educational references meaning

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Academic Reference Letter and Request Examples

• What is an Academic Recommendation

Who to Ask for a Recommendation

• Academic Recommendation Request
• General Academic Recommendation
• Sample Academic Recommendation

Maddy Price / The Balance

An academic letter of recommendation is a specific type of reference letter. Often, it's written by a high school teacher, vocational instructor, counselor, or college professor for a student or recent graduate. These letters are frequently required when people apply to college or for scholarships, special college programs, internships, training programs, or fellowships.

Academic recommendations may also be requested as part of a job application, especially for an internship or entry-level position. They can be particularly powerful when a position is aligned with the applicant's academic experience.

Students may use academic recommendations from their high school teachers, instructors, or  college professors  to make up for a lack of work experience and attest to their educational achievements.

What's in an Academic Recommendation Letter? 

An academic reference letter is typically one or two pages in length. It highlights a student's academic history, character, and academic or career goals. The letter expands upon a student's report card or transcript, providing insight into how the applicant behaved as a student and is likely to perform as an employee. 

If you are a student who needs an academic recommendation letter, it's important to ask a teacher whom you are confident will write what you want the hiring company or academic institution to hear.

Recommendation letters may be requested in sealed envelopes with the signature of the letter’s author over the seal. This is done to ensure the reference is authentic and accurately portrays the candidate. Another option is to have the recommender send the reference directly or complete an online recommendation form.

That means you may not have an opportunity to read what your recommender wrote about you. The letter is more likely to be positive and support your application if you have a good relationship with the recommender. 

Check before you use someone for a reference. Ask them if they would be willing to provide you with a reference to help ensure that the recommendations you get are positive.

Teachers can certainly provide academic recommendations. Additionally, guidance counselors, administrators, supervisors, and others who can attest to your academic achievements may also write academic letters of recommendation for students. 

You can ask for letters of recommendation before you graduate. This way, you have some letters ready to go and can attach them to your resume or application right away. Letters written ahead of time will need to be more general to ensure they can work for more than one application. 

On a similar note, when you ask your teachers for references at the end of your time at school, request formal and informal copies of your transcript from the registrar's office. You will be pleased to have these in a folder waiting for you when you apply for your first job.

Sample Academic Recommendation Request

This is a sample letter a student can email or mail to a former teacher asking for a reference letter . You can download the recommendation letter template (compatible with Google Docs and Word Online), or see below for more examples.

General Academic Recommendation Request from Student to Teacher (Text Version)

Sue Wright 123 Main Street Anytown, CA 12345  555-555-5555  sue.wright@ccc.com

May 19, 2024

Lisa Lee Professor Childhood Education Acme University 123 Business Street Business City, NY 54321

Dear Professor Lee, 

As I prepare for my journey into the workforce after graduation, I am hoping to gather a general letter of recommendation from you that I can use for future teaching position applications. 

As my elementary education advisor, mentor, and professor, I believe a reference from you would provide a potential employer with insight into my character and teaching abilities, ensuring them I would be an ideal candidate for the early childhood education position they are looking to fill. 

If you need any additional information, please contact me via email or phone. If you would kindly provide me with four signed copies of the letter in sealed envelopes with your signature across the seal, I would much appreciate it.

Thank you for your consideration and support.

Signature (hard copy letter) Sue Wright

Sample General Academic Recommendation for a Student

This general academic reference letter can be drafted by a teacher for a student to keep in their academic portfolio for future use.

General Academic Recommendation for a Student (Text Version)

Laurie Gallo 123 Main Street Anytown, CA 12345  555-555-5555  laurie.gallo@college.edu

Lisa Lee Operations Manager Sunshine Hospital 123 Business Street Business City, NY 54321

To Whom It May Concern,

I am writing this reference for Mary Miller, a student I was fortunate to work with during her senior year at Newton College. As both Mary’s academic advisor and professor of Children's Literature, I have watched her grow into a passionate and knowledgeable teacher.

A natural in the classroom, Mary has worked with students in both inclusive classrooms as well as individually, focusing on their special needs in reading and writing. 

Mary is a patient and compassionate teacher and is the ideal candidate for your special education graduate program. Please feel free to contact me with any additional questions you may have regarding Mary at 555-123-2345 or email, laurie.gallo@college.edu. 

Signature (hard copy letter)

Laurie Gallo Education Department Chair Newton College

Sample Academic Recommendation for a Student

Here is a sample academic reference letter from a teacher.

Academic Recommendation for a Student (Text Version)

Susan Samuels 123 Main Street Anytown, CA 12345 555-555-5555  susan.samuels@email.com

Franklin Lee Department Chair Communications Acme University 123 Business Street Business City, NY 54321

Dear Ms. Jones:

I am writing this reference at the request of Katie Kingston, who is applying for the Summer Communications Program at Acme University.

I have known Katie for two years in my capacity as a teacher at Smithtown Middle School. Katie took English and Spanish from me and earned superior grades in those classes. Based on Katie's grades, attendance, and class participation, I'd rate Katie's academic performance in my class as superior.

In conclusion, I would highly recommend Katie Kingston for this academic program. If her performance in my class is any indication of how she will succeed, Katie will be a positive addition to the program. If you should need any additional information, you can feel free to contact me at 555-555-5555 or by email at susan.samuels@email.com anytime.

Susan Samuels Teacher Smithtown Middle School

Key Takeaways

• Academic references are often required to apply to college or for scholarships, educational programs, internships, training programs, or fellowships.
• An academic reference letter highlights a student's academic achievements, character, and academic or career goals.
• Teachers, guidance counselors, administrators, supervisors, and others who can attest to a candidate's educational accomplishments typically provide academic references.

CareerOneStop. " References ."

Tips | Academic References

1. what is an academic reference.

• Academic referees are generally professors
• An academic reference focuses on academic ability and suitability for program of study. Sometimes students also require academic references when applying for jobs or internships, particularly if the job relates to their academic interests.

2. Identifying Appropriate References

Below are some criteria to help you in selecting your references.

Think about and assess: 

• How well did you do in the professor’s course(s) OR how well did you perform as a Teaching Assistant or Research Assistant?  
• How well does the professor know you and/or your work and how up-to-date is that knowledge?
• Will the professor’s reputation carry weight with the selection committee? The opinion of a professor who is well-known to a committee is trusted.

3. How to Get to Know Your Professors and Get Them to Know You

Think of courses that you did well in (particularly your upper-year courses).  In this way, the professor has evidence to address and support your suitability as an effective learner, in a more convincing way.   Get to know your professors and create memorable interactions and rapport by demonstrating your interest in learning what they are teaching.  Be an active learner and ask thoughtful questions in class. Contribute your ideas and reflections on relevant topics, assignments, presentations, readings, or current events and integrate them with your course material. 

