 °C resolution and ± 1 °C accuracy). Real-time measurement of indoor parameters proceeded according to Class III level of detail as defined in 23 , widely adopted in thermal comfort field study research. It was important to prevent the loggers from interfering with the daily lives of the inhabitants as these loggers were being installed in occupied houses for almost a year. Calibrated simulation models of the vernacular dwellings were developed using DesignBuilder (v 3.4), an integrated building performance simulation package 24 . The model calibration essentially involved a correlation with real-time climatic-performance data (see Sect.  4 ). In order to examine performance of vernacular dwellings in response to climate change, weather files for both typical and future climate scenarios were generated using Meteonorm . Meteonorm is a global climatological tool, that derives data from weather stations between 1991 and 2010 and integrates IPCC AR4 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change- Fourth Assessment Report) emission scenarios 25 . Three future scenarios, namely, A1B (rapid economic growth fuelled by balanced fossil/non-fossil energy use), A2 (regionally oriented economic development characterised by less innovation) and B1 (structured economic growth and adoption of clean and resource efficient technologies) are explored in this paper. Both A1B and A2 are high emission scenarios, with A2 resulting in higher global surface warming in the second half of the twenty-first century. B1 on the other hand is one of the scenarios with lowest emissions and global surface warming 26 . Modern transitions in each of the habitations were studied based on trends revealed through satellite imagery, field visits and government reports, and were incorporated in the simulation models to examine the impact of future climate change scenarios.

This study comprises three agrarian rural settlements (Fig.  1 ) namely Suggenahalli, Karnataka (12.816° N, 76.993° E), Dasenahalli, Karnataka (13.146° N, 77.465° E) and Bisoi, Uttarakhand (30.971° N, 77.928° E) belonging to warm-humid, temperate and cold climate zones respectively. In addition to the willingness of the inhabitants, these settlements were identified for unique vernacular architecture (Table 1 ) and an evident trend of modern transitions. The vernacular dwellings in these villages are naturally ventilated and constructed using locally available materials with local traditional know-how passed over generations.

(Adapted from National Building Code of India, 2005 22 ) and selected rural settlements: Figure shows the location of the rural settlements studied in this paper on the climate zone map of India. Suggenahalli lies in Warm-humid zone, Dasenahalli in Temperate zone and Bisoi in Cold zone. The authors used Autodesk AutoCAD 2018 (Product version: O.49.0.0 AutoCAD 2018) https://www.autodesk.com/products/autocad/overview?support=ADVANCED&plc=ACDIST&term=1-YEAR&quantity=1 to draw the map and mark the rural settlements on it.

Climatic zones in India.

The proximity and improved connectivity of Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli to Bengaluru city and Bisoi to Dehradun has helped spur modern lifestyles. Access to electricity and modern construction materials is evident as transitions in the dwellings. These transitions that mimic urban habitations are characteristic to many rural habitation and involve traditional local materials giving way to energy-intensive exotic materials 8 , 27 , 28 .

Transitions in vernacular dwellings were characterised by progressive inclusion of modern materials, while retaining the original form. Newer constructions adopted modern construction materials, seldom carrying a semblance of traditional form and indoor spaces. In Suggenahalli (Fig.  2 a–c), the thick rubble walls were increasingly being replaced by slender brick masonry, the pitched clay-tile roofs were replaced by flat AC sheet roofing and then by reinforced cement concrete (RCC) slabs, and the cool earthen floors have made way to cement flooring. In Dasenahalli (Fig.  2 d–f), clay from the agricultural fields were moulded into mud blocks to construct walls. These walls were increasingly being replaced by cement blocks, pitched clay tiled roof by tin/AC sheets and ultimately by flat RCC roof and the mud flooring by cement and tiles. Bisoi, which once depended on forest-harvested timber for houses, is faced with state regulations restricting the use of forest produce. This also has forced villagers to look for alternate building materials, with the older generation preferring vernacular dwellings, and the younger city-educated/employed generation preferring conventional dwellings. The geographic isolation by mountain ranges has moderated the rate of transitions and helped in higher retention of vernacular dwellings. The transitions in Bisoi (Fig.  2 g–i) mostly involve replacing of timber walls on the first floor by brick walls while retaining the ground floor stone and timber wall construction, the slate roof by metal sheets and pitched RCC roof and mud/timber flooring by cement flooring. Flat RCC roofs originally constructed revealed cracks under heavy snow load and were eventually replaced by sloping RCC roof. In all the three villages, material transitions remained the most prominent and evident type of transition. The current study examines the primary material transition in vernacular dwellings retaining their form and orientation for their thermal performance and resilience to climate change. Table 2 summarises the vernacular and conventional building materials used in constructing the simulation models for the three case studies.

Stages of material transition (from left to right) in vernacular dwellings in the three villages: Stages of transition in the use of construction materials for each rural settlement is shown in the figure. Images in each row from left to right shows transition from traditional materials to conventional materials. ( a ), ( d ) and ( g ) represents the typical vernacular construction using traditional materials in Suggenahalli, Dasenahalli and Bisoi, respectively. ( b ), ( e ) and ( h ) represent a common intermediate stage in the process of transition using conventional but mostly temporary materials in the three villages. ( c ), ( f ) and ( i ) are the final products of transitions in the three villages using conventional factory-made materials which are more permanent in nature.

Studies focusing on naturally ventilated buildings rely on adaptive thermal comfort models to assess building climatic performance. These models more precisely accommodate the natural physiological ability to adapt indoor comfort requirements in response to external climatic (temperature) conditions. The performance of dwellings in this study adopts Adaptive Heating and Cooling Degree Days (AHDD and ACDD) calculated based on the Adaptive thermal comfort model (ATCM) incorporated in the ASHRAE 55 standard, 2010 29 . ATCM takes into account the acceptability of wider range of temperatures by occupants in naturally ventilated buildings, especially in tropical climates 30 . It illustrates a linear dependence of indoor operative temperatures on mean monthly outdoor temperatures and also describes a 90% and 80% acceptability limits indicating the percentage of occupants expressing comfort 31 . The days when indoor temperatures exceed acceptability limits, the corresponding ACDD and AHDD are computed as a measure of the augmented cooling or heating need (see Fig.  3 ):

Representation of ACDD and AHDD based on Adaptive Thermal comfort model, ASHRAE 55: The plot shown in the figure represents the Adaptive thermal comfort model defined in ASHRAE 55. Solid line indicates 80% acceptability limits and dotted line indicates 90% acceptability limits. Figure depicts the method adopted for calculating Adaptive Heating Degree Days (AHDD) and Adaptive Cooling Degree Days (ACDD). Indoor operative temperatures falling above or below the 80% acceptability limits multiplied by the duration for which the temperature lasts are used to calculate ACDD and AHDD, respectively. Duration for which the indoor operative temperatures fall above the 80% acceptability limit will require active cooling to attain comfort. Similarly, duration for which the indoor operative temperatures fall below the 80% acceptability limit will require active heating for comfort.

where \(T_{op.i}\) is the daily operative temperatures and \(T_{b.m}^{ul}\) and \(T_{b.m}^{ll}\) are the upper and lower limits of the monthly base temperature above and below which cooling and heating requirements surface. \(T_{b.m}^{ul}\) and \(T_{b.m}^{ll}\) are calculated based on ATCM for each month using the relation:

where T mm is the mean monthly outdoor temperature and x is the variability based on acceptability limit, which is 3.5 for 80% acceptability and 2.5 for 90% acceptability 31 , 32 .

