essay on problem of gender inequality

Gender Inequality Essay

500+ words essay on gender inequality.

For many years, the dominant gender has been men while women were the minority. It was mostly because men earned the money and women looked after the house and children. Similarly, they didn’t have any rights as well. However, as time passed by, things started changing slowly. Nonetheless, they are far from perfect. Gender inequality remains a serious issue in today’s time. Thus, this gender inequality essay will highlight its impact and how we can fight against it.

  About Gender Inequality Essay

Gender inequality refers to the unequal and biased treatment of individuals on the basis of their gender. This inequality happens because of socially constructed gender roles. It happens when an individual of a specific gender is given different or disadvantageous treatment in comparison to a person of the other gender in the same circumstance.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Impact of Gender Inequality

The biggest problem we’re facing is that a lot of people still see gender inequality as a women’s issue. However, by gender, we refer to all genders including male, female, transgender and others.

When we empower all genders especially the marginalized ones, they can lead their lives freely. Moreover, gender inequality results in not letting people speak their minds. Ultimately, it hampers their future and compromises it.

History is proof that fighting gender inequality has resulted in stable and safe societies. Due to gender inequality, we have a gender pay gap. Similarly, it also exposes certain genders to violence and discrimination.

In addition, they also get objectified and receive socioeconomic inequality. All of this ultimately results in severe anxiety, depression and even low self-esteem. Therefore, we must all recognize that gender inequality harms genders of all kinds. We must work collectively to stop these long-lasting consequences and this gender inequality essay will tell you how.

How to Fight Gender Inequality

Gender inequality is an old-age issue that won’t resolve within a few days. Similarly, achieving the goal of equality is also not going to be an easy one. We must start by breaking it down and allow it time to go away.

Firstly, we must focus on eradicating this problem through education. In other words, we must teach our young ones to counter gender stereotypes from their childhood.

Similarly, it is essential to ensure that they hold on to the very same beliefs till they turn old. We must show them how sports are not gender-biased.

Further, we must promote equality in the fields of labour. For instance, some people believe that women cannot do certain jobs like men. However, that is not the case. We can also get celebrities on board to promote and implant the idea of equality in people’s brains.

All in all, humanity needs men and women to continue. Thus, inequality will get us nowhere. To conclude the gender inequality essay, we need to get rid of the old-age traditions and mentality. We must teach everyone, especially the boys all about equality and respect. It requires quite a lot of work but it is possible. We can work together and achieve equal respect and opportunities for all genders alike.

FAQ of Gender Inequality Essay

Question 1: What is gender inequality?

Answer 1: Gender inequality refers to the unequal and biased treatment of individuals on the basis of their gender. This inequality happens because of socially constructed gender roles. It happens when an individual of a specific gender is given different or disadvantageous treatment in comparison to a person of the other gender in the same circumstance.

Question 2: How does gender inequality impact us?

Answer 2:  The gender inequality essay tells us that gender inequality impacts us badly. It takes away opportunities from deserving people. Moreover, it results in discriminatory behaviour towards people of a certain gender. Finally, it also puts people of a certain gender in dangerous situations.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

• Travelling Essay
• Picnic Essay
• Our Country Essay
• My Parents Essay
• Essay on Favourite Personality
• Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
• Essay on Knowledge is Power
• Essay on Gurpurab
• Essay on My Favourite Season
• Essay on Types of Sports

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Why Aren’t We Making More Progress Towards Gender Equity?

• Elisabeth Kelan

Research on how “gender fatigue” is holding us back.

Despite many of the advances we’ve made toward gender equality in the past few decades, progress has been slow. Research shows that one reason may be that many managers acknowledge that the bias exists in general but fail to recognize it in their daily workplace interactions. This “gender fatigue” means that people aren’t motivated to make change in their organizations. Through ethnographic studies and interviews across industries, the author identified several rationalizations managers use to deny gender inequality. First, they assume it happens elsewhere, at a competitor, for example, but not in their own organization. Second, they believe that gender inequality existed in the past but is no longer an issue. Third, they point to the initiatives to support women as evidence that inequality has been addressed. Last, when they do see incidents of discrimination, they reason that the situation had nothing to do with gender. Until we stop denying inequality exists in our own organizations, it will be impossible to make progress.

Organizations have worked towards achieving gender equality for decades. They’ve invested resources into developing women’s careers. They’ve implemented bias awareness training. Those at the top, including many CEOs, have made public commitments to make their workplaces more fair and equitable. And, still, despite all of this, progress towards gender equality has been limited. In fact, many managers struggle to recognize gender inequalities in daily workplace interactions.

• EK Elisabeth Kelan is a Professor of Leadership and Organisation and a Leverhulme Trust Major Research Fellow at Essex Business School at University of Essex in the United Kingdom.

Partner Center

Gender Inequality as a Global Issue Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Culture, society, and law

Technology and infrastructure, consequences.

Gender inequality is a global issue where men and women enjoy different levels of representation in various spheres of life. Generally predisposed against females, multiple factors conspire to limit their opportunities for education and employment, as well as, in more extreme cases, lead to violence. The causes of such inequality can stem from biology, culture, and technology. This essay will examine some of the causes that affect the gap in the treatment of men and women, and its ramifications, particularly regarding developing countries. One particular metric that will be used is female labor force participation (FLFP).

Humans are sexually dimorphic species; males and females exhibit different physical characteristics. While these differences have led to often oppressive cultural norms, they are impossible to reject. Large parts of developing nations are pre-industrial, where “individuals do not receive any education and primarily work in agricultural jobs as unskilled workers” (Hiller, 2014, p. 457). The labor efficiency in such jobs affects the roles available to men and women. For instance, some regions of India have soil that is more suitable for deep tillage and, therefore, the use of plows — heavy tools that require upper body strength to operate. As a consequence of this, “in parts of India with soil suitable for deep tillage, there is lower FLFP and a more male-skewed sex ratio” (Jayachandran, 2015, p. 72). In these regions, men had a physical advantage, which led to their higher representation in the labor force and positions of power.

For comparison, China’s agricultural areas provide a different example: regions that specialize in tea production. There, women have a “comparative advantage in picking tea leaves” (Jayachandran, 2015, p. 72). After economic reforms in those areas, various improvements have been noted regarding gender equality, as female children became more desirable and women more financially independent. These findings suggest that physiological differences, but also opportunities to make the best use of the advantages posed by these differences, play an important role in creating gender equality or inequality.

While physical differences may have caused an initial degree of gender inequality, cultural norms always form in response to them, strengthening this imbalance for the future, when physical differences are no longer relevant. Usually, this takes the form of a strong patriarchal tradition under which men take on a more proactive role in society. In contrast, women are relegated to more subservient and supportive positions. As a result of such traditions, women can face opposition when they seek education or employment or attempt to act outside of their society-mandated roles.

Girls’ education opportunities are not necessarily enforced explicitly by existing laws or regulations. The choice to educate a child is primarily made by their parents, according to social and cultural norms. Hiller (2014) explains that “if a ‘strong norm’ exists, according to which husbands should be the primary breadwinners of the family, parents grant a low value to the education of their daughters” (p. 457). Therefore, young women are often denied the schooling necessary to find better work.

Tradition and religion still play a significant part in women being underrepresented. While laws may be proposed that seek to create opportunities for women, they are turned down for such reasons. Nigeria is one such country, where “customary and religious arguments were the major justifications put forward by [local] legislators for their rejection of bills to promote women’s rights and gender equality” (Para-Mallam, 2017, p. 28). This legislative issue reinforces the existing inequality, keeping women in a disadvantaged position.

The points listed above concern pre-industrial societies, but as they develop, technology and improvements to infrastructure present new circumstances that can increase gender equality. As women tend to be engaged in various domestic chores in such cultures, making said chores easier and more efficient frees up their time. For instance, work such as fetching firewood and water is generally performed by women — therefore, providing plumbing and electric heating “will disproportionately free up women to work outside the home more or enjoy more leisure” (Jayachandran, 2015, p. 74). This change, in turn, would allow them more opportunities for education or work.

Advances in medicine are another change that improves women’s opportunities, mainly when it concerns obstetrics. Jayachandran (2015) notes that “childbearing is not only more common in developing countries; it is also more dangerous” (p. 74). It has been observed that improvements in this area in several countries reduced maternal mortality and complications at childbirth that might have had long-term effects. This change led to an increase in women’s ability to return to work after giving birth (Jayachandran, 2015). Similarly, access to contraception has been observed to free up women’s time available for education and work, consequently allowing them to gain more equal positions with men and creating a quantitative increase in FLFP.

Improvements in infrastructure can serve to increase gender equality in rural areas. Parents in these regions tend to be protective of their daughters. However, Jayachandran (2015) notes that “it is difficult to say how much of the limited mobility is out of genuine concern for women’s welfare … and how much is simply a way to stifle female autonomy” (pp. 77-78). This protectiveness makes parents less likely to choose to educate their daughters, especially if a school is not available nearby. Studies have observed that “a village school essentially closes the otherwise-large gender gap in enrollment” (Jayachandran, 2015, p. 78). Therefore, a single school can serve to educate boys from a significantly larger area than girls.

A significant difference in the treatment of men and women has significant consequences, most of which are negative. Since the causes persist in families, discrimination starts there, as parents consider investing in sons seems to be the better option than daughters. In day-to-day life, Para-Mallam (2017) found that Nigerian “rural men spend approximately two hours less than women doing work … and have one hour per day more for rest and recreation” (p. 28). In the distribution of a community’s shared resources, Agarwal (2018) points out that often, “female-headed households with few family members to help them are the most disadvantaged” (p. 282). Finally, common property in countries with a high level of gender inequality is “a high level of violence against women and girls perpetuated by individuals, groups and the state” (Para-Mallam, 2018, p. 29). All of these effects not only harm women’s lives and limit their opportunities, but also perpetuate the inequality already present, making it more difficult to create more equal conditions.

Gender inequality is still an issue even in First World nations. Current research in developing countries allows examining its causes and ways to reduce the gap in treatment. While simple biological reasons can initially explain inequality, culture and religion can perpetuate it into modernity. However, it has been noted that advances in technology, medicine, and infrastructure act as a countermeasure, gradually shortening this gap. Effects of gender inequality can range more work and less leisure time for the disadvantaged gender to limited education and employment opportunities, to violence.

Agarwal, B. (2018). Gender inequality, cooperation, and environmental sustainability. In J-M. Baland, P. Bradhan, & S. Bowles (eds.), inequality, cooperation, and environmental sustainability (pp. 274-313). New York, NY: Princeton University Press.

Hiller, V. (2014). Gender inequality, endogenous cultural norms, and economic development. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 116 (2), 451-481.

Jayachandran, S. (2015). The roots of gender inequality in developing countries. Annual Review of Economics, 7 (1), 63-88.

Para-Mallam, F. J. (2018). Gender equality in Nigeria. In A. Örtenblad, R. Marling, & S. Vasilijević (eds.), Gender Equality in a Global Perspective (pp. 23-53). New York, NY: Routledge.

• Causes and Effects of Animal Cruelty
• Grief: Stage Theory and Stages of Grief
• Evolutionary Biology: Sleep Patterns in Mammals
• Biology of Memory: Origins and Structures
• Evolutionary Theory in Biology and Anthropology
• Causes and Effects of Child Labor
• The Main Causes of Youth Violence
• The Problem of Overpopulation
• Procrastination Essay
• Cultural Identity: Problems, Coping, and Outcomes
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, December 3). Gender Inequality as a Global Issue. https://ivypanda.com/essays/gender-inequality-as-a-global-issue/

"Gender Inequality as a Global Issue." IvyPanda , 3 Dec. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/gender-inequality-as-a-global-issue/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Gender Inequality as a Global Issue'. 3 December.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Gender Inequality as a Global Issue." December 3, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/gender-inequality-as-a-global-issue/.

1. IvyPanda . "Gender Inequality as a Global Issue." December 3, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/gender-inequality-as-a-global-issue/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Gender Inequality as a Global Issue." December 3, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/gender-inequality-as-a-global-issue/.

Along with Stanford news and stories, show me:

• Student information
• Faculty/Staff information

We want to provide announcements, events, leadership messages and resources that are relevant to you. Your selection is stored in a browser cookie which you can remove at any time using “Clear all personalization” below.

The overturning of Roe v. Wade has heightened awareness of some of the broader issues the feminist movement and other allies for women’s rights have long championed, particularly advancing gender equality and economic well-being in societies around the globe.

Stanford scholars have studied some of the difficulties of reaching those goals and the many obstacles women face, whether it is at work, in the classroom and education, or as leaders. They have examined how gendered biases are perpetuated, why gender diversity and inclusion are imperative, and what can lead to prejudiced attitudes, assumptions, and adversities ultimately changing.

From the fields of business, social sciences, the humanities, law, education, health, and medicine, here are what Stanford researchers have to say about the evolution of women’s rights and the obstacles to advancing gender equity.

Impacts of overturning Roe v. Wade , and the U.S. Supreme Court

The decision by the U.S Supreme Court to overrule Roe v. Wade in the Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health case will carry many wide-reaching and serious consequences for women, say Stanford professors. By ending the constitutional right to abortion, a protection women have had for nearly 50 years, it will now be up to states to decide what reproductive choices are available for women – regardless of the circumstance. 

“No matter the reason a woman seeks to terminate a pregnancy – including because her health is jeopardized, because she was raped, because the fetus has a condition making death likely shortly after birth – a majority of state legislators may usurp that deeply personal decision,” said Stanford law Professor Jane S. Schacter in the wake of the decision. 

Here, Stanford professors shed light on the ramifications the reversal will have, as well as research on the divergence between the justices’ positioning versus public opinion, which the Roe v. Wade overruling highlighted.

A constitutional earthquake: Jane Schacter on SCOTUS decision to overturn Roe v. Wade

Stanford law Professor Jane Schacter, an expert on constitutional law and sexuality, discusses the Supreme Court’s decision to end the constitutional right to an abortion.

Using economics to understand the wide-reaching impacts of overturning Roe v. Wade

The greatest burden of abortion restrictions will likely fall onto low-income women and minorities, says Stanford economist Luigi Pistaferri.

Stanford’s Bernadette Meyler on possible SCOTUS decision to overturn Roe v. Wade

Constitutional law scholar Bernadette Meyler discusses the leaked Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization memo and the implications of a possible decision.

The gap between the Supreme Court and most Americans’ views is growing

A new study finds that not only has the court’s majority shifted dramatically rightward in the past two years, its stances are now significantly more conservative than most Americans’.

Protecting reproductive health information after fall of Roe v. Wade

Michelle Mello writes that the overturning of Roe v. Wade – ending federal protection over a woman's right to an abortion – could also expose her personal health data in court.

The pandemic’s effect on women

While the overturning of Roe v. Wade has sent shockwaves across the country, the global pandemic continues to be problematic, particularly among women and people of color. According to Stanford sociologist Shelley Correll , the pandemic alone may set gender equality back a generation as women take on an unfair burden of job losses and child care.

“Feelings of burnout have increased over the last year for both men and women, but more so for women,” Correll said, noting how mental health challenges and the lack of reliable child care continue to be problematic. “My big concern, in terms of gender equality, is that this high level of burnout is going to either drive women out of the paid workforce entirely or cause them to dial back their careers to something that is more manageable.” 

Over the coming months, it will be increasingly clear what the ramifications of both the end of Roe v. Wade and the pandemic will have. But what is already apparent is the urgent need to ensure access to health care, child care, and education, Stanford scholars say. Here is some of that research.

It’s time to prioritize humane, thriving work environments

The global pandemic is an opportunity to make fundamental changes to how society approaches work by creating working environments centered around creativity, problem-solving and equity, says Adina Sterling.

The real benefits of paid family leave

Paid family leave is not a “silver bullet” for advancing gender equity in the workplace, Maya Rossin-Slater says, but it is beneficial for family health and well-being outcomes, particularly infant and maternal health and overall financial stability.

Gender equality could be set back by an entire generation, sociologist warns

Coming out of the pandemic is an opportunity to build more equitable workplaces. Otherwise, burnout is likely going to either drive women out of the paid workforce entirely or cause them to dial back their careers, with long-term consequences for gender equality, says Stanford scholar Shelley Correll.

Equity and inclusion key issues in new work-life balance

With work, school and family life all taking place in our homes, the challenges may be greater for women, according to a focus group consisting of corporate and nonprofit leaders convened by Stanford’s VMware Women’s Leadership Innovation Lab.

Stress during pregnancy doubled during pandemic

As the first shelter-in-place orders took hold in California, pregnant women reported substantially elevated depressive symptoms, potentially adversely affecting their health as well as that of their babies.

Feminism and overcoming gender discrimination across history

For feminists, choice over reproductive health symbolized the human right to self-determination , said Estelle Freedman in her seminal book, No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Work (Ballantine Books, 2003). 

As Freedman explains, “Feminists have increasingly insisted that women’s health and children’s welfare must be central to international reproductive policies. In this way, reproductive choice can help alleviate economic injustice as well as extend human rights to women.”

Freedman, along with other Stanford scholars, has studied the evolution of feminist movements and women’s rights across history and the fight for economic justice and human rights in America and across the globe. Some have also examined these movements’ flaws, including historically overlooking people of color and people with a disability. Here are some of their findings.