Think about how you can use professors’ office hours as an opportunity to build rapport with them (so that they remember you when you request their support as a reference). For example, take the time to familiarize yourself with their research areas and publications. Introduce yourself so the professor knows who you are. Ask questions about their work that genuinely interest you. Show curiosity and interest in what you’re learning.  Enthusiasm goes a long way . Be positive even if you are having challenges in the course. Don’t ask for clues about the exam or whether you have to do the required readings; these are not positive ways to be remembered. 

4. When Should You Approach Your Professors for a Reference?

• Create a list of potential academic referees at least 3 months before the letter is due.
• Include extra names on your list (in case some professors are not available or choose not to write). 
• Approach your professors in the way that you are accustomed to dealing with them (email or in-office).
• Determine if those professors have reference letter policies (ask about specific directions and follow them).  

Reminder:  Give your academic references as much advance notice as possible .   A minimum of 3 months is suggested, preferably longer.

5. How To Approach Academic References

In your initial approach, make sure that each professor:

• knows who you are (introduce yourself; inform them about the program or position that interests you and why; mention the grade you received in their class; and provide a copy of an assignment/paper you wrote for them including their original comments. This should assist them as a memory jogger).
• understands that you are seeking a strong reference
• knows why you would like a letter from them specifically
• is aware of the letter’s deadline ( remember to approach them well in advance of the deadline !)

How to Speak to Professors

Be professional:  Address your professors by title (eg. Professor or Dr. Green).

Be clear and concise:   State your request without being overly detailed. Your professors appreciate it when you can articulate your need succinctly.

Be honest and upfront:   If you are sincere about your intent and approach, the professor will likely notice and respond to your request more favourably. 

How to Support Your Academic Reference with Your Request

Be prepared to provide your referees with information including:

• an updated résumé or CV
• a draft of any statement of interest or research proposal that will be included in your application
• any forms that the reference may be asked to fill out (pre-fill what you can in advance of issuing to them)
• your personal contact details (so they can reach you directly if required)
• Any specific instructions such as what the professor should do after completing the letter (e.g. does it need to be uploaded to the school’s application site? What is the site? What file format?) Instructions like these will be very helpful to your reference.
• Any key details you would like the referee to include in their letter, such as highlighting projects, grades, effort, or character, should be clear.

TIP: Check in with your reference about the letter’s completion 2-3 weeks before the letter is due.

SAMPLE REQUEST FOR A REFERENCE (tailor to your needs) :

Hello Professor Green, my name is Naz Reeshay. I was a student in your GGR407H5 Eco Hydrology course last semester.  My positive learning experience and academic performance in this course have influenced my plan to further my studies and I will be applying for the Master of Science in Geological Sciences program at UBC. I welcome your support in the form of a strong reference letter. 

(If your rapport with your professor is not current, consider suggesting an in-person chat):

Professor Green, I would be happy to meet with you at your convenience to refresh your memory of me and my class performance, if that would be helpful to you. I will also provide my personal statement, CV, and any other documents that you prefer.

(If your professor knows you well, you can be direct with your request):

Professor Green, please let me know if I can rely on your written support. Of course, I would provide you with my personal statement, CV, and any other documents that you prefer in preparing the letter.

Thank you for taking the time to consider my request.

Sincerely, Naz Reeshay

For more information on asking for an academic reference visit the e-resources below:

• Dos and Don'ts for Requesting a Grad School Recommendation Letter
• How To Ask for a Letter of Recommendation (With Examples)
• How to Communicate With Your Professor

Please note that this information is subject to change. It is best to refer to the original sources for the most up-to-date information. 

Updated July 2023

We apologize for any inconvenience as we update our site to a new look.

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Reference List: Common Reference List Examples

Article (with doi).

Alvarez, E., & Tippins, S. (2019). Socialization agents that Puerto Rican college students use to make financial decisions. Journal of Social Change , 11 (1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.5590/JOSC.2019.11.1.07

Laplante, J. P., & Nolin, C. (2014). Consultas and socially responsible investing in Guatemala: A case study examining Maya perspectives on the Indigenous right to free, prior, and informed consent. Society & Natural Resources , 27 , 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2013.861554

Use the DOI number for the source whenever one is available. DOI stands for "digital object identifier," a number specific to the article that can help others locate the source. In APA 7, format the DOI as a web address. Active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. Also see our Quick Answer FAQ, "Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?"

Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House.” PLoS ONE , 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

For journal articles that are assigned article numbers rather than page ranges, include the article number in place of the page range.

For more on citing electronic resources, see  Electronic Sources References .

Article (Without DOI)

Found in a common academic research database or in print.

Casler , T. (2020). Improving the graduate nursing experience through support on a social media platform. MEDSURG Nursing , 29 (2), 83–87.

If an article does not have a DOI and you retrieved it from a common academic research database through the university library, there is no need to include any additional electronic retrieval information. The reference list entry looks like the entry for a print copy of the article. (This format differs from APA 6 guidelines that recommended including the URL of a journal's homepage when the DOI was not available.) Note that APA 7 has additional guidance on reference list entries for articles found only in specific databases or archives such as Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, UpToDate, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and university archives. See APA 7, Section 9.30 for more information.

Found on an Open Access Website

Eaton, T. V., & Akers, M. D. (2007). Whistleblowing and good governance. CPA Journal , 77 (6), 66–71. http://archives.cpajournal.com/2007/607/essentials/p58.htm

Provide the direct web address/URL to a journal article found on the open web, often on an open access journal's website. In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list.

Weinstein, J. A. (2010).  Social change  (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

If the book has an edition number, include it in parentheses after the title of the book. If the book does not list any edition information, do not include an edition number. The edition number is not italicized.

American Nurses Association. (2015). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (3rd ed.).

If the author and publisher are the same, only include the author in its regular place and omit the publisher.

Lencioni, P. (2012). The advantage: Why organizational health trumps everything else in business . Jossey-Bass. https://amzn.to/343XPSJ

As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, it is no longer necessary to include the ebook format in the title. However, if you listened to an audiobook and the content differs from the text version (e.g., abridged content) or your discussion highlights elements of the audiobook (e.g., narrator's performance), then note that it is an audiobook in the title element in brackets. For ebooks and online audiobooks, also include the DOI number (if available) or nondatabase URL but leave out the electronic retrieval element if the ebook was found in a common academic research database, as with journal articles. APA 7 allows for the shortening of long DOIs and URLs, as shown in this example. See APA 7, Section 9.36 for more information.

Chapter in an Edited Book

Poe, M. (2017). Reframing race in teaching writing across the curriculum. In F. Condon & V. A. Young (Eds.), Performing antiracist pedagogy in rhetoric, writing, and communication (pp. 87–105). University Press of Colorado.

Include the page numbers of the chapter in parentheses after the book title.