Model calibration

ASHRAE Guideline 14 suggest use of Mean Bias Error (MBE) and Coefficient of Variation of Root Mean Square Error (CV RMSE) for calibration of simulation model based on measured performance data 33 , 34 , 35 . MBE and CV RMSE indicate the relative and accumulated divergences between measured and simulated value, respectively. According to the guideline, for an acceptable calibrated simulation model, MBE hourly data should lie within ± 10% and CV RMSE hourly data should not exceed 30%. For this study, the simulated indoor air temperatures were calibrated based on real time measurements. Royapoor and Roskilly 36 in their study on performance of an office building had validated their EnergyPlus virtual building model by calculating MBE and CV RMSE. For better reliability, ASHRAE recommends using both statistical and graphical approaches to model calibration 33 , 37 , which has been adopted in this study: firstly, by graphically comparing the measured and simulated indoor air temperatures, and secondly, by calculating the MBE and CV RMSE. Figure  4 illustrates the concurrence between measured and simulated weeklong summer and winter temperatures for the three case studies. Since summer data for Bisoi was not accessible, a warm week in October was relied on as representative for summer. A one-on-one match between real-time and simulated temperature is rarely feasible given the variability in the external climatic data between the simulation model and on-site conditions. Also, variations attributed to non-routine indoor occupancy are difficult to precisely predict and include in the simulation model 38 , 39 . This approach to calibration has been adopted for reliable building performance studies 36 , 37 , 39 , 40 . Figure  5 illustrates the MBE and CV RMSE for the three simulation models being well within recommended favourable limits for calibration. Moreover, the lower error values indicate improved reliability of the simulation results 33 , 35 . MBE and CV RMSE between measured and simulation data are calculated using Eqs. ( 5 ) and ( 6 ):

where m i and s i are measured and simulated data points for i th hour, \(\overline{m}\) is the average of measured data points and N is the total number of data points.

Comparison of simulated and measured temperature data for a representative week-long period in Summer and Winter for the dwellings studied in the three settlements: Figure shows comparison of measured and simulated hourly indoor air temperatures (in °C) for a representative week in winter and summer for the three dwellings to understand how the simulation model has been able to represent the actual indoor operating conditions prevailing in the dwellings. Solid blue line shows the real-time temperature measurements recorded by the loggers, while the dotted orange line shows the simulated data. The simulation models tend to closely imitate real-time operating conditions, suggesting that the models are representative enough to be used for studying the behaviour of the original dwellings.

MBE and CV RMSE between measured and simulated temperature data for the dwellings in the three settlements: Figure shows the Mean Bias Error (MBE) and Coefficient of Variation of Root Mean Square Error (CV RMSE) in percentage calculated between the measured and simulated indoor air temperature data for the dwellings studied in each of the three settlements. The blue coloured solid bar shows MBE, while orange coloured bar with diagonal stripes shows CV RMSE. Both MBE and CV RMSE for all the three settlements are within the limits prescribed by ASHRAE 14 guideline.

With regards to climate change scenarios, for both Dasenahalli and Suggenahalli, the likely outdoor temperatures are much higher than the prevalent trends for all the three scenarios, with a steady decadal increase (see Fig.  6 a, b, d and e). A1B witnesses the highest increase in temperature across the years while B1 had the lowest. Notably, increase in summer (March–May) temperatures are higher than increase in winter (December–February) temperatures. In Bisoi (Fig.  6 c and f), the prevalent mean monthly temperatures ranging from 6 to 22 °C narrowed to 8–21 °C in the future years, while also registering a decadal increase. Here, while future winter temperatures are likely to increase, summer temperatures are likely to decrease.

( a )–( c ) Mean monthly outdoor air temperatures for typical and A1B scenario for 2030, 2040 and 2050 and ( d ), ( e ) the range of daily outdoor air temperatures for the three settlements for typical scenario and all future scenarios: ( a ), ( b ) and ( c ) shows the mean monthly outdoor air temperature (in °C) for typical scenario and A1B scenario for the years 2030, 2040 and 2050 for the rural settlements Suggenahalli, Dasenahalli and Bisoi, respectively. The same is not shown for A2 and B1 scenarios but they show similar trend with increasing temperatures with each passing decade. ( d ), ( e ) and ( f ) show the range of outdoor air temperatures (in °C) for typical and all three scenarios for future years 2030, 2040 and 2050 for the rural settlements Suggenahalli, Dasenahalli and Bisoi, respectively. The temperatures tend to increase with each decade with the highest increase in A1B scenario and lowest in B1 scenario for both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli. In case of Bisoi winters tend to get warmer than typical conditions while summers tend to get cooler than typical conditions. The decadal increase in temperature can be witnessed here as well.

Figure  7 shows daily indoor temperature distribution in the vernacular and conventional dwelling in both typical and future A1B climate scenario for the three cases. The graphs reveal the % days/year with an average daily temperature greater than the value on the abscissa. In the vernacular dwelling in Suggenahalli (Fig.  7 a), climate change tends to increase indoor temperatures in the future. When the indoor temperatures exceeded 30 °C for only 2% of days in a normal year, in 2030, 16% of the days revealed temperature above 30 °C. A similar trend can also be noted in the conventional dwelling (Fig.  7 b). In typical climate the indoor temperatures in conventional dwelling exceeded 30 °C for 24% of the days and 34 °C for 2% of the days. By 2030, indoor temperatures exceeded 30 °C for 34% of the days and 34 °C for 8% of the days. The persistence of higher temperatures in conventional dwelling shows the effect of material transitions. Dasenahalli (Fig.  7 c and d) also shows a similar trend, though the difference between vernacular and conventional dwelling is not as high. In typical climate, average daily indoor temperatures exceed 26 °C, 17% of the days in vernacular dwelling and 18% in conventional dwelling. Climate change does influence the thermal environment in the dwellings and tends to increase the daily indoor temperatures as is evident from the figure. The temperature in both the dwellings does not exceed 32 °C in any case. Bisoi (Fig.  7 e and f) recorded a wider temperature range from 8 to 28 °C. Even though there is a general increase in temperatures due to climate change, at higher temperatures the trend reverses. Future years does not witness an increase in higher temperatures compared to typical climate. The daily indoor temperature in both the dwellings does not exceed 28 °C. Bisoi being in cold climate zone, the concern should be on the persistence of lower temperatures. In vernacular dwelling, temperature falls below 16 °C, 24% of the time in typical climate while in 2030 A1B scenario it falls below 16 °C for 22% of the time. While in conventional dwelling, temperature falls below 16 °C, 13% of the time in typical climate while in 2030 A1B scenario it falls below 16 °C for 23% of the time. Transitions and climate change seem to maintain comfortable temperature range indoors.