How World War I strengthened women’s suffrage

Times of crisis can be catalysts for political change, says Stanford legal scholar Pamela S. Karlan. For women activists in the early 20th century, the catalyst was World War I.

The 19th Amendment is a milestone, not endpoint, for women’s rights in America

As the centennial of the 19th Amendment approaches, the milestone in women’s suffrage must also acknowledge the intersection of gender and racial justice in America, says Stanford scholar Estelle Freedman.

Left out of the vote

As the centennial of the 19th Amendment approaches, Stanford scholar Rabia Belt wants to acknowledge a history often overlooked in discourse about the franchise: people living with disabilities.

Why taking gender out of the equation is so difficult

Even as old stereotypes fade, gender remains “a very sticky category,” says Ashley Martin, assistant professor of organizational behavior.

Power forward

Tara VanDerveer, head coach of the Stanford women’s basketball team, talks about the state of women’s sports on the 50th anniversary of Title IX.

Roadblocks in the workplace

In 2020, women earned 83 cents to every dollar men earned, according to data from the U.S. Census Bureau. While the wage gap has narrowed over time, it still persists. Is it because of discrimination? Occupational differences? Workforce participation?

Scholars at the Stanford Graduate School of Business have tried to answer questions like these, including Stanford labor economist and Professor Emerita Myra Strober, who has dedicated her career to examining sexism across society, including the workplace.

“The American way, if you will, is to reward people who are valuable by paying them more. What’s not fair is rewarding them because you think they’re going to be more valuable before the game even starts. Managers should take people in entry-level positions and try to groom them all to see who turn out to be best,” Strober said in a 2016 interview . Strober suggests companies ought to examine salary disparities, offer paid parental leave and subsidize or offer childcare, and encourage workplace flexibility as ways to diversify and equalize the workplace.

Here is that interview, along with other research from scholars affiliated with the GSB who have examined gender differences and biases in the workplace and in leadership.

Is workplace equality the economy’s hidden engine?

In 1960, 94% of doctors and lawyers were white men. Today that number has fallen to 60%, and the economy has benefited dramatically because of it.

The language of gender bias in performance reviews

How negative stereotypes about men and women creep into a process intended to be meritocratic.

How race influences, amplifies backlash against outspoken women

When women break gender norms, the most negative reactions may come from people of the same race.

Having more power at the bargaining table helps women – but also sparks backlash

A large-scale study of job negotiations finds that women with stronger options were penalized for being too assertive.

How companies can solve the pay equity problem

A labor economist reveals how to close the pay gap.

Solving Silicon Valley’s gender problem

The authors of a survey on women in high tech answer the question: What now?

Making research, education more inclusive

In academic research, particularly the sciences, a gendered perspective has historically been overlooked, says Stanford historian Londa Schiebinger .

Such an oversight has come at a cost: For example, in clinical drug trials, women have been excluded on the grounds of reproductive safety  – meaning that when drugs hit market, doses may not be suited for female bodies. 

“Integrating sex and gender as variables in research, where relevant, enhances excellence in science and engineering,” said Schiebinger , who is the John L. Hinds Professor in the History of Science in Stanford’s School of Humanities and Sciences. “The operative question is how can we harness the creative power of sex and gender analysis for discovery and innovation? Does considering gender add a valuable dimension to research? Does it take research in new directions?”  

Schiebinger has spent her career finding creative ways to make science more inclusive. Here is some of that work, and work by others – including research showing the barriers women have faced as students in K-12 and at the PhD level.

A hidden obstacle for women in academia

A sweeping new study finds that women are penalized for pursuing research perceived to be “feminized” – an implicit bias surprisingly strong in fields associated with women.

Gender diversity is linked to research diversity

Gender diversity in science comes down to more than just who is on the team. The research approaches and types of questions the field addresses also shift – and lead to better science.

Sex and gender analysis improves science, Stanford scholars say

Including a gender and sex analysis in scientific research can open the door to discovery and innovation, according to a study performed by Stanford historian Londa Schiebinger and a group of scholars.

Female researchers pay more attention to sex and gender in medicine

Sex and gender affect how people react to drugs or other therapies, but are often overlooked in research. Stanford researchers find that medical research teams that include women more often account for sex and gender in their work.

Whose history? AI uncovers who gets attention in high school textbooks

Natural language processing reveals huge differences in how Texas history textbooks treat men, women, and people of color.

High-stakes exams can put female students at a disadvantage, Stanford researcher finds

A new study suggests that women are more heavily influenced than men by test anxiety, and points to ways to help close the gender gap.

Gender Equality: Why it Matters, Especially in a Time of Crisis

Bossoutrot Sylvie, Country Manager, World Bank Armenia

We have achieved much in recent history on the path to gender equality, but we have a long way to go to ensure equal endowments, participation, and voice for women.

The stakes are even higher now that the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) is ravaging the world, as times of great crisis often put women on the front lines. Women predominate in key roles as nurses, social workers, and caregivers.  They are also working as doctors and volunteers, and as political and community leaders making critical decisions about how to address the public health, social, and economic effects of the crisis.  Women’s participation will be vital to our success against this shared global threat.

Let us first acknowledge the progress made so far…

Today, we tend to take it for granted that women can vote. But - with the exception of a few frontrunners like New Zealand, Australia, and Finland - universal suffrage became a reality only after World War I. Eventually, voting rights for women were introduced into international law in 1948 by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

Women have also taken advantage of increased opportunities to serve as leaders. In 2019, women held nearly 1 in 4 legislative seats worldwide  - more than double their share in 1995. Management positions are also more likely to be held by women now than twenty years ago, though parity is still a long way off.

With greater representation comes improved outcomes. Looking at education, the world has seen enormous progress in reducing gaps between girls and boys across a variety of important areas such as enrollment rates and literacy outcomes.

In health, fewer mothers are dying in childbirth and significant increases in female life expectancy have followed. With few exceptions, women now outlive men in virtually every country.

In terms of labor participation, more women in countries at every level of income have been engaging in economic activities beyond non-market work in the home.

Around the world, many national reforms have been enacted in recent years to improve the status of women in the workplace, in marriage, and especially to protect women from violence.

Yet, there is still a long way to go…

Despite this meaningful progress, important gender gaps remain. These vary in scale from country to country and take different forms - from physical violence and deprivations to unequal opportunities in work or political life.

The World Health Organization estimates that over 1 in 3 women worldwide will experience violence in their lifetime.

Sadly, the risk of being subjected to violence increases in times of distress, such as the outbreak of COVID-19. The UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women, Dubravka Simonovic, warned that it was “very likely that rates of widespread domestic violence will increase, as already suggested by initial police and hotline reports.”

Gender disparities also take shape in unequal opportunities to participate fully in economic life. UN Women found that women are less likely than men to participate in the labor market and more likely to be unemployed.

Women are paid less, earning 77 cents to every dollar earned by a man, and bear disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care and domestic work (performing 76 percent of total hours of unpaid care work worldwide). In fact, if women’s unpaid work were assigned a monetary value, one study of six countries has suggested that it would constitute between 10 and 39 percent of GDP . 

These opportunity gaps suggest that women could be disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Women make up a larger share of health and social care workers around the world: 70 percent in 104 countries . Also, early analysis from the World Bank indicates that those in caregiving roles may face an increased burden in the wake of school closures, with working mothers finding themselves even more stretched than usual in trying to juggle home-based work, home-schooling, childcare, and housework.

Inequality of access is also a key concern. Globally, nearly 40 percent of women in wage employment are estimated to lack access to social protection .

Women are less likely than men to have access to financial institutions or to have a bank account. Although women-owned enterprises represent more than 30 percent of registered businesses worldwide, only 10 percent of women entrepreneurs have the capital they need to grow their businesses.

These gender gaps impose real costs on society…

As the World Bank Group’s Women, Business, and the Law 2020 points out, “equality of opportunity is good economics.” Indeed, it is estimated that women’s lagging participation in employment and entrepreneurship cost the world about 15 percent of its GDP .

In considering a “full potential” scenario in which women participated in the economy identically to men, McKinsey concluded that this would add $28 trillion (26 percent) to annual global GDP by 2025 as compared to business as usual.

Yet when girls are allowed to dream and realize their potential, we are all better off…

To quote the famous early 20 th century Armenian novelist and activist, Zabel Yesayan, “a woman is not born into this world to be pleasing. A woman is born to develop her mental, moral and physical abilities.”

Over the course of history, many women have embarked on a path of self-realization to the benefit of our society. Some are famous, some less so, but each contributed to advancing the world, whether by promoting human rights and peace, forging ahead in science, or serving on the front lines to save human lives and protect public health.

Let us pay tribute to just a few.

Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize (twice!) - in physics in 1903 for her work on radioactivity, and again in chemistry in 1911 for her study of the elements polonium and radium.

The first Chinese female Nobel laureate, Tu Youyou, received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for her discoveries in advancing treatment for malaria, which have since saved millions of lives.

Katherine Hannan, responding to the Red Cross’s call for nurses, volunteered just as the United States entered WWI and the Spanish flu began to ravage the army and eventually the world. She quickly rose through the ranks to head nurse and superintendent, overseeing 100 nurses.

Mother Teresa was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her tireless humanitarian work on behalf of the poor and ailing in Calcutta.

And, today, women are helping lead the battle against COVID-19: on March 7, the Chinese authorities recognized 20 female medical workers for their outstanding and heroic role in the country's fight against the coronavirus outbreak.

Carolina Elliott, a local woman from Charlotte, North Carolina, in the United States, is organizing food deliveries to help doctors and nurses get “through grueling 12-hour shifts.” “Because when you’re busy in the hospital like that,” she says, “you don’t have time to think about food.”

Shobha Luxmi is one of the doctors leading the fight against COVID-19 in Pakistan. She heads an isolation ward for coronavirus patients at a Karachi hospital, which receives 500 patients a day. “I have almost been working round the clock. I just get a few hours of sleep, and even then I am thinking about the hospital,” she recounts .

And we also look up to the many anonymous and silent female heroes around the world who are caring for the growing number of sick people and helping the vulnerable who have been affected by the current pandemic.

Despite the added burdens, crises present an opportunity to improve gender equality…

Unfortunately, we are likely to see some setbacks in gender equality during the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath. The European Institute of Gender Equality has stated that the closure or near-closure of businesses could have a severe effect on women-dominated professions (such as flight attendants, hairdressers, and tour operators), and unpaid care work will continue to increase.

In highlighting the gendered impact of COVID-19, the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights has stated that, “Targeted measures to address the disproportionate impact of the crisis on women and girls are needed.”

The COVID-19 crisis has put unprecedented pressure on governments, development organizations, and communities. While we strive urgently to respond, we should not lose sight of our goal to achieve gender equality. Instead, we should make it part of our overall effort to tackle these unprecedented challenges and come out stronger afterward.

With contributions from Armine Grigoryan (Consultant, World Bank, Armenia) and Amanda Green (Consultant, World Bank).

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• 06 September 2023

Gender equality: the route to a better world

You have full access to this article via your institution.

The Mosuo people of China include sub-communities in which inheritance passes down either the male or the female line. Credit: TPG/Getty

The fight for global gender equality is nowhere close to being won. Take education: in 87 countries, less than half of women and girls complete secondary schooling, according to 2023 data. Afghanistan’s Taliban continues to ban women and girls from secondary schools and universities . Or take reproductive health: abortion rights have been curtailed in 22 US states since the Supreme Court struck down federal protections, depriving women and girls of autonomy and restricting access to sexual and reproductive health care .

SDG 5, whose stated aim is to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”, is the fifth of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, all of which Nature is examining in a series of editorials. SDG 5 includes targets for ending discrimination and violence against women and girls in both public and private spheres, eradicating child marriage and female genital mutilation, ensuring sexual and reproductive rights, achieving equal representation of women in leadership positions and granting equal rights to economic resources. Globally, the goal is not on track to being achieved, and just a handful of countries have hit all the targets.

How the world should oppose the Taliban’s war on women and girls

In July, the UN introduced two new indices (see go.nature.com/3eus9ue ), the Women’s Empowerment Index (WEI) and the Global Gender Parity Index (GGPI). The WEI measures women’s ability and freedoms to make their own choices; the GGPI describes the gap between women and men in areas such as health, education, inclusion and decision making. The indices reveal, depressingly, that even achieving a small gender gap does not automatically translate to high levels of women’s empowerment: 114 countries feature in both indices, but countries that do well on both scores cover fewer than 1% of all girls and women.

The COVID-19 pandemic has made things worse, with women bearing the highest burden of extra unpaid childcare when schools needed to close, and subjected to intensified domestic violence. Although child marriages declined from 21% of all marriages in 2016 to 19% in 2022, the pandemic threatened even this incremental progress, pushing up to 10 million more girls into risk of child marriage over the next decade, in addition to the 100 million girls who were at risk before the pandemic.

Of the 14 indicators for SDG 5, only one or two are close to being met by the 2030 deadline. As of 1 January 2023, women occupied 35.4% of seats in local-government assemblies, an increase from 33.9% in 2020 (the target is gender parity by 2030). In 115 countries for which data were available, around three-quarters, on average, of the necessary laws guaranteeing full and equal access to sexual and reproductive health and rights had been enacted. But the UN estimates that worldwide, only 57% of women who are married or in a union make their own decisions regarding sexual and reproductive health and rights.

Systemic discrimination against girls and women by men, in many contexts, remains a colossal barrier to achieving gender equality. But patriarchy is not some “natural order of things” , argues Ruth Mace, an anthropologist at University College London. Hundreds of women-centred societies exist around the world. As the science writer Angela Saini describes in her latest book, The Patriarchs , these are often not the polar opposite of male-dominated systems, but societies in which men and women share decision making .

After Roe v. Wade: dwindling US abortion access is harming health a year later

One example comes from the Mosuo people in China, who have both ‘matrilineal’ and ‘patrilineal’ communities, with rights such as inheritance passing down either the male or female line. Researchers compared outcomes for inflammation and hypertension in men and women in these communities, and found that women in matrilineal societies, in which they have greater autonomy and control over resources, experienced better health outcomes. The researchers found no significant negative effect of matriliny on health outcomes for men ( A.  Z. Reynolds et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117 , 30324–30327; 2020 ).

When it comes to the SDGs, evidence is emerging that a more gender-equal approach to politics and power benefits many goals. In a study published in May, Nobue Amanuma, deputy director of the Integrated Sustainability Centre at the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies in Hayama, Japan, and two of her colleagues tested whether countries with more women legislators, and more younger legislators, are performing better in the SDGs ( N. Amanuma et al. Environ. Res. Lett. 18 , 054018; 2023 ). They found it was so, with the effect more marked for socio-economic goals such as ending poverty and hunger, than for environmental ones such as climate action or preserving life on land. The researchers recommend further qualitative and quantitative studies to better understand the reasons.

The reality that gender equality leads to better outcomes across other SDGs is not factored, however, into most of the goals themselves. Of the 230 unique indicators of the SDGs, 51 explicitly reference women, girls, gender or sex, including the 14 indicators in SDG 5. But there is not enough collaboration between organizations responsible for the different SDGs to ensure that sex and gender are taken into account. The indicator for the sanitation target (SDG 6) does not include data disaggregated by sex or gender ( Nature 620 , 7; 2023 ). Unless we have this knowledge, it will be hard to track improvements in this and other SDGs.

The road to a gender-equal world is long, and women’s power and freedom to make choices is still very constrained. But the evidence from science is getting stronger: distributing power between genders creates the kind of world we all need and want to be living in.

Nature 621 , 8 (2023)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-02745-9

Reprints and permissions

Related Articles

• Sustainability
• Public health

Monitor soil health using advanced technologies

Correspondence 23 JUL 24

Freezer holding world’s biggest ancient-ice archive to get ‘future-proofed’

News 16 JUL 24

Regulate to protect fragile Antarctic ecosystems from growing tourism

Correspondence 09 JUL 24

Even with no drug or vaccine, eradication of Guinea worm is in sight

Outlook 18 JUL 24

Three-year delay for Indian census frustrates researchers

News 18 JUL 24

The pandemic agreement: an African perspective

Correspondence 16 JUL 24

The geneticist who uses science to free parents wrongly convicted of killing their children

Career Feature 16 JUL 24

Is your research a trade secret? South Korean data-sharing case is a wake-up call

World View 03 JUL 24

‘Vindicated’: Embattled misinformation researchers celebrate key US Supreme Court decision

News 26 JUN 24

Assistant or Associate Professor

The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology is seeking applicants for a tenure-track Assistant or Associate Professor position

Iowa City, Iowa

University of Iowa Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

Staff Scientist 1

The Staff Scientist 1 will play a major role in collaboration with the Laboratory Chief

Bethesda, Maryland (US)

LeRheas Media Corporation

Research Engineer in Medical Device, Instrumentation and Mechatronics

Research Engineer in Medical Device, Instrumentation and Mechatronics, to undertake research in devices...

Suzhou, Jiangsu, China

Oxford Suzhou Centre for Advanced Research

Postdoctoral Associate

Houston, Texas (US)

Baylor College of Medicine (BCM)

Staff Scientist - Data Science/Machine Learning

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Explainer: How gender inequality and climate change are interconnected

• Share to Facebook
• Share to Twitter
• Share to LinkedIn
• Share to E-mail

Gender inequality coupled with the climate crisis is one of the greatest challenges of our time. It poses threats to ways of life, livelihoods, health, safety and security for women and girls around the world.