Christensen, L. (2001). For my people: Celebrating community through poetry. In B. Bigelow, B. Harvey, S. Karp, & L. Miller (Eds.), Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice (Vol. 2, pp. 16–17). Rethinking Schools.

Also include the volume number or edition number in the parenthetical information after the book title when relevant.

Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.),  The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud  (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)

When a text has been republished as part of an anthology collection, after the author’s name include the date of the version that was read. At the end of the entry, place the date of the original publication inside parenthesis along with the note “original work published.” For in-text citations of republished work, use both dates in the parenthetical citation, original date first with a slash separating the years, as in this example: Freud (1923/1961). For more information on reprinted or republished works, see APA 7, Sections 9.40-9.41.

Classroom Resources

Citing classroom resources.

If you need to cite content found in your online classroom, use the author (if there is one listed), the year of publication (if available), the title of the document, and the main URL of Walden classrooms. For example, you are citing study notes titled "Health Effects of Exposure to Forest Fires," but you do not know the author's name, your reference entry will look like this:

Health effects of exposure to forest fires [Lecture notes]. (2005). Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com

If you do know the author of the document, your reference will look like this:

Smith, A. (2005). Health effects of exposure to forest fires [PowerPoint slides]. Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com  

A few notes on citing course materials:

• [Lecture notes]
• [Course handout]
• [Study notes]
• It can be difficult to determine authorship of classroom documents. If an author is listed on the document, use that. If the resource is clearly a product of Walden (such as the course-based videos), use Walden University as the author. If you are unsure or if no author is indicated, place the title in the author spot, as above.
• If you cannot determine a date of publication, you can use n.d. (for "no date") in place of the year.

Note:  The web location for Walden course materials is not directly retrievable without a password, and therefore, following APA guidelines, use the main URL for the class sites: https://class.waldenu.edu.

Citing Tempo Classroom Resources

Clear author: 

Smith, A. (2005). Health effects of exposure to forest fires [PowerPoint slides]. Walden University Brightspace. https://mytempo.waldenu.edu

Unclear author:

Health effects of exposure to forest fires [Lecture notes]. (2005). Walden University Brightspace. https://mytempo.waldenu.edu

Conference Sessions and Presentations

Feinman, Y. (2018, July 27). Alternative to proctoring in introductory statistics community college courses [Poster presentation]. Walden University Research Symposium, Minneapolis, MN, United States. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/symposium2018/23/

Torgerson, K., Parrill, J., & Haas, A. (2019, April 5-9). Tutoring strategies for online students [Conference session]. The Higher Learning Commission Annual Conference, Chicago, IL, United States. http://onlinewritingcenters.org/scholarship/torgerson-parrill-haas-2019/

Dictionary Entry

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Leadership. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary . Retrieved May 28, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/leadership

When constructing a reference for an entry in a dictionary or other reference work that has no byline (i.e., no named individual authors), use the name of the group—the institution, company, or organization—as author (e.g., Merriam Webster, American Psychological Association, etc.). The name of the entry goes in the title position, followed by "In" and the italicized name of the reference work (e.g., Merriam-Webster.com dictionary , APA dictionary of psychology ). In this instance, APA 7 recommends including a retrieval date as well for this online source since the contents of the page change over time. End the reference entry with the specific URL for the defined word.

Discussion Board Post

Osborne, C. S. (2010, June 29). Re: Environmental responsibility [Discussion post]. Walden University Canvas.  https://waldenu.instructure.com  

Dissertations or Theses

Retrieved From a Database

Nalumango, K. (2019). Perceptions about the asylum-seeking process in the United States after 9/11 (Publication No. 13879844) [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Retrieved From an Institutional or Personal Website

Evener. J. (2018). Organizational learning in libraries at for-profit colleges and universities [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6606&context=dissertations

Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis

Kirwan, J. G. (2005). An experimental study of the effects of small-group, face-to-face facilitated dialogues on the development of self-actualization levels: A movement towards fully functional persons [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center.

For further examples and information, see APA 7, Section 10.6.

Legal Material

For legal references, APA follows the recommendations of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , so if you have any questions beyond the examples provided in APA, seek out that resource as well.

Court Decisions

Reference format:

Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Date). URL

Sample reference entry:

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483

Sample citation:

In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.

Note: Italicize the case name when it appears in the text of your paper.

Name of Act, Title Source § Section Number (Year). URL

Sample reference entry for a federal statute:

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). https://www.congress.gov/108/plaws/publ446/PLAW-108publ446.pdf

Sample reference entry for a state statute:

Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, Minn. Stat. §§ 148.171 et seq. (2019). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/148.171

Sample citation: Minnesota nurses must maintain current registration in order to practice (Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, 2010).

Note: The § symbol stands for "section." Use §§ for sections (plural). To find this symbol in Microsoft Word, go to "Insert" and click on Symbol." Look in the Latin 1-Supplement subset. Note: U.S.C. stands for "United States Code." Note: The Latin abbreviation " et seq. " means "and what follows" and is used when the act includes the cited section and ones that follow. Note: List the chapter first followed by the section or range of sections.

Unenacted Bills and Resolutions

(Those that did not pass and become law)

Title [if there is one], bill or resolution number, xxx Cong. (year). URL

Sample reference entry for Senate bill:

Anti-Phishing Act, S. 472, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/senate-bill/472

Sample reference entry for House of Representatives resolution:

Anti-Phishing Act, H.R. 1099, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/1099

The Anti-Phishing Act (2005) proposed up to 5 years prison time for people running Internet scams.

These are the three legal areas you may be most apt to cite in your scholarly work. For more examples and explanation, see APA 7, Chapter 11.

Magazine Article

Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology , 39 (6). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/06/ideology

Note that for citations, include only the year: Clay (2008). For magazine articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For magazine articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print magazine, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Newspaper Article (Retrieved Online)

Baker, A. (2014, May 7). Connecticut students show gains in national tests. New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/08/nyregion/national-assessment-of-educational-progress-results-in-Connecticut-and-New-Jersey.html

Include the full date in the format Year, Month Day. Do not include a retrieval date for periodical sources found on websites. Note that for citations, include only the year: Baker (2014). For newspaper articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For newspaper articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print newspaper, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

OASIS Resources

Oasis webpage.

OASIS. (n.d.). Common reference list examples . Walden University. https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/apa/references/examples

For all OASIS content, list OASIS as the author. Because OASIS webpages do not include publication dates, use “n.d.” for the year.

Interactive Guide

OASIS. (n.d.). Embrace iterative research and writing [Interactive guide]. Walden University. https://academics.waldenu.edu/oasis/iterative-research-writing-web

For OASIS multimedia resources, such as interactive guides, include a description of the resource in brackets after the title.

