Note: The names and abbreviations for numbers of bytes are easily confused with the notations for bits. The abbreviations for numbers of bits use a lower-case "b" instead of an upper-case "B". Since one byte is made up of eight bits, this difference can be significant. For example, if a broadband Internet connection is advertised with a download speed of 3.0 M b ps, its speed is 3.0 mega bits per second, or 0.375 mega bytes per second (which would be abbreviated as 0.375 M B ps). Bits and bit rates (bits over time, as in bits per second [bps]) are most commonly used to describe connection speeds, so pay particular attention when comparing Internet connection providers and services.
This document was developed with support from National Science Foundation ( NSF ) grants 1053575 and 1548562 . Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF.
This is document ackw in the Knowledge Base. Last modified on 2018-01-18 10:52:24 .
What is data representation in computer.
Before discussing data representation of numbers, let us see what a number system is.
Binary number system.
A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value) represents 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of the binary number system is 2 because it has only two digits.
Decimal number system, hexadecimal number system, data representation of characters.
The code called ASCII (pronounced ‘’.S-key”), which stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, uses 7 bits to represent each character in computer memory. The ASCII representation has been adopted as a standard by the U.S. government and is widely accepted.
Using 8-bit ASCII we can represent only 256 characters. This cannot represent all characters of written languages of the world and other symbols. Unicode is developed to resolve this problem. It aims to provide a standard character encoding scheme, which is universal and efficient.
In most cases, we may have to represent and process data other than numbers and characters. This may include audio data, images, and videos. We can see that like numbers and characters, the audio, image, and video data also carry information.
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In Computers; Bits, Bytes & Words are the core concepts.
Computer memory stores the data in bits. Each bit stores the value either 0 or 1. Inside the Computer, there are electronic switches that store the bit values; either 0 or 1. If the switch is OFF means, that represents 0 & the switch is ON means, that represents 1. That means Computer can understand the data in “0”s and “1”s. We normally use bits to represent processor architecture or design; a 32-bit processor, 64-bit processor, etc. 64-bit processor can do the computations faster than a 32-bit processor.
There must be a data transfer between Computer Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory) and the Computer Processor (CPU). The data transfer happens through BUSes. Each BUS carries an N-number of bits; depending on the Computer Architecture. Each BUS has wires to transfer the bits; 16-bit BUS carries 16-bits at a time, and it has 16 wires to transfer each bit. BUSes are used to carry the information between one Component to another Component in the Computer.
Mostly, we don’t directly deal with the Computer bits; there are computer languages that allow us to directly deal with the computer bits. “C” language provides some features to allow the programmers to directly deal with the bits.
How do we represents the data other than 0 & 1; example, characters (‘A’, ‘h’ etc,.).? The answer is Byte; another term, we use in the computer terminology is Bytes.
A byte is a grouping of consecutive bits. Usually, 8-bits represents a Byte. Generally, we use Byte(s) to represent characters; each byte can store the values from 0-255. That means, we can store one of the characters from 0-255; in 1 Byte.
The most common term we use in Computers terminology is Bytes. Computer Programs read & write the Bytes from the Memory; also read and write the Bytes to the File Storage, and for the data processing use Bytes; file sizes will display in Bytes and etc.,
How internally Bytes store that data.? Simple, it is Bits. The Byte representation of a character ‘ A ‘ is:
ASCII Character value of ‘A’ is 65. Bit representation (binary representation) of ‘A’ in a Byte is below:
0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Note that , it is not compulsory that 8-bits are used for a Byte in all the Systems. The number of bits used for a Byte is depended on the System Architecture. Commonly we use 8-bits for a Byte.
WORDs are also consecutive bits or bytes. This term is mostly used for CPU registers. Generally, each WORD has a length of 16-bits. CPU Registers are used to store a small piece of information while doing the calculations or processing the data. These are helpful to improve the performance of the system while doing the calculation or processing.
Note that , there are Systems that use 8-bit, 32-bit, 64-bits, 128-bits for WORDs. Commonly we use 16-bits for a WORD. The number of bits used for a WORD is purely depending on the System Architecture or design.
I had my first computer class over 30 years ago and I wish that the textbook, along with others, had this information in it from the beginning. I have never seen this explanation before and it makes things very understandable now. Thank You
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How are negative number represented in 32-bit signed integer? Is it two's or one's complement? or the last bit on the left is like a flag? For example: (-10)
Most computers these days use two's complement for signed integers, but it can vary by hardware architecture, programming language, or other platform-specific issues.
For a two's-complement representation, the most-significant ("leftmost") bit is referred to as the sign bit , and it will be set for a negative integer and clear for a non-negative integer. However, it is more than just a "flag". See the Wikipedia article for more information.
I think the answer is 0110 , preceeded by 1 repeated 28 times, therefore it looks like:
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0110;
bit representation for 10 is:
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1010;
0->1 and 1->0 for all the bits:
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0101;
add 1 to the last bit, and propagate to the bit ahead, done!
You can verify by adding it with 10, and you will get 0 for all bits. As mentioned above, it is 2-based and follows two's complement.
Usually it's twos-complement.
From the C99 standard:
For signed integer types, the bits of the object representation shall be divided into three groups: value bits, padding bits, and the sign bit. There need not be any padding bits; there shall be exactly one sign bit. Each bit that is a value bit shall have the same value as the same bit in the object representation of the corresponding unsigned type (if there are M value bits in the signed type and N in the unsigned type, then M = N). If the sign bit is zero, it shall not affect the resulting value. If the sign bit is one, the value shall be modified in one of the following ways: — the corresponding value with sign bit 0 is negated (sign and magnitude); — the sign bit has the value -(2N) (two’s complement); — the sign bit has the value -(2N - 1) (ones’ complement). Which of these applies is implementation-defined, as is whether the value with sign bit 1 and all value bits zero (for the first two), or with sign bit and all value bits 1 (for ones’ complement), is a trap representation or a normal value. In the case of sign and magnitude and ones’ complement, if this representation is a normal value it is called a negative zero.
& so on
The most significant bit (last bit on the left) is set for negative numbers.
Just for reference: negation -> adding one .
Take 5 as an example in 8 bits, quoted from wiki
There is a trick to convert a number from positive to negative or vice verse:
Adding them ignoring their signed bit (the leftmost bit) will give you 2^N (where N is the amount of the bits to represent the number).
As the example above in 8-bit representation the sum of 5 (0000 0101) and -5 (1111 1011) will give you 1 0000 0000 which is (2 ^ 8).
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Users can load their own games via USB.
A full-sized modern remake of the classic 8-bit Sinclair ZX Spectrum computer created by Retro Games, and marketed as The Spectrum , looks set to launch shortly. Modeled on the iconic Spectrum 48K design, with rubber block keys and rainbow stripe, the new device offers 48 built-in games and makes it easy for retro enthusiasts to load their own titles via USB. The Spectrum 48K and 128K compatible machine has leaked in listings on Polish and UK online retailers, with availability from Nov 22, and has a price of £89, likely to translate to $99 at US distributors.
Retro mini consoles and home computers have been popular in recent years, and the latest trend is for full-size replicas. Retro Games launched The C64 to capitalize on retro enthusiasts wanting bigger more fully-functioned toys, and The Spectrum is going to be the next big thing. Hopefully, a follow-up to The A500 Mini will deliver a full-size Amiga replica to fans in the coming months.
Moving our focus back to The Spectrum, and though no official product pages are available from Retro Games, the packaging shots and retail listings spill most of the beans. Most importantly, this device is supposed to deliver comprehensive Spectrum fun with the convenience of modern interfaces like HDMI and USB, as well as the fully functioning replica keyboard – so you could perhaps prod in your own Sinclair BASIC games.
The Spectrum key specifications:
While the above specs make it clear you will have to use your own power supply, and it should be easy with a USB-C cable provided, no mention of a bundled joystick is a worry. None of the retail listings show a joystick or joypad either. This would be a sizable omission, with the primary focus of nostalgic buyers being gaming.
The built-in games list isn’t the most important thing here, as it is going to be easy to add your own via USB. However, the packaging highlights some classic built-in titles like Manic Miner, The Hobbit, Saboteur, and Head Over Heels.
Overall, the device looks good, and appears to be a comprehensive retro offering, but we would hold back for reviews looking for mentions of any audio / visual glitches, and whether a joystick/joypad is indeed bundled. Some retro-focused channels indicate the official launch will be this Tuesday, but remember that availability isn’t scheduled until Nov 22. While you wait, there are plenty of ways to enjoy Spectrum retro gaming on your PC, Raspberry Pi , tablet, smartphone, or browser. Surprisingly, there are still new games coming to the platform in 2024.
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Pierce2623 said: So is it pure software emulation? FPGA? A hardware clone? Well, I guess having USB rules out the last one.
Findecanor said: The previous The previous products from Retro Games Ltd have all been software-emulation on ARM SoCs.
By Jazz Tangcay
Artisans Editor
Last year, United Talent Agency was one of the first agencies in Hollywood to achieve the Human Rights Campaign Equality 100 award as leaders in the LGBTQ workspace inclusion. Not only is it a positive environment for its queer agents, but those agents also have the autonomy in who they want to represent. “We’ve built a really great business in representing overall LGBTQ+ talent, specifically within that niche, representation for drag artists,” said agent Pranav Mandavia.
Since then, UTA has become a trailblazing leader in representing drag artists including Monét X Change, Violet Chachki, Bob the Drag Queen, Trixie Mattel, Katya Zamolodchikova and Gottmik. And that roster is ever growing.
Mandavia was joined by his colleagues Jacob Fenton – partner and agent (TV Talent), Ugo Obioha, agent (MP Lit), Michael Grinspan, agent (Comedy Touring) and Lucinda Moorhead, partner and agent (TV Lit) to discuss the business of pride , drag and LGBTQ+ representation within UTA, but also externally.
Having been with the agency for over 24 years, Fenton has seen UTA evolve and create a comfortable, strong and supportive environment for its LGBTQ+ employees. “It’s a good business decision because it creates more opportunities for clients in that community,” he said.
Moorhead, who has been with the agency for 13 years, added the internal support ripples down to its agents and empowers them to reflect that strength in work. The community is still greatly underrepresented in many ways, but progress is being made slowly.
While Pride month is important to many brands ensuring they’re working to be allies, the agents work year-round with brands, businesses and Hollywood executives all year round. Globally, LGBTQ+ spending power sits at $3.1 trillion. Companies and brands are looking to do better with LGBTQ+ inclusion and show support for equality, and strategically explore ways of tapping into that spending power.
Grinspan fields calls to potential buyers across the country explaining the commercial value of drag shows. The spending power speaks for itself, as do ticket sales. Grinspan said, “Drag has one of the highest average ticket prices of any touring standup. The social media following of a drag queen is generally five to ten times higher than a standup who sells a similar number of tickets.”
Drag queens are also renowned for doing their makeup and hair, and many thrive in that space using their social media platforms as a place to showcase their talent. When Mandavia talks to brands, he’ll share backend analytics from social media to show the value and power of drag artists who do their glam.
However, for every brand willing to form partnerships, some are rooted in conservative values — that’s where he steps forward to educate clients. “It’s my job as an agent, as a representative of these queens or these artists, whether they’re a drag artist or just an LGBTQ+ creator to show that there’s an audience and you should be partnering with these voices because they’re prolific.”
It’s not just drag queens on their roster. Elliot Page and Mj Rodriguez are among their many LGBTQ+ clients. Fenton noted brands such as Gucci and Charlotte Tilbury have used their clients for campaigns. Page recently was one of the faces of Gucci’s fragrance. Such a partnership is essential and signals a move of the needle in the right direction of representation.
Unfortunately, certain states aren’t as progressive and have been pushing forward anti-LGBTQ+ legislation. Obioha points out that this has negatively impacted LGBTQ+. representation in entertainment. But despite that, production houses are pushing back to counter that narrative. “Many of these production houses are led by LGBTQ+ creators. So I do think that there has been an increase and a trend to push for said narratives, and a lot of it is driven by the production houses, but also driven by our clients who write these stories either on the spec script that they’d like to set up these production homes.”
The agents also discussed the importance of allyship and the ways Hollywood and businesses have moved forward in their endeavors to support LGBTQ+ representation.
Fenton said there’s still a way for Hollywood to go to further normalization. “I think it equally important to shift their representation on screen to not being the story, but being part of the story.”
Watch the full conversation below.
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Title: multi-scale representation learning for image restoration with state-space model.
Abstract: Image restoration endeavors to reconstruct a high-quality, detail-rich image from a degraded counterpart, which is a pivotal process in photography and various computer vision systems. In real-world scenarios, different types of degradation can cause the loss of image details at various scales and degrade image contrast. Existing methods predominantly rely on CNN and Transformer to capture multi-scale representations. However, these methods are often limited by the high computational complexity of Transformers and the constrained receptive field of CNN, which hinder them from achieving superior performance and efficiency in image restoration. To address these challenges, we propose a novel Multi-Scale State-Space Model-based (MS-Mamba) for efficient image restoration that enhances the capacity for multi-scale representation learning through our proposed global and regional SSM modules. Additionally, an Adaptive Gradient Block (AGB) and a Residual Fourier Block (RFB) are proposed to improve the network's detail extraction capabilities by capturing gradients in various directions and facilitating learning details in the frequency domain. Extensive experiments on nine public benchmarks across four classic image restoration tasks, image deraining, dehazing, denoising, and low-light enhancement, demonstrate that our proposed method achieves new state-of-the-art performance while maintaining low computational complexity. The source code will be publicly available.
Subjects: | Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (cs.CV) |
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IMAGES
COMMENTS
8 bits representing a number between 0 and 255. an alphabetic character like W or + or 7. part of a character in another alphabet or writing system (2+ bytes) part of a larger number (2 or 4 or 8 bytes, usually) part of a picture or sound. part of an instruction for a computer to execute.
In practice, a negative number in two's complement is obtained by inverting all the bits of its positive counterpart*, and then adding 1, or: x = ~x + 1. Example: The number 2 is represented as normal in binary: 0010. -2 is represented by inverting the bits, and adding 1: 0010 ☞ 1101 1101 + 1 1110.
The bit is the most basic unit of information in computing and digital communication.The name is a portmanteau of binary digit. [1] The bit represents a logical state with one of two possible values.These values are most commonly represented as either " 1" or "0 ", but other representations such as true/false, yes/no, on/off, or +/− are also widely used. ...
Bits, bytes, and representation of information ... - part of an instruction for a computer to execute instructions are just bits, stored in the same memory as data ... - a bit is a "binary digit", that is, a number that is either 0 or 1 - computers ultimately represent and process everything as bits
The Power of Bits • The fundamental unit of memory inside a computer is called a bit—a term introduced in a paper by Claude Shannon as a contraction of the words binary digit. • An individual bit exists in one of two states, usually denoted as 0 and 1. • More sophisticated data can be represented by combining larger numbers of bits:
Data Representation Computer Organization I 7 CS @VT ©2005-2014 McQuain 2's Complement Observations To negate an integer, with one exception*, just invert the bits and add 1. The sign of the integer is indicated by the leading bit. There is only one representation of the value 0. 25985: 0110 0101 1000 0001-25985: 1001 1010 0111 1111
The 8-bit byte offers a balance between efficiency and complexity. It's great for representing a wide range of values efficiently, but it might fall short when handling large datasets that require more precision. Applications of Data Representation with 8 Bits in a Byte Use of 8 Bits in a Byte in Computer Systems
Data Representation Computer Organization I 9 CS@VT ©2005-2011 McQuain Example: 32-bit Integers As an example, suppose that we decide to provide support for integer values represented by 32 bits. There are 2^32 or precisely 4,294,967,296 different patterns of 32 bits. So we can only represent that many different integer values.
Using 8 bits,the leftmost bit is a zero and the other 7 bits are the usual binary representation of the number; for example, 1 would be 00000001, ... We have now looked at two different ways of representing negative numbers on a computer. In practice, a simple sign bit is rarely used, because of having two different representations of zero, and ...
Bit have high importance in computer memory, networks because computer understand the things, codes even multimedia in form of bits. ... Data Representation: Bit are the most basic and fundamental data of storing and representing data in different formats. It can encode text, images, video and audio file;
Sign/Magnitude representation. Reserve the rst bit for the signum (for example, let 0 denote positive numbers, and 1 negative numbers). The other m 1 bits will store the magnitude (the absolute value) of the number. In this case the range of numbers represented is 2m 1+1 to +2m 1 1. With m= 3 there are 2 bits for the magnitude, di erent possible
8 bits representing a number between 0 and 255. an alphabetic character like W or + or 7. part of a character in another alphabet or writing system (2+ bytes) part of a larger number (2 or 4 or 8 bytes, usually) part of a picture or sound. part of an instruction for a computer to execute.
What are bits and how do they store information in computers? In this article, you will learn the basics of binary digits, how they are represented, and why they are important for computing. You will also see some examples of how bits are used in different fields and applications. This article is part of Khan Academy's free online courses on computers and the internet.
A Gigabyte is 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes. This is the number of combinations we can store in 30 bits. It is slightly larger than a billion bytes. A Terabyte is 240 and roughly corresponds to a trillion. You may also run into the following measurements: Tera = 250, Peta = 260, Exa = 270, Zetta = 280, Yotta = 290.
8 bits representing a number between 0 and 255. an alphabetic character like W or + or 7. part of a character in another alphabet or writing system (2 bytes) part of a larger number (2 or 4 or 8 bytes, usually) part of a picture or sound. part of an instruction for a computer to execute.
A bit is a binary digit, the smallest increment of data on a computer. A bit can hold only one of two values: 0 or 1, corresponding to the electrical values of off or on, respectively. Because bits are so small, you rarely work with information one bit at a time. Bits are usually assembled into a group of eight to form a byte.
A computer uses a fixed number of bits to represent a piece of data which could be a number, a character, image, sound, video, etc. Data representation is the method used internally to represent data in a computer. Let us see how various types of data can be represented in computer memory. Before discussing data representation of numbers, let ...
In Computers; Bits, Bytes & Words are the core concepts. Bits - binary digits. Computer memory stores the data in bits. Each bit stores the value either 0 or 1. Inside the Computer, there are electronic switches that store the bit values; either 0 or 1. If the switch is OFF means, that represents 0 & the switch is ON means, that represents 1.
to convert 5 to -5: 0000 0101 - flip -> 1111 1010 - add one -> 1111 1011. There is a trick to convert a number from positive to negative or vice verse: Adding them ignoring their signed bit (the leftmost bit) will give you 2^N (where N is the amount of the bits to represent the number). As the example above in 8-bit representation the sum of 5 ...
Example: The number -5 is represented in two's complements as: 1011. 5 is represented by inverting the bits, and adding 1: 1011 ☞ 0100 0100 + 1 0101. Shortcut: start from the right, and write down numbers until you get to a 1: 11 Now invert all the rest of the digits: 0101.
A full-sized modern remake of the classic 8-bit Sinclair ZX Spectrum computer created by Retro Games, and marketed as The Spectrum, looks set to launch shortly. Modeled on the iconic Spectrum 48K ...
GIVE ONLINE: https://bit.ly/giveanc INFO CARD: https://www.austinnewchurch.com/infocard UPCOMING EVENTS: https://www.austinnewchurch.com/upcoming-events...
a "bit" is atomic: the smallest unit of storage. A bit stores just a 0 or 1. "In the computer it's all 0's and 1's" ... bits. Anything with two separate states can store 1 bit. In a chip: electric charge = 0/1. In a hard drive: spots of North/South magnetism = 0/1. A bit is too small to be much use. Group 8 bits together to make 1 byte.
Data Representation Computer Organization I 8 CS@VT ©2005-2020 WD McQuain 2's Complement Observations To negate an integer, with one exception*, just invert the bits and add 1. The sign of the integer is indicated by the leading bit. There is only one representation of the value 0. 25985: 0110 0101 1000 0001-25985: 1001 1010 0111 1111
On August 17, a new set of rules governing the way most real estate professionals do business in the US officially take effect - and the changes could potentially upend the way Americans buy and ...
The goal of object-centric representation learning is to decompose visual scenes into a structured representation that isolates the entities. Recent successes have shown that object-centric representation learning can be scaled to real-world scenes by utilizing pre-trained self-supervised features. However, so far, object-centric methods have mostly been applied in-distribution, with models ...
Such a partnership is essential and signals a move of the needle in the right direction of representation. Unfortunately, certain states aren't as progressive and have been pushing forward anti ...
The Power of Bits. The fundamental unit of memory inside a computer is called a bit—a term introduced in a paper by Claude Shannon as a contraction of the words binary digit. An individual bit exists in one of two states, usually denoted as 0 and 1. Two bits can represent four (2 × 2) values. Three bits can represent eight (2 × 2 × 2) values.
Image restoration endeavors to reconstruct a high-quality, detail-rich image from a degraded counterpart, which is a pivotal process in photography and various computer vision systems. In real-world scenarios, different types of degradation can cause the loss of image details at various scales and degrade image contrast. Existing methods predominantly rely on CNN and Transformer to capture ...