Historically, climate change scientists, researchers and policymakers have struggled with how to make the vital connections between gender, social equity, and climate change. As more and more data and research reveal their clear correlation, it’s time to talk about the disparate impacts of climate change and the linkages between women’s empowerment and effective, global climate action.

On International Women’s Day, we take a look at how climate change impacts women and girls, why gender equality is key to climate action, and what you can do to support solutions for women, by women.

How does climate change impact women and girls?

The climate crisis is not “gender neutral”. Women and girls experience the greatest impacts of climate change, which amplifies existing gender inequalities and poses unique threats to their livelihoods, health, and safety.

Across the world, women depend more on, yet have less access to, natural resources. In many regions, women bear a disproportionate responsibility for securing food, water, and fuel. Agriculture is the most important employment sector for women in low- and lower-middle income countries, during periods of drought and erratic rainfall, women, as agricultural workers and primary procurers, work harder to secure income and resources for their families. This puts added pressure on girls, who often have to leave school to help their mothers manage the increased burden.

Climate change is a “threat multiplier”, meaning it escalates social, political and economic tensions in fragile and conflict-affected settings. As climate change drives conflict across the world, women and girls face increased vulnerabilities to all forms of gender-based violence, including conflict-related sexual violence, human trafficking, child marriage, and other forms of violence.

When disasters strike, women are less likely to survive and more likely to be injured due to long standing gender inequalities that have created disparities in information, mobility, decision-making, and access to resources and training. In the aftermath, women and girls are less able to access relief and assistance, further threatening their livelihoods, wellbeing and recovery, and creating a vicious cycle of vulnerability to future disasters.

Women’s and girls’ health is endangered by climate change and disasters by limiting access to services and health care, as well as increasing risks related to maternal and child health. Research indicates that extreme heat increases incidence of stillbirth, and climate change is increasing the spread of vector-borne illnesses such as malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus, which are linked to worse maternal and neonatal outcomes .

How does climate change intersect with other inequalities for women and girls?

While women and girls experience disproportionate impacts from climate change at the global level, the effects are not uniform. Looking at climate change through the lens of intersectional feminism , the way in which various forms of inequality often operate together and exacerbate each other, it is clear that climate change risks are acute for indigenous and Afro-descendent women and girls, older women, LGBTIQ+ people, women and girls with disabilities, migrant women, and those living in rural, remote, conflict and disaster-prone areas.

“If you are invisible in everyday life, your needs will not be thought of, let alone addressed, in a crisis situation,” says Matcha Phorn-In , a lesbian feminist human-rights defender who works to empower stateless and landless Indigenous women, girls and young LGBTIQ+ people in Thailand’s Chiang Mai, Mae Hong Son, and Tak provinces. “Humanitarian programmes tend to be heteronormative and can reinforce the patriarchal structure of society if they do not take into account sexual and gender diversity,” Phorn-in explains. “In addressing structural change, we are advocating for and working towards equality of all kinds.”

In the Brazilian Amazon, Dandara Rudsan , a Black and trans activist and an environmental racism specialist in the Public Defender’s Office of Pará State, knows firsthand that centering the experiences and challenges faced by different groups illuminates the connections between all fights for justice and liberation.

“In the Amazon, defending human rights means fighting for the survival of people and the rainforest every day, but there is no hierarchy between agendas… To finance social movements in the Amazon is to finance the survival of these communities, these people, and the rainforest.”

• Climate change
• Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex (LGBT) rights

Related content

‘You have the power to change’ – Young women in South Africa break through stigma and poverty and inspire others

LGBTIQ+ migrants face unique risks, starting with the perception that they are second-class citizens – Interview with migrant rights activist Rey Perez Asis from The Philippines

In search of safety – LGBTIQ+ people on the move

Essays About Gender Inequality: Top 5 Examples and 8 Helpful Prompts

Essays about gender inequality discuss a timely subject. Discover our guide with examples and prompts to assist you in writing.

Gender inequality is a global issue where one person’s perception and treatment of others depend on predetermined social expectations, leading to discrimination. Children can learn negative stereotypes, live with these biases, and carry them into adulthood. Parents who teach their kids prejudice are one of the reasons for gender inequality that spills into everyone else’s lives. 

Organizations like UNICEF actively form partnerships worldwide to stop and promote gender equality . Their efforts include career support, higher quality maternal care, skills development, and more. Your gender inequality essay can help promote gender equality that prevents violence against all genders. In addition, by discussing the topic, more people can better understand the seriousness of the issue. Check out our round-up of the best essay writing apps to get started!

5 Essay Examples 

1. gender inequality: sources and consequences by anonymous on edubirdie.com, 2. the issue of gender inequality in the media in america by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 3. gender inequality is a huge issue from past by joshua blake, 4. the problem of gender inequality in the workplace by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 5. gender inequality: are there any positive changes by anonymous on eduzaurus.com, 1. gender inequality: defined, 2. impact of gender inequality, 3. fighting gender inequality, 4. types and causes of gender inequality, 5. gender inequality as a global problem, 6. politics and gender inequality, 7. who are the most affected by gender inequality, 8. gender inequality and family dynamics.

“Humanity requires both men and women to move forward together, and they both are equally important. There are no reasons why women should be seen as the “weaker” sex.”

The author firmly believes that people must control old habits and notions about genders for everyone’s sake. This essay further delves into how culture and history devalue ​​women and prove that men are more powerful as they bring money and do more physical work. The media also assists in making viewers think women are sexual objects, with how most magazines and promotions cater to men’s satisfaction.

The writer understands that gender inequality is impossible to fix immediately. So they recommend parents teach their children to avoid stereotyping. Companies should also ensure equal treatment for both genders when providing job opportunities. They also mention that more influential people will speak about the problem as the unjust treatment continues.

“There is no doubt that every form of media today will have some sort of gender stereotypes and generalizations about male and female roles.”

In this gender inequality essay, the writer explains not only what stereotypes are but also how the media harms the lives of young men and women when these labels are reinforced. This includes the stereotype of being a housewife, the most common stereotype.

The writer describes how the media is at fault for promoting a negative body image. When mainstream channels portray the “perfect” male or female body, and viewers see that they are far from what those ideal types look like, it can lead to physical and mental health problems. 

“It is certain that gender inequality is a huge issue from the past to present especially [as it] occurs among women.”

To identify the causes of gender inequality, Blake uses various studies to prove that Hofstede and Schwartz’s framework on the cultural dimension influences the differences between men and women.

A good example is Schwartz’s hierarchy and Hofstede’s power distance, which both refer to unequal power distribution and sources. Some dimensions are very similar and correspond to each other, such as masculinity and mastery, femininity and harmony, autonomy and individualism, conservatism, and collectivism.

“Both genders can have the same education and experience, yet the male gets a higher wage payment compared to female.”

In discussing the topic, the author uses various statistical data to prove that gender inequality in the workplace is still present today but is improving. For example, according to their findings, American men earn one dollar while women earn only 89 cents. 

Americans are also against the women who return to work after giving birth and say men shall continue without paternity leave. But ultimately, the writer believes that when there’s gender inequality in a company, they lose the opportunity to keep their best resources.

“Gender inequality can be defined as not giving equal opportunities to people because of their biological sex.”

The essay mentions how TV shows and personalities like Emma Watson , who speak their minds on how the media portrays genders, help shed more light on gender inequality. Therefore, they encourage others to become a part of something revolutionary. However, it also shows little change in gender differences after more people became aware of the situation. The piece also notes how today’s parents are raising their children, allowing them to eliminate gender-based oppression.

8 Prompts for Essays About Gender Inequality

Explain to your readers the main topic and how inequality occurs in modern society. Give an example of gender inequality that is very common and how both sexes react to it. Conclude your essay with recommendations on how these issues can be resolved and avoided.

In reality, gender inequality has negative impacts on everyone. Discuss how this problem takes away opportunities, develops destructive behaviors, and puts people in dangerous situations. Offer real-life examples, surveys, and data to support your claims to make the essay more informative and credible.

Gender inequality has been a prevalent issue since the beginning of time and is still a pressing matter today. Use this prompt to identify and discuss steps governments, organizations, schools, churches, parents, and individuals should take to avoid being gender biased. 

Share ways to promote gender equality through simple tasks like sharing household chores between housemates, no matter the gender, calling out sexist jokes, and learning more about the topic.

To make your essay more effective, incorporate convincing and powerful writing. Read our guide on persuasive writing to know more.

Talk about the various types of gender inequality, such as gender discrimination in education, sexual violence, unequal pay and recognition, racism, and ownership inequality. Add their causes and roots. 

It’s best if you can interview someone who experiences this imbalance. Let them relay what they felt and why they think it happened. Include other examples to allow your readers to visualize and understand the situations.

Do thorough research and find survey data showing the number of people who are still victims of gender inequality. Look for the best and most reliable source and check how it differs from one location to the other. Discuss your findings and share your opinion on what contributes to this discrimination.

Use this prompt if you want to tackle fundamental problems related to gender inequality. Discuss how women and men are treated in politics and give examples of situations that demonstrate it. The more famous the incidents are, the better. You can also compare if there’s a relevant difference between how female and male politicians lead.

Although all are affected by this bias, who are the most prone to it? Search for applicable data from reputable sources to determine and expound on the number of people involved. Include how these people are influenced and why.

Gender inequality also occurs in wealthy families or nobility, where whoever is in charge of a business or place needs power and the ability to dominate others. Search for countries and cultures that still follow a patriarchal structure. Add your opinion on whether it’s time to modify these structures or its best to keep them as is for traditions’ sake.

If you’re still stuck, maybe this topic is not for you. Check out our general resource of essay writing topics.

Closing the equity gap

Jeni Klugman

Caren Grown and Odera Onyechi

Why addressing gender inequality is central to tackling today’s polycrises

Nonresident Senior Fellow, Africa Growth Initiative, Global Economy and Development, Brookings Institution

As we enter 2023, the term “ polycrisis ” is an increasingly apt way to describe today’s challenges. 1 Major wars, high inflation, and climate events are creating hardship all around the world, which is still grappling with a pandemic death toll approaching 7 million people.

Faced with such daunting challenges, one might well ask why we should be thinking about the gender dimensions of recovery and resilience for future shocks. The answer is simple: We can no longer afford to think in silos. Today’s interlocking challenges demand that sharp inequalities, including gender disparities, must be addressed as part and parcel of efforts to tackle Africa’s pressing issues and ensure the continent’s future success.

“We can no longer afford to think in silos. … Gender disparities, must be addressed as part and parcel of efforts to tackle Africa’s pressing issues and ensure the continent’s future success.”

The burdens of the pandemic have been unequally borne across regions and countries, and between the poor and better off. Inequalities exist around gender—which can be defined as the “socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, attributes and opportunities that any society considers appropriate for men and women, boys and girls” and people with non-binary identities. 2 As Raewyn Connell laid out more than two decades ago, existing systems typically distribute greater power, resources, and status to men and behaviors considered masculine . 3 As a result, gender intersects with other sources of disadvantage, most notably income, age, race, and ethnicity.

This understanding is now mainstream. As recently observed by the IMF, “The gender inequalities exposed by the COVID-19 pandemic follow different paths but almost always end up the same: Women have suffered disproportionate economic harm from the crisis.” 4 Among the important nuances revealed by micro-surveys is that rural women working informally continued to work through the pandemic , but with sharply reduced earnings in Nigeria and elsewhere. 5 And as the burden of child care and home schooling soared, rural households headed by women were far less likely than urban households to have children engaged in learning activities during school closures.

Important insights emerge from IFPRI’s longitudinal panel study (which included Ghana, Kenya, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Uganda) covering income loss, coping strategies, labor and time use, food and water insecurity, and child education outcomes. 6

Among the especially adverse impacts for women were greater food and water insecurity compared to men, including worrying about insufficient food and eating less than usual, while a large proportion of women also did not have adequately diverse diets. Moreover, many women had to add hours to their workday caring for sick family members, and their economic opportunities shrank, cutting their earnings and widening gender income gaps.

While today’s problems seem daunting, there remain huge causes for optimism, especially in Africa. Over the past three decades, many African countries have achieved enormous gains in levels of education, health, and poverty reduction. Indeed, the pace of change has been staggering and commendable. As captured in the Women Peace and Security Index , which measures performance in inclusion, justice, and security, 6 of the top 10 score improvers during the period 2017-2021 were in sub-Saharan Africa. [GIWPS.2022. “Women Peace and Security Index” Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security.] The Democratic Republic of Congo was among top score improvers since 2017, as the share of women with financial accounts almost tripled, to 24 percent; and increases exceeding 5 percentage points were registered in cell phone use and parliamentary representation. In the Central African Republic, improvements were experienced in the security dimension, where organized violence fell significantly, and women’s perceptions of community safety rose 6 percentage points up to 49 percent.

Looking ahead, efforts to mitigate gender inequalities must clearly be multi-pronged, and as highlighted above—we need to think outside silos. That said, two major policy fronts emerge to the fore.

Ensure cash transfers that protect against poverty , are built and designed to promote women’s opportunities, with a focus on digital payments. 7 Ways to address gender inequalities as part of social protection program responses 8 include deliberate efforts to overcome gender gaps in cell phone access by distributing phones to those women who need them, as well as private sector partnerships to subsidize airtime for the poorest, and to make key information services and apps freely available . 9 Programs could also make women the default recipient of cash transfer schemes, instead of the head of household. Furthermore, capacity-building initiatives can be built into program design to give women the skills and capabilities needed to successfully manage accounts and financial decisionmaking. 10

Reducing the risk of violence against women. Women who are not safe at home are denied the freedom from violence needed to pursue opportunities that should be afforded to all. In 2018, 10 of the 15 countries with the worst rates of intimate partner violence were in sub-Saharan Africa—in descending order of average intimate partner violence these were, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Zambia, Ethiopia, Liberia, South Sudan, Djibouti, and Uganda.

“As the burden of child care and home schooling soared, rural households headed by women were far less likely than urban households to have children engaged in learning activities.”

Conflicts and crises multiply women’s risk of physical, emotional, and sexual violence . During the pandemic, risk factors like economic stress were compounded by service closures and stay-at-home orders, which increased exposure to potential perpetrators. 11 Several governments responded by strengthening existing help services , including police and justice, supporting hotlines, ensuring the provision of psychological support, and health sector responses. 12 Examples of good practice included an NGO in North-Eastern Nigeria, which equipped existing safe spaces with phone booths to enable survivors to contact caseworkers.

However, given the high levels of prevalence and often low levels of reporting, prevention of gender-based violence is key. Targeted programs with promising results in prevention include community dialogues and efforts to change harmful norms, safe spaces, as well as possibilities to reduce the risk of violence through cash plus social protection programs. These efforts should be accompanied by more systematic monitoring and evaluation to build evidence about what works in diverse settings.

Finally, but certainly not least, women should have space and voices in decisionmaking. This case was powerfully put by former President Sirleaf Johnson in her 2021 Foresight essay, which underlined that “ economic, political, institutional, and social barriers persist throughout the continent, limiting women’s abilities to reach high-level leadership positions .” 13 Persistent gender gaps in power and decision-making, not only limits innovative thinking and solutions, but also the consideration of more basic measures to avoid the worsening of gender inequalities. Overcoming these gaps in power and decision-making requires safeguarding legal protections and rights, investing in women and girls financially, and opening space for women in political parties so that women have the platforms to access high-level appointed and competitive positions across national, regional, and international institutions. 14

Strengthening fiscal policy for gender equality

Senior Fellow, Center for Sustainable Development, Global Economy and Development, Brookings Institution

Research Analyst, Center for Sustainable Development, Global Economy and Development, Brookings Institution

It is often said that women act as “shock absorbers” during times of crisis; this is even more so in the current context of climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic, and increased geopolitical conflict. These three global crises have simultaneously stretched women’s ability to earn income and intensified their unpaid work. Well-designed fiscal policy can help cushion the effects of these shocks and enable women and their households to recover more quickly.

Over 60 percent of employed women in Africa work in agriculture, including in small-scale food production; women are the primary sellers in food markets, and they work in other sectors such as informal trading. At the same time, women are an increasing share of entrepreneurs in countries such as Ghana and Uganda, even as they face financial and other constraints to start and grow their firms. [Africa Gender Innovation Lab (GIL). 2020. “Supporting Women Throughout the Coronavirus Emergency Response and Economic Recovery.” World Bank Group. ] In addition to earning income for their households, women bear the major responsibility for unpaid domestic activities such as cooking; collecting water and fuelwood; caring for children, elderly, and other dependents—so women are more time-poor than are men.

African women and entrepreneurs have been impacted disproportionately more than men by the triple shocks mentioned earlier. Extreme weather events disrupt food production and agricultural employment, making it harder for women to earn income . 15 16 17 The pandemic and conflict in Ukraine further intensified women’s paid and unpaid activities . 18 19 Beyond climate change and the war in Ukraine, localized conflicts and insecurity in East and West Africa exposes women and girls to gender-based violence and other risks as they seek to support their families and develop new coping strategies. 20 21 22

“Responding to these shocks necessitates a large infusion of resources. In this context, fiscal policy can be deployed more smartly to advance gender equality and create an enabling environment for women to play a greater role in building their economies’ recovery and resilience.”