Online Video/Webcast

Walden University. (2013).  An overview of learning  [Video]. Walden University Canvas.  https://waldenu.instructure.com  

Use this format for online videos such as Walden videos in classrooms. Most of our classroom videos are produced by Walden University, which will be listed as the author in your reference and citation. Note: Some examples of audiovisual materials in the APA manual show the word “Producer” in parentheses after the producer/author area. In consultation with the editors of the APA manual, we have determined that parenthetical is not necessary for the videos in our courses. The manual itself is unclear on the matter, however, so either approach should be accepted. Note that the speaker in the video does not appear in the reference list entry, but you may want to mention that person in your text. For instance, if you are viewing a video where Tobias Ball is the speaker, you might write the following: Tobias Ball stated that APA guidelines ensure a consistent presentation of information in student papers (Walden University, 2013). For more information on citing the speaker in a video, see our page on Common Citation Errors .

Taylor, R. [taylorphd07]. (2014, February 27). Scales of measurement [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDsMUlexaMY

OASIS. (2020, April 15). One-way ANCOVA: Introduction [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/_XnNDQ5CNW8

For videos from streaming sites, use the person or organization who uploaded the video in the author space to ensure retrievability, whether or not that person is the speaker in the video. A username can be provided in square brackets. As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, include the publisher after the title, and do not use "Retrieved from" before the URL. See APA 7, Section 10.12 for more information and examples.

See also reference list entry formats for TED Talks .

Technical and Research Reports

Edwards, C. (2015). Lighting levels for isolated intersections: Leading to safety improvements (Report No. MnDOT 2015-05). Center for Transportation Studies. http://www.cts.umn.edu/Publications/ResearchReports/reportdetail.html?id=2402

Technical and research reports by governmental agencies and other research institutions usually follow a different publication process than scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. However, they present original research and are often useful for research papers. Sometimes, researchers refer to these types of reports as gray literature , and white papers are a type of this literature. See APA 7, Section 10.4 for more information.

Reference list entires for TED Talks follow the usual guidelines for multimedia content found online. There are two common places to find TED talks online, with slightly different reference list entry formats for each.

TED Talk on the TED website

If you find the TED Talk on the TED website, follow the format for an online video on an organizational website:

Owusu-Kesse, K. (2020, June). 5 needs that any COVID-19 response should meet [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/kwame_owusu_kesse_5_needs_that_any_covid_19_response_should_meet

The speaker is the author in the reference list entry if the video is posted on the TED website. For citations, use the speaker's surname.

TED Talk on YouTube

If you find the TED Talk on YouTube or another streaming video website, follow the usual format for streaming video sites:

TED. (2021, February 5). The shadow pandemic of domestic violence during COVID-19 | Kemi DaSilvalbru [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PGdID_ICFII

TED is the author in the reference list entry if the video is posted on YouTube since it is the channel on which the video is posted. For citations, use TED as the author.

Walden University Course Catalog

To include the Walden course catalog in your reference list, use this format:

Walden University. (2020). 2019-2020 Walden University catalog . https://catalog.waldenu.edu/index.php

If you cite from a specific portion of the catalog in your paper, indicate the appropriate section and paragraph number in your text:

...which reflects the commitment to social change expressed in Walden University's mission statement (Walden University, 2020, Vision, Mission, and Goals section, para. 2).

And in the reference list:

Walden University. (2020). Vision, mission, and goals. In 2019-2020 Walden University catalog. https://catalog.waldenu.edu/content.php?catoid=172&navoid=59420&hl=vision&returnto=search

Vartan, S. (2018, January 30). Why vacations matter for your health . CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/why-vacations-matter/index.html

For webpages on the open web, include the author, date, webpage title, organization/site name, and URL. (There is a slight variation for online versions of print newspapers or magazines. For those sources, follow the models in the previous sections of this page.)

American Federation of Teachers. (n.d.). Community schools . http://www.aft.org/issues/schoolreform/commschools/index.cfm

If there is no specified author, then use the organization’s name as the author. In such a case, there is no need to repeat the organization's name after the title.

In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list.

Related Resources

Knowledge Check: Common Reference List Examples

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Professional References: Who, Why, and How to make them work for you

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As you begin your job search, you may find yourself wondering about references, letters of recommendation, and how to most effectively use both throughout the process. Following are some tips to help you better understand the purpose of each and how to use them most effectively.

Letters of Recommendation

• Who : While your references can write letters of recommendation, it is not necessary for every reference to do this. Consider asking 2-3 professionals who have observed you in a teaching/educational role to write a letter of recommendation.
• Why : When submitting applications to various schools, you may have the opportunity to upload letters of recommendation as a portion of your application packet. While the letter won’t get you the job, it can provide an overview of the qualities and skills someone else has recognized in you which can only help you as applications are being reviewed.
• How : Be sure to provide the writer several weeks to write your letter, and provide the writer a copy of your most up-to-date resume and information about the types of positions you are specifically targeting so he/she can tailor the letter as much as possible. Ask your writer to sign the letter and put it on letterhead if possible, then convert the final copy to a pdf for submission to employers. When submitting your application materials, select the 1-2 letters most connected to the position for which you are applying and include them. Quality and relevance are more important than quantity.
• Who : Consider those who have seen you in action either teaching or in an educational setting. Those who have supervised you and witnessed your work ethic, creativity, dedication, interaction with students, and heart for teaching firsthand are especially good potential references. While it is important to have references who can speak to your teaching abilities, additional references can include faculty, supervisors, advisors, coaches, and more. Ultimately you will want 3-5 references with at least 2 connected with Education. Focus more on those who can say great things about your abilities in the classroom and less on their title. For example, it may sound impressive to have your principal as a reference, but if he/she can’t speak in depth about your abilities in the classroom, they won’t be a strong reference for you.
• Why : Employers like to have a conversation with someone who has worked closely with or supervised you in a previous role to gain additional insight as to your qualifications for the position and fit within the school. It is common for reference checks to occur toward the end of the selection process, after interviews have taken place. Sometimes a reference check will help an employer to decide between two excellent candidates, while other times the reference will help them confirm their choice to select you for the position.
• H ow : Always ask someone to be a reference before listing them on your reference sheet, and be sure to ask what contact information you should list for them. It is recommended that you list your reference’s name, title, employer, phone number, and email address on your reference sheet, and to list your references in the order in which you would hope that they be called - in other words, your strongest reference should be listed first. While anyone you ask to be a reference should decline if he/she cannot say glowing things about you, never list a questionable reference. If you are not confident that they will say great things, don’t list them. Be sure your references get a copy of your most updated resume as well so they will have a good grasp of all of your experience, accomplishments, and activities at their fingertips. Finally, keep your references updated on your job search progress, including the jobs for which you have interviewed and when you secure a position. Keeping these relationships strong throughout your job search and after will serve you well as you enter your first professional position!