Percentage of days above a daily temperature given on abscissa for vernacular and conventional dwelling in the three settlements for typical scenario and future years under A1B scenario: Each bar in the plot shows the percentage of days in a year for which the mean daily indoor air temperature (in °C) is greater than the corresponding temperature (in °C) given on the abscissa. The plot helps to understand the range of temperatures and extent to which those temperatures prevail inside a dwelling throughout the year. This is shown for typical scenario and future years for A1B scenario. ( a ) and ( b ) shows the same for vernacular and conventional dwelling in Suggenahalli, ( c ) and ( d ) for dwellings in Dasenahalli and ( e ) and ( f ) for dwellings in Bisoi. Higher temperatures tend to persist in the dwellings in future years compared to typical conditions especially for conventional dwelling in case of both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli. This is more evident in Suggenahalli than Dasenahalli. In the case of Bisoi, the frequency of lower temperatures in higher in the future compared to typical conditions, while frequency of higher temperature is higher in typical conditions than future years.

In Fig.  8 , the daily operative temperatures for each dwelling in the three villages are plotted against mean monthly daily temperatures for typical climate and future years for A1B scenario. It also shows the 80% acceptability limits as prescribed by ASHRAE 55. This figure forms the basis for the calculation of ACDD and AHDD. The vernacular dwelling in Suggenahalli (Fig.  8 a) maintains an indoor operative temperature within the acceptability limits for most part of the year for typical climate but exceeds the upper limit for future years at higher outdoor temperatures. On the other hand, the conventional dwelling (Fig.  8 b) fails to maintain indoor temperatures within the acceptability limits for both typical as well as future years for large part of the year. This shows that transitions hugely impact the indoor operative conditions in the dwelling. In the case of Dasenahalli (Fig.  8 c and d), the indoor operative temperatures are maintained within the acceptability limits for both vernacular and conventional dwellings for typical climate and future years. In Bisoi (Fig.  8 e and f), for both the dwellings, the temperatures fall below the lower acceptability limit for a large part of the year for typical climate and future years.

Indoor operative temperature against mean monthly outdoor air temperature for vernacular and conventional dwellings in the three settlements in typical and future climate for A1B scenario: Each plot shows the daily indoor operative temperatures (in °C) inside the dwelling throughout a year plotted against mean outdoor air temperature (in °C) for the corresponding month. The two dotted lines shown in each figure indicates the 80% acceptability limits prescribed by ASHRAE 55 Adaptive thermal comfort model. The points lying within the 80% acceptability limit band are considered to be comfortable by at least 80% of the inhabitants, while those lying outside indicate thermal discomfort. Higher number of points lying outside the band indicate higher discomfort in the given dwelling. Comparing ( a ) and ( b ), conventional dwelling tends to be highly uncomfortable throughout the year for typical as well as future scenarios. Comparing ( c ) and ( d ), there is only marginal difference between vernacular and conventional dwelling in Dasenahalli. Comparing ( e ) and ( f ), though both vernacular and conventional dwelling tend to be uncomfortable at lower outdoor temperatures, vernacular dwelling seems to be warmer than conventional dwelling providing better comfort in cold weather.

As followed in the comparative evaluation of vernacular buildings under climate change, AHDD and ACDD were computed for the material transitions in dwellings under typical and future (A1B, A2 and B1) climate scenarios. The dwelling in Suggenahalli (Fig.  9 a–c), being in a warm-humid climate zone, do not require any heating throughout the year for all scenarios alike. For the vernacular dwelling, ACDD tend to be quite low in typical climate with small increase in future years. Both climate change and transitions tend to have a serious effect on thermal comfort inside the dwelling in warm-humid climate zone. When the building materials changed from vernacular to modern, ACDD increased from 4 to 246 in typical climate condition (4 to 167 in summer and 0 to 36 in winter). This high difference in degree days between vernacular and conventional dwelling is evident from Fig.  8 a and b shows that a large number of data points lie above the acceptability limit in conventional dwelling compared to vernacular dwelling. Climate change further increased ACDD in the future years with highest increase in A1B scenario and lowest in A2 scenario. Cooling requirement increases considerably due to climate change and transitions especially in summer. In the case of Dasenahalli (Fig.  9 d–f), both AHDD and ACDD are very low in both vernacular and conventional dwelling in typical climate. ACDD is zero in all future years while AHDD, though small, steadily increases in future years, especially for A1B scenario. Transition also affects the thermal comfort in the dwellings where transitions increased both ACDD and AHDD in typical climate, marking an increase in cooling as well as heating demand. In all future years across scenarios, transitions increase ACDD in the dwelling. In Dasenahalli, ACDD and AHDD are not severe enough to require cooling or heating appliances. Bisoi (Fig.  9 g–i) being in cold climate zone, does not require cooling throughout the year for both typical as well as future climatic conditions. The warming climate in Bisoi tend to decrease heating demand in the dwelling in both vernacular and conventional dwelling. Transitions have an adverse effect on the thermal comfort in the dwelling as it increases heating demand in the dwelling by an average of 25% compared to the vernacular dwelling in winter. This shows the effectiveness of insulation provided by the timber walls and the timber and slate roofing in vernacular dwelling over conventional materials.

All year, summer and winter AHDD and ACDD for the dwellings in the three villages for typical and future climate scenarios: Each plot depicts the Adaptive heating degree days (AHDD) and Adaptive cooling degree days (ACDD) calculated for vernacular and conventional dwelling for typical scenario and future years 2030, 2040 and 2050 for A1B, A2 and B1 scenarios. Plots from left to right shows typical and future ACDD and AHDD calculated for the entire year, for summer and winter for each rural settlement for both vernacular and conventional dwelling. From ( a ), ( b ) and ( c ) conventional dwelling in Suggenahalli tend to demand active cooling for most part of the year compared to vernacular dwelling. In case of Dasenahalli ( d ), ( e ) and ( f ), it can be seen that demand for heating or cooling is fairly low, cooling demand is slightly higher in conventional dwelling. From ( g ), ( h ) and ( i ), heating demand is high in both dwellings in Bisoi, especially in winter, with heating demand higher in conventional dwelling than vernacular dwelling.

The study investigated the effect of climate change and material transitions (replacing local traditional materials with conventional materials) on vernacular dwellings in three villages in India across three different climate zones. The impact of climate change on the dwellings were examined for the years 2030, 2040 and 2050 under the IPCC SRES scenarios A1B, A2 and B1 and compared with typical climate which is an average of 20 years of recorded weather data. In both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli, climate change increased the outdoor temperatures throughout the year affecting the indoor environment as well. The effect of climate change was more pronounced in the case of Suggenahalli located in warm-humid climate zone, making the indoors warmer than the typical, climate demanding the use of cooling appliances. Due to climate change, winter outdoor temperatures increased while summer temperatures decreased in Bisoi. Summer temperatures can be expected to increase further in the second half of the century. Climate change has helped increase indoor temperatures which reduced heating demand in the dwellings. In warm climates, A1B scenario had the worst impact on the weather and the indoor temperatures, while B1 scenario which was a low emission scenario had comparatively lower impact on the temperatures. On the other hand, in cold climates A1B helped reduce the heating demand much better than A2 and B1 scenarios.

For both Suggenahalli and Dasenahalli, the vernacular dwelling maintained comfortable indoor operating conditions for most part of the year. The conventional dwelling in Dasenahalli also was able to maintain comfortable indoor conditions. Transitions in Suggenahalli led to warmer indoor environment pushing it beyond the acceptability limits. In case of Bisoi, indoor temperatures fall below acceptability limit for both vernacular and conventional dwelling. The thermal insulation provided by the traditional materials in the vernacular dwelling helped it to perform better than the conventional dwelling in maintaining warmer indoors. Vernacular dwellings seem to perform better than the conventional dwellings in all the three cases for typical as well as future climate. Conventional dwelling that replaced the traditional materials with modern materials failed to adequately respond to changes in climate, compromising indoor thermal comfort and necessitating dependence on active space conditioning.

Modern material transitions in dwellings compromised the thermal comfort in the dwellings across all climate zones, though the effect was not severe in Temperate climate as it was in Warm-humid and  Cold climates. Climate change further exasperated the thermal comfort in dwellings in warm climates but seemed favourable in cold climates. The study helps to verify the climate-resilience of vernacular dwellings to perform in the context of much imminent climate change and shows that modern dwellings constructed using modern industry manufactured materials, to meet the modern aspirations of inhabitants may not perform in the event of climate change. This confirms the need for reinterpretation in design of houses that meet the modern aspirations of the people and perform in the future climate scenarios. The study indicates that vernacular dwellings hold key answers in the direction of mitigation and adaptation strategies in response to climate change and advocates designers to understand the present and future climatic conditions and future demands in the local context, to appreciate and scientifically validate traditional wisdom while designing buildings for the future. Designers must ensure that the dwellings they construct not only meet the aspirations of the modern inhabitant but also perform under future climatic pressures.

Limitations of the study and scope for future work

A country like India is home to diverse vernacular architecture which varies with climate, culture, customs, and available resources. This paper studies three rural settlements with unique vernacular architecture and evident transitions in three different climate zones in India. The authors have selected the settlements such that the vernacular architecture is representative of the climate zone they are in. Inclusion of more case studies and other climate zones would increase the scope of the paper and present a better estimate on the nature of transitions and their ramifications on resource and energy requirement and vulnerabilities to climate change. The current study is a step in this direction and is also a methodological contribution for such studies, tested for three diverse settlements. The selection of settlements for the study was difficult as it required a combination of both vernacular and modern dwellings and those that are in transition. Overcoming scepticism of villagers and gaining their trust was an important requirement to ensure the corporation of the villagers as the study extended for more than a year in each of the villages. Extending this study to cover the diversity of habitations in India, would require networking with local academic institutions, a larger group and a longer time to identify appropriate interventions/mitigation measures in response to climate change.

Understanding the contribution of each stage of transition on the thermal performance of the dwelling is also important to identify critical stages of transition and adopt preventive or adaptive strategies to improve thermal comfort in the dwelling without compromising the requirements of the inhabitants. Future work will involve investigation of individual stages of transitions and their effects on thermal comfort in the dwelling to assess the contribution of each transition on the performance of the dwellings. The study could subsequently evolve into regional building codes and recommendations for interventions in response to climate change, and the revalidation of vernacular building typologies for their relevance in the modern world. Further, the study could promote dependence on local decentralized circular economies that rely on local resources and skill, thereby lowering the global carbon footprint.

The current study is limited to understanding the thermal performance of the dwellings to changing climate. Studies have reported increased discomfort among occupants due to transitions 20 , 21 as well as climate change 2 . The response of the occupants to changing climate and performance of dwellings should shed light on possible adaptation strategies since rural population tend to be proactive in responding to change. Research reveals increased dependence on electro-mechanical equipment for thermal comfort, clothing adjustments and window operation as some of the major adaptation strategies 41 , 42 . Future work should aim to explore adaptation and mitigation strategies adopted in form, materials, or surface treatments in the dwelling elements and in clothing, window operation and use of spaces by the occupants.

However, understanding how people are going to change as climate warms, would involve intergenerational attitude and physiological studies, as current forecasts rely on thermal comfort responses valid for the current (adult) generation. Attitude is a critical determinant of sustainablity in human settlements and determines how the built environment evolves, with forcasting models relying on current generation attitudes 45 . In 2050, the present-day infants and youth would be the adults responsible for affecting changes or responses to climate change vulnerabilities. Given the diversity in ethnicity and other physiological differences, such studies on human exposure to climatic variations are extremely challenging in providing the causal basis required for forecasting 43 , 44 .

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Acknowledgements

We thank the Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science for providing the unwavering academic support and freedom to purse this valuable research. The current work has relied on and continued the sustained research by our SuDesi (Sustainability and Design) Lab in studying diverse building typologies. Thanks also to the SPARC (Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research Collaboration) initiative, which has been instrumental in our access to the dwellings in Bisoi.

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Centre for Sustainable Technologies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

Khadeeja Henna, Aysha Saifudeen & Monto Mani

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Henna, K., Saifudeen, A. & Mani, M. Resilience of vernacular and modernising dwellings in three climatic zones to climate change. Sci Rep 11 , 9172 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87772-0

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Vernacular architecture of Kerala in modern world: A way to sustainable development

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Kerala is a land of diverse cultures, traditions and art forms. Each art form has its own significance that represents the style of the specific region and culture. Many of the traditional art forms are going unappreciated and are declining. The revival of these art forms demands an infrastructure that creates an atmosphere reminiscent of Kerala’s traditional spaces, which helps to provide better awareness and visual experience for the spectator.

As an impact of globalisation, Kerala was influenced by various cultures around the world, which brought in changes to the traditional architecture of Kerala that had evolved over years. The changes in the build structures led to climatic changes and issues like global warming. It was not solely about the climatic and environmental issues, but also about the loss of the culture and identity of the state. These issues need to be addressed at the earliest, and this calls for the revival of traditional Kerala architecture in the modern world. The traditional Kerala architecture is unique, here the buildings are shaped by the region. These climate responsive buildings that evolved over time needs to be studied to understand how sustainability was the basic guideline for design process. The traditional way of planning spaces created healthier environment, people and community.

The proposed cultural performance centre in Kerala aims to bring back the traditional Kerala architecture for addressing various sustainability issues faced by the current era. The integration of these structures with the native Kerala landscape creates good quality outdoor and indoor environment.

Through the case study, the research focuses on sustainability potential of vernacular architecture of Kerala, and how the principles and strategies for sustainable development could be drawn from vernacular heritage and be integrated into structures of the present society. The research examines how the sustainable development goals were contained in the vernacular structures in Kerala and how the globalisation brought in changes to the architectural styles which in turn affected the environment, socio economic, and socio-cultural characters of the society.

The integration of traditional architectural principles and techniques of designing could be solutions to many sustainable development goals that include good health and well-being (SDG3), affordable energy by using passive methods (SDG 7), climate action (SDG 13) and create sustainable cities and communities (SDG11). The revival of the traditional architecture could make a change in the way of addressing sustainability issues that emerged as the result of globalisation over the years and it could help in creating sustainable and healthy communities. 

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Role of Earthen Materials in Rural Vernacular Architecture: The Case of Anavangot Ancestral Home

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Many scholars have recognised vernacular architecture as an important and relevant area of study, although it has not received the due it deserves. The focus of this paper is a study of the use of mud in vernacular building traditions through a case study of a 113-year-old home in Puthiyankam—a village in Kerala. This structure brought to the forefront the use of mud as a material in various contexts. The study draws focus on two stratigraphic contexts—the wall and roof where mud has been used thus bringing out its versatility.

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Dili A, Naseer M, Varghese T (2010) Thermal comfort study of Kerala traditional residential buildings based on questionnaire survey among occupants of traditional and modern buildings. Energy Build 42(11):2139–2150

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Vellinga M, Oliver P, Bridge A (2007) Atlas of vernacular architecture of the world. Routledge, New York

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Changali, S., Paul, R. (2019). Role of Earthen Materials in Rural Vernacular Architecture: The Case of Anavangot Ancestral Home. In: Reddy, B., Mani, M., Walker, P. (eds) Earthen Dwellings and Structures. Springer Transactions in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5883-8_37

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4 Kerala homes that pay homage to local, vernacular architecture

By AD Staff

Past Meets the Present in this Home by Attiks Architecture

Nestled in the lush green hilly residential area of Kondotty, Kerala is this expansive property filled with natural light and a serene ambience. While turning this inherited home into a modern dwelling, architect Naseem Pandara of Attiks Architecture decided to introduce fresh ideas into the home while retaining the vintage soul of spaces. The 20-year-old structure that previously stood on this property was completely demolished to give way to a new home. “Since it was a renovation project, a lot of restrictions in planning arose considering the old structure and its stability,” says Pandara. The contemporary home is a residence for PK Salam and Saleema Salam along with their five children and grandmother. The open spaces are bathed in sunlight that stream in through skylights and slit windows. Multipurpose rooms, designed strategically ensure that the family has enough space to socialise. Round windows in the dining area bring character to the home, breaking the uniformity of structure. Double-height ceilings and split levels allow one space to overlook the latter. “Natural materials which blend in with the design were incorporated into the home, with least possible altercation of the site,” avers Pandara. A relaxed ambience is created for the family to enjoy nature within the confines of their home.

A Palatial Property in Trivandrum, by S Squared Architects

For most of us, a home is a space that soothes and secures. But for some it's an architectural expression born out of love for creativity and technological innovations. Just like this one in Trivandrum. “The clients wanted a classical European style home. But they didn't want the grandeur and elegance of the space at the price of its basic functioning,” explains Shaji Vempanadan Varughese, Principal Architect, S Squared Architects Pvt. Ltd., Trivandrum. The team translated the vision into a classically inspired 55,000-square-feet palatial bungalow in Kerala , where colour and pattern, antiques and art serenely mix amid sink-into sofas and user-friendly nooks. A room can have too many things to look at. But the designers want your eye to be drawn to places where it can rest. Like the grand spiral staircase that connects all the four floors. The 15 feet Chihuly glass chandelier that hangs in the centre of the staircase makes an arresting presence. Other visual anchors include the stunning sculptures in the pool area as well as in the gardens. The caryatid columns of the gazebo have been custom made by the client to the size specified. A faux decorative fireplace made of teak sandstone is the focal element of the living room. Paintings and artworks collected over years of travel are littered all across the villa. It's a quirky house: asymmetrical and interesting, with surprises sprinkled in every corner.

By Nivedita Jayaram Pawar

By Devyani Jayakar

A Perfect Family Abode in Thrissur, by LIJO.RENY.architects

When a couple with four kids, residing in Sharjah approached Reny Lijo and Lijo Jos of LIJO.RENY.architects for building their home in Thrissur, Kerala, they were clear they wanted it to be more than a vacation home. ‘ The House within the Grid ', is located in a leafy surrounding, close to the beach. The home sits on a slightly elevated plot accessed by a silent road—hidden from public view, it has two distinct parallel bays that house different functional areas. While one bay has bedrooms spread across two levels, the other has a formal living room and common areas with a double-height ceiling. One of the requirements of the client was to keep this home off the grid which meant adding features like solar panels and water collection system for it to self-sustain without relying on external electricity and water. “We've added a series of solar panels on the large roofs to help produce the necessary power for the house. The roofs also help efficiently collect rainwater which then runs through a series of custom-designed stainless-steel rainwater drainpipes to the designated water collection chamber,” says Lijo. Another feature of this sprawling home is the effective cross-ventilation in each area. Thanks to the courtyards and open plan layout, there is natural ventilation that keeps the interiors cool during summer even if there is a power shortage. “The strategically laid out plan provides privacy to the members and also facilitates thorough cross-ventilation by channelling the seasonal shift of the predominant wind through its spaces by the virtue of its orientation. This keeps the rooms as airy as possible, maintaining low internal temperatures,” explains Jos. The use of sustainable measures makes this Kerala home one with nature.

Vastu-Compliant, Climate-Responsive Design, by Thought Parallels

Ranjith and Renu, a couple based in Dubai where traditions and cultures are poles apart from South India, wanted to pass on their values to their children, Jay and Nanda. A strong urge to build a family home with an affinity towards tradition coupled with contemporary styling was what they aspired for, so every visit to the house kept their children rooted to their family values. Their desire culminated into a 3500-square-feet standalone home named Traditional Affinity in scenic Kozhikode, executed by Nikhil Mohan and Shabna Nikhil, of Thought Parallels. The ground floor has a living room, dining room, puja room, entertainment room, an open kitchen, a utility kitchen and a master bedroom while the first floor has two bedrooms, a stair hall and a covered terrace which has since been converted into a utility space. A climate sensitive design with sloping roofs and large overhangs was positioned to combat Kerala's relentless monsoons. Semi-permeable spaces such as patio and large expanses of the veranda from the dining room take advantage of the beach city's tropical climate for natural lighting. Its linear horizontal lines and vast cantilevered roof weave around the resident trees, and large expanses of glass blur the spatial boundaries between the garden and the house. In keeping with the client's desire for a vastu-compliant house, the placement of spaces in the house is in sync with the plan of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. Thus, the positioning of the main areas of the house is according to the elements—master bedroom in the Earth Zone (South West ), kitchen in the Fire Zone (South East), and entrance in the Air Zone (North East).

By Deepa Nair

By Rupali Sebastian

By Alisha Lad

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PADMANABHAPURAM PALACE

5.0 case study.

The quite essential example of the vernacular architecture of Kerala is the Padmanabhapuram palace complex, located in Thuckalay of Tamilnadu, very adjacent to the Kerala border. Founded by the royal family of Travancore, the initial structures of the complex date from 1400s, with other buildings added incrementally over time.

It is one of the best examples of wooden architecture that has come to symbolise the vernacular architecture of Kerala. The palace complex is a masterpiece - an intriguing play of volumes, scale, spatial planning & courtyards, all of which have a strong underlying cohesiveness. The spaces move from the public spaces on the periphery to the more private spaces as one moves towards the core, reflected through variations in scale & proportion, producing very interesting spaces

The entrance to the complex is from the west, through a formal version of the

‘Padipura’ or the entrance gate, which is common in all the traditional dwellings of Kerala. The central locus of the entire composition is the Mother’s palace or the ‘Thai Kottaram’, around which all the other spaces are organised. There are separate halls for audiences & gatherings, a large dance hall, feeding halls of various sizes, kitchen, residences for the king & other dignitaries, weapons store, bath houses, offices and even a temple. There is also a 4 storeyed ‘Upprika Malika’ in the complex, constructed in the 1740s, which is a testament to the technological progress at that time. A 300 year old clock tower in the palace stands witness to the march of time and is still now in good working condition. Though there is no formal symmetrical spatial layout to be found as such, there lies a strong organisation principle, which creates a very coherent

& unifying whole. The various built spaces are interlinked & accessed through a series of courtyards & open spaces which vary volumetrically & in scale depending upon the level of privacy required, most often, being very intimate in nature.

FIG. 5.1/5.2_VIEW OF PADAMNABHAPURAM PALACE / PADIPURAM OF PALACE

vernacular architecture of Kerala 50

The roof forms are the most dominating element in the whole complex, which through their wonderful juxtaposition creates an impressive visual composition – an ever changing play of light, shadow & mass. The columns are mainly in wood & stone and support the wooden roof structure, which has been designed very creatively to be functional as well as aesthetic. There are strict rules & canons laid down in the ancient building science of Vastu Shastra, regarding the use of wood, techniques of joints, angles of roof forms etc, which have been religiously followed over the various periods during which the complex was built. The overall effect of this being that there exist cohesiveness throughout the structures, rendering them timeless.

The walls are usually made in laterite or brick & plastered over with lime. There are non-structural wooden screens called jaalis, which have the function of allowing in light & ventilation while ensuring the privacy of the person inside. The filtered light creates a dramatic play of light & shadow in the interiors and ensures a very cool &

comfortable ambience inside, away from the blazing sun. The shaded interiors are cool, which is a direct derivative of the climatological need to counter the warm humid tropical climate.

FIG. 5.3_ VIEW OF TILED ROOF FROM INSIDE WITH WOODEN RAFTERS AND JAALIS AND OUTSIDE WITH CLAY TILES

Indeed, one of the most significant aspects of the design is the sensitive handling of the light & shadows to create a wholesome comfortable ambience inside, one that focuses inside, calming, soothing & contemplating The flooring is unique and is black in colour, retaining a mirror like polish even now after so many centuries. It is said that the flooring was done using a mixture of different structures like burnt coconut shells, egg whites, plant juices etc.

comfortable ambience inside, away from the blazing sun. The shaded interiors are cool, which is a direct derivative of the climatological need to counter the warm humid tropical climate. Indeed, one of the most significant aspects of the design is the sensitive handling of the light & shadows to create a wholesome comfortable ambience inside, one that focuses inside, calming, soothing & contemplating.

FIG. 5.4_ VIEW OF BLACK MIRROR LIKE FLOOR, WOODEN JALLIS AND NATAKSHALA OR NAVRATRI MANDAPPAM

vernacular architecture of Kerala 52

FIG. 5.5_ VIEW OF BLACK MIRROR LIKE FLOOR, WOODEN JALLIS AND NATAKSHALA OR NAVRATRI MANDAPPAM

Important buildings in the palace include:

MANTRASALA – King’s Council Chamber

THAI KOTTARAM – Mother Palace (also known as Darbha Kulangara Kottaram)

NATAKSALA – The Hall of Performance, or of Performing Arts.

UPPARIKA MALIKA – The King’s Quarters — a four-story building at the center of the The Thai Kottaram is the oldest part of the palace.It was built during the reign of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara perumal, 1592 – 1620 CE.A secret tunnel over one kilometer long from this building provided the royal family with an escape route in times of war.

THEKE KOTTARAM – The Southern Palace, A ceremonial feasting hall, which can host palace complex containing the King’s Treasury, sleeping quarters, resting and study rooms, and the top floor serving as the worship chamber of the royal household. Martanda Verma built the King’s Quarters in 1744 A.D.

around 1000 guests.

FIG. 5.4_ INTRICATE WOODEN CARVINGS ON CEILING AND COLUMNS / KING’S PALKI

• PADAMANABHAPURAM PALACE Represents the most classic Kerala domestic

architecture.

• It is also the world's largest wooden palace made on sloping roofs, granite and

rosewood teak wood work combinations.

FIG. 5.6_ 1.VIEW OF UPMALIKAS/2.VIEW OF MANTRISHALA/3. VIEW OF EKANTA

MANDAPAM/4. INTERIOR OF UPMALIKA-THE SMALL LATTICE WINDOWS/ 5. NATAKSHALA/

6. NAVRATRA MANDAPAM / 7. CEREMONIAL DINING HALL- OOTAPURA / 7. WOODEN ORNAMENTATION ON STRUCTURAL WOOD : TEAK , SANDAL AND ROSE WOOD.

vernacular architecture of Kerala 54

Indeed, the Padmanabhapuram palace, with its amazing vocabulary of sloped tiled roofs, intricate jaali works, mysterious corridors, intimate courtyards, amazing woodwork, play of light and shadow, comfortable interior spaces etc, is a timeless architectural marvel and is a stark reminder to us of our rich tradition of innovativeness, respect to nature and search for perfection. The graceful simplicity of the complex stands as a dignified beacon, a reminder of what we should strive for in these times of mindless architectural gimmicks.

FIG. 5.7_DETAILED PLAN OF PADAMANABHAPURAM PALACE/ SITE SECTION/ SITE PLAN/ TERRACE PLAN SHWING SLOPING ROOFS

vernacular architecture of Kerala 56

• The evolution of domestic architecture of Kerala followed closely the trend of development in temple architecture. The primitive models were huts made of bamboo frame thatched with leaves in circular, square or rectangular plain shapes.

• The rectangular shape with a hipped roof appears to have been finally evolved from functional consideration.

• Structurally the roof frame was supported on the pillars on walls erected on a plinth raised from the ground for protection against dampness and insects in the tropical climate.

• Often the walls were also of timbers abundantly available in the land. The roof frame consisted of the Bessemer or wall plate which supported lower ends of the rafters, the upper ends being connected to the ridge. The weight of the rafters and the roof covering created a sage in the ridge when the ridge piece was made of flexible materials like bamboo. This sage however remained as the hall-mark of roof construction even when strong timber was used for the roof frame.

• Further gable windows were evolved at the two ends to provide attic ventilation when ceiling was incorporated for the room spaces. This ensured air circulation and thermal control for the roof.

• The lower ends of the rafters projected much beyond the walls to shade the walls from the sun and driving rain. This gives an intense feel to house being shorter in ht.

and close to earth or vaastu /site. The closed form of the Kerala houses was thus gradually evolved from technical considerations. One can see the striking similarity of this form with the temple structure.

• The plinth, the lower most part is still called adisthana, though it is plain or less ornate. The sthambas or pillars and bhithis or walls are again of simple shape with no projection or recesses. The main door faces only in one cardinal direction and the windows are small and are made like pierced screens of wood.

• The rectangular plan is usually divided into two or three activity rooms with access from a front passage. This passage opens to a highly ornamented opening called as POOMUKHAM which can be related to gopurams of temple architecture-the main entrance to house.

• The projecting caves cover a verandah all round. Since people had larger families in older times so they planned and informal seating for people to gather and celebrate times together in the outer verandah as CHUTTUPADY.

• An entrance structure PADIPPURA may also be constructed like the gopuram of a temple. This may contain one or two rooms for guests or occasional visitors who are not entertained in the main house. The position and sizes of various buildings, including the location of trees and paths within the compound wall were to be decided from the analysis of the site according to the prescriptions in the classic texts. This analysis involved the concept of vastupurusha mandala.

6.0 CONCLUSION

Socio-cultural aspects of Kerala with is impact of climate and geography developed its architecture. The art which is close to its tradition. GOD’S OWN COUNTRY!!....

www.KERALA/Architecture.htm

www.Architecture/Kerala/Wikipedia/encyclopedia.htm www.vernacular/KeralaWikipedia.encyclopedia.htm www.vernacular/ArchitectureKeralaTemples.htm www.vernacular/PradakshinaPeruvanam.htm www.vernacular/KERALAArchitecture.htm

PDF-264 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol.

02, No. 03, July 2009, pp. 264-271

7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• TEMPLE LAYOUT, STRUCTURE AND ARCHITECTURE
• DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
• POOJAMURI NADUKATTILA
• CASE STUDY (You are here)

Related documents

The Architectural Heritage of Kerala

Famous for its toddy, delicious seafood, and Ayurveda, Kerala, one of the southernmost states of India, is home to a number of architectural spectacles influenced by its rich history. The maritime tropical climate of the state has played a very important role in moulding the vernacular architecture of the region. Vernacular structures in Kerala strictly follow the rules of the Vastu Shastra, and hence the design is strongly influenced by this doctrine.

Since Kerala has engaged in trade with countries such as China and some Middle Eastern as well as European countries, slight influences of architecture from these regions is also evident in Kerala’s typical architectural style. For example, the overhanging hipped roofs of Kerala’s vernacular buildings reflect the pagodas of Chinese vernacular architecture. An impact of Portuguese influence is also visible in certain structures along the coastal region of the state.

The heritage structures of Kerala are broadly divided into two categories- domestic consisting of residences, and religious consisting of temples, churches, and mosques. These spectacular heritage structures of the state are composed of inherently available materials such as palm leaves, natural timbre, stone, and clay.

In fact, a unique mixture of lime, egg whites, jaggery and coconut shells was used for the flooring of aristocrat’s mansions and kings’ palaces. Stone was not available easily in this region, and hence granite sourced from neighbouring states was used in palaces and mansions.

Pitched roofs, specifically angled between 30 degrees to 40 degrees, are popular here as these have been devised particularly for protection against rainwater and harsh sunlight. It was common to have verandahs around the edifice which were protected by the overhang of the sloped roofs, which protected the interiors from the harsh climate, thus keeping it cool.

There are a number of heritage structures in the state that reflect the uniquely elegant character of its vernacular architecture.

1. Mattancherry Palace, Kochi 

The quadrangular houses of Kerala were traditionally known as nalukettu. The Mattancherry Palace was also built in this style, but with a slight Dutch architectural influence as it was a gift from the Portuguese to Raja Veera Kerala Verma

The palace is located in the Portuguese influenced town of Kochi. It consists of two storeys, and houses a temple in the central courtyard which is surrounded by four wings. Though it is quite simple compared to other palaces all around the country, its elegance is rather unmatched.

2. Krishnapuram Palace

The Krishnapuram Palace in Alappuzha is the epitome of typical Kerala style architecture. The iconic structure consists of 16 wings which surround four central courtyards, vernacularly known as Nadumuttam. The steep gabled roof is covered with Mangalore tiles, which predominates the elevation of the entire edifice.

The floor is finished off in fine polished natural wood, and the interior is surrounded by a verandah. Intricately carved wood accentuates the polished interiors in the form of doors, window frames, columns, and cornices. A pond created at the centre of the palace served as a primitive means of central air conditioning to the interiors.

3. Vadakkunnathan Temple, Thrissur

This temple complex stands on a hillock in the town of Thrissur, covering about 9 acres of land. There are four gopurams or entrances that surround the temple which occupies the centre of the entire complex. Its magnificence is quite mesmerising, and the edifice is intricately detailed.

The two-storey structure is protected by a gabled roof on each storey, enveloped with Mangalore tiles. The walls are ornated with murals and carvings. Each and every detail from the columns to the brackets supporting the roof have been finely chiselled in wood, stone, or plaster.

4. Madhur Temple, Kasaragod

The Madhur temple is one of the few temple structures in India that has an apsidal plan. Situated in the city of Kasaragod, this uniquely shaped temple is three-storeyed, constructed out of a wooden post and lintel structural system. Wooden brackets on the exterior walls on each storey support a sloped roof that runs throughout the apsidal perimeter.

The topmost roof is capped with a series of brass finials. The temple is located on a lush green plot surrounded by opulent coconut plantations. Though the form of the temple is quite unique, its style obeys the elements of vernacular Kerala architecture.

5. Peruvanam Mahadeva Temple, Thrissur

Yet another popular temple complex in Kerala, the Peruvanam Temple in Thrissur stands out from the rest. It is one of the only temples which consists of a square-shaped structure that houses the main shrine, which is extremely rare.

The main shrine is covered by a three-tiered sloped roof—the first two tiers are square in plan but the last tier is unusually hexagonal in plan, topped by an intricate brass finial. The outer walls of the temple are adorned in wooden jaalis provided for lighting lamps. The white exterior walls and terracotta-coloured roofs of the temple complex form an interesting contrast that catches one’s eye.

Tirthika Shah is a budding architect and designer who is passionate about sustainability and  finding innovative solutions to the environmental crisis. She is a firm believer in inclusion, diversity and human equality & fairness to all.She is social media savvy and uses it creatively emphasizing on visual imagery to communicate impactfully with her audience. She is a food lover and you will often find desserts on her instagram.

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The Living Culture and Typo-Morphology of Vernacular-Traditional Houses in Kerala

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Jurnal Sosioteknologi

Indah Widiastuti

Gazi University Journal of Science Part B: Art Humanities Design and Planning

Ercan Aksoy

Traditional rural houses reflect architectural elements of a region in the simplest form. In this context, this study aims to document and reveal the typologies of the construction systems and door and window formations of the traditional buildings in rural Alanya, Turkey. It is of importance to document the wooden elements that deteriorate rapidly and ensure the continuity of the architectural elements of the region. For this reason, 395 buildings in 68 villages were analyzed, their door-window types were identified, and typologies were revealed. In addition, similar studies conducted in nearby regions were screened to reveal similarities and differences. In this way, the knowledge of the architectural features of the region will be protected.

Janmejoy Gupta , Naushaba Jameel

The vernacular architecture of any place is evolved through ages by consistent and continuous effort for more efficient solutions. Housing typologies though a result of multiple determinants, climate and culture are the two most important determinants. Materials, construction, and technology are best treated as modifying factors, rather than form determinants. This paper studies the evolution of vernacular architecture of Kerala in response to climatic conditions and varied cultural influences it has been subjected to. The orientation of buildings", internal arrangement of spaces, the presence of internal courtyards , use of locally available materials and other socio-cultural factors have combined together to create the vernacular architecture as it exists today. Other than improved thermal comfort, the vernacular architecture of Kerala also gives a number of pointers towards betterment of architectural quality in modern architecture with respect to planning principles, aesthetics and building materials used in built form. Alongside, this paper also looks at the different architectural lessons that can be learnt from the vernacular architecture of Kerala to be applied to modern architecture practiced in Kerala to make it more culturally and climatologically contextual to Kerala.

Space and Culture, India

arulmalar Ramaraj

Globalisation, urbanisation, human neglect, socio-economic conditions, discontinuity, weather and climate have been identified from literature studies as the root causes hindering the vernacular architecture. The objective of this article is to explore such causes and impacts on vernacular architecture. For this purpose, ‘Kavunji’a village near Kodaikanal, Tamilnadu is identified. Due to the geographical location and the landform, the vernacular architecture in this village is recently undergoing modifications and extensions. To comprehend the salient characteristics of vernacular architecture, six typologies were identified. The thrust of this paper is to explore the reasons that contributed to modifications and additions in dwelling units and effects on the people’s attitude towards the maintenance of the built environment and form at regular intervals is declining rapidly as it requires tremendous efforts, fiscal resources, energy, and time. As a result, people are utilising mode...

A/Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture

duygu turgut

Kayseri has always been an important administrative center throughout its history. Talas, which is a town in Kayseri, is situated on the slopes of Ali Mountain which is to the northeast of Erciyes Mountain and about ten kilometers from the Kayseri city center. Talas is an important town with regard to the history of architecture including traditional vernacular texture occupied by Turkish, Armenian and Greek populations in the late Ottoman period. The Harman District, which is chosen as a case study, acts as the core of the housing texture of Talas. Plan formations of traditional Talas houses present information on related periods and local characteristic styles. Within the scope of this study, the local features of these houses, plan elements and plan types are analyzed. As a result of this analysis, a table of the plan typology of these houses is prepared. In a culturally rich settlement of Anatolia located at the crossroads of civilizations in Talas, nowadays the existing historical texture is gradually disappearing. The documentation of the vernacular architecture of Talas will have an impact on the conservation of the historical texture of the settlement as well as transferring the data to future generations. Furthermore, this data could be a guide in the area for site management projects prepared by the local municipality.

International Journal of Applied Engineering Research

Antariksa Sudikno

Objective: To study the typology of residential architecture of ethnic Minahasa relation with local knowledge. In order to know the distinctiveness of architectural typology was born from the culture and is the local wisdom of architecture in Talawaan Village. Methode: Using is qualitative-descriptive method by doing field observation in order to get thematic as a unit of study and proactively conduct unstructured interview on resource related to research object. The study unit is taken in a proposive sample by looking at the variables. The results obtained were the residential home was built in 1873 in good physical condition until now. Then the analysis is done verbally in disclosing typology. Findings: The results of the study of typology found several concepts of the existing variables are, the concept of sumpeleng structure on the sloof block, the concept of kalawit structure on the floor beam and the concept of tumongkor structure on the roof. Clearly the concepts and variable is influenced by local culture and is a local knowledge, obtained empirically inherited in the embodiment of the typology in housing architecture of Minahasa ethnic community in Talawaan Village. These findings can enrich the science of architecture in understanding the typology of architectural works with a cultural background. Application: Feedback for government in making the local regulation that the value of local cultural values in producing architectural work of a dwelling house, is a local wisdom in the field of architecture that needs to be considered and preserved. Keywords: Architectural, Typology dwelling house, Minahasan ethnic, Local wisdom, North Minahasa Indonesia

Indo Nordic Author's Collective

Dr. Uday Dokras

At the beginning of the 19th century, a wide variety of indigenous house types existed in India, varying in layout and articulation in response to socio-culture and geo-climatic locales. British colonial rule affected India's social and institutional structure. Its impact included attitudes towards housing design and settlement patterns of which the emergence of the bungalow type was important. The new concept of the bungalow arrived as an alien house form in this setting. Its roots lie in the early attempts by the indeginous rulers and clergy to design a model that suited the hot weather and also srved as an elegant dwelling. In detail this has been discussed in our Paper dokras Wada. The material and structural elements of the wada are approximately described below borrowing an article from a British University .

The Journal of social sciences and humanities

Ngakan Ketut Acwin Dwijendra

Traditional Settlements Tenganan Dauh Tukad Traditional Village, Karangasem regency, has a uniqueness of traditional dwelling patterns that become a local character of the region. However, along with the development of tourism in this village, the traditional settlement is not only a pride, but also the object of commodification. This is an interesting phenomenon where on the one hand, people try to maintain their traditional residential identity to attract tourists visiting, but, on the other hand, they change their dwelling as a tourism facility. The change is a challenge and a pressure for maintaining the traditional configuration as an identity. This is a phenomenon of conflict in the development of a cultural tourism area. On the one hand, tourists expect a natural and original nature and culture. On the other hand, society and culture change as the society interacts with the outside culture and the desire to accommodate the needs of the visiting tourists. Therefore, the purpos...

Medha Gokhale

In all over the world, in any part of the globe, from prehistoric period till the date, complex layers of social stratification and their cultural diversity are reflected in the urban form of the settlement. The cause of this influence lies in the unique and diverse socio-cultural roots, which represent nothing but the ‘Traditions’ of that area. India is one of the parts of Asian continent where impact of these diverse socio-cultural patterns is reflected in housing texture. Through the case example of Murud in Konkan region of India, this paper highlights how the traditions and physiographic pattern of the area act as influence peddler in the spatial planning and form of the housing thereby impacting the urban form-grain and texture of the settlement. Today technological advancements dictate the magnitude and location of activities in space. The electronic revolution of today is just adding to the departure of local traditions which is strongly reflected in changing housing forms. ...

Journal of World Architecture

Srikonda Ramesh

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