Responding to these shocks necessitates a large infusion of resources. In this context, fiscal policy can be deployed more smartly to advance gender equality and create an enabling environment for women to play a greater role in building their economies’ recovery and resilience. Public expenditure supports critical sectors such as education, health, agriculture, social protection, and physical and social infrastructure, while well-designed tax policy is essential to fund the public goods, services, and infrastructure on which both women and men rely.

Gender-responsive budgets, which exist in over 30 countries across the continent, can be strengthened. Rwanda provides a good model for other countries. After an early unsuccessful attempt, Rwanda invested seriously in gender budgeting beginning in 2011. 23 24 The budget is focused on closing gaps and strengthening women’s roles in key sectors—agriculture, education, health, and infrastructure—which are all critical for short- and medium-term economic growth and productivity. The process has been sustained by strong political will among parliamentarians. Led by the Ministry of Finance, the process has financed and been complemented by important institutional and policy reforms. A constitutional regulatory body monitors results, with additional accountability by civil society organizations.

However, raising adequate fiscal revenue to support a gender budget is a challenge in the current macro environment of high public debt levels, increased borrowing costs, and low levels of public savings. Yet, observers note there is scope to increase revenues through taxation reforms, debt relief, cutting wasteful public expenditure, and other means. 25 26 We focus here on taxation.

Many countries are reforming their tax systems to strengthen revenue collection. Overall tax collection is currently low; the average tax-to-GDP ratio in Africa in 2020 was 14.8 percent and fell sharply during the pandemic, although it may be rebounding. 27 Very few Africans pay personal income tax or other central government taxes, 28 29 and statutory corporate tax rates (which range from 25-35 percent), are higher than even the recent OECD proposal for a global minimum tax 30 so scope for raising them further is limited. Efforts should be made to close loopholes and reduce tax evasion.

As countries reform their tax policies, they should be intentional about avoiding implicit and explicit gender biases. 31 32 33 34 Most African countries rely more on indirect taxes than direct taxes, given the structure of their economies, but indirect taxes can be regressive as their incidence falls primarily on the poor. Presumptive or turnover taxes, for example, which are uniform or fixed amounts of tax based on the “presumed” incomes of different occupations such as hairdressers, can hit women particularly hard, since the burden often falls heavily on sectors where women predominate. 35 36

Property taxes are also becoming an increasingly popular way to raise revenue for local governments. The impact of these efforts on male and female property owners has not been systematically evaluated, but a recent study of land use fees and agricultural income taxes in Ethiopia finds that female-headed and female adult-only households bear a larger tax burden than male-headed and dual-adult households of property taxes. This is likely a result of unequal land ownership patterns, gender norms restricting women’s engagement in agriculture, and the gender gap in agricultural productivity. 37

“Indirect taxes can be regressive as their incidence falls primarily on the poor. Presumptive or turnover taxes … can hit women particularly hard, since the burden often falls heavily on sectors where women predominate.”

Going forward, two key ingredients for gender budgeting on the continent need to be strengthened. The first is having sufficient, regularly collected, sex-disaggregated administrative data related to households, the labor force, and other survey data. Investment in the robust technical capacity for ministries and academia to be able to access, analyze, and use it is also necessary. For instance, the World Bank, UN Women, and the Economic Commission for Africa are all working with National Statistical Offices across the continent to strengthen statistical capacity in the areas of asset ownership and control, work and employment, and entrepreneurship which can be used in a gender budget.

The second ingredient is stronger diagnostic tools. One promising new tool, pioneered by Tulane University, is the Commitment to Equity methodology, designed to assess the impact of taxes and transfers on income inequality and poverty within countries. 38 It was recently extended to examine the impact of government transfers and taxes on women and men by income level and other dimensions. The methodology requires standard household-level data but for maximum effect should be supplemented with time use data, which are becoming more common in several African countries. As African countries seek to expand revenue from direct taxes, lessons from higher income economies are instructive. Although there is no one size fits all approach, key principles to keep in mind for designing personal income taxes include building in strong progressivity, taxing individuals as opposed to families, ensuring that the allocation of shared income (e.g., property or non-labor income) does not penalize women, and building in allowances for care of children and dependents. 39 As noted, corporate income taxes need to eliminate the many breaks, loopholes, and exemptions that currently exist, 40 and countries might consider experimenting with wealth taxes.

In terms of indirect taxes, most African countries do not have single-rate VAT systems and already have zero or reduced rates for basic necessities, including foodstuffs and other necessities. While it is important to minimize exempted sectors and products, estimates show that goods essential for women’s and children’s health (e.g., menstrual health products, diapers, cooking fuel) should be considered part of the basket of basic goods that have reduced or zero rates. 41 And while African governments are being advised to bring informal workers and entrepreneurs into the formal tax system, 42 it should be noted that this massive sector earns well below income tax thresholds and already pays multiple informal fees and levies, for instance in fees to market associations. 43 44

Lastly, leveraging data and digital technologies to improve tax administration (i.e., taxpayer registration, e-filing, and e-payment of taxes) may help minimize costs and processing time, and reduce the incidence of corruption and evasion.32 Digitalization can also be important for bringing more female taxpayers into the net, especially if digital systems are interoperable; for instance, digital taxpayer registries linked to national identification or to property registration at the local level. However, digitalization can be a double-edged sword if privacy and security concerns are not built-in from the outset. Women particularly may need targeted digital financial literacy and other measures to ensure their trust in the system. Recent shocks have worsened gender inequality in Africa. It is therefore important now, more than ever, to invest in strengthening fiscal systems to help women and men recover, withstand future shocks, and reduce gender inequalities. While fiscal policy is not the only tool, it is an important part of government action. To be effective and improve both budgeting and revenue collection, more and better data, new diagnostic tools, and digitalization will all be necessary.

• 1. Martin Wolf. 2022.“How to think about policy in a policy crisis”. Financial Times.
• 2. WTO. 2022. “Gender and Health”. World Health Organization.
• 3. Connell RW. 1995. “Masculinities”. Cambridge, UK. Polity Press.
• 4. Aoyagi, Chie.2021.“Africa’s Unequal Pandemic”. Finance and Development. International Monetary Fund.
• 5. WB.2022. “LSMS-Supported High-Frequency Phone Surveys”. World Bank.
• 6. Muzna Alvi, Shweta Gupta, Prapti Barooah, Claudia Ringler, Elizabeth Bryan and Ruth Meinzen-Dick.2022.“Gendered Impacts of COVID-19: Insights from 7 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia”. International Food Policy Research Institute.
• 7. Klugman, Jeni, Zimmerman, Jamie M., Maria A. May, and Elizabeth Kellison. 2020. “Digital Cash Transfers in the Time of COVID 19: Opportunities and Considerations for Women’s Inclusion and Empowerment”. World Bank Group.
• 8. IFPRI.2020. “Why gender-sensitive social protection is critical to the COVID-19 response in low-and middle-income countries”. International Food Policy Research Institute.
• 9. IDFR.2020. “Kenya: Mobile-money as a public-health tool”. International Day of Family Remittances.
• 10. Jaclyn Berfond Franz Gómez S. Juan Navarrete Ryan Newton Ana Pantelic. 2019. “Capacity Building for Government-to-Person Payments A Path to Women’s Economic Empowerment”. Women’s World Banking.
• 11. Peterman, A. et al.2020. “Pandemics and Violence Against Women and Children”.Center for Global Development Working Paper.
• 12. UNDP/ UN Women Tracker.2022. “United Nations Development Programme. COVID-19 Global Gender Response Tracker”. United Nations Development Programme. New York.
• 13. McKinsey Global Institute .2019. “The power of parity: Advancing women’s equality in Africa”.
• 14. Foresight Africa. 2022. “African Women and Girls: Leading a continent.” The Brookings Institution.
• 15. One recent study in West, Central Africa, East and Southern Africa found that women represented a larger share of agricultural employment in areas affected by heat waves and droughts, and a lower share in areas unaffected by extreme weather events. Nico, G. et al. 2022. “How Weather Variability and Extreme Shocks Affect Women’s Participation in African Agriculture.” Gender, Climate Change, and Nutrition Integration Initiative Policy Note 14.
• 16. Carleton, E. 2022. “Climate Change in Africa: What Will It Mean for Agriculture and Food Security?” International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).
• 17. Nebie, E.K. et al. 2021. “Food Security and Climate Shocks in Senegal: Who and Where Are the Most Vulnerable Households?” Global Food Security, 29.
• 18. Sen, A.K. 2022. “Russia’s War in Ukraine Is Taking a Toll on Africa.” United States Institute of Peace.
• 19. Thomas, A. 2020. “Power Structures over Gender Make Women More Vulnerable to Climate Change.” Climate Change News.
• 21. Kalbarczyk, A. et al. 2022. “COVID-19, Nutrition, and Gender: An Evidence-Informed Approach to Gender Responsive Policies and Programs.” Social Science & Medicine, 312.
• 22. Epstein, A. 2020. “Drought and Intimate Partner Violence Towards Women in 19 Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa During 2011-2018: A Population-Based Study.” PLoS Med, 17(3).
• 23. Stotsky, J. et al. 2016. “Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of Gender Budgeting Efforts. IMF Working Paper 2016/512.
• 24. Kadama, C. et al. 2018. Sub-Saharan Africa.” In Kolovich, L. (Ed.), Fiscal Policies and Gender Equality (pp. 9-32). International Monetary Fund (IMF).
• 25. Ortiz, I. and Cummins, M. 2021. “Abandoning Austerity: Fiscal Policies for Inclusive Development.” In Gallagher, K. and Gao, H. (Eds.), Building Back a Better Global Financial Safety Net (pp. 11-22). Global Development Policy Center.
• 26. Roy, R. et al. 2006. “Fiscal Space for Public Investment: Towards a Human Development Approach.”
• 27. ATAF, 2021.
• 28. Moore, M. et al. 2018. “Taxing Africa: Coercion, Reform and Development. Bloomsbury Publishing.
• 29. Rogan, M. 2019. Tax Justice and the Informal Economy: A Review of the Debates.” Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing Working Paper 14.
• 30. African Tax Administrative Forum (ATAF). 2021. African Tax Outlook 2021.
• 31. Stotsky, J. et al. 2016. “Sub-Saharan Africa: A Survey of Gender Budgeting Efforts.” IMF Working Paper 2016/512.
• 32. Coelho, M. et al. 2022. “Gendered Taxes: The Interaction of Tax Policy with Gender Equality.” IMF Working Paper 2022/26.
• 33. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2021. Gender and Capital Budgeting.
• 34. Grown, C. and Valodia, I. 2010. Taxation and Gender Equity: A Comparative Analysis of Direct and Indirect Taxes in Developing and Developed Countries. Routledge.
• 35. Joshi, Anuradha et al. 2020. “Gender and Tax Policies in the Global South.” International Centre for Tax and Development.
• 36. Komatsu, H. et al. 2021. “Gender and Tax Incidence of Rural Land Use Fee and Agricultural In¬come Tax in Ethiopia.” Policy Research Working Papers.
• 38. Lustig, N. 2018. “Commitment to Equity Handbook: Estimating the Impact of Fiscal Policy on Inequality and Poverty.” Brookings Institution Press.
• 39. Grown, C. and Valodia, I. 2010. “Taxation and Gender Equity: A Comparative Analysis of Direct and Indirect Taxes in Developing and Developed Countries.” Routledge.
• 40. Cesar, C. et al. 2022. “Africa’s Pulse: An Analysis of Issues Shaping Africa’s Economic Future.” World Bank.
• 41. Woolard, I. 2018. Recommendations on Zero Ratings in the Value-Added Tax System. Independent Panel of Experts for the Review of Zero Rating in South Africa.
• 42. It is important to distinguish between firms and individuals that are large enough to pay taxes but do not (which include icebergs, e.g., which are registered and therefore partially visible to tax authorities but do not pay their full obligations) and ghosts, e.g., those which should register to pay but do not and there invisible to tax authorities) and firms and individuals that are small and potentially but not necessarily taxable such as street vendors and waste pickers. Rogan, M. (2019). “Tax Justice and the Informal Economy: A Review of the Debates.” Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing Working Paper 14.
• 44. Ligomeka, W. 2019. “Expensive to be a Female Trader: The Reality of Taxation of Flea Market Trad¬ers in Zimbabwe.” International Center for Tax and Development Working Paper 93.

By Mavis Owusu-Gyamfi

Mavis Owusu-Gyamfi explores the role of gender equality in Africa’s economic development.

By Cina Lawson

Cina Lawson describes Togolese initiatives to expand the reach of social protection.

By Malado Kaba

Malado Kaba identifies four priorities for governments to transform the informal sector and economic prospects for African women.

By J. Jarpa Duwuni

J. Jarpa Dawuni identifies priority areas to expand access to justice for women and girls in Africa.

Next Chapter

06 | Climate Change Adapting to a new normal

Foresight Africa: Top Priorities for the Continent in 2023

On January 30, AGI hosted a Foresight Africa launch featuring a high-level panel of leading Africa experts to offer insights on regional trends along with recommendations for national governments, regional organizations, multilateral institutions, the private sector, and civil society actors as they forge ahead in 2022.

Africa in Focus

What should be the top priority for Africa in 2023?

BY ALOYSIUS UCHE ORDU

Aloysius Uche Ordu introduces Foresight Africa 2023, which outlines top priorities for the year ahead and offers recommendations for supporting Africa at a time of heightened global turbulence.

Foresight Africa Podcast

The Foresight Africa podcast celebrates Africa’s dynamism and explores strategies for broadening the benefits of growth to all people of Africa.

• Media Relations
• Terms and Conditions
• Privacy Policy

Gender Inequality: Causes and Impacts

How it works

Gender Equality is “A state of having same rights, status and opportunities like others, regardless of one’s gender.” Gender inequality is “unequal treatment or perception of an individual based on their gender.” In the United States of America Gender Equality has progressed through the past decades. Due to different Cultural context, countries around the world lack Gender Equality. Gender inequality remains a issue worldwide, mainly in the Middle East and North Africa. Equality of Gender is normalized in the United States of America but is lacked worldwide.

Countries around the world lack gender equality in the workplace, marriage, government, education and household roles.

Around the world Gender inequality has been a problem since ancient times. It is a problem that has been protested against, debated about and spoken for since the beginning of men and women interactions. This issue has been created through gender biases. The definition of Gender biases is “unequal treatment and expectations based on the sex of an individual.”

• 1 Gender Inequality in the workforce:
• 2 Gender equality vs Inequality in Marriage:
• 3 Gender equality vs inequality in Education:

Gender Inequality in the workforce:

Before the Equal pay act of 1963, which was signed by John f Kennedy, women made 59 cents of every dollar men made. The Equal Pay act is a labor law aimed to abolish wage disparity based on sex. Although this act was signed, there is still an issue of Gender biases in labor work today. In modern time American Women make only 77 cents for every dollar that a man will earn. Three-in-Ten employed women say they have experienced some form of discrimination in the workplace. (Amy DelPo and Lisa Guerin (Nolo).

Although there is still a pay gap in the United States of America, in 155 other economies there is at least one law preventing women’s economic opportunities. For example: Argentinian women looking to set up their own liquor stores are prevented to do so, this is considered a profession for men in the country. (Kate davidson 2016). Argentinian women are also prohibited from polishing glass. Another example is In Madagascar, women aren’t allowed to write literature, create posters or publish any material. If a woman in Madagascar does so, then she will be punished by the law. All around the world there are restrictions for women to pursue the line of work they would want to achieve. (Kate davidson 2016).

Gender equality vs Inequality in Marriage:

Child marriage is a global problem that is within cultures and religions. Over 12 million girls marry before the age of 18 worldwide. In South Asia, 40 percent of young women are married by the age of 18. Eighteen percent of the girls in South Asia are married by the age of 15. Young woman in South Asia are forced to marry the men that their parent choose, in an arranged marriage. The young women are stripped from the right to choose if they would like to get married or pursue work. While men get to choose if they desire to have career or not. Global divorce rate for arranged marriages is 6.3%. (Girls Not Brides 2018-2019)

The minimum age for marriage in America is eighteen years old, but it varies by each state. For all states except two, a couple can marry at eighteen years old or older without the requirement for parental consent. In most states, couples are allowed to marry at a younger age with the consent of both parents or with judicial consent. Both genders have the right to marry who they want when they want. (GirlsNotBrides 2017).

Gender equality vs inequality in Education:

In the United States of America both genders are given the right to have a education. Granted the freedom to study from Preschool-Senior Year of college. (John Gramilich 2019). 57% of college students are women, while the percentage for men in college is 43%. Men are considered the new minority in college. Since 1979, women have been in higher education than men. The feminist movement sparked during the civil war, pushing women to demand equal rights in education, including discrimination of race. (John Gramilich 2019)

There are over 20 nations that stop women from getting an education. Discrimination against women and little girls and preventing them from learning. Over 100 million children are out of their studies in developing nations, over 50% are girls. In Cambodia, 15% of women seeking higher education. While women struggle to get their education, they suffer from domestic violence, marital rape and prostitution from the age of 13. In Pakistan the rate for women to get a education is the lowest in the world. Pakistan also has the second lowest rate of women employed. If women attempt to pursue an education in pakistan the taliban punish them. The taliban shot a 15-year-old girl named malala Yousafazai in the head for attempting to get a education. In Chad only 10% of girls have completed elementary school due to underaged marriages. Chadian women have to obey their husbands, while they dictate their lives. Women are stripped from the option to have an education around the world, while men are seen as superior and have more rights. (Jon marcus 2017).