Valarie Jacobsen

Assistant Director, Career Development

Xavier University

The opinions expressed in Career Corner are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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Basic advice on APA 7th ed.

If you need assistance with APA Style, please use the University Writing Center ( UWC Virtual ) if you are an undergraduate student. Graduate students can use the  UWC for Graduate Students .

• APA 7th ed. Quick Reference Guide Charts detail how to create a reference for a journal article, book, and a book chapter.
• Common Reference Examples Guide - APA This list offers examples of common types of references in APA Style, 7th edition.
• Reference Examples Over 100 reference list examples from the APA.
• APA 7th ed. Style and Grammar Guidelines The APA provides brief style and grammar guidelines for the 7th ed on the APA web site.
• APA Style Instructional Aids Includes tutorials, handouts, and sample papers.

APA Reference List Examples - Journal Articles - 7th ed.

"Include a DOI for all works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version."

Online or print article with DOI (direct object identifier) (add URL with the doi.org prefix) - Llyod, M. & MacDonald, M. (2011). Motor skills of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders.  Autism ,   17 (2),133–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311402230

Online article with no DOI found in a library database (don't add any URL)  -- Herrington, J. & Oliver, R. (1999). Using situated learning and multimedia to investigate higher-order thinking.  Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia , 8 (4), 401-422. 

Online article with no DOI on the web (not in a library database) (add a URL when it works for readers) -- Shea, G. (2019, Spring). Relationships: The key to student success in afterschool programs. Afterschool Matters, 29 .  https://www.niost.org/Afterschool-Matters-Spring-2019/relationships

Article in print form with no DOI -- Ensign, P. & Hebert, L. (2010). How reputation affects knowledge sharing among colleagues.  MIT Sloan Management Review ,   51 (2), 79-81.

• APA 7th Journal Article Reference Checklist You can use this checklist from the APA to be certain all elements of a journal citation are correct.

APA Author Format Tips (7th ed.)

Use last name and initials Smith, A. Kennedy, J. F.

Multiple authors (2-20)   Smith, A., & Kennedy, J. F.  (1960). Smith, A., Kennedy, J. F., & Doe, J. (1961).

Multiple authors (21+) "When there are 21 or more authors include the first 19 authors' names, insert an ellipses (but no ampersand), and then add the final author's name" (APA Manual 7th ed. p. 286)

Organization as Author American Management Association. (2009).

  No Author "move the title of the work to the author position (followed by a period), before the date of publication" (APA Manual 7th ed. p. 289): Brain research needs new ideas. (2011, July 18). Wall Street Journal , p. A12.

• OWL on Reference List Authors
• OWL on In-Text Citations: Author/Authors

APA Works Cited Examples - Books, eBooks, Reports, etc. - 7th ed.

Book - print book or Library ebook without a DOI Tough, P. (2012).  How children succeed: Grit, curiosity, and the hidden power of character . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

eBook with a DOI Williamson, R., & Blackburn, B. R. (2016) The principalship from a to z  (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315707792

Newspaper Article (in a library database) Young, J. R. (2012, September 3). With 'access codes,' textbook pricing gets more complicated than ever. The Chronicle of Higher Education . 

Newspaper Article (from the web) Behrmann, S. (2019, October 24). Education Secretary Betsy DeVos held in civil contempt for violating judge's order on student loan collection. USA Today . https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2019/10/24/betsy-devos-contempt-violating-order-student-loans/4091621002/

A Dissertation found in ProQuest database Sharp, M. A. (2002).  An analysis of pupil-teacher ratio and class size: Differences that make a difference  (Publication No. 3074013) [Doctoral dissertation, Eastern Michigan University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. 

A Dissertation found on the web (not in a database) ​ Tenjeras Clarke, D. (2007).  Exploration into the Head Start fade phenomenon  [Doctoral dissertation, Eastern Michigan University]. Digital Commons @ EMU. https://commons.emich.edu/theses/137/

Report by an organization or government agency, with authors listed on the report Fung, A., Brown, C. & Tromble, K. (2022). Comprehensive approaches to student success: community of practice research and equity agenda. Institute for College Access & Success. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED617816

These links offer advice for using APA Style and have enough information for most student papers.

• APA Style Reference Examples This page offers links to example references for common types of materials such as journal articles, magazine articles, books, chapters from edited books, dissertations, etc.
• APA 7th ed. Style and Grammar Guidelines
• APA Style 7th ed. @ Purdue OWL Information on the format, in-text citations and the reference page for 7th ed. APA research papers. There are also links to archived pages for APA 6th information.
• APA Style Blog 7th ed. Official blog with posts on common questions about 7th ed APA style.
• Citation Tools Tools for creating citations and managing references.
• Microsoft Word / Google Docs: APA Formatting Help Tips for formatting documents in APA style in Microsoft Word or Google Docs.
• APA Student Paper Setup Guide Guide from APA showing how to set up an APA Style student paper.

Finding Pre-formatted Citations in Library Databases

You can save a lot of time using the Cite feature in library databases. Be careful, however, as these are often not perfect--so you may need to make some edits.

Advanced Tools for Grad Students & Faculty

• Citation Management Software Tips for selecting software for organizing references.
• Zotero Citation Manager Useful Information for getting started with Zotero.
• Stable Links to Library Resources Create links to library resources that will not expire.
• Database Alerts Set up alerts to keep up-to-date with your research interests.
• Data Management A basic guide to managing research data.
• Perma.cc A service for creating a permanent URL to a web resource.
• WayBack Machine - Internet Archive You can ask this site to "capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future." Click WEB the use the Save Page Now feature.
• OneTab Use this free web extension to help you save and organize websites that are open in your browser. "Whenever you find yourself with too many tabs, click the OneTab icon to convert all of your tabs into a list. When you need to access the tabs again, you can either restore them individually or all at once."
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Which style do I use?

Use the style that your professor specifies.

If your professor lets you choose the style and you are an Education student, you may want to choose APA Style, as you are likely to be asked to use APA again in Education classes.

University Writing Center

• UWC for Undergraduates This page explains how undergraduate students can get in-person or virtual writing help.
• UWC for Graduate Students

When using ERIC or PsycINFO  via ProQuest, look on the Abstract/Details page for "Cite  -- this can provide you with an APA citation. Be careful, however, as these aren't always perfect. You may have to make corrections to the citation . Common corrections might include:

• Fixing author names (first and last names sometimes get switched)
• Fixing capitalization in the article title. Are proper nouns capitalized?
• Masters theses might be misidentified as dissertations in citations
• The DOI link might include EMU proxy info that you may need to remove.  Don't use this type of link when you are writing for an audience outside of EMU. Ask your instructor before using this type of link in your assignments.

What is a doi ?