In this modern time in America both genders are able to be a high government official. Today 30% of government official roles are reserved by women. On June 4,1919, congress passed the 19th amendment which gave women the right to vote. The 19th amendment was ratified in 1920. (Rutger university 2019) The first woman to run for president was Victoria Woodhull in 1872 (part of the equal rights party). 307 women have served in congress, about 47 of them as senators. Today there are 104 women serving in congress. Thirty women have served as cabinet secretaries. Out of those thirty women eight of them served under past president Barak Obama. Thirty-six women have served as governors, 22 democrats and 14 republicans. Currently 1,813 seats in state legislatures are held by women. (Henry Roseto, 2016)

In other countries around the world, women face the prevention of voting. In Vatican City, Rome women aren’t allowed to vote.In Vatican City the main Religion is catholic,meaning that there isn’t any government officials to vote for, they vote for a pope. In 2009 women in afghanistan were required to have permission from their husbands to vote.While Women do vote in afghanistan, they are protested and threatened with violence at the polls. In Nigeria only 7 women have been elected since 1975. Women in nigeria can’t buy votes from PNG because they aren’t allowed to have access to the same sources as men. In Zanzibar women were finally able to start voting in 2015, but most were divorced by their husbands who didn’t approve. Women lack gender equality around the world, restricting them from basic human rights such as voting. (Georgia Aspinall 2018)

As Gender inequality remains an issue worldwide, Nations fail to give women their rights. Countries around the world lack gender equality in the workplace, marriage, government, education and household roles. When society is based on religion and Cultures, it takes away human rights due to beliefs. With gender biases and Gender inequality, there will be no peace. It will affect countries going forward, causing violence, protests and a never ending fight for freedom of dictatorship.

Cite this page

Gender Inequality: Causes and Impacts. (2021, Mar 05). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/gender-inequality-causes-and-impacts/

"Gender Inequality: Causes and Impacts." PapersOwl.com , 5 Mar 2021, https://papersowl.com/examples/gender-inequality-causes-and-impacts/

PapersOwl.com. (2021). Gender Inequality: Causes and Impacts . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/gender-inequality-causes-and-impacts/ [Accessed: 23 Jul. 2024]

"Gender Inequality: Causes and Impacts." PapersOwl.com, Mar 05, 2021. Accessed July 23, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/gender-inequality-causes-and-impacts/

"Gender Inequality: Causes and Impacts," PapersOwl.com , 05-Mar-2021. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/gender-inequality-causes-and-impacts/. [Accessed: 23-Jul-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2021). Gender Inequality: Causes and Impacts . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/gender-inequality-causes-and-impacts/ [Accessed: 23-Jul-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

50 Years of the Internet: Half a Century of Light and Shadow

The enigma of the mayan ballgame, ancestor of our ball sports, openmind books, scientific anniversaries, the rorschach test: science or pseudoscience, featured author, latest book, gender inequalities: “past” issues and future possibilities.

This article is concerned with the question of progress made on gender issues in a global context, specifically in terms of how far gender equality has been achieved, or not, in the past decade. It also reflects on how we might tackle one of the most pressing social, economic, and political issues of our times and effectively address this in the next decade and beyond. In so doing, it also considers the effects of political, social, and economic shifts on women’s (but also men’s) lives in both global and everyday contexts. In addition, how individuals and groups are resisting and challenging gender inequalities and attempting to intervene and correct the causes and consequences of gendered power imbalances will be discussed.

To look at all areas of gendered life and inequality is beyond the scope of this piece. Therefore, I will discuss arguments that have been put forward that argue a case for the continuing existence of international gendered power relations in a number of specific areas: initially, education and violence. These arguments suggest that gendered inequality is visible in both public and private spheres, especially the economic, political, and social aspects, and provide evidence across some of the most pressing examples of gendered inequalities. The validity of the arguments that gender inequalities are still entrenched and persist over time, place, and culture will initially be compared to alternative claims that gendered power relations, and thus inequalities, are gradually being eroded. Moreover, given the current academic focus on the concept of intersectionality, that is, how the variables of class, sexuality, race, and ethnicity, for example, intersect in relation to people’s gendered experiences, this concept is included in discussion here. The case study of women’s global activism will provide a framework to further discuss these issues and take up some of the questions that have been raised.

In addition, I will conclude with an argument that the study of inequality in relation to gendered identities, relations, and experiences must continue with, and further utilize, the relatively recent exploration of the study of men and masculinities if the theoretical analysis of gender is to be enriched, and inform the (still) much-needed focus on women’s experiences alone. I also argue the view that in relation to the future academic study of gender, as well as people’s everyday gendered experiences in a global context, that to set the agenda for a more equal future society, we need to link gender much more closely to other inequalities, such as ethnicity and sexuality. I also consider forging new links between the academy and recent forms of activism in an international context.

There are those who argue that gender inequalities around the world are getting less. Dorius and Firebaugh, in their 2010 study, investigated global trends in gender inequality. Using data to research developments in gender inequality in recent decades across areas including the economy, political representation, education, and mortality, they conclude that a decline in gender inequalities can be seen which spans diverse religious and cultural traditions. Despite the fact that population growth is slowing this decline, as population growth is more prevalent in countries where there is most evidence of gender inequality. However, even optimistic studies such as this admit that:

Optimism about the future of global gender equality must be cautious for two reasons. First is the obvious point that there is no guarantee that current trends will continue. Second, gender equality can be seen as a two-step process that can be summarized colloquially as ‘first get in the club, then attain equality within the club.’ Most of the indicators we examine here focus on attaining membership in the ‘club’—enrolling in school, joining the economically active population, becoming a member of the national legislature. Gender parity on these indicators is only part of the story since, to cite one example, men and women are entering highly sex segregated labor markets, at least in industrialized countries (Charles and Grusky, 2004). (Dorius and Firebaugh, 2010: 1959).

There is overwhelming evidence that would refute this and other similar linear perspective accounts of progress in gender matters. The recent  World Inequality Report  (WIR2018; Avaredo et al., 2018) is a major systemic assessment of globalization outlining income and wealth inequality, and documents a steep rise in global economic inequality since the 1980s, and this is despite strong growth in many emerging economies. It is within this context that any analysis of gendered inequalities must be placed. Of course, poor men, men of color, gay men, to name just some of the groups other than women, are affected by economic, racial, and sexual discrimination. But overall, it is women who bear the brunt of poverty, violence, and inequality in the workforce, for example. Indeed, on average, the world’s women earn twenty-four percent less than men (UNWomen, 2015).

Discussing her recent book (Campbell, 2014a), UK-based writer and journalist Beatrix Campbell (2014b) takes the stance that such liberal thinkers have an over optimistic view that the road to gender equality is now within sight. Conversely, she argues this is largely an illusion. She defines the current era as one of “neopatriarchy” where rape, sex trafficking, and the unwon fight for equal pay characterize societies. Earlier, in 2014c, she forcefully argued that in the first decade of this century, the actual conditions which she deems necessary to end inequalities between the sexes have, in fact, been extinguished:

In this perceived era of gender equality, there is a new articulation of male social power and privilege. There is no evolutionary trek toward equality, peace and prosperity. The new world order is neither neutral nor innocent about sexism: it modernises it. Masculinities and femininities are being made and remade as polarised species. (Campbell, 2014b, c: 4).

Certainly, there is much available evidence to support Campbell’s view. As Boffey (2017) reports regarding the latest EU gender equality league table, there has only been slow progress in relation to gender equality across Europe in the years between 2005 and 2015. He notes that the overall score for gender equality (when a matrix of data is taken into account) only grew by four points, to 66.2 out of 100, with 100 signifying absolute gender equality. Further, he reports that:

The gender gap in employment in the EU is ‘wide and persistent’, the index report says, with the full-time equivalent employment rate of 40% for women and 56% for men. Income gaps have narrowed, but on average women still earn 20% less than men, and the average masks huge disparities across the EU. (Boffey, 2017: 6).

In addition, the data reveals that for every third man in the EU who does daily housework and food preparation, this contrasts to eight in ten women who undertake the same tasks. And in the private sphere, nearly every second working woman has at least an hour of work with childcare, or other caring duties, contrasted with around about a third of working men. As I go on to document, extensive evidence also exists for the persistence of gender inequality outside of the EU more globally, in and across both public and private spheres and across multiple sites. However, it is important to note that this evidence can be interpreted in different ways. By highlighting two key substantive areas of education and violence, which have been sites of gendered inequality focused on over the last decade by policy makers, activists, and academic makers alike, it can be seen that discussion has ranged between a narrative of progress, to varying or lesser degrees, or a more pessimistic viewpoint. How to escape this often dichotomous position is something that needs our attention.

In the last decade, the narrative of Malala Yousafzai, the Pakistani activist for female education who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014 for her brave resistance against the Taliban doctrine (which had effectively banned girls from attending school and thus the human right to an education) has become well known. In a sense, this example can be seen as symbolic of two tendencies within current thinking. One tends to either read Malala’s heroic efforts as evidence that demonstrates the much-needed necessity of campaigns for girls’ education, especially in countries where they are denied equal access as boys may have. Or, as Rahman (2014) argues, her iconic, global status afforded by the media, celebrities, and governments is actually very problematic, masking as it does the continued educational inequalities which have their roots in complex historical, geopolitical, and development aspects in an Internet age.

Certainly, it is undeniable that a number of factors still exist worldwide that prevent girls from access to schooling due to issues, for instance, of girls leaving education on becoming child brides in countries such as Zambia, the sexual harassment and violence girls face in countries like South Africa, and the impact of war on girls’ education in places like Rwanda or the Sudan (Ringrose and Epstein, 2015). Clearly, these issues are complex and vary across time and geographical location, but, even in the Global North, gendered inequalities in education still endure.

One current example of this is the recent revelation that, in 2018, Tokyo Medical University marked down the test scores of young women applying to embark on a career in medicine, to ensure more men became doctors. The university had, apparently, systematically kept the ratio of female students to around a third. The reason given that the authorities were concerned with their ability to want to continue working after starting a family. Such examples reveal the sustained, and hidden, institutional sexism in education that both serves to exclude young women from reaching their full potential and eventually affects their future earning potential. It also reflects how continuing societal assumptions, based on stereotyped and biologically essentialist notions of gender, still have purchase across the world.

Another issue which has been highlighted by both scholars and activists is the enduring aspect of violence against women in its many manifestations. As Liz Kelly (2015) observes, every week there is a story in the media nationally, or internationally, featuring violence against women. Such violence includes Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), rape and assault, trafficking and honor-based violence, sexual violence in countries undergoing conflict, domestic violence, violence and the issues of migration, asylum seeking and the refugee crisis. The focus has also been on how the political responses to these diverse areas are gendered and impact on women’s identity and relationships with others, as well as on the unreported, everyday acts of violence in both the Global South and the Global North. This is, however, a gender inequality which has been much targeted by global activism to combat these diverse manifestations of violence and their unequal effects on women. In addition, in the last decade, there has been more of a recognition than hitherto that men, though in the majority of perpetrators of violence against women, in certain contexts and age groups also face violence, most notably from other men. A timely example of this is that currently, in South Africa, the highest cause of mortality among poor young black men is violence, including murder at the hands of other men, often linked to crime and gangster-related activities.

This more comprehensive approach to combating violence can be seen in the example of the existence of the International Day for the Elimination of Violence Against Women, in 2016, which was then followed by Sixteen Days of Activism Against Gender-Based Violence. What is particularly interesting in relation to this initiative was that the violence toward women was acknowledged and debated in the context of its impact on women, men, and children. Further, it was recognized that both women and men strive to help both victims and perpetrators, as well as challenge global violence in all its forms.

In 2018, Tokyo Medical University marked down the test scores of young women applying to embark on a career in medicine, to ensure more men became doctors

In addition, academics are currently developing new methodologies to measure violence and make more visible the previously hidden extent of gender-based violence (Towers et al., 2017). It would have been unimaginable, even a decade ago, that in 2018 New Zealand would have passed legislation granting victims of domestic violence ten days’ paid leave which will allow them to be able to leave their partners, protect themselves and their children, and seek out new housing.

New Forms of Women’s Global Activism

The case study of women’s global activism raises further interesting and crucial questions which the discussion so far has started to address. It allows a new focus on continued and structural gendered power relations, discrimination, institutional and structural inequalities, and the impact of this on everyday lives, but also affords a discussion of people’s agency, optimism, and collaboration, as well as the increasing role of social media in activist campaigns and academic analysis.

Women have, over the past decade, for example, been involved in the far-reaching Middle East revolutions, protests in Delhi and elsewhere in India over widespread incidents of rape and sexual assault, and the much-documented women’s movement protests in the US over Donald Trump’s policies. As Nickie Charles (2015) notes, this resurgence of feminist action has partly been understood as the continuation of “third wave” feminism, with a history at least stretching back to the suffragettes in the UK and the Women’s Liberation movement worldwide from the 1970s. Others, however, have viewed such renewed international activism as heralding a new era of protest, heralded by social media and its potential to make such protests for gender inequality truly global, in ways which were not possible before. In addition, many men of a younger generation have no hesitation in calling themselves feminists and working with women on a range of issues and campaigns. The LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) movement has allowed traditional ideas of only two genders existing to be problematized by a reconceptualization of the concept of gender and claims to gender fluidity. Further, the increasing acceptance of transgendered people (though not in all parts of the world and not without much debate and controversy in terms of who is able to call themselves a woman or man, depending on the resulting arguments around the sex assigned at birth) has been a key and continuing issue over the last and future decade (see Jackson and Scott, 2017). Lastly, the emphasis placed on intersectionality and how gender links to other categories, such as race and ethnicity, age and class, informs current campaigns and continues to bmane a central concern of feminists and the women’s movement.

Many men of a younger generation have no hesitation in calling themselves feminists and working with women on a range of issues and campaigns. The LGBTQ movement has allowed traditional ideas of only two genders existing to be problematized by a reconceptualization of the concept of gender and claims to gender fluidity

The #MeToo online campaign, which followed in the wake of the sexual misconduct campaigns against the Hollywood producer Harvey Weinstein, in 2017, drew attention to the sexual assault and sexual harassment of women, initially in Hollywood and the entertainment business. As Lawton (2017) notes, on Facebook, the comments and reactions to the campaign totaled more than twelve million in twenty-four hours. Moreover, Alka Kurian (2018), in  The Conversation , reflects on the #MeToo movement, arguing that current legal and moral interpretations of “consent” are no longer fit for purpose, especially for a younger generation of media-adept women and men, who are questioning traditional gender and sexual roles and identities. She further notes the global potential of social media and similar online campaigns:

In the early 21st century, millennial Indian women launched a radically new kind of feminist politics that had not been seen before. Inspired by a vocabulary of rights and modes of protest used by the youth across the world, such as Occupy Wall Street and the Arab Spring, they initiated a series of social media campaigns against the culture of sexual violence. (Kurian, 2018: 4).

Such campaigns are not without their critics; for example, there are diverse views on what can, or cannot, be defined as sexual abuse, and the problem of establishing consent. Nor can it be assumed that such campaigns have the same affect globally. Japan, for example, has recently been highlighted as a place where girls and children are overrepresented in pornography, there is a rising sex crime rate, and the treatment of rape victims/survivors has been criticized. Evidence, some would argue, that such campaigns as the #MeToo movement cannot, by themselves, fully deal with structural inequalities and gendered power relations in capitalist societies. Some commentators also argue that online campaigning effectively takes the focus off the anticapitalism struggle. Moreover, even when global change is occurring, for instance, with Taiwan being poised to become the first country in Asia to legalize same-sex marriage, due to the efforts of the LGBTQ movement there, conservative groups, including many Christian churches, are attempting to resist marriage equality, before the May 2019 deadline by which same-sex marriage will automatically become law.

Yet, to get even this far, Ting-Fang (2017, para 11) notes, on the efforts of Taiwanese activists, that: “This civil revolution is happening not only in the meeting rooms of the Legislative Yuan, but indeed, also on the streets and around the dinner table,” revealing the need for activists to engage with the public imagination in new ways and on diverse fronts.

Similarly, Utsa Mukherjee (2018) notes a watershed moment for India but also for the global queer rights movement, given the current move of the Supreme Court of India in decriminalizing homosexual acts between consenting adults. But also importantly points out that resistance to this law is as “old as the law itself,” and that the legal fight against such outdated colonial-era law started many decades ago as a protest against colonial marginalizing of “non-normative sexualities and gender expressions,” forcing such sexualities into Western categories and in the process criminalizing them. Such historical reflection reveals the need to acknowledge people’s experiences and protests in earlier decades, before the existence of social media and recent online campaigns, which can also reveal different priorities, as well as diverse ways of organizing.

Another example of how both activism and technology are changing peoples’ responses and ways of protesting against gender inequalities in its many forms is in relation to reproductive health, especially in respect of abortion rights:

Around Dublin, you might catch sight of a small sticker—on a lamp post, a wall, or inside the stall door of the women’s toilets—advertising ‘SAFE ABORTION WITH PILLS’ alongside a web address. The information on this sticker is technically illegal: it is advertising pills banned in Ireland and breaking Irish laws on the kind of information about abortion that can be legally distributed. The website advertised on this sticker will connect you with a global network of pro-choice volunteers who can advise you on how to access safe abortion pills, how to take them at home, and how to monitor your symptoms. (Calkin, 2018: 1).

In fact, the Republic of Ireland has now voted overwhelmingly to overturn the abortion ban in a referendum held in May 2018. Previously, abortion was only allowed when a woman’s life was at risk, though not in cases of incest, rape, or fatal fetal abnormality. Importantly, though, Calkin points out that forty percent of women globally reside in countries with highly restrictive abortion laws. Further, though only five countries ban abortion entirely, women worldwide face harsh restrictions and penalties when seeking an abortion. However, he contends that governments’ actions to control access to abortion is overall decreasing. A fact Calkin puts down to advanced communications and medical technology, but also, importantly, to cross-border transnational activists who seek to give alternate routes for women to access safe abortions.

Based on the above argument and evidence put forward, my concluding contention is that, in going forward, we can usefully focus on three aspects to continue to address the global issue of gendered inequality in innovative and more fruitful ways. These are: to further the contemporary debate and emphasis on intersectionality in relation to gender inequality; to highlight the increasing academic focus on masculinity and gender relations and its relation to feminism; and to rethink activism and its connection with the academy and others involved, especially in the light of technological advances. Simon Willis (2014) argues that: “Inequality is an urgent and complex problem. It is deeply entrenched in all areas of life. It is pervasively defended and supported, even by those who it damages. To my mind inequality is the main roadblock in our journey toward social justice, and we need an innovative approach to uprooting it that won’t produce the same negligible incremental change we’ve seen in recent years” (Willis, 2014: 1).

To address the global issue of gendered inequality in more innovative ways, it would be useful to further the contemporary debate and emphasis on intersectionality in relation to gender inequality and to highlight the increasing academic focus on masculinity and gender relations and its link to feminism

Further, he feels that to address the structural and institutional causes of inequality, one of the main factors for doing so is the recognition of many, interconnected inequalities, as well as having an openness to work with diverse kinds of partners in a variety of ways. In a similar vein, the LSE Commission on Gender, Inequality, and Power, in 2015, was chiefly concerned with examining persisting inequalities between women and men in the UK. A key question the report asked was just how interconnected are inequalities across different sites of social life. It is a positive sign that policy makers, academics, and activists are constantly thinking through the possibilities of an intersectional approach in different contexts, despite some of the complex issues this raises.

The study by feminists or pro-feminist men in universities across the world on men as gendered beings and the meaning and experience of masculinity is one of the most important intellectual developments over the last decade. The examples discussed here have revealed that men can be oppressors but also victims, as well as collaborators in feminist causes. A recognition of men’s economic, political, and social power, as well as the issues faced by poor men and those of diverse races and ethnicities, for instance, can aid in a comprehensive picture of gendered inequality interacting with race and class, to name but two other facets of inequality. Thus, a more relational perspective on gender and inequality, while keeping in mind that women still bear the brunt of economic and other disadvantages, is important to develop further.

Lastly, as I have been writing this piece, the disturbing news has surfaced that the Hungarian government proposes to ban Gender Studies at universities in the country, at the start of the 2019 academic year. This is ostensibly because it was argued that employers were expressing no interest in employing a dwindling number of graduates of the subject and so the field is not seen as an economically viable one. Critics of such unprecedented state intervention and censorship of academic matters in Hungary have argued that, in reality, the ban is due to opposition to the government’s conservative ideologies and policies. Since then, protests have ensued both in the streets and online. Further, the international academic community has joined together to oppose such sanctions and defend academic freedom for the unobstructed study of gender and gender inequalities in all its forms. Ann Kaloski-Naylor (2017) reminds us:

We need wider visions of resistance, ways out of the to and fro of arguments which seem to move us closer to disaster. This is what thinkers can offer, as well as our bodies and our posters on the streets and our ideas and petitions on the net. …alternative visions that don’t just respond to and recycle the immediate… (Kaloski-Naylor, 2017: 7).

If we are unable to even  think  about gender issues, it is of increasing importance that academics, practitioners, and activists continue to find new ways of speaking to each other on the issue of gender inequality. In so doing, as I have argued, the boundaries between academia and academics, civic and political institutions, and those who construct knowledge “outside” of such institutions, including activists in everyday life, have, by necessity, to become more fissured and blurred (Robinson, 2017).

Select Bibliography

—Avaredo, F., Chancel, L., Piketty, T., Saez, E., Zucman, G. (eds.). 2018.  World Inequality Report .

—Boffey, D. 2017. “UK gender inequality as bad as 10 years ago, EU league table shows.”  The Guardian , October 11,  https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2017/oct/11/uk-no-further-forward-on-tackling-gender-inequality-eu-league-table-shows .

—Calkin, S. 2018. “Abortion access is changing through technology and activism.”  Discover Society ,  https://discoversociety.org/?s=calkin .

—Campbell, B. 2014a.  End of Equality (Manifestos for the 2st Century) . UK: Seagull Books.

—Campbell, B. 2014b. “End of equality.”  http://www.beatrixcampbell.co.uk/books/end-of-equality-manifestos-for-the-21st-century .

—Campbell, B. 2014c. “Why we need a new women’s revolution.”  The Guardian , May 25,  https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/may/25/we-need-new-womens-revolution .

—Charles, N. 2015. “Feminist politics: From activism to representation.” In  Introducing Gender and Women’s Studies , V. Robinson and D. Richardson (eds.). London: Palgrave Macmillan (4th edition).

—Dincer, P. 2017. “A feminist’s fieldwork notes on women’s solidarity and differences in Turkey.”  Discover Society  42,  https://discoversociety.org/2017/03/01/a-feminists-fieldwork-notes-on-womens-solidarity-and-differences-in-turkey .

—Dorius, S. F., and Firebaugh, G. 2010. “Global gender inequality.”  Social Forces  88(5): 1941–1968.

—Jackson, S., and Scott, S. 2017. “Focus: Trans and the contradictions of gender.”  Discover Society  45,  https://discoversociety.org/2017/06/06/focus-trans-and-the-contradictions-of-gender .

—Kaloski-Naylor, A. 2017. “Viewpoint: From fear to hope, from protest to resistance.”  Discover Society  42,  https://discoversociety.org/2017/03/01/viewpoint-from-fear-to-hope-from-protest-to-resistance .

—Kelly, L. 2015. “Violence against women.” In  Introducing Gender and Women’s Studies , V. Robinson and D. Richardson (eds.). London: Palgrave Macmillan (4th edition).

—Kurian, A. 2018. “#MeToo is riding a new wave of feminism in India.”  The Conversation , February 1,  https://theconversation.com/metoo-is-riding-a-new-wave-of-feminism-in-india-89842 .

—Lawton, G. 2017. “#MeToo is here to stay. We must challenge all men about sexual harassment.”  The Guardian , October 28,  https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/oct/28/metoo-hashtag-sexual-harassment-violence-challenge-campaign-women-men .

—Mukherjee, U. 2018. “India decriminalizes homosexuality.”  Discover Society ,  https://discoversociety.org/2018/09/10/india-decriminalises-homosexuality .

—Rahman, F. 2014.  https://blogs.state.gov/stories/2013/07/10/malala-day-promoting-education-all : pp. 163–164.

—Ringrose, J., and Epstein, D. 2015. “Postfeminist educational media panics and the problem/promise of ‘successful girls.” In  Introducing Gender and Women’s Studies , V. Robinson and D. Richardson (eds.). London: Palgrave Macmillan (4th edition).

—Robinson, V. 2017. “Focus: Feminism in the academy and beyond.”  Discover Society  42,  https://discoversociety.org/2017/03/01/focus-feminism-in-the-academy-and-beyond .

—Ting-Fang, C. 2017. “On the frontline: Marriage equality in Taiwan.”  Discover Society  42,  https://discoversociety.org/2017/03/01/on-the-frontline-marriage-equality-in-taiwan .

—Towers, J., Walby, S., Balderston, S., Corradi, C., Francis, B., Heiskanen, M., Helweg-Larsen, K., Mergaert, L., Olive, P., Palmer, E., Stöckl, H., Strid, S. 2017.  The Concept and Measurement of Violence against Women and Men . Bristol: Policy Press.

—UN Women. 2015.  Progress of the World’s Women 2015–2016: Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights .  http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2015/04/progress-of-the-world-s-women-2015-2016 .

—Willis, S. 2014. “Policy briefing: Tackling inequality on the road to a just society.”  Discover Society  15,  https://discoversociety.org/2014/12/01/policy-briefing-tackling-inequality-on-the-road-to-a-just-society .

Related publications

• A Gender Power Shift in the Making
• Gender, Leadership and Organization
• Feminist Approaches to International Relations Theory in the Post- Cold War Period

Download Kindle

Download epub, download pdf, more publications related to this article, more about humanities, communications, comments on this publication.

Morbi facilisis elit non mi lacinia lacinia. Nunc eleifend aliquet ipsum, nec blandit augue tincidunt nec. Donec scelerisque feugiat lectus nec congue. Quisque tristique tortor vitae turpis euismod, vitae aliquam dolor pretium. Donec luctus posuere ex sit amet scelerisque. Etiam sed neque magna. Mauris non scelerisque lectus. Ut rutrum ex porta, tristique mi vitae, volutpat urna.

Sed in semper tellus, eu efficitur ante. Quisque felis orci, fermentum quis arcu nec, elementum malesuada magna. Nulla vitae finibus ipsum. Aenean vel sapien a magna faucibus tristique ac et ligula. Sed auctor orci metus, vitae egestas libero lacinia quis. Nulla lacus sapien, efficitur mollis nisi tempor, gravida tincidunt sapien. In massa dui, varius vitae iaculis a, dignissim non felis. Ut sagittis pulvinar nisi, at tincidunt metus venenatis a. Ut aliquam scelerisque interdum. Mauris iaculis purus in nulla consequat, sed fermentum sapien condimentum. Aliquam rutrum erat lectus, nec placerat nisl mollis id. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.

Nam nisl nisi, efficitur et sem in, molestie vulputate libero. Quisque quis mattis lorem. Nunc quis convallis diam, id tincidunt risus. Donec nisl odio, convallis vel porttitor sit amet, lobortis a ante. Cras dapibus porta nulla, at laoreet quam euismod vitae. Fusce sollicitudin massa magna, eu dignissim magna cursus id. Quisque vel nisl tempus, lobortis nisl a, ornare lacus. Donec ac interdum massa. Curabitur id diam luctus, mollis augue vel, interdum risus. Nam vitae tortor erat. Proin quis tincidunt lorem.

The Past Decade and the Future of Globalization

Do you want to stay up to date with our new publications.

Receive the OpenMind newsletter with all the latest contents published on our website

OpenMind Books

• The Search for Alternatives to Fossil Fuels
• View all books

About OpenMind

Connect with us.

• Keep up to date with our newsletter

Quote this content

Home — Essay Samples — Social Issues — Social Inequality — Gender Inequality

Essays on Gender Inequality

Gender inequality essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: unveiling gender inequality: root causes, impact, and paths to equality.

Thesis Statement: This essay delves into the multifaceted issue of gender inequality, examining its underlying causes, its pervasive impact on society, and the strategies and movements aimed at achieving gender equality and justice.

• Introduction
• Understanding Gender Inequality: Social Constructs, Stereotypes, and Bias
• Economic Disparities: Gender Wage Gap, Occupational Segregation, and Glass Ceilings
• Education and Empowerment: Gender Disparities in Access and Opportunities
• Violence Against Women: Domestic Violence, Harassment, and Human Rights Violations
• Global Perspectives: Gender Inequality in Different Cultural and Geographical Contexts
• The Role of Advocacy: Movements, Legislation, and Progress Towards Equality
• Conclusion: The Ongoing Struggle for Gender Equality

Essay Title 2: Intersectionality and Gender Inequality: Examining the Overlapping Forms of Discrimination

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the concept of intersectionality within the context of gender inequality, analyzing how overlapping factors such as race, class, sexuality, and disability intersect with gender to create unique experiences of discrimination and privilege.

• Intersectionality Defined: Interplay of Identity, Power, and Discrimination
• Race and Gender: The Experiences of Women of Color
• Socioeconomic Factors: Poverty, Wealth, and Economic Disparities
• Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: LGBTQ+ Issues and Discrimination
• Disability and Gender: Challenges Faced by Disabled Women
• Intersectionality in Action: Real-Life Examples and Case Studies
• Empowerment and Solidarity: Intersectional Feminism and Social Change
• Conclusion: Embracing Intersectionality in the Fight Against Gender Inequality

Essay Title 3: Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Women's Leadership and Gender Equality in the Corporate World

Thesis Statement: This essay focuses on women's leadership in the corporate world, examining the challenges and barriers they face in reaching leadership positions, the importance of diversity in leadership, and the potential for change in the business sphere.

• The Gender Leadership Gap: Statistics and Trends in Corporate Leadership
• Barriers to Women's Advancement: Stereotypes, Bias, and Family-Work Balance
• The Business Case for Gender Diversity: Benefits to Companies and Economies
• Women Breaking Barriers: Success Stories and Female Role Models in Business
• Initiatives for Change: Corporate Policies, Mentorship Programs, and Gender Parity Goals
• The Future of Women in Leadership: Prospects for Gender Equality in the Corporate World
• Conclusion: Advancing Women's Leadership for a More Inclusive Future

The Problem of Gender Inequality in The Workplace

The issue of gender inequality in the media in america, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

The National Organization for Women Struggling with Gender Inequality Going on in The Workplace, Schools, and Home

Gender inequality and women in the workplace, gender inequality: causes and solutions, the influence of social norms on gender inequality, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

The Effects of Gender Inequality on Society and The Economy

The issue of gender equality in workplace, gender inequality in the film industry, sexism and gender inequality in the workplace in the us, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

Expert-written essays crafted with your exact needs in mind

The Experience of Gender Inequality in The Awakening, a Novel by Kate Chopin

The impact of gender on income inequality, the necessity of feminism in a patriarchal society: death of a salesman, sociological perspectives of sexual orientation and inequality, systemic discrimination against women firefighters, the effect of a double glass ceiling on minority women, the problem of gender inequality in sports, gender equality as a matter of social justice, impact of experience and education on womens wages, the role of social stratification in inequality within the education system, the problem of a lack of female leaders, why gender equality is still not achieved, it wasn't hysteria; it was institutionalized sexism, gender equality and its effect on advertisement and fashion photography, the issue of gender equality: a review of literature, jo goodwin parker's discussion of poverty and feminization, social injustice issue: transgenders and restrooms, discussion of whether inequality is really inevitable, the status of women in beowulf and anglo-saxon society, gender-based violence: effects and prevention methods, relevant topics.

• Gender Equality
• Gender Wage Gap
• Black Lives Matter
• Illegal Immigration
• Pro Choice (Abortion)
• Civil Disobedience

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• Gender Inequality in Social Inequality Words: 1490
• Sex, Gender, and Inequalities Words: 1957
• Gender Inequality Among Women in Canada Words: 1236
• The Issue of Gender Inequality in Kenya Words: 1430
• Gender Inequality Issue and Solutions Words: 467
• Women: Gender Inequality and Discrimination Words: 1001
• Historical Review of Gender Inequality in the USA Words: 2035
• Gender Inequality in the Workplace Words: 2220
• Gender Inequality as an International Issue Words: 1465
• Gender Inequality in French Hospitality Industry Words: 8691
• Gender Inequality and Feminism in a TV Series Words: 847
• Gender Inequality for Men and Women Words: 366

The Problems of Gender Inequality

Introduction.

Males and females are different from both biological and psychological perspectives. Despite numerous exceptions, men are generally physically stronger and more competitive, while women are kinder and more creative. Unfortunately, these highly subjective ideas have led to gender inequality, a critical and complex issue affecting everyone. Without any doubt, females should not be inferior to males in the modern world, even though it was acceptable in the past, as gender inequality adversely influences many aspects ranging from culture to the global economy. Nevertheless, many women still suffer from the problem in the workplace or at home, and the considerable progress towards gender equality and women’s empowerment makes people blind.

To begin with, it is crucial to understand where the problem begins before trying to eliminate it. On the one hand, many females would state that they unconsciously aspired in their childhood to find a loving boyfriend, get married, and have children. On the other hand, males would say that they wanted to embark on different adventures, earn money, be successful, and enjoy themselves. Undoubtedly, the difference between the childhood dreams of boys and the ones of girls is enormous. The reason for it is the way children are educated in most societies. For example, boys are taught to hide their emotions, be brave, and concentrate on success by their teachers, parents, and the media. What is more, many people disregard the males, who are not masculine, which means competitive, confident, rational, and disciplined. In contrast, feminine means dependent, compassionate, kind, tender, and sensitive. Undoubtedly, social attitudes towards masculinity and femininity largely contribute to gender inequality, and it is the main obstacle for women struggling for equality.

Nevertheless, numerous individuals are convinced that campaigns for women’s rights and gender equality in the Western world are irrelevant in 2020. Undoubtedly, the problem is less critical nowadays than it used to be in the past. For instance, most women do not only take care of children, cook, and keep home clean. They more often appear among top managers of big corporations or political leaders and have the same opportunity as men to obtain high-quality education or excellent patient care. Furthermore, public figures can face severe criticism for making sexist comments on social media or lose their jobs for unconscious gender-biased remarks. “Gender inequality in the labor force and in the family highlights increasing trends toward gender equality, and the persistence of inequality as the form of stratification adapts over time in changing social and economic conditions” (Scarborough and Risman 9). However, the issue still exists, and the recent progress prevents many individuals from realizing its urgency.