DOI stands for Digital Object Identifier. DOIs are used to identify electronic articles and function much like the ISBNs that you are used to for textbooks.

Unlike a web address, the DOI for an article never changes. APA Style recommends that you include a DOI when available.

Where do I find a DOI? The DOI is often printed on the first page of journal articles--sometimes at the top of the page and sometimes at the bottom. You will recognize it, because it usually is preceded by doi: and the number always starts with 10.

Some articles will not have a DOI, especially non-scholarly articles or older articles.

• Free DOI Look Up Enter citation info to find the DOI for an electronic article, eBook, etc.

Template for an APA style paper

• Heading Levels Template: Professional Paper (PDF, 179KB) This template is provided by the APA for papers done in 7th ed. APA.
• Heading Levels Template: Student Paper (PDF, 198KB) This template is provided by the APA for student papers done in 7th ed. APA.
• Microsoft Word Template for APA Style Paper You can download a free template to help you format a paper in APA Style. This will provide formats for your title page, margins, abstracts, headings, etc. Within Word you can also use the REFERENCES menu to help format citations.
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What are Reference Materials?

 Reference materials are things like encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, almanacs, and guides. They are typically books or e-books that are not meant to be read cover-to-cover, but rather, are consulted to gather specific pieces of information or to find quick facts.

The ERC Reference Collection contains numerous research handbooks in many content areas (English and language arts, reading, social studies, math and science, special education, and educational administration).

We also have specialized resources such as Tests in Print and Mental Measurements Yearbook , as well as a varied collection of reference sources related to children's literature, and much more.

About Research Handbooks, Encyclopedias, and Dictionaries

Subject-specific encyclopedias and research handbooks provide an excellent way for you to gather background information for your research paper or project.  Encyclopedias tend to provide broad (less detailed) information on more general topics, while handbooks provide greater depth on narrower topics.  Encyclopedias and handbooks help you to:

• learn about a topic that is new to you,
• focus in on a topic for your paper or project,
• find additional sources on a topic (via included bibliographies and references)
• come up with search terms to use when looking for journal articles and books 

Although dictionaries generally provide brief definitions of terms, some may provide lengthier definitions or explanations of concepts that can help you to better understand a topic.

Print Reference Sources in the ERC

Find encyclopedias and handbooks in the ERC Reference collection (print collection) by using the search box below (the search will be limited to the ERC Reference collection).

You can do title or keyword searches on the following words and phrases, among others:

• encyclopedia
• educational research
• mathematics
• language arts

Search the ERC Reference Collection:

ERC Reference Keyword Title Author Subject

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Online Education & Psychology Reference Sources

The following sources are part of Maxwell Library's subscriptions to Credo Reference and Gale Virtual Reference Library .

[ Complete List of Credo Reference Titles ] [ Complete List of Gale eBooks (formerly Gale Virtual Reference Library Titles) ]

• Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science
• Identifying and Educating Poor and Under-represented Gifted Students from International Handbook of Giftedness and Talent

General Encyclopedias Online

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Created by the Great Schools Partnership , the GLOSSARY OF EDUCATION REFORM is a comprehensive online resource that describes widely used school-improvement terms, concepts, and strategies for journalists, parents, and community members. | Learn more »

Standards-Referenced

In education, the term standards-referenced refers to instructional approaches or assessments that are “referenced” to or derived from established learning standards —i.e., concise, written descriptions of what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. In other words, standards-referenced refers to the use of learning standards to guide what gets taught and tested in schools.

The term standards-referenced is predominately used in two ways by educators:

• Standards-referenced tests , and other forms of standards-referenced assessment, are designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of predetermined learning standards. In elementary and secondary education, standards-referenced tests evaluate whether students have learned a specific body of knowledge or acquired a specific skill set described in a given set of standards. The term standards-referenced test and criterion-referenced test are synonymous when the “criteria” being used are learning standards. The terms standard-referenced assessment and criterion-referenced assessment are similarly synonymous. (In education, assessment refers to the wide variety of methods that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, and skill acquisition of students, which includes tests and other methods of evaluation, such as graded assignments, demonstrations of learning , or formative assessments , for example.) For a more detailed discussion of standards-referenced testing, see criterion-referenced test .
• A standards-referenced curriculum is a course of study that is guided by learning standards. In other words, the academic knowledge and skills taught in a school, or in a specific course or program, are based on learning standards, typically the learning standards developed and adopted by states. The standards determine the goals of a lesson or course, and teachers then determine how and what to teach students so they achieve the expected learning goals described in the standards. Depending on how broadly educators define or use the term, standards-referenced curriculum may refer to the knowledge, skills, topics, and concepts that are taught to students and/or to the lessons, units, assignments, readings, and materials used by teachers. For related discussions, see alignment , curriculum , coherent curriculum , learning objectives , and learning progression .

Standards-Referenced vs. Standards-Based

The distinction between  standard-based  and  standards-referenced  is often a source of confusion among educators and the public—in part because the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but also because the distinction between the two is both subtle and nuanced. In brief,  standards-referenced  means that what gets taught or tested is “based” on standards (i.e., standards are the source of the content and skills taught to students—the original “reference” for the lesson), while  standards-based  refers to the practice of making sure students learn what they were taught and actually achieve the expected standards, and that they meet a defined standard for “proficiency.” In a standards-referenced system, teaching and testing are guided by standards; in a standards-based system, teachers work to ensure that students actually learn the expected material as they progress in their education.

Another way of looking at it is that standards-referenced refers to  inputs  (what is taught) and standards-based is focused on  outputs  (what is learned).

While a particular course may be standards-referenced, for example, it doesn’t necessarily mean that it is standards-based in the sense that the term is predominately used by educators. However, all standards-based curricula, instruction, and tests are—by necessity—standards-referenced. For example, all fifty states in the United States have developed and adopted learning standards that schools and teachers are expected to follow when they create academic programs, courses, and other  learning experiences  (before the 1980s and 1990s, states did not have learning standards). In theory, these educational policies suggest that all American public schools either are or should be teaching a standards-referenced curriculum. Yet comparatively few public schools are authentically standards-based in the sense that students are required to demonstrate achievement of expected standards, and meet defined proficiency expectations, as they progress through their education. For a more detailed discussion, see  proficiency-based learning .