In the workplace, gender inequality is easily noticeable, as there is much data over the issue. Many scholars research it, and the results of their studies in most cases reveal that females face unfair treatment while searching for a job or already working. For example, full-time working women earn only about 80% of what men make, and they remain underrepresented in the highest-paying occupations (Scarborough and Risman 5). It is impossible to ignore such information, as millions of females, despite their profound knowledge and remarkable skills, still struggle to receive a reasonable salary or get the position they truly deserve. Sometimes recruiters may indirectly discriminate against women because of different stereotypes. Sometimes females do not even try to get a job with the fear of being rejected due to their gender. Although many people in the Western world have already realized the importance of gender equality in the workplace, many years will likely pass until women receive the same treatment as men.

At home, gender inequality can often be even more evident than at work for ordinary people. Although, they do not pay attention to it but discuss the significant shift, which has occurred through the last years and whose results are primarily overestimated. Fortunately, women no longer have to invest all their time in caring for children or doing household chores, but these responsibilities remain theirs. According to Scarborough and Risman, fathers have started to perform childcare but only in tandem with mothers, who are responsible for routine tasks such as cooking or hygiene (1). Besides, regarding housework, men tend to occupy themselves with periodic do-it-yourself projects, while women do weekly cleaning (Scarborough and Risman 1). Such data proves that males still do less childcare and housework compared to women. Besides, when people hear about domestic violence, women are victims of their partners in most cases. The reason is not that men are physically stronger but that they put into action the unreasonable idea of being superior to women, which is encouraged by social attitudes towards masculinity and femininity.

In conclusion, gender inequality is a serious issue, which affects everyone. It starts with the stereotype of males’ superiority and turns into numerous problems. Despite having made a big step towards gender equality, humanity still faces the issue regularly, as it persists in the workplace and at home. Millions of women struggle to get different positions, receive a reasonable salary, or share household chores and childcare with their partners. Undoubtedly, the problem will persist unless social attitudes change.

Scarborough, William J., and Barbara J. Risman. “Changes in the Gender Structure: Inequality at the Individual, Interactional, and Macro Dimensions.” Sociology Compass , vol. 11, no. 10, 2017, pp. 1-16.

Cite this paper

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2022, July 18). The Problems of Gender Inequality. https://studycorgi.com/the-problems-of-gender-inequality/

"The Problems of Gender Inequality." StudyCorgi , 18 July 2022, studycorgi.com/the-problems-of-gender-inequality/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) 'The Problems of Gender Inequality'. 18 July.

1. StudyCorgi . "The Problems of Gender Inequality." July 18, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-problems-of-gender-inequality/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "The Problems of Gender Inequality." July 18, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-problems-of-gender-inequality/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "The Problems of Gender Inequality." July 18, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-problems-of-gender-inequality/.

This paper, “The Problems of Gender Inequality”, was written and voluntary submitted to our free essay database by a straight-A student. Please ensure you properly reference the paper if you're using it to write your assignment.

Before publication, the StudyCorgi editorial team proofread and checked the paper to make sure it meets the highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, fact accuracy, copyright issues, and inclusive language. Last updated: October 22, 2022 .

If you are the author of this paper and no longer wish to have it published on StudyCorgi, request the removal . Please use the “ Donate your paper ” form to submit an essay.

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Unveiling gender inequality in the US: Testing validity of a state-level measure of gender inequality and its relationship with feminist online collective action on Twitter

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Science Division, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Faculty of Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Reggio Emilia, Italy

Roles Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padova, Padova, Italy

• Bruno Gabriel Salvador Casara, 
• Alice Lucarini, 
• Eric D. Knowles, 
• Caterina Suitner

• Published: July 17, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

The Gender Inequality Index is a country-level measure of gender inequality based on women’s levels of reproductive health, social and political empowerment, and labor-market representation. In two studies, we tested the validity of the GII-S, a state-level measure of gender inequality in the USA. In Study 1, the GII-S was associated with objective and subjective measures of wellness among women, including life satisfaction, financial well-being, and perceptions of safety. GII-S was not associated with the Gini coefficient, a well-established measure of economic inequality, suggesting that gender and economic disparities represent distinct aspects of social inequality. Study 2 tested the link between GII-S scores and collective action—specifically, participation in the #MeToo movement promoting awareness of sexual harassment and violence against women. Analysis of geo-localized messages on the Twitter social media platform reveals that higher GII-S scores were associated with fewer tweets containing the #MeToo hashtag. Moreover, GII-S was associated with state-level political orientation: the more conservative a state, the higher its level of gender inequality. Results are discussed in terms of possible socio-cognitive processes underpinning the association between gender inequality and sensitivity to violence against women.

Citation: Salvador Casara BG, Lucarini A, Knowles ED, Suitner C (2024) Unveiling gender inequality in the US: Testing validity of a state-level measure of gender inequality and its relationship with feminist online collective action on Twitter. PLoS ONE 19(7): e0306121. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121

Editor: Silvia Moscatelli, Universita di Bologna, ITALY

Received: August 2, 2023; Accepted: June 11, 2024; Published: July 17, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Salvador Casara et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Public data are available on OSF at: https://osf.io/azs7e/?view_only=c0878592e8eb49b28edb8fd3a7287e2a Part of the data cannot be shared publicly because are owned by a third party (Gallup), and authors do not have permission to share the data. Description of the Dataset and Third-Party Source: The dataset utilized in this study is derived from Gallup's US Dailies, which comprises daily surveys conducted across the United States. These surveys capture a wide range of demographic, social, and economic variables, providing valuable insights into public opinion and behavioral trends. Gallup, an established research organization known for its rigorous polling methodology, is the third-party source of the data. Verification of Permission to Use the Dataset: Our access to the Gallup's US Dailies data was made possible through an institutional agreement between Gallup and our authors’ institution (New York University). This agreement authorizes the use of the data for academic and research purposes. While we, the authors, do not own the data, our use complies with the terms set out in the institutional license agreement with Gallup. Special Privileges in Accessing the Data: The access to the Gallup's US Dailies dataset was facilitated by an existing agreement between our institution and Gallup, which may not be universally available to all researchers. No additional special privileges were granted to us beyond what is stipulated in the institutional agreement. Researchers affiliated with other institutions are encouraged to consult their own institutions or directly negotiate with Gallup for access. Contact Information for Data Access: Researchers interested in accessing the Gallup's US Dailies data can initiate their inquiries by contacting Gallup directly. https://www.gallup.com/analytics/213701/us-daily-tracking.aspx .

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Gender inequality is a pervasive global problem that affects rich and poor countries alike [ 1 ]. A 2019 Oxfam report [ 2 ] showed that nearly two-thirds of the world’s 781 million illiterate adults are women, a proportion that has remained largely unchanged for two decades. Moreover, 153 countries’ legal systems still discriminate economically against women, including 18 in which husbands can legally prevent their wives from working. Unfortunately, the situation has only worsened since the emergence of the novel coronavirus, with women 24% more likely than men to have lost their jobs permanently during the Covid-19 pandemic [ 3 ]. The World Economic Forum’s latest report [ 4 ] indicates that gender parity remains a distant goal, such that it will take an estimated 132 years to reach equality between genders at the current pace of progress. The fact that gender inequality is still pervasive—even in countries that supposedly lead the world—was confirmed by the agenda for the 2021 meeting of the Group of Twenty (G20) nations, which emphasized the importance of safeguarding women’s rights and addressing gender inequalities [ 5 ].

Gender inequality impacts numerous life domains, including health [ 6 – 8 ], labor-market participation [ 9 ], academia [ 10 , 11 ], and politics [ 12 ]. Women are systematically more likely than men to be victims of sexual harassment [ 13 ], are paid consistently less than men [ 14 – 16 ], and are less likely to be hired than men, especially in historically-male professions [ 17 ].

Gender inequality has implications, not only for the women who bear the brunt of disadvantage, but for society as a whole. Countries in which women are systematically disadvantaged experience relatively low rates of economic growth [ 18 – 20 ], and the exclusion of women from education and the workplace is detrimental to the growth and development of entire communities [ 21 , 22 ]. Indeed, gender inequality is associated with poor educational outcomes [ 23 , 24 ] and government corruption [ 25 ].

Fighting gender inequality requires measuring it, and specific instruments have been developed to assess disparities between men and women. One of the most important measures of gender inequality is the Gender Inequality Index (GII; [ 26 ]), a measure developed to assess gender inequality at country level, but never used for within-country comparisons. Although country-level comparisons are relevant for providing a broader perspective on social phenomena across a range of cultures and contexts, they often face challenges due to varying data collection methods and cultural differences, introducing methodological inconsistencies (e.g., “qualitative” ideological differences, [ 27 ]) and making strict quantitative analysis difficult. Conversely, within-country comparisons, such as between regions within the same nation, can offer more reliable insights into structural phenomena such as gender inequality, by avoiding these issues, benefiting from a unified political system and standardized data practices.

The United States offers a unique setting for comparing gender inequality within a country. Despite shared cultural elements and uniform data collection by federal agencies, US states exhibit significant diversity in demographics, laws, and attitudes on issues linked to gender inequality themes. Importantly, a within-country comparison across US states also provides an opportunity to focus on a specific feminist movement that was born in the country and rapidly became one of the biggest inspirations for collective action in the last decade—namely, the #MeToo movement.

While massively popular, the movement has encountered a great deal of protest and criticism, especially among those who endorse a more traditional worldview regarding gender roles. Indeed, studies indicate that sexist beliefs and perceptions of #MeToo’s effects significantly affect individuals’ willingness to support the movement [ 28 ]. Moreover, Kunst and colleagues [ 29 ] reported that men’s negative perceptions of #MeToo were linked to higher levels of hostile sexism and lower feminist identification, highlighting ideological rather than gender-based divisions. Additionally, internalized sexualization among women in Italy was found to negatively affects attitudes toward #MeToo and suggests that such internalization may reinforce ideologies that hinder the movement’s goals [ 30 ].

Importantly, further evidence highlights that ideologies are strictly related to how people react to gender inequality. For example, people high in patriarchal gender-role beliefs tend to rationalize gender inequality as fair, appropriate, and inevitable [ 31 ]. Moreover, conservative political ideologies, broadly speaking, serve to “palliate” (i.e., reduce aversion to) the experience of inequality by portraying the world as a fair place where people get what they deserve [ 32 ]. Not surprisingly, then, gender traditionalists and political conservatives tend to tolerate sexual harassment and violence more than do liberals and gender progressives [ 33 , 34 ]. Consistently, people who endorse right-wing political ideology are also more skeptical toward women who report sexual harassment after a delay (vs. immediately; [ 35 ]).

Because #MeToo is so closely tied to a specific form of communication, namely the use of a hashtag on the Twitter platform, the analysis of #MeToo tweets presents a unique opportunity to investigate feminist activism and its relationship to gender inequality and political ideology. More generally, tweets have proven a reliable proxy for a number of social-psychological phenomena, such as personality [ 36 ], crime rates [ 37 ], and election outcomes [ 38 ].

As previously anticipated, the Gender Inequality Index (GII) is one of the most prominent measures of gender inequality and, while it’s not singular in its category, we chose it for several reasons. First, the GII is favored by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), arguably the international entity most active in efforts to increase gender equality. The UNDP uses the GII to assess the efficacy of interventions designed to reduce country-level disparities between men and women. Validating a state-level version of the GII would provide directly comparable data within the United States.

Another advantage of the GII is that it is multifaceted. The GII accounts for inequality along three dimensions—health, labor, and politics—one or more of which is absent from other measures (e.g., the Basic Index of Gender Inequality, or BIGI; [ 39 ]). Women’s sociopolitical empowerment, health, and treatment in the workplace are inextricably linked. For instance, to the extent that women lack representation in government, or the educational opportunities necessary to advance in government or industry, their efficacy as advocates and agents of change in other domains of gender inequality will be limited. In line with this claim, evidence suggests that all-male committees are more affected by gender bias in their decision-making than are mixed-gender committees [ 40 ]. Moreover, the gender gap in terms of women’s political empowerment is currently larger than the gap in other domains [ 41 ]. Consistently with these data, ensuring that women are represented at all levels of government is one of the aims of UNDP 2030 agenda (sub-goal 5.5).

The present research

Across two studies, the present research employs the Gender Inequality Index (GII) and establishes its utility in assessing state-level differences in gender disparities within the US.

Study 1 employed population-based data retrieved from several platforms for big data storage, to create and test the validity of the state-level Gender Inequality Index (GII-S), namely an adaptation of the GII allowing within-country comparisons, which assesses State-level gender inequality across US states. In Study 2, we employed Twitter-based data to validate the GII-S externally, by examining its correlation with the prevalence of #MeToo tweets as a marker of feminist collective action and to explore the interplay between gender inequality, political ideology, and such collective actions across states.

Calculation of GII-S scores.

GII-S scores were calculated according to the formula used by [ 42 ] to create the country-level GII. Fig 1 displays the components of this formula, specifies how individual measures correspond to the different dimensions of gender inequality, and cites the data sources for each indicator. The inequality data are from 2016, the most recent year information for all indicators was available.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121.g001

GII-S scores were calculated for 47 out of 50 US. states. Alaska, Hawaii, and Vermont were excluded from the analysis because data relevant to the sub-dimensions of inequality could not be located. In line with Bulmer (1979), the distribution of GII-S scores was approximately symmetrical (skewness = -.034) and normal (Shapiro-Wilk W = .98, p = .68). The GII-S distribution’s central tendency ( M = .28, SD = .05, Mdn = .28) indicates a 28% deviation from parity at the expenses of women, suggesting that the US states are substantially gender-unequal overall ( Fig 2 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121.g002

Convergent and discriminant validity measures.

In order to test the GII-S’s convergent validity, we assessed the following state-level indicators retrieved from Gallup US Dailies for 2016 [ 43 ]: women’s financial well-being (a component of well-being that includes managing economic life to reduce stress and increase security), women’s health problems (e.g., “Do you have any health problems that prevent you from doing any of the things people your age normally can do?”), women’s health rating (e.g., “Would you say your own health, in general, is …?”), women’s perception of safety (e.g., “You always feel safe and secure”) and women’s life satisfaction (e.g., “I like what I do every day”). For comparison, we also examined these outcome measures for men. The GII-S’s discriminant validity was tested against a state-level indicator of economic inequality, the Gini coefficient, for 2016 (One-year estimates, [ 44 ]).

Statistical analyses.

We employed Pearson correlation to examine the relationships between GII-S scores and the other state-level indicators. Pearson correlation was chosen for its suitability in measuring linear relationships between continuous variables, crucial for assessing the predictive power of GII-S scores.

Results showed that GII-S scores correlated negatively with the per capita GDP, consistent with previous studies finding a negative relationship between gender inequality and economic growth. For both women and men, GII-S scores were negatively associated with objective health (number of health problems), subjective health (health self-rating), and financial well-being, although the association between GII-S scores and financial well-being was stronger for women than men. Consistent with previous literature [ 45 ], GII-S scores were also associated with life satisfaction and perceived safety for women. Finally, while GII-S was associated with several well-being indicators, we did not find a statistically significant association between GII and GINI scores. See Table 1 for bivariate correlations between all measures.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121.t001

Tweets collection.

Using R statistical software [ 46 ], along with the Rtweet [ 47 ] and Revgeo [ 48 ] packages, we collected tweets sent in the United States from January 18, 2019, to February 20, 2019. This specific timeframe was selected as matches the peak period of activity for the movement, based on Google Trends data, over the past five years ( Fig 3 ), capturing the height of public engagement and discourse on the Google platform.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121.g003

Tweets were divided in two groups: those containing the hashtag #MeToo (“#MeToo tweets”; N = 3,191) and tweets randomly sampled from the universe of all US. tweets during the specified time window (“general tweets”; N = 20,000).

The political orientation of each state was determined by analyzing state-level aggregated data from the Gallup US Dailies (Gallup, 2019). Gallup conducts surveys with representative samples of the U.S. population, asking respondents to identify their political beliefs using categories such as very liberal , liberal , moderate , conservative , and very conservative . To construct a scale estimating the overall political orientation of each state, we subtracted the frequency of liberal or very liberal responses from the frequency of conservative or very conservative responses and rescaled the result to range from -1 (a state with only liberals) to 1 (a state with only conservatives).

In line with the approach used in Study 1, Study 2 employed partialized Pearson correlation to examine the links between GII-S scores, #MeToo tweet prevalence, and political orientation. Once again, Pearson correlation was employed due to its appropriateness for evaluating linear associations among continuous variables. Moreover, in Study 2 the analysis included adjustments for potential confounding factors, such as general tweet frequency, median women’s age by state, economic inequality measured with the GINI index, and GDP per capita to ensure the accuracy of the findings. Furthermore, we employed the Bayes Factor, a statistical measure used to evaluate the strength of evidence in favor of one statistical model over another, to test different models to compare the predictive strength of GII-S scores against other models. Specifically, we calculated Bayes factors, using the software JASP [ 49 ], for three linear models using #MeToo tweet frequency as dependent variable. The first (null) model included the state-level frequency of general tweets, which should trivially be associated with the use of any given hashtag (including #MeToo), state-level median women age, GINI, and GDP per capita. In the second (GII) model, we added state-level GII in the regression model with #MeToo frequency as dependent variable. Finally, in the third (political) model, we added state-level political orientation, instead of GII, in the regression model with #MeToo frequency as dependent variable.