The following examples will help to illustrate the distinction between  standards-based  and  standards-referenced :

• Assessment:  Say a teacher designs a standards-referenced test for a history course. While the content of the test may be entirely standards-referenced—i.e., it is  aligned  with the expectations described in learning standards—a score of 75 may be considered a passing score, suggesting that 25 percent of the taught material was not actually learned by the students who scored a 75. In addition, the teacher may not know what specific standards students have or have not met if only the scores tests and assignments are summed and averaged. For example, a student may be able to earn a “passing” grade in a ninth-grade English course, but still be unable to “demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing and speaking” or “demonstrate understanding of figurative language, word relationships, and nuances in word meanings”—two ninth-grade standards taken from the Common Core State Standards. If the teacher uses a standards-based approach to assessment, however, students would only “pass” a test or course after demonstrating that they have learned the knowledge and skills described in the expected standards. The students may need to retake a test several times or redo an assignment, or they may need additional help from the teacher or other educational specialist, but the students would need to demonstrate that they learned what they were expected to learn—i.e., the specific knowledge and skills described in standards.
• Curriculum:  In most high schools, students typically earn credit for passing a course, but a passing grade may be an A or it may be a D, suggesting that the awarded credit is based on a spectrum of learning expectations—with some students learning more and others learning less—rather than on the same learning standards being applied to all students equally. And because grades may be calculated differently from school to school or teacher to teacher, and they may be based on widely divergent different learning expectations (for example, some courses may be “harder” and others “easier”), students may pass their courses, earn the required number of credits, and receive a diploma without acquiring the most essential knowledge and skills described in standards. In these cases, the curricula taught in these schools may be standards-referenced, but not standards-based, because teachers are not evaluating whether students have achieved specific standards. In standards-based schools, courses, and programs, however, educators will use a variety of instructional and assessment methods to determine whether students have met the expected standards, including strategies such as  demonstrations of learning ,  personal learning plans ,  portfolios ,  rubrics , and  capstone projects , to name just a few.
• Grading:  In a standards-referenced course, grading may look like it traditionally has in schools: students are given numerical scores on a 1–100 scale and class grades represent an average of all scores earned over the course of a semester or year. In a standards-based course, however, “grades” often look quite different. While standards-based grading and reporting may take a wide variety of forms from school to school, grades are typically connected to descriptive standards, not based on test and assignment scores that are averaged together. For example, students may receive a report that shows how they progressing toward meeting a selection of standards. The criteria used to determine what “meeting a standard” means will defined in advance, often in a rubric, and teachers will evaluate learning progress and academic achievement in relation to the criteria. The reports students receive might use a 1–4 scale, for example, with 3s and 4s indicating that students have met the standard. In standards-based schools, grades for behaviors and work habits—e.g., getting to class on time, following rules, treating other students respectfully, turning in work on time, participating in class, putting effort into assignments—are also reported separately from academic grades, so that teachers and parents can make distinctions between learning achievement and behavioral issues.

Alphabetical Search

Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century (2012)

Chapter: references.

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Almlund, M., Duckworth, A., Heckman, J., and Kautz, T. (2011). Personality psychology and economics. In E.A. Hanushek, S. Machin, and L. Wossmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (pp. 1-181) . Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Altonji, J. G., Blom, E., and Maghir, C. (2012). Heterogeneity in human capital investments: High school curriculum, college major, and careers. NBER Working Paper No. 17985. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Available: http://www.nber.org/papers/w17985 [June 2012].

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Autor, D., Levy, F., and Murnane, R. (2003). The skill content of recent technological change: An empirical exploration. Quarterly Journal of Economics , 118 (4), 1,279-1,333.

Autor, D.H., Katz, L.F., and Kearney, M.S. (2008). Trends in U.S. wage inequality: Revisiting the revisionists. Review of Economics and Statistics, 90 (2), 300-323.

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Americans have long recognized that investments in public education contribute to the common good, enhancing national prosperity and supporting stable families, neighborhoods, and communities. Education is even more critical today, in the face of economic, environmental, and social challenges. Today's children can meet future challenges if their schooling and informal learning activities prepare them for adult roles as citizens, employees, managers, parents, volunteers, and entrepreneurs. To achieve their full potential as adults, young people need to develop a range of skills and knowledge that facilitate mastery and application of English, mathematics, and other school subjects. At the same time, business and political leaders are increasingly asking schools to develop skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and self-management - often referred to as "21st century skills."

Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century describes this important set of key skills that increase deeper learning, college and career readiness, student-centered learning, and higher order thinking. These labels include both cognitive and non-cognitive skills- such as critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, effective communication, motivation, persistence, and learning to learn. 21st century skills also include creativity, innovation, and ethics that are important to later success and may be developed in formal or informal learning environments.

This report also describes how these skills relate to each other and to more traditional academic skills and content in the key disciplines of reading, mathematics, and science. Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century summarizes the findings of the research that investigates the importance of such skills to success in education, work, and other areas of adult responsibility and that demonstrates the importance of developing these skills in K-16 education. In this report, features related to learning these skills are identified, which include teacher professional development, curriculum, assessment, after-school and out-of-school programs, and informal learning centers such as exhibits and museums.

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Prehistoric and primitive cultures

• Mesopotamia
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• Education changes during World War II
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• Pre-independence period
• The postindependence period in India
• The postindependence period in Pakistan
• The postindependence period in Bangladesh
• The postindependence period in Sri Lanka
• South Africa
• General influences and policies of the colonial powers
• Education in Portuguese colonies and former colonies
• German educational policy in Africa
• Education in British colonies and former colonies
• Education in French colonies and former colonies
• Education in Belgian colonies and former colonies
• Problems and tasks of African education in the late 20th century
• Colonialism and its consequences
• The second half of the 20th century
• The Islamic revival
• Migration and the brain drain
• The heritage of independence
• Administration
• Primary education and literacy
• Reform trends
• Malaysia and Singapore
• Philippines
• Education and social cohesion
• Education and social conflict
• Education and personal growth
• Education and civil society
• Education and economic development
• Primary-level school enrollments
• Secondary-level school enrollments
• Tertiary-level school enrollments
• Other developments in formal education
• Literacy as a measure of success
• Access to education
• Implications for socioeconomic status
• Social consequences of education in developing countries
• The role of the state
• Social and family interaction
• Alternative forms of education

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What does education mean?

Education refers to the discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments, as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization .

Beginning approximately at the end of the 7th or during the 6th century, Athens became the first city-state in ancient Greece to renounce education that was oriented toward the future duties of soldiers. The evolution of Athenian education reflected that of the city itself, which was moving toward increasing democratization.

Research has found that education is the strongest determinant of individuals’ occupational status and chances of success in adult life. However, the correlation between family socioeconomic status and school success or failure appears to have increased worldwide. Long-term trends suggest that as societies industrialize and modernize, social class becomes increasingly important in determining educational outcomes and occupational attainment.

While education is not compulsory in practice everywhere in the world, the right of individuals to an educational program that respects their personality, talents, abilities, and cultural heritage has been upheld in various international agreements, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948; the Declaration of the Rights of the Child of 1959; and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966.

Alternative forms of education have developed since the late 20th century, such as distance learning , homeschooling , and many parallel or supplementary systems of education often designated as “nonformal” and “popular.” Religious institutions also instruct the young and old alike in sacred knowledge as well as in the values and skills required for participation in local, national, and transnational societies.

School vouchers have been a hotly debated topic in the United States. Some parents of voucher recipients reported high levels of satisfaction, and studies have found increased voucher student graduation rates. Some studies have found, however, that students using vouchers to attend private schools instead of public ones did not show significantly higher levels of academic achievement. Learn more at ProCon.org.

Should corporal punishment be used in elementary education settings?

Whether corporal punishment should be used in elementary education settings is widely debated. Some say it is the appropriate discipline for certain children when used in moderation because it sets clear boundaries and motivates children to behave in school. Others say can inflict long-lasting physical and mental harm on students while creating an unsafe and violent school environment. For more on the corporal punishment debate, visit ProCon.org .

Should dress codes be implemented and enforced in education settings?

Whether dress codes should be implemented and enforced in education settings is hotly debated. Some argue dress codes enforce decorum and a serious, professional atmosphere conducive to success, as well as promote safety. Others argue dress codes reinforce racist standards of beauty and dress and are are seldom uniformly mandated, often discriminating against women and marginalized groups. For more on the dress code debate, visit ProCon.org .

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education , discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization (e.g., rural development projects and education through parent-child relationships).

(Read Arne Duncan’s Britannica essay on “Education: The Great Equalizer.”)

Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists term socialization or enculturation. Children—whether conceived among New Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance Florentines, or the middle classes of Manhattan—are born without culture . Education is designed to guide them in learning a culture , molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood , and directing them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures , there is often little formal learning—little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes or teachers . Instead, the entire environment and all activities are frequently viewed as school and classes, and many or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed on from one generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know, and, hence, there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The outcome is formal education—the school and the specialist called the teacher.

As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily life, less a matter of showing and learning in the context of the workaday world, and more abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling, and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and imitating. As society gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger generation. In short, there develop philosophies and theories of education.

This article discusses the history of education, tracing the evolution of the formal teaching of knowledge and skills from prehistoric and ancient times to the present, and considering the various philosophies that have inspired the resulting systems. Other aspects of education are treated in a number of articles. For a treatment of education as a discipline, including educational organization, teaching methods, and the functions and training of teachers, see teaching ; pedagogy ; and teacher education . For a description of education in various specialized fields, see historiography ; legal education ; medical education ; science, history of . For an analysis of educational philosophy , see education, philosophy of . For an examination of some of the more important aids in education and the dissemination of knowledge, see dictionary ; encyclopaedia ; library ; museum ; printing ; publishing, history of . Some restrictions on educational freedom are discussed in censorship . For an analysis of pupil attributes, see intelligence, human ; learning theory ; psychological testing .

Education in primitive and early civilized cultures

The term education can be applied to primitive cultures only in the sense of enculturation , which is the process of cultural transmission. A primitive person, whose culture is the totality of his universe, has a relatively fixed sense of cultural continuity and timelessness. The model of life is relatively static and absolute, and it is transmitted from one generation to another with little deviation. As for prehistoric education, it can only be inferred from educational practices in surviving primitive cultures.

The purpose of primitive education is thus to guide children to becoming good members of their tribe or band. There is a marked emphasis upon training for citizenship , because primitive people are highly concerned with the growth of individuals as tribal members and the thorough comprehension of their way of life during passage from prepuberty to postpuberty.

Because of the variety in the countless thousands of primitive cultures, it is difficult to describe any standard and uniform characteristics of prepuberty education. Nevertheless, certain things are practiced commonly within cultures. Children actually participate in the social processes of adult activities, and their participatory learning is based upon what the American anthropologist Margaret Mead called empathy , identification, and imitation . Primitive children, before reaching puberty, learn by doing and observing basic technical practices. Their teachers are not strangers but rather their immediate community .

In contrast to the spontaneous and rather unregulated imitations in prepuberty education, postpuberty education in some cultures is strictly standardized and regulated. The teaching personnel may consist of fully initiated men, often unknown to the initiate though they are his relatives in other clans. The initiation may begin with the initiate being abruptly separated from his familial group and sent to a secluded camp where he joins other initiates. The purpose of this separation is to deflect the initiate’s deep attachment away from his family and to establish his emotional and social anchorage in the wider web of his culture.

The initiation “curriculum” does not usually include practical subjects. Instead, it consists of a whole set of cultural values, tribal religion, myths , philosophy, history, rituals, and other knowledge. Primitive people in some cultures regard the body of knowledge constituting the initiation curriculum as most essential to their tribal membership. Within this essential curriculum, religious instruction takes the most prominent place.

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A Dictionary of Education (1 ed.)  

Edited by: susan wallace.

Education is of relevance to everyone but it involves a specialised vocabulary and terminology which may be opaque or unfamiliar to those new to the field. The new UK-focused Dictionary of Education provides clear and concise definitions for 1,250 terms, from A* to zero tolerance , that anyone studying education or working in the field is likely to encounter. Coverage includes all sectors of education: pre-school, primary, secondary, further and higher education, special needs, adult and continuing education, and work-based learning. It also includes major legislation, key figures andorganisations, and national curriculum and assessment terminology.

The dictionary features entry-level weblinks, a timeline summary of landmark educational legislation since 1945 and a glossary of acronyms. In addition, there is a useful, fully cross-referenced section of comparative terms used in the US, Canada, Australia, and South Africa. This up-to-date and authoritative dictionary is essential for all students of education, teachers, and lecturers ondevelopment programmes, and it is strongly recommended for governors, classroom assistants, and parents.

Bibliographic Information

Affiliations are at time of print publication..

Susan Wallace is a Reader in Education at Nottingham Trent University. She is the author of a number of books on further education, including Managing Behaviour in the Lifelong Learning Sector (2007), Teaching, Tutoring and Training in the Lifelong Learning Sector (2007), and Getting the Buggers Motivated in FE (2007).

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Learning and Educational Pathway to Higher Education

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Learning career ; Learning trajectory

Pathways in higher education encompass all the educational events and experiences of an individual – both in formal training and throughout the course of life – that can either support or inhibit access to higher education.

Researchers who study pathways in higher education tend to share a scientific interest in social and educational inequality (before, during, when leaving, and following higher education) and the irreversibility of some school choices that lead to path dependency in some education systems or diversification of training pathways (e.g., bifurcations or temporary interruption of studies) in others, including Anglo-American systems. These issues prompt the consideration of a number of questions: Which demographic groups are overrepresented or underrepresented in higher education? In which programs of study do they enroll? What are the outcomes in terms of academic achievement and employability? Which groups are...

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Picard, F. (2020). Learning and Educational Pathway to Higher Education. In: Teixeira, P.N., Shin, J.C. (eds) The International Encyclopedia of Higher Education Systems and Institutions. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8905-9_307

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