In Study 2, we found support the relationship between state-level GII and frequency of #MeToo tweets ( r = -.45, p = .003) even after adjusting for general tweets, women age, GINI, and GDP per capita. Differently, we did not find support for the relationship between state-level political orientation and frequency of #MeToo tweets ( r = -.24, p = .14). Finally, we found a statistically significant correlation between state-level GII and political orientation ( r = .75, p < .001).

According to the Bayes Factors analysis, the GII model was superior to both the null and political models. In particular, the observed data pattern is approximately twenty-eight times more likely to occur under GII model than null model, which can be interpreted as strong evidence [ 50 ] in favor of the model with GII. Results of the model comparison are reported in Table 2 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306121.t002

It is important to note that the addition of GII improved upon a model (i.e., the null model) that already explained a large amount of variance. That is, although states that originated more tweets also produced more instances of the #MeToo hashtag, state-level GII explained additional variance in the prevalence #MeToo across states.

Conclusions

In two studies, the present research develops the GII-S and demonstrates its effectiveness in evaluating variations in gender disparities among US states. Importantly, the US is a federal republic consisting of 50 states bound together in a political union and is particularly well-suited to within-country comparisons with respect to gender inequality. On the one side, these states share important cultural similarities: a common dominant language (English), currency (the US dollar), and bipartisan political framework (Democrats and Republicans). On the other side, the US are highly heterogeneous in terms of demographics and are afforded substantial sovereignty in enacting their own laws, drawing their own legislative districts, and setting their own economic priorities. Moreover, US states differ profoundly in their populations’ attitudes on many issues, such as abortion [ 51 ], party politics [ 52 ], and immigration [ 53 ]—all of which, notably, are theoretically related to themes of gender inequality. In sum, state-level heterogeneity along dimensions relevant to inequality, coupled with federal homogeneity of data collection and management procedures, make the US the ideal context in which to measure within-country differences in gender inequality.

Results from Study 1 highlight that GII scores across US states are coherently associated with state-level well-being indicators. First, in line with previous literature, gender inequality is associated with health outcomes for both males and females. Indeed, public health can be negatively impacted by gender inequality for several reasons. Specifically, the mental health of mothers, which is likely to suffer in highly unequal settings, is an important predictor of male and female children’s mental health [ 54 – 56 ]. Moreover, because infectious diseases are more prevalent among individuals low in socioeconomic status, who tend disproportionately to be female, women may tend to spread infections to community members of both sexes [ 57 ]. Finally, women are more likely to contract, and subsequently spread, sexually-transmitted diseases in settings where gender inequality leads to higher rates of sexual violence [ 58 , 59 ].

Findings of Study 1 also suggest that gender inequality is negatively associated with financial well-being for both males and females, although this association is stronger for women. This coheres with previous literature showing that gender inequality is negatively associated with economic growth, leading to less financial well-being for all members of the society [ 18 ]. Moreover, a lack of job opportunities for women likely places a burden also on male earners, who face the added stress of supporting a family without the benefit of spousal earnings [ 60 ]. Finally, gender inequality is specifically associated with women’s perceptions of safety and life satisfaction. It is worth noting that, in our data, women’s safety perceptions are linked to their financial well-being, while this association is not statistically significant for men. In contexts of high gender inequality, women tend to be economically dependent on men and therefore have less control over their lives. This can make them more vulnerable to domestic violence or abuse [ 61 ]. Thus, gender inequality is robustly linked with poorer life satisfaction among women.

Our findings indicate that GII-S scores are not significantly correlated with economic inequality, as measured by the state-level Gini coefficient. Our findings align with the idea that economic inequality and gender inequality are distinct phenomena. For example, reducing disparities between men and women does not automatically imply that economic differences between classes will follow the same trend. Moreover, coherently with our results, from the 1990 Country-level gender inequality measured with the GII is decreasing in the World and in many countries, USA included [ 62 ]. Differently, economic inequality appears to be more stable over time and it increased in the USA during the same time period [ 63 ]. However, it is important to notice that there are social issues representing both facets of gender and economic inequality, such as the gender wage gap. Furthermore, our data shows that the Gini coefficient is associated with women’s financial well-being (but not men’s), and there is previous research reporting a link between economic and gender inequality [ 64 ]. Additionally, the distinctiveness between the two issues may be particularly salient because of the specific aspects of gender inequality that the GII-S measures, which do not directly account for gender economic inequality. Therefore, we advise caution in interpreting the lack of a significant association between these two measures.

In sum, Study 1 provides evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of the state-level GII (GII-S), with GII-S scores associated women’s objective and subjective well-being at the state level but not state-level economic inequality.

Consistently with evidence showing that tweets have proven a reliable proxy for a number of social-psychological phenomena [ 36 – 38 ], Study 2 employs the analysis of tweets to investigate feminist online activism and its relationship to gender inequality and political ideology. Specifically Study 2 provides strong evidence that gender inequality is associated with lower commitment to feminist online collective action, such as spreading messages on Twitter related to the #MeToo, an international movement that, after starting in the US, quickly spread worldwide.

Results showed that states with high levels of gender inequality tended to produce fewer #MeToo tweets than did states low in gender inequality. One possible interpretation of these findings can be framed in the theoretical account of the System Justification Theory, in line with our preregistered hypothesis (SJT; [ 65 ], link to the pre-registration: https://osf.io/reqxm ). According to SJT, people in macro-level contexts characterized by a long history of patriarchy and adherence to traditional sex roles will be motivated to justify gender inequality—a process that likely reduces interest in feminist collective action. In this way, inequality’s very existence may further resistance to change. However, it is important to highlight that, while our results are consistent with an interpretation based on System Justification Theory (SJT), they do not conclusively prove it. Other interpretations are also plausible. For instance, according to the Social Identity Model of System Attitudes (SIMSA; [ 66 ]), the association between higher GII scores and lower frequency of #MeToo hashtags might be due to accuracy motives. These motives could lead individuals to passively perceive and acknowledge the status quo without actively defending or maintaining the system. Additionally, as the GII measures objective structural inequalities between men and women, it is possible that in States with higher levels of gender inequality, there is a lack of resources and opportunities to participate in the #MeToo movement. Resource scarcity may also represent an obstacle in the expression of important psychological antecedents of collective action, such as feelings of empowerment and group efficacy beliefs [ 67 ]. It is also worth considering that our measure of collective action engagement was specific to the #MeToo hashtags. Future research should examine other forms of collective action, such as participation in demonstrations and strikes. By doing so, researchers might gain a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play, while also providing a more direct test of their possible explanation.

Moreover, our analysis reveals that economic factors like GINI and GDP per capita do not diminish the association between the Gender Inequality Index (GII) and the frequency of #MeToo tweets. This finding suggests that the fight to gender inequality, as captured through the lens of the #MeToo movement, transcends economic disparities at the national level. It indicates that discussions surrounding feminism and women’s rights, as highlighted by the #MeToo movement, are prevalent and resonate across states that vary in terms of economic inequality and prosperity.

Finally, in Study 2 we did not find evidence for a relationship between state-level political orientation and #MeToo tweet frequency. It is possible that political orientation has a more nuanced relationship with collective action for women’s rights, and conservative variants of feminism are likely intertwined with the political values of conservative women [ 68 ]. Future studies are therefore needed to further explore the interplay of individual-level variables (e.g., gender, political orientation, and feminist activism) with structural variables (e.g., state-level gender inequality, political ideology). Conversely, a positive significant correlation between state-level GII and political orientation did emerge in Study 2. This result is consistent with research finding an association between conservative ideology and legitimization of inequality toward women: for instance, people high in patriarchal gender-role beliefs tend to rationalize gender inequality as fair, appropriate, and inevitable [ 31 ] and people who endorse right-wing political ideology, gender traditionalists, and political conservatives tend to tolerate sexual harassment and violence more than do liberals and gender progressives [ 33 – 35 ]. Therefore, from a certain point of view, our results concerning structural indicators of gender inequality mirror previous evidence concerning self-reported perceptions related to this topic. Moreover, this pattern of results may suggest that conservative ideology may have specific consequences for social structures. States with a high proportion of conservatives tend to display a lack of parity between women and men—more specifically, poor well-being and health among women. While the mechanisms connecting ideology to such outcomes require more study, it is possible that political elections play a role, as conservative voters tend to prefer leaders weakly invested in disrupting the gender status quo. It is also possible that the causal arrow connecting political orientation and gender inequality runs in the opposite direction, such that living in a less gender-equal environment promotes more conservative attitudes.

The present studies present some limitations, which are crucial in envisioning key future directions. First of all, our results are correlational in nature, thus prevent us from making formal claims concerning causal directions. However, it strikes us as highly implausible that inequality at the structural level (e.g., in terms of political representation, maternal mortality, or labor-market disparities) is caused by the use (or lack thereof) of a specific Twitter hashtag. We think it is plausible that the observed correlation stems from an effect of gender inequality on #MeToo collective action. It is possible, of course, that other variables affect both gender inequality and #MeToo collective action, creating a spurious correlation between gender inequality and online activism. However, we have here tried to reduce this limitation by controlling the association between GII-S and #MeToo collective actions for several State-level factors, and the association proved robust. Further experimental studies are however needed to test additional causal processes that might have given rise to the observed correlations.

Another important limitation of our analysis lies in the fact that it is based on aggregated state-level data, which limits our ability to extrapolate our findings to individuals directly. Although our study identified the Gender Inequality Index at the state level (GII-S) as a significant predictor of participation in the #MeToo movement, even when taking general use of Twitter and state-level economic performances into account, it remains unclear whether individuals that not have the opportunity to use Internet (and Twitter) and people with lower socio-economic status have a stronger or a weaker motivation to engage in feminist collective actions. Indeed, in our studies we do not provide information about the perspectives of individuals. Consequently, survey studies that focus on individual-level analysis are essential to determine if personal socio-demographic characteristics influence attitudes toward feminist online collective actions, such as #MeToo. Despite limitations, the present studies capture a new and important picture of gender inequality in the United States. Our version of the GII not only tackles nuances of gender inequality across US states, it is also coherently associated with several well-being and health-related indicators. This demonstrates that the GII-S is a useful tool for predicting gender issues within a country. Moreover, our studies show that GII-S scores can be used to test theory-driven hypotheses in highly ecological social-media settings. Thus, the practical implications of these studies are extensive in several respects. First, by confirming the reliability of the GII-S, policymakers and advocates can use an effective tool to examine and tackle gender disparities in specific areas of the country.

Second, the outcomes of Study 1 emphasize the need to address gender inequality not just as a social justice issue but also as a means to boost in particular women’s but also men’s overall well-being. The awareness of the negative correlates of gender inequality for everybody can be an important element in gathering support from a larger part of the population.

Finally, Study 2 offers important insights into how gender inequality impacts collective action. The inverse relationship between GII-S scores and involvement in the #MeToo movement indicates that greater gender inequality may reduce awareness and activism regarding sexual harassment and violence against women. This is particular, relevant for activists and organizations interested in promoting gender equality, as they can consider that stronger efforts are required to mobilize people in contexts that would likely benefit most for interventions.

• View Article
• Google Scholar
• PubMed/NCBI
• 9. Ridgeway CL. Framed by gender: How gender inequality persists in the modern world. Oxford University Press; 2011.
• 21. Lagerlöf N. Gender inequality, fertility, and growth. Mimeographed. Department of Economics, University of Sydney; 1999.
• 42. United Nations Development Programme. Human development indices and indicators: 2018 statistical update. New York: UNDP; 2018.
• 46. R Core Team. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2017.
• 50. Jeffreys H. Theory of probability. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1961.

10 Reasons Why Gender Equality is Important

Gender equality seems like a faraway dream these days. While progress has been made, the numbers from groups like UN Women tell a discouraging story. Over 2 billion women don’t have the same employment options as men. At the current rate, it will take about a century to close the global pay gap. While human trafficking affects men and women , women and girls make up over 70% of the world’s human trafficking victims. In the face of this data, gender equality needs to be a priority. Why? Here are 10 reasons why it’s important:

#1. It saves lives

Because of their lack of empowerment and resources in many places, women and girls face life-threatening risks. Natural disasters are one example. At the 2005 World Conference on Disaster Reduction, experts discussed how gender inequality plays a role in death and injury. Other data shows that climate change, which makes natural disasters more dangerous, puts women and girls in even more vulnerable positions. Bringing a gender perspective into discussions allows women to play a bigger role in their own protection.

#2. It results in better healthcare

Research shows that in general, women receive worse medical care than men. There are many reasons for this, including lack of education and lower incomes. Sexism in the medical research community also leads to worse care. Diseases that affect women more than men (such as chronic pain conditions) aren’t as well-researched. They’re often not taken as seriously by medical professionals. When women are equal in society, their health will be impacted positively.

#3. It helps businesses

When women receive the same education and job opportunities as men, they can improve any organization they join. Studies show that diversity of all types (gender, race, sexual identity, etc) increases an organization’s productivity and innovation. One 2016 study from the University of California looked at big companies in the state with some women in the top leadership positions. They performed better than the companies with mostly men at the top.

#4. It’s good for the economy

Women’s impact doesn’t stop with individual companies and organizations. Studies show that increasing women’s participation in the economy is good for the economy. In OECD countries, if the female employment rates were raised to match Sweden, it would lead to a GDP increase equivalent to $6 trillion. Gender pay gaps end up costing the economy.

#5. Children are healthier

When women make their own reproductive choices, they provide better care for the children they do have. With income options equal to men, mothers can offer education, healthcare, and healthier food to their children. Studies also show that reduced infant mortality is linked to higher levels of education. Children raised in gender-equal environments will do better than those raised with inequality.

#6. It leads to better legal protections

Under the law, women aren’t well-protected from domestic sexual and economic violence . Both of these types of violence affect a woman’s safety and freedom. Increasing women’s legal rights keeps them safe and able to build productive happy lives.

#7. It leads to better racial equality

Gender equality and race equality are closely linked. Within issues like the gender pay gap, race plays a big role. White and Asian women earn more than black, Hispanic, and native women. In the United States, black women face a higher risk of death from pregnancy-related causes. When gender equality considers race as a factor, it improves race equality at the same time.

#8. It reduces poverty

Poverty rates are the highest among young girls. As boys and girls get older, the gender gap in poverty gets larger. This is likely because girls don’t receive the same education and job opportunities as boys, and when girls marry, they often don’t work. Gender inequality keeps women and their families trapped in cycles of poverty . When women receive better education, healthcare, and job opportunities, they can thrive. Investing in gender inequality is a sustainable, highly-effective way to reduce poverty.

#9. It reduces human trafficking

While men are also victims of human trafficking, women and girls make up the majority. They’re more vulnerable and traffickers see them as easier targets. With better education and job options, women and girls don’t end up in trafficking situations as often. Gender equality can also help strengthen a country, reducing poverty and instability. These fuel human trafficking.

#10. It can lead to peace

Research shows that gender equality is linked to peace , even more so than a country’s GDP or level of democracy. States with better gender equality are less likely to use military force. When a country addresses major areas of gender inequality like education and employment, it fosters peace.

You may also like

Pinkwashing 101: Definition, History, Examples

15 Inspiring Quotes for Black History Month

10 Inspiring Ways Women Are Fighting for Equality

15 Trusted Charities Fighting for Clean Water

15 Trusted Charities Supporting Trans People

15 Political Issues We Must Address

15 Trusted Charities Fighting for LGBTQ+ Rights

16 Inspiring Civil Rights Leaders You Should Know

15 Trusted Charities Fighting for Housing Rights

15 Examples of Gender Inequality in Everyday Life

11 Approaches to Alleviate World Hunger 

15 Facts About Malala Yousafzai

About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

• Share full article

Advertisement

The Morning

Kamala harris takes control.

President Biden has dropped out of the race. We answer four questions about what happens next.

By David Leonhardt

With President Biden having dropped out of the race, I’m devoting today’s newsletter to four big questions about what happens next. My colleagues and I will also give you the latest news about the campaign.

Four questions

1. Is the Democratic nomination race already over?

It may be. Vice President Kamala Harris appears to be in a commanding position .

Some top Democrats, including Nancy Pelosi, favor a competition to choose a new nominee. And an open process would have some big advantages. It would test whether Harris was a stronger politician than she had been during her failed 2020 campaign. If she won the competition, she would emerge from it looking like a winner who was more than Biden’s No. 2.

But a competition obviously requires more than one competitor, and Harris was the only top-tier Democrat to declare herself a presidential candidate yesterday. Many other Democrats endorsed her in the hours after Biden’s withdrawal.

Her list of backers include both progressives and moderates in Congress, as well as Biden, members of the Congressional Black Caucus and two governors who had been considered potential presidential candidates themselves: Gavin Newsom of California and Josh Shapiro of Pennsylvania. The party’s nominating delegates from three states — North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee — unanimously voted yesterday to endorse Harris.

Overall, the hours after Biden’s exit went about as well as Harris could have hoped.

2. What will the Harris-Trump polls say now that they’re not hypothetical?

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .