research topic dictionary meaning

How to Identify and Develop a Topic: .

How to identify and develop a topic.

It is difficult to define a topic with much specificity before starting your research. But until you define your topic, you won't know where to begin your search for information and you won't know what to look for. With a well-defined topic, you can focus your search strategies to find lots of relevant information without also finding a lot of useless stuff.

Selecting a topic to research is not a one-step task. Identifying and developing your topic is an ongoing process that does not end until you have finished your research project. Start with an idea you are interested in. Find and read some background information to get a better understanding of the topic, then use what you have learned to search for more specific information. Refine (broaden, narrow, refocus, or change) your topic, and try another search.

Find a Topic

If you weren't assigned a specific topic and can't think of one:

talk with your class instructor (who is, after all, the reason you are doing this project in the first place)
find something interesting in the course reading assignments
look at the entries and index of a subject encyclopedia
ask a librarian to help you figure out a topic

Narrow Your Topic

The initial idea for a research topic is often too broad. If your first searches for resources are so general that you find more information than you can click a mouse at or deal with in a reasonable amount of time (i.e. before the research project is due), focus on one of the following:

a specific period of time
a specific geographic location
specific individuals or groups
a specific aspect of the subject
the viewpoint of a specific discipline

Make it a Question

It is often helpful to state your topic in the form of a question. Treat the research project as an attempt to find a specific answer for a specific question.

List Main Concepts

Pull out ideas and key terms that describe your topic. You can get a better idea of these by looking up your topic in an encyclopedia or other appropriate reference work. This will give you a better understanding of your topic, which will help you figure out what sources you will need and where you will need to look to find them.

Analyze Your Topic

Where should you look for information? From what subject or discipline perspective are you looking at this topic? Do you need scholarly or popular sources? Will you need books, articles, sound recordings, primary sources, etc.?

Select Appropriate Tools

Which tools do you need to find the type of information you want, (e.g. the library catalog for books, subject specific indexes for journal articles, etc.) See the library's guide to How to Find and Evaluate Sources for more.

Initial Results

After you do an initial search, you can tell some things just from the number and type of sources you find. If you get a million or so hits, you probably need to narrow your topic. If you get only a few, broaden it. If the hits seem to be irrelevant to your topic, search using different terms. Do another search and see if you get what seems to be an appropriate amount of appropriate sources. Keep refining your search until you are satisfied with your results. Then go read them.

After reading through some of the sources you find, you will get a better understanding of the topic you are researching. With this better understanding, you can revise your initial topic and its corresponding question for which you are so diligently seeking an answer. You can also refine your search strategy: the databases you search in, the keywords or subject terms you search for, etc. Go back and try another search using your revisions. Repeat as necessary until you have done enough research to know what to ask and how to answer it.

Last Updated: Oct 20, 2020 8:13 PM
URL: https://libguides.wesleyan.edu/topic

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Finding a Supervisor
Purposes of the graduate degree
Starting out
Integrity and ethical practice in conduct of research
Developing a conception of research

Defining the research topic

Improving reading and writing skills
Developing Transferable Skills
Presenting at seminars and conferences
Publishing during graduate studies
Comprehensive exams
Dissertation and thesis exams
Practical advice
Ideas for reflection

Conceptualizing your research topic

Conceptualizing a research topic entails formulating a “defensible and researchable” research question . Conducting a literature search as one of the first steps in a graduate degree is often quite helpful as published peer-reviewed research articles are key to identify knowledge gaps in current literature. Thus, students can design and phrase their research projects to aim to address these research gaps.

Elements of a good research topic

Interesting: topic represents an area of deep interest for the researcher
Original : for PhD students, the topic can produce an original contribution to knowledge
Manageable: research question could be answered within the degree’s recommended time frame (see time limitation ).

At McGill, PhD students are usually expected to have a sufficiently defined research topic by the time of the comprehensive exam .

Seminar presentations can help with topic definition and project planning

Many experienced supervisors and successful PhD students suggest that preparing a research proposal for presentation at a seminar within six months of commencement helps with focusing on the topic. Here are some suggested questions:

What is it that you want to find answers for?
Why is it important that this be researched?
What impact will this research have?
How will you go about researching this?

Read critically to identify gaps in the field and understand different research methods

Critical reading involves developing an understanding of the knowledge and gaps in the field and being able to critique different research methods, methodologies and epistemologies.

Try concept mapping to visualize and organize links between ideas

Concept mapping: a practical strategy for students and researchers starting a project. It helps to identify areas of importance as well as possibilities for the exploration and analysis of such areas.

Concept maps are helpful as a means of focusing discussion on the topic or research question because they offer a visual approach to creating relationships among concepts . More information about concept mapping can be found at the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition's page on Constructing your first concept map .

A concept map showing the main components of a concept map , from Novak & Canas (2008) .

If the student makes a concept map, this can form the basis of different discussions between the student and supervisor.

How important is motivation for topic selection?

Most graduate students have a general idea about what they would like to research. Depending on supervisors and disciplines, a student may be "given" a specific research topic or a list of topics to choose from or be asked to generate a topic based on her or his prior knowledge and experience. In either situation, it is a good idea to talk with others – supervisors, students, colleagues, peers, even friends and family – about possible choices, since a research topic is something most students will commit to for the rest of their degree.

Point to reflect on

What questions, topics or methodologies are you passionate about? Why are you passionate about them (e.g., personal interest or curiosity, potential applications to help others or the environment)?
Is it possible to answer your desired question within the time frame of a graduate degree? If not, is it possible to choose a portion of this topic to investigate during your graduate studies?
Do you get more motivated from knowing exactly what you’re going to do, or from the excitement of unexpected discoveries or research trajectories? How can you select a topic and plan your project to better suit your sources of motivation See Staying motivated for additional resources

Steps to refine the research focus

Identify the boundaries of the research areas and the gaps in the field .
Make a list of possible research ideas within a topic.
Discuss these ideas with others (e.g., peers, colleagues, professors, mentors). This can provide opportunities for receiving advice based on past experiences, additional ideas, or opportunities for collaboration.
Reduce the list to two ideas : a first choice and a backup. Having a backup is useful in the event that the first choice is found to be inappropriate for the time restriction, require unattainable resources, or be otherwise not feasible.
Brainstorm as many ideas, questions, possible problems, and any other thoughts relevant to the first choice.
Narrow down these ideas into a more precise focus by considering feasibility (e.g., time, requires resources), interest, and significance. The resulting idea should complete the sentence “The purpose of this project is…”
Refer back to the brainstorming and remove anything not relevant to the purpose statement. Add any new relevant ideas. Use these ideas as well as the purpose statement to create a list of researchable questions . Be sure to define key terms and consider required resources, including the characteristics of the participants if applicable.
Create a project outline. Consider what information or data will be needed and how it can be obtained.

Adapted from Wisker (2005, p. 83) and Bell & Waters (2014)

Bell, J., & Waters, S. (2014). Doing your research project: A guide for first-time researchers . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. Institute for Human and Machine Cognition . Retrieved from http://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/theory-of-concept-maps

Wisker, G. (2005). The good supervisor: Supervising postgraduate and undergraduate research for doctoral theses and dissertations . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International License . Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, McGill University .

Department and University Information

Graduate and postdoctoral studies.

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Research Process

Brainstorming
Explore Google This link opens in a new window
Explore Web Resources
Explore Background Information
Explore Books
Explore Scholarly Articles
Narrowing a Topic
Primary and Secondary Resources
Academic, Popular & Trade Publications
Scholarly and Peer-Reviewed Journals
Grey Literature
Clinical Trials
Evidence Based Treatment
Scholarly Research
Database Research Log
Search Limits
Keyword Searching
Boolean Operators
Phrase Searching
Truncation & Wildcard Symbols
Proximity Searching
Field Codes
Subject Terms and Database Thesauri
Reading a Scientific Article
Website Evaluation
Article Keywords and Subject Terms
Cited References
Citing Articles
Related Results
Search Within Publication
Database Alerts & RSS Feeds
Personal Database Accounts
Persistent URLs
Literature Gap and Future Research
Web of Knowledge
Annual Reviews
Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses
Finding Seminal Works
Exhausting the Literature
Finding Dissertations
Researching Theoretical Frameworks
Research Methodology & Design
Tests and Measurements
Organizing Research & Citations This link opens in a new window
Picking Where to Publish
Bibliometrics
Learn the Library This link opens in a new window

Finding a Research Topic

Which step of the research process takes the most time?

A. Finding a topic B. Researching a topic C. Both

How did you answer the above question? Do you spend most of your efforts actually researching a topic, or do you spend a lot of time and energy finding a topic? Ideally, you’ll want to spend fairly equal amounts of effort on both. Finding an appropriate and manageable topic can sometimes be just as hard as researching a topic.

A good research topic will have a body of related research which is accessible and manageable. Identifying a topic with these characteristics at the beginning of the research process will ultimately save you time.

Finding a research topic that is interesting, relevant, feasible, and worthy of your time may take substantial effort so you should be prepared to invest your time accordingly. Considering your options, doing some background work on each option, and ultimately settling on a topic that is manageable will spare you many of the frustrations that come from attempting research on a topic that, for whatever reason, may not be appropriate.

Remember that as you are searching for a research topic you will need to be able to find enough information about your topic(s) in a book or scholarly journal. If you can only find information about your topic(s) in current event sources (newspapers, magazines, etc.) then the topic might be too new to have a large body of published scholarly information. If this is the case, you may want to reconsider the topic(s).

So how do you find a research topic? Unfortunately there’s no directory of topics that you pick and choose from, but there are a few relatively easy techniques that you can use to find a relevant and manageable topic. A good starting point may be to view the Library's Resources for Finding a Research Topic Workshop below.

The sub-pages in this section (on the left-hand menu) offer various tips for where and how to locate resources to develop your research topic. And for additional information on selecting a research topic, see the resources below.

Defining a Topic - SAGE Research Methods
Develop My Research Idea - Academic Writer Note: You MUST create an Academic Writer account AND start a paper in order to access this tool. Once you have done so, open a paper and click Research Lab Book in the left navigation menu.
The Process for Developing Questions - ASC Guide

Finding & Staying Current on a Research Topic Webinar

This webinar will introduce you to resources which can be used to locate potential topics for a research paper or dissertation, including websites, reference books, and scholarly articles.

Was this resource helpful?

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URL: https://resources.nu.edu/researchprocess

How to Research

Define a topic.

Library Resources
Web Resources
Evaluate for Quality
Research Tips & Search Strategies
Academic Integrity
Citation Styles
Annotated Bibliography

Understand assignment requirements .
Select a topic for their research paper.
Formulate a research question.
Narrow or broaden a research question.
Determine keywords and brainstorm search terms .

If you are unsure about what is expected about your assignment, consult with your instructor.

Step 1: Understand Your Assignment

Understand your assignment.

Before setting out to complete an assignment, get to know what is required. Parts of the assignment description students should look for include:

Due date. Plan out an adequate amount of time to learn about your assignment, conduct research, create citations, and write.
Length. The length of an assignment will give you an idea of how much research you will need to do.
Citation Style. It will give you an idea of how to format your assignment (e.g., single-spaced, double-spaced, font, etc.) and create references (e.g., APA Style). If this information is not present in your assignment description, check your course outline.
Sources. This includes the number of sources and types of sources you will need to complete the assignment sufficiently (e.g., scholarly sources).

Assignment descriptions also provide useful context or background information that will help you with identifying a topic.

Source: Niagara College Libraries + Learning Commons Information Skills Online Handbook

Step 2: Select a Research Topic

a) Topic Selection
b) Background Research
c) Research Question
d) Assess Your Topic

Select a Topic

Carefully read over your assignment description.

Have you been provided with options for topics or do you need to come up with your own topic?
Is there something that is happening in the news that interests you?
Is there something you have learned about in your studies that you would like to explore further?
If you have any questions, ask your professor for clarification.

When selecting your topic, ask yourself these questions:

WHY did you choose the topic? What interests you about it? Do you have an opinion about the issues involved?
WHO are the information providers on this topic? Who might publish information about it? Who is affected by the topic? Do you know of organizations or institutions affiliated with the topic?
WHAT are the major questions for this topic? Is there a debate about the topic? Are there a range of issues and viewpoints to consider?
WHERE is your topic important: at the local, national, or international level? Are there specific places affected by the topic?
WHEN is/was your topic important? Is it a current event or an historical issue? Do you want to compare your topic by time periods?

Content reproduced from MIT.edu under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License

Background Research

Start researching your topic.

This process helps give you some background information about your topic prior to formulating your research question.

Review your lecture notes and/or course readings for background information.
You can use Wikipedia for your preliminary research - it often provides a concise overview of the topic with helpful links to open access (freely accessible) journal articles and resources. Do not cite Wikipedia articles in your final paper; however, sources cited on Wikipedia pages are free game (use our evaluation criteria before you cite!).
Library subscribed databases .
A reputable encyclopedia: Encyclopedia Britannica or Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia .
A major article on the topic.
Library research guides .
Books (and eBooks) on the subject.

Develop a Research Question

Once a topic has been selected and you have performed some background research, you can start developing a research question.

Why Create a Research Question?

Research questions "help writers focus their research by providing a path through the research and writing process. The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the 'all-about' paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis" (The Writing Center) .

Creating a Research Question

A good research question will require you to analyze an issue or problem. Developing a research question that asks about how or why tends to be more useful than a research question that asks what or describe questions (Monash University) .

You have already asked yourself the 5Ws in step a (Why, Who, What, Where, and When), next ask yourself:

Is my research question clear and focused? Does your research question clearly state what you intend to research?
Is my research question complex? Your question should not be able to be answered with a 'yes' or a 'no', but it also should not be too difficult to answer.
Is my research question researchable? Are there enough resources available to answer your research question?

Sample Research Questions


"Why are social networking sites harmful?	"What is the effect on the environment from global warming?"	"How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?"
"How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on social networking sites like Facebook?"	"How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?"	"What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in the prevention of the disease?"

Sample Research Questions from Indiana University Library

Assess Your Topic

Narrow your topic.

If your topic is too broad, there will be too many resources for you to sift through.
Limit your topic to a particular approach to the issue.
Consider only one piece, or sub-area, of the subject.
Limit the time span you examine.
Limit by age, sex, race, occupation, species, or ethnic group.
Limit by geographical location.

Content reproduced/adapted from MIT.edu under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License

Broaden Your Topic

Broadening the scope of your topic by generalizing what you are looking for.
Adjusting your topic to something that has been extensively written about if your topic is very new.
Broadening the scope of language used in search terms. A great way to accomplish this is to include commonly used words (keywords) from your background research. Also, consider using a thesaurus to find synonyms to represent your topic.

Content reproduced/adapted from under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License

Step 3: Create Keywords, Search Terms, & Thesis

a) Determine Keywords
b) Brainstorming Search Terms
c) Searching
d) Reassess Research Question

Determining Keywords

It will be easier to find information if you define your topic and identify the key concepts.

Step A) Take a look at your research question and ask yourself, what are the main concepts? These main concepts will become your keywords.

The research question:

Keywords that describe this topic could include:

From this example, we have highlighted just the key words:

Today's youth
Parents
"Better life" (this concept is a bit tricky. You will need to determine what you mean by "better life", such as economic status, healthcare, area of the world, etc.)

We have left out all other words and punctuation (do, have, a, than, their, ?) from our key words.

Brainstorming Search Terms

Step B) Think of all the words, or synonyms , you can use to describe these keywords. By definition, synonyms are words that have a similar meaning and are interchangeable. To make this process easier, use a thesaurus to find synonyms.

To show this process, we have mapped out several synonyms and related terms to our three main terms we pulled from our research question. Related terms are a little different from synonyms as they do not always mean the exact same thing as the keywords, but are useful for broadening the scope of your search. We have also broken several terms into narrower and broad terms.

Synonyms & Related Terms

Today's youth = teenagers = adolescents = young adults = Generation Z
Parents = caregivers = mother = father
"Better Life" = education = healthcare = finances = socioeconomic status = technology

Narrower Terms

Education level < Education
Financial well-being < Finances

Broad Terms

Finances > Debt
Wealth > Income

Step C) Now that we have identified our main keywords, synonyms and related terms, as well as narrower and broad terms, we can start our background research by searching on the web or in library databases for resources related to our topic.

Often, a simple Google search will help you define your topic further.

Typing in our research question: Do today's youth have a better life than their parents? into the search bar of Google, we come across a very helpful resource put out by Pew Research Center .

Screen capture of the main Google page with a research question typed in the search bar

[click on above image of a Google search to be sent to the Google results page]

Using resources such as the report from Pew Research Center, we can flesh out more of our research question with new knowledge of the factors that make life different between generations, including education level, income and wealth, housing, etc.

Reassess Research Question & Formulate Thesis

Step D) Research is an ever-evolving, iterative process. After searching, you may find information that informs your research question and/or resulting search terms. At this point, you may wish to revisit the first two steps: Determining Keywords and Brainstorming Search Terms.

Alternatively, you may also choose to adapt your research question into a thesis to fit this new information.

Example:

Our original research question was:

Based on some of our introductory research we conducted in Step C, it may be more valuable to narrow our research question to focus on a more specific topic, such as access to education. We can rework our research question into a thesis to reflect these changes:

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Last Updated: Jul 17, 2024 9:44 AM
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Research Guide

Define Your Topic
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STEP 1: Define Your Topic

Think about Search Terms

Use your background information to think of appropriate search terms. Brainstorm every possible search term for your topic.Try to think of synonyms and related words for each keyword to help broaden or narrow your search.

Look at your topic. For example: ‘Are Canadian youth politically engaged?’ The keywords in this topic would be Canadian , youth , and political engagement .

These keywords can become:

Canadian → Canada
Youth → "young people", "young adults", or adolescents
"Political engagement" → vote, voting, politics, elections, or "political participation"

Example: Brainstorming Search Terms

My research question was ‘Can alternative energy sources help stop global warming?’

For this question, the keywords would be alternative energy sources, and global warming. So, some search terms could be:

global warming → climate change, temperature change, greenhouse effect
alternative energy sources → sustainable energy, renewable energy source, alternative fuels or environmental technology

1. Background Research

Do some background reading to understand more about the topic.
Is there a current book or article that gives you are good overview of the topic?
You can use Wikipedia for ideas, keywords for your search and important dates and issues, but do not use it as a source in your final paper, as is not an academic source. It can also include errors, so be careful.
Try a test search of the library's resources to see what kind of results you get. If the topic is too general, you may need to narrow it down; if it is too specific, you may need to expand your search.
You can also do a test search of the internet using Google.
Keep in mind that what you will find through the AC Library is mostly subscription based and will include content not available for free on the internet.

Example: Picking a Subject

My assignment:.

Write a research report on a topic of your choice

My subject ideas:

I am interested in environmental issues.
I have read about global warming, but what are the causes?
I wonder, what are some possible solutions?
Why is it such a complicated problem and what are some of the issues that are debated by scientists?
Is technology the solution to global warming? Or are changes in our behaviour the solution?

My broad topic for the assignment is ‘Global Warming’.

My research to narrow my topic:

I got a good overview of the topic.
I discovered areas of the topic that interest me and that I might want to focus on, such as the causes of global warming and the possible responses to it.
I searched for for ‘Global warming’ in Page 1+ .
I got too many results, because my topic is too general.
I can find suggestions of subjects on the left side of the page, which I can use to make my subject more specific.
In the next step, I will use what I have learned to refine my topic.

2. Refine Your Topic

Narrowing your subject to a more specific topic takes a bit of research and thought.

Here are some ideas to help you narrow your topic:

Talk to a friend to get ideas. They may give you ideas that didn't occur to you.
Brainstorm - think about or write down what you know about the topic. Use these as terms for your test searches.

Use these questions:

WHY did you choose the topic? What interests you about it? Do you have an opinion about the issues involved?
WHO are the information providers on this topic? Who might publish information about it? Who is affected by the topic? Do you know of organizations or institutions affiliated with the topic?
WHAT are the major questions for this topic? Is there a debate about the topic? Are there a range of issues and viewpoints to consider?
WHERE is your topic important: at the local, national or international level? Are there specific places affected by the topic?
WHEN is/was your topic important? Is it a current event or an historical issue? Do you want to compare your topic by time periods?

(Content reproduced from MIT.edu under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License )

Turn your topic into a question. You will be trying to answer this question with your research. Think about something you would like to try to prove or argue.
Make sure to pick a topic that will have enough information available. Do a preliminary search to see if there is enough information about your topic.

Example: Refining Your Topic

The subject we chose in the earlier step is ‘global warming.’ This subject is a very broad topic with many different aspects you could research. We will use the techniques above to narrow our subject to a research topic.

Why: I am interested in environmental issues, and I am interested in how technology can be used to improve things in the future.
Who: Many environmental journals have published research on this topic. Also, organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the United Nations Environment Programme publish reports on the topic.
Which types of energy sources are best for the environment?
Are they feasible?
How much will they cost?
What are the potential positive or negative effects?
Where: This issue is important for everyone, both on local levels and on a global level.
When: This is a current issue; it is very important today and for the future. I would like for this paper to be more future-focused.
From these answers, I came up with possible topics, such as ‘the causes of global warming’ ‘technological solutions to global warming’, or ‘what effect does global warming have on business?’ or ‘scientific debate about global warming’
I turned my topic into a question: ‘Can alternative energy sources help stop global warming?’
I made sure my topic has enough information available. A quick search of library resources shows over 7,000 results related to my question.

Sample research question: Can alternative energy sources help stop global warming?

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Last Updated: Jul 24, 2024 10:32 AM
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Definition of research

(Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of research (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

intransitive verb

disquisition
examination
exploration
inquisition
investigation
delve (into)
inquire (into)
investigate
look (into)

Examples of research in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'research.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle French recerche , from recercher to go about seeking, from Old French recerchier , from re- + cerchier, sercher to search — more at search

1577, in the meaning defined at sense 3

1588, in the meaning defined at transitive sense 1

Phrases Containing research

marketing research
market research
operations research
oppo research

research and development

research park
translational research

Dictionary Entries Near research

Cite this entry.

“Research.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research. Accessed 22 Aug. 2024.

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Kids definition of research.

Kids Definition of research (Entry 2 of 2)

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Home » Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Definition:

Research refers to the process of investigating a particular topic or question in order to discover new information , develop new insights, or confirm or refute existing knowledge. It involves a systematic and rigorous approach to collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, and requires careful planning and attention to detail.

History of Research

The history of research can be traced back to ancient times when early humans observed and experimented with the natural world around them. Over time, research evolved and became more systematic as people sought to better understand the world and solve problems.

In ancient civilizations such as those in Greece, Egypt, and China, scholars pursued knowledge through observation, experimentation, and the development of theories. They explored various fields, including medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.

During the Middle Ages, research was often conducted by religious scholars who sought to reconcile scientific discoveries with their faith. The Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in science and the scientific method, and the Enlightenment period marked a major shift towards empirical observation and experimentation as the primary means of acquiring knowledge.

The 19th and 20th centuries saw significant advancements in research, with the development of new scientific disciplines and fields such as psychology, sociology, and computer science. Advances in technology and communication also greatly facilitated research efforts.

Today, research is conducted in a wide range of fields and is a critical component of many industries, including healthcare, technology, and academia. The process of research continues to evolve as new methods and technologies emerge, but the fundamental principles of observation, experimentation, and hypothesis testing remain at its core.

Types of Research

Types of Research are as follows:

Applied Research : This type of research aims to solve practical problems or answer specific questions, often in a real-world context.
Basic Research : This type of research aims to increase our understanding of a phenomenon or process, often without immediate practical applications.
Experimental Research : This type of research involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effects on another variable, while controlling all other variables.
Descriptive Research : This type of research aims to describe and measure phenomena or characteristics, without attempting to manipulate or control any variables.
Correlational Research: This type of research examines the relationships between two or more variables, without manipulating any variables.
Qualitative Research : This type of research focuses on exploring and understanding the meaning and experience of individuals or groups, often through methods such as interviews, focus groups, and observation.
Quantitative Research : This type of research uses numerical data and statistical analysis to draw conclusions about phenomena or populations.
Action Research: This type of research is often used in education, healthcare, and other fields, and involves collaborating with practitioners or participants to identify and solve problems in real-world settings.
Mixed Methods Research : This type of research combines both quantitative and qualitative research methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon or problem.
Case Study Research: This type of research involves in-depth examination of a specific individual, group, or situation, often using multiple data sources.
Longitudinal Research: This type of research follows a group of individuals over an extended period of time, often to study changes in behavior, attitudes, or health outcomes.
Cross-Sectional Research : This type of research examines a population at a single point in time, often to study differences or similarities among individuals or groups.
Survey Research: This type of research uses questionnaires or interviews to gather information from a sample of individuals about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or experiences.
Ethnographic Research : This type of research involves immersion in a cultural group or community to understand their way of life, beliefs, values, and practices.
Historical Research : This type of research investigates events or phenomena from the past using primary sources, such as archival records, newspapers, and diaries.
Content Analysis Research : This type of research involves analyzing written, spoken, or visual material to identify patterns, themes, or messages.
Participatory Research : This type of research involves collaboration between researchers and participants throughout the research process, often to promote empowerment, social justice, or community development.
Comparative Research: This type of research compares two or more groups or phenomena to identify similarities and differences, often across different countries or cultures.
Exploratory Research : This type of research is used to gain a preliminary understanding of a topic or phenomenon, often in the absence of prior research or theories.
Explanatory Research: This type of research aims to identify the causes or reasons behind a particular phenomenon, often through the testing of theories or hypotheses.
Evaluative Research: This type of research assesses the effectiveness or impact of an intervention, program, or policy, often through the use of outcome measures.
Simulation Research : This type of research involves creating a model or simulation of a phenomenon or process, often to predict outcomes or test theories.

Data Collection Methods

Surveys : Surveys are used to collect data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be conducted face-to-face, by phone, mail, email, or online.
Experiments : Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to measure their effects on another variable, while controlling for other factors. Experiments can be conducted in a laboratory or in a natural setting.
Case studies : Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single case, such as an individual, group, organization, or event. Case studies can use a variety of data collection methods, including interviews, observation, and document analysis.
Observational research : Observational research involves observing and recording the behavior of individuals or groups in a natural setting. Observational research can be conducted covertly or overtly.
Content analysis : Content analysis involves analyzing written, spoken, or visual material to identify patterns, themes, or messages. Content analysis can be used to study media, social media, or other forms of communication.
Ethnography : Ethnography involves immersion in a cultural group or community to understand their way of life, beliefs, values, and practices. Ethnographic research can use a range of data collection methods, including observation, interviews, and document analysis.
Secondary data analysis : Secondary data analysis involves using existing data from sources such as government agencies, research institutions, or commercial organizations. Secondary data can be used to answer research questions, without collecting new data.
Focus groups: Focus groups involve gathering a small group of people together to discuss a topic or issue. The discussions are usually guided by a moderator who asks questions and encourages discussion.
Interviews : Interviews involve one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a participant. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, and can be conducted in person, by phone, or online.
Document analysis : Document analysis involves collecting and analyzing written documents, such as reports, memos, and emails. Document analysis can be used to study organizational communication, policy documents, and other forms of written material.

Data Analysis Methods

Data Analysis Methods in Research are as follows:

Descriptive statistics : Descriptive statistics involve summarizing and describing the characteristics of a dataset, such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions.
Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics involve making inferences or predictions about a population based on a sample of data, using methods such as hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.
Qualitative analysis: Qualitative analysis involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as text, images, or audio, to identify patterns, themes, or meanings. Qualitative analysis can be used to study subjective experiences, social norms, and cultural practices.
Content analysis: Content analysis involves analyzing written, spoken, or visual material to identify patterns, themes, or messages. Content analysis can be used to study media, social media, or other forms of communication.
Grounded theory: Grounded theory involves developing a theory or model based on empirical data, using methods such as constant comparison, memo writing, and theoretical sampling.
Discourse analysis : Discourse analysis involves analyzing language use, including the structure, function, and meaning of words and phrases, to understand how language reflects and shapes social relationships and power dynamics.
Network analysis: Network analysis involves analyzing the structure and dynamics of social networks, including the relationships between individuals and groups, to understand social processes and outcomes.

Research Methodology

Research methodology refers to the overall approach and strategy used to conduct a research study. It involves the systematic planning, design, and execution of research to answer specific research questions or test hypotheses. The main components of research methodology include:

Research design : Research design refers to the overall plan and structure of the study, including the type of study (e.g., observational, experimental), the sampling strategy, and the data collection and analysis methods.
Sampling strategy: Sampling strategy refers to the method used to select a representative sample of participants or units from the population of interest. The choice of sampling strategy will depend on the research question and the nature of the population being studied.
Data collection methods : Data collection methods refer to the techniques used to collect data from study participants or sources, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or secondary data sources.
Data analysis methods: Data analysis methods refer to the techniques used to analyze and interpret the data collected in the study, such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, qualitative analysis, or content analysis.
Ethical considerations: Ethical considerations refer to the principles and guidelines that govern the treatment of human participants or the use of sensitive data in the research study.
Validity and reliability : Validity and reliability refer to the extent to which the study measures what it is intended to measure and the degree to which the study produces consistent and accurate results.

Applications of Research

Research has a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Some of the key applications of research include:

Advancing scientific knowledge : Research plays a critical role in advancing our understanding of the world around us. Through research, scientists are able to discover new knowledge, uncover patterns and relationships, and develop new theories and models.
Improving healthcare: Research is instrumental in advancing medical knowledge and developing new treatments and therapies. Clinical trials and studies help to identify the effectiveness and safety of new drugs and medical devices, while basic research helps to uncover the underlying causes of diseases and conditions.
Enhancing education: Research helps to improve the quality of education by identifying effective teaching methods, developing new educational tools and technologies, and assessing the impact of various educational interventions.
Driving innovation: Research is a key driver of innovation, helping to develop new products, services, and technologies. By conducting research, businesses and organizations can identify new market opportunities, gain a competitive advantage, and improve their operations.
Informing public policy : Research plays an important role in informing public policy decisions. Policy makers rely on research to develop evidence-based policies that address societal challenges, such as healthcare, education, and environmental issues.
Understanding human behavior : Research helps us to better understand human behavior, including social, cognitive, and emotional processes. This understanding can be applied in a variety of settings, such as marketing, organizational management, and public policy.

Importance of Research

Research plays a crucial role in advancing human knowledge and understanding in various fields of study. It is the foundation upon which new discoveries, innovations, and technologies are built. Here are some of the key reasons why research is essential:

Advancing knowledge: Research helps to expand our understanding of the world around us, including the natural world, social structures, and human behavior.
Problem-solving: Research can help to identify problems, develop solutions, and assess the effectiveness of interventions in various fields, including medicine, engineering, and social sciences.
Innovation : Research is the driving force behind the development of new technologies, products, and processes. It helps to identify new possibilities and opportunities for improvement.
Evidence-based decision making: Research provides the evidence needed to make informed decisions in various fields, including policy making, business, and healthcare.
Education and training : Research provides the foundation for education and training in various fields, helping to prepare individuals for careers and advancing their knowledge.
Economic growth: Research can drive economic growth by facilitating the development of new technologies and innovations, creating new markets and job opportunities.

When to use Research

Research is typically used when seeking to answer questions or solve problems that require a systematic approach to gathering and analyzing information. Here are some examples of when research may be appropriate:

To explore a new area of knowledge : Research can be used to investigate a new area of knowledge and gain a better understanding of a topic.
To identify problems and find solutions: Research can be used to identify problems and develop solutions to address them.
To evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions : Research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and social services.
To inform policy decisions: Research can be used to provide evidence to inform policy decisions in areas such as economics, politics, and environmental issues.
To develop new products or technologies : Research can be used to develop new products or technologies and improve existing ones.
To understand human behavior : Research can be used to better understand human behavior and social structures, such as in psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

Characteristics of Research

The following are some of the characteristics of research:

Purpose : Research is conducted to address a specific problem or question and to generate new knowledge or insights.
Systematic : Research is conducted in a systematic and organized manner, following a set of procedures and guidelines.
Empirical : Research is based on evidence and data, rather than personal opinion or intuition.
Objective: Research is conducted with an objective and impartial perspective, avoiding biases and personal beliefs.
Rigorous : Research involves a rigorous and critical examination of the evidence and data, using reliable and valid methods of data collection and analysis.
Logical : Research is based on logical and rational thinking, following a well-defined and logical structure.
Generalizable : Research findings are often generalized to broader populations or contexts, based on a representative sample of the population.
Replicable : Research is conducted in a way that allows others to replicate the study and obtain similar results.
Ethical : Research is conducted in an ethical manner, following established ethical guidelines and principles, to ensure the protection of participants’ rights and well-being.
Cumulative : Research builds on previous studies and contributes to the overall body of knowledge in a particular field.

Advantages of Research

Research has several advantages, including:

Generates new knowledge: Research is conducted to generate new knowledge and understanding of a particular topic or phenomenon, which can be used to inform policy, practice, and decision-making.
Provides evidence-based solutions : Research provides evidence-based solutions to problems and issues, which can be used to develop effective interventions and strategies.
Improves quality : Research can improve the quality of products, services, and programs by identifying areas for improvement and developing solutions to address them.
Enhances credibility : Research enhances the credibility of an organization or individual by providing evidence to support claims and assertions.
Enables innovation: Research can lead to innovation by identifying new ideas, approaches, and technologies.
Informs decision-making : Research provides information that can inform decision-making, helping individuals and organizations make more informed and effective choices.
Facilitates progress: Research can facilitate progress by identifying challenges and opportunities and developing solutions to address them.
Enhances understanding: Research can enhance understanding of complex issues and phenomena, helping individuals and organizations navigate challenges and opportunities more effectively.
Promotes accountability : Research promotes accountability by providing a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of policies, programs, and interventions.
Fosters collaboration: Research can foster collaboration by bringing together individuals and organizations with diverse perspectives and expertise to address complex issues and problems.

Limitations of Research

Some Limitations of Research are as follows:

Cost : Research can be expensive, particularly when large-scale studies are required. This can limit the number of studies that can be conducted and the amount of data that can be collected.
Time : Research can be time-consuming, particularly when longitudinal studies are required. This can limit the speed at which research findings can be generated and disseminated.
Sample size: The size of the sample used in research can limit the generalizability of the findings to larger populations.
Bias : Research can be affected by bias, both in the design and implementation of the study, as well as in the analysis and interpretation of the data.
Ethics : Research can present ethical challenges, particularly when human or animal subjects are involved. This can limit the types of research that can be conducted and the methods that can be used.
Data quality: The quality of the data collected in research can be affected by a range of factors, including the reliability and validity of the measures used, as well as the accuracy of the data entry and analysis.
Subjectivity : Research can be subjective, particularly when qualitative methods are used. This can limit the objectivity and reliability of the findings.
Accessibility : Research findings may not be accessible to all stakeholders, particularly those who are not part of the academic or research community.
Interpretation : Research findings can be open to interpretation, particularly when the data is complex or contradictory. This can limit the ability of researchers to draw firm conclusions.
Unforeseen events : Unexpected events, such as changes in the environment or the emergence of new technologies, can limit the relevance and applicability of research findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Process

Define a Topic
Locate Information
Evaluate Information
Write and review This link opens in a new window
Citation This link opens in a new window

The first, and often the hardest, step in the research process is to define your topic. Listed below are some things to consider when selecting a topic:

Choose something that interests you.
Working on a topic that is within your major may help you later in your academic career.
Begin with reference works to get some background information on your topic.
Be prepared to change your topic if you cannot find enough information on your topic
How to Write a Research Question A research question defines the center of your research topic and narrows your focus. This website gives excellent advice on defining your research question.

Find Topic Ideas

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What's the difference between 'research topic' and 'research area'?

I am writing an essay to apply for a summer research project and is supposed to write about 'general research topic that interests me' and 'area I would like to focus'. I'm kind of confused about these two terms. What's the difference?

For example, if I'm interested in computer science, where should I write it?

p.s. I have asked this question in English Language & Usage site but didn't get answer. So I suppose that these two words may only have difference in academic field?

graduate-admissions
summer-school

2 Answers 2

A research area is what a research topic is placed into, but is much broader than the scope of the topic. For example a research area can be human physiology, computer science (as you mentioned) or even relate to a specific field within these broader terms such as cardiac electrophysiology or machine learning respectively.

A research topic would be a specific question, hypothesis or problem you wish to investigate and answer which is under the scope of your research area. That is to say, my research area is in neuroscience/neurophysiology and my research topic is investigating the mechanisms of neuronal communication, as an example.

You would want to say topics that interest you which relate to a certain problem that you may be aware of, whereas in the research area you would want to outline your inclinations towards a particular field of academia.

While a topic is narrower than an area (for example, your area may be "solid state physics" and your topic "semiconductor tuning based on dopage"), it's probably true that for most people there is little difference between the two terms as far as colloquial usage is concerned.

In other words, don't obsess about the difference -- though, if you want, consider the "area" a broader term.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .


Qualitative		to broader populations. .
Quantitative		.

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.


Primary	.	methods.
Secondary

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.


Descriptive		. .
Experimental

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Research methods for collecting data
Research method	Primary or secondary?	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Primary	Quantitative	To test cause-and-effect relationships.
	Primary	Quantitative	To understand general characteristics of a population.
Interview/focus group	Primary	Qualitative	To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic.
Observation	Primary	Either	To understand how something occurs in its natural setting.
	Secondary	Either	To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic.
	Either	Either	To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study.

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

During an experiment .
Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

Research methods for analyzing data
Research method	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Quantitative	To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations).
Meta-analysis	Quantitative	To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.
	Qualitative	To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.
	Either	To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square test of independence
Statistical power
Descriptive statistics
Degrees of freedom
Pearson correlation
Null hypothesis
Double-blind study
Case-control study
Research ethics
Data collection
Hypothesis testing
Structured interviews

Research bias

Hawthorne effect
Unconscious bias
Recall bias
Halo effect
Self-serving bias
Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Research Guides

Canadian Legal Research Manual

Topic Definition
Introduction
Tips (Before You Start)
Exploratory Research
In-Depth Secondary Sources
Legislation
Finalize Research
Legal Research Checklist
Interactive: Legal Research Checklist
Introduction to Secondary Sources
Legal Encyclopedias
Textbooks, Treatises, and Other Books
Journal Literature
Legal Dictionaries & Words and Phrases
Non-Traditional Secondary Sources
How Does GenAI Work?
Creating Prompts for Legal GenAI
Critically Assessing AI-generated Content
Using and Citing AI-generated Content
Introduction to Legislation
The Legislative Process
How Laws are Published
Researching Bills
Researching Statutes
Researching Regulations
Noting Up Legislation
Introduction to Case Law
How Cases are Published
Finding a Known Case
Finding Cases on a Topic
Noting Up Case Law
Introduction to English Law
Secondary Sources
English Legislation
English Case Law
English Legal Research Guides
Introduction to American Law
US Federal and State Legislation
American Case Law
American Legal Research Guides
Introduction to International Law
Primary Sources
International Legal Research Guides
Introduction to Foreign Law
Foreign Legal Research Guides
Canadian Legal Research Guides
Indigenous Legal Research Guides
Empirical Legal Research Guides
Other Legal Research Methods
Citation Style Guides

Topic Definition Stage

Topic definition is an important stage in the legal research process.

A clearly defined research topic will steer your research, dictate where to start with your research, and help you more quickly find relevant legal information.

If you do not spend time on this Stage, you will likely find yourself down the research rabbit hole looking at sources that, in the end, are irrelevant to your final research product.

In this Stage:

Identify the Purpose of Your Research
Determine the Broad Area(s) of Law
Focus in on a Research Topic
Refine Your Topic Scope

1. Identify the Purpose of this Research

There are two main types of legal research:

Academic legal research is generally scholarly, such as research done for a term paper, thesis, or as a research assistant for a professor.
Practical legal research is focused more on professional research tasks such as writing a memorandum, preparing for trial argument, or drafting a pleading.

Note: Since a JD is a professional degree, law school assignments are often practical in nature, even though you are completing them in an academic setting.

The Topic Definition Stage will vary depending on the type of research, because they have different goals and research products (e.g. an essay versus a memo). For example:

A law student writing a paper for a course may have a lot of agency in choosing a topic within a broad area of law.
A lawyer may need to define their topic by analysing their client's fact scenario.
An articling student or research assistant may have a topic identified for them by a supervisor, but they will likely need to ask follow up questions to refine the scope of that topic.

For these reasons, it is hard to describe one process for the Topic Definition stage. But in both types of research, you will want to make sure you have identified all three of the following a) the broad area of law, b) a research topic, and c) your topic scope.

►See Academic Research (on this page) for resources with more specific academic guidance.

►See Practical Research (on this page) for resources with more specific practical guidance.

2. Determine the Broad Area(s) of Law

Areas of law are not particular legal issues. Rather, they encompass broad subjects like health law, environmental law, and constitutional law.

While it may sound obvious, legal researchers sometimes start with a very specific idea of their research topic. Identifying the broader area(s) of law helps you:

Establish parameters for your research (what information can I exclude from my searches?).
Locate introductory sources like treatises, which typically are named for a broad area of law (e.g. The Law of Contracts ).
Identify high level keywords you can use for searching, browsing, and filtering legal information.

These techniques all help you effectively wade through the high volume of legal information—especially case law—that is available using modern research tools.

3. Focus in on your Research Topic

A research topic is a specific legal issue, problem, or other aspect you want to investigate in your research.

If you are starting from a fact scenario, this is where you will start to identify the legally relevant facts, and then translate those facts into legal issues. Keep in mind:

Often facts may be characterized in a number of different ways. Avoid stating the issues too narrowly at this point. Try to conceptualize them in alternate ways.
To get started, create a comprehensive list of everything you think needs to be included. Then revise the list into a more logical order.
It may be impossible to identify all the issues in your initial attempt. You will refine your understanding of the legal issues as your research progresses.

►For more information on factual analysis and issue determination, see Chapters 1-3 in Legal Problem Solving by Maureen Fitzgerald.

If you are starting from a blank slate, consider the following questions:

Are there any particular legal issues in this area of law that interest you?
Is there a conflict, gap, or new development in this area of law?
Is there a recent case in this area that signals changes to the law or new issues?
Is there a common or uncommon practice relating to this area of law?
Do different jurisdictions handle a particular legal problem in different ways?

►Need inspiration? Check out the legal news and blogs in our Current Awareness guide for ideas of developments in the law.

4. Refine Your Topic Scope

Refining your research topic means narrowing it to a manageable scope. It will allow you to know what is and isn't applicable to your research.

How you narrow your scope will depend on your topic and also the parameters of the research task; a dissertation will have a much different scope than a 5-page memo.

The following questions can help refine your research topic:

Are you looking at one issue or multiple, interconnected issues?
What jurisdiction(s) are you researching? Are you conducting comparative research?
Do you want to do research the law as it was (historical research), as it is currently, or how it may evolve in the future?

Note: Be prepared for your research topic to change as you start your research. Just because this is the first Stage does not mean that it must be completed fully before you move on.

This is especially true for academic research, where you may broaden or limit your topic based on the number of cases, statutes, and other resources that emerge in your initial research.

For example, say that your topic is one with little or no case law in your proposed jurisdiction, such as the liability of generative AI companies in copyright infringement in Canada . If your assignment parameters require you to conduct case law research, you may need to broaden your topic:

You could broaden the jurisdiction (if relevant), such as by looking at American case law.
You might broaden your focus to other types of liability, if those are better represented in case law.
You may consider using other types of copyright infringement cases to explore how the law on this topic may develop in the future.
<< Previous: Tips (Before You Start)
Next: Exploratory Research >>

Stages in Legal Research

Academic Research

Practical Research

Last Updated: Aug 20, 2024 11:10 AM
Subjects: Law
Tags: case law , common law , law , legal research , legal skills , legislation , regulations , statutes

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Meaning of research in English

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He has dedicated his life to scientific research.
He emphasized that all the people taking part in the research were volunteers .
The state of Michigan has endowed three institutes to do research for industry .
I'd like to see the research that these recommendations are founded on.
It took months of painstaking research to write the book .
absorptive capacity
dream something up
ergonomically
modularization
nanotechnology
testing ground
the mother of something idiom
think outside the box idiom
think something up
study What do you plan on studying in college?
major US She majored in philosophy at Harvard.
cram She's cramming for her history exam.
revise UK I'm revising for tomorrow's test.
review US We're going to review for the test tomorrow night.
research Scientists are researching possible new treatments for cancer.
The amount of time and money being spent on researching this disease is pitiful .
We are researching the reproduction of elephants .
She researched a wide variety of jobs before deciding on law .
He researches heart disease .
The internet has reduced the amount of time it takes to research these subjects .
adjudication
analytically
have the measure of someone/something idiom
interpretable
interpretive
reinspection
reinterpret
reinterpretation
reinvestigate
reinvestigation

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to be doing something good or kind

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research noun 1

Hide all quotations

What does the noun research mean?

There are seven meanings listed in OED's entry for the noun research , three of which are labelled obsolete. See ‘Meaning & use’ for definitions, usage, and quotation evidence.

How common is the noun research ?

How is the noun research pronounced?

British english, u.s. english, where does the noun research come from.

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the noun research is in the late 1500s.

OED's earliest evidence for research is from 1577, in ‘F. de L'Isle’'s Legendarie .

research is apparently formed within English, by derivation; modelled on a French lexical item.

Etymons: re- prefix , search n.

Nearby entries

rescuing, adj. 1574–
resculpt, v. 1926–
resculpting, n. 1940–
rescussee, n. 1652–1823
rescusser, n. 1632–1704
rese, n. Old English–1600
rese, v.¹ Old English–1450
rese, v.² Old English–1582
reseal, v. 1624–
resealable, adj. 1926–
research, n.¹ 1577–
re-search, n.² 1605–
research, v.¹ 1588–
re-search, v.² 1708–
researchable, adj. 1927–
research and development, n. 1892–
researched, adj. 1636–
researcher, n. 1615–
researchful, adj. a1834–
research hospital, n. 1900–
researching, n. 1611–

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Meaning & use

Pronunciation, compounds & derived words, entry history for research, n.¹.

research, n.¹ was revised in March 2010.

research, n.¹ was last modified in July 2023.

oed.com is a living text, updated every three months. Modifications may include:

further revisions to definitions, pronunciation, etymology, headwords, variant spellings, quotations, and dates;
new senses, phrases, and quotations.

Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into research, n.¹ in July 2023.

Earlier versions of this entry were published in:

OED First Edition (1906)

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The meaning of responsible innovation: theses, antitheses, synthesis.

In this article, originally published in French on Alternatives Economiques' Innovations blog, Pierre-Jean Barlatier , Associate Professor at EDHEC, and his co-authors look at the growing doubts and disillusionment with innovation and its effects, and highlight the contours and potential benefits of new research into “responsible innovation”.

On 24 October 2023, 42 American states joined together to file a complaint against Meta (formerly Facebook) on the grounds that their various services, particularly Instagram, were damaging the mental and physical health of their youngest users . This massive nationwide action is not unprecedented, however, as Meta has been in the sights of the regulatory authorities for the past ten years, who have criticised the company's strategy. Meta is alleged to be responsible for a number of societal harms, ranging from a failure to protect personal data to a negative impact on mental health and even the polarisation of society.

The innovation brought about by Facebook, as one of the first platforms to create a global community of sharing and exchange, was initially perceived as extremely beneficial, as it was accessible to everyone, worldwide, without any condition of resource or technological aptitude, thus giving birth to a new information age. However, more than ever, this same innovation is now being decried for all its consequences. This other side of the coin , or the discovery of the hidden face of Meta , is a clear example of the change in our relationship to innovation.

So while innovation has long been seen as necessarily positive (or at least taken as a whole), it is increasingly criticised these days, with some going so far as to call for less innovation, or even no innovation at all. The most recent international call for a moratorium on the development of artificial intelligence is a particularly striking example .

But where do these harmful effects of innovation come from? While it is true that the positive or negative effects of an innovation only become known once it has been widely adopted, which makes these effects inherently unpredictable, can we say that these harmful aspects are intrinsic to the innovation itself? Or do they stem, at least in part, from the strategic choices made by innovators? In this respect, we can note a form of temporal inconsistency (Malherbe et al., 2023) between the innovators' original objectives (such as Google's famous “don't be evil”) and the strategies, which often have adverse effects, that they adopt once their innovation has spread. This inconsistency also affects the users of the innovation, whose ‘myopic’ and individualistic behaviour is a source of ‘rebound effects’ that can annihilate the efforts made to reduce the harm caused by the innovation.

It is against this backdrop of growing doubt and disillusionment with innovation that a stream of research into responsible innovation (RI) has emerged since the early 2010s, driven both by academic research and by public institutions such as the European Commission. While there have been differences between these two currents, they have now largely converged around a common vision of RI. Noting that it is generally impossible, ex ante, to define precisely what responsible innovation is, or even to determine whether a particular innovation is responsible, this research emphasises the procedural and non-substantive nature of responsible innovation. Such a process requires not only that stakeholders in the broadest sense (including society as a whole) be taken into account in the innovation process, but also that ‘desirable’ futures be invented to guide the trajectory of the innovation ex ante, in an essentially uncertain environment.

Although hundreds of articles on RI have been published in academic journals over the last decade, with a sharp acceleration in recent years, a bibliometric analysis of this work reveals a much more mixed and complex situation (Barlatier et al., 2024).

First of all, there is a real risk that this research will become ‘niche’ , as a large number of these articles are published in a very small number of journals, in particular the Journal of Responsible Innovation. In addition, the striking contrast between the large number of articles published on this subject in specialist journals and the very small number of articles on the same subject published in the most reputable academic journals tends to indicate a chronic inability of this field to fit into the mainstream of research. Finally, this bibliometric analysis also reveals a fragmented image and the existence within the RI research stream itself of different communities of researchers who coexist but rarely engage in dialogue with each other. Research into RI is essentially divided into two currents that are currently impermeable , one originating in innovation research and the other in ethics research.

How can these trends be explained?

We put forward two complementary proposals. Firstly, there is a general lack of engagement with the dominant theories, but also a general lack of theoretical approach . Articles on RI tend to extend the applicability of the concept as widely as possible, but without linking it to existing or new theories.

A second pitfall is that the literature on RI often adopts a particularly optimistic and simplified approach to issues that are nonetheless considerably complex: cooperation and consensus between stakeholders are often taken for granted and the validity of the RI concept, its feasibility and its limits are only very quickly questioned.

All this tends to marginalise the literature on RI . To get out of this, IR needs to be embedded in robust theoretical frameworks, whether these are existing frameworks or new theoretical frameworks. This would not only reduce the fragmentation of IR research, as these theoretical frameworks would enable a dialogue between the different IR communities, but would also create bridges with other research streams and thus break the relative isolation in which this field of research finds itself, enabling it to gain much greater acceptance and thus propagate this concept beyond the niche in which it finds itself. In order to gain this broad acceptance, it is also probably necessary to adopt a more critical and nuanced approach to RI, to show its darker sides, and not to deny the complexity of its implementation.

To this end, we propose four research perspectives that will both help to integrate the literature on RI and enable it to be integrated into broader research fields:

Integrating sustainable development into innovation processes

This area of research focuses on the integration of sustainable development objectives into innovation processes, particularly within technology start-ups, and highlights the need to strike a balance between economic viability and social and environmental responsibility.

Governance and public policy for responsible innovation

The aim of this area is to explore the role played by governance structures and public policies in redirecting innovation towards more responsible and ethical practices.

Transformative and disruptive innovation driven by collaborative knowledge and innovation dynamics

This area of research focuses on the need to address the ‘big challenges’ through transformative and disruptive innovations that go well beyond simple incremental changes and are based on collective and non-linear approaches to innovation.

Empowering future innovators

This last area focuses on the pivotal role played by educational institutions in developing the next generation of entrepreneurs so that they adopt responsible innovation and entrepreneurship practices that promote sustainable development.

These perspectives encourage an enriched and substantial integration of responsible innovation into the field of innovation research. This approach gives it the recognition and relevance it truly deserves, while highlighting its essential role in building a sustainable future.

Barlatier, P.-J., Georget, V., Pénin, J., & Rayna, T. (n.d.). The Origin, Robustness, and Future of Responsible Innovation. Journal of Innovation Economics & Management, 43(2024/1). https://doi.org/10.3917/jie.043.0001

Malherbe, M., Peng, H., Simon, F., & Tellier, A. (2023). Éditorial. Le management de l’innovation à l’épreuve de la temporalité. Innovations, 71(2), 5–30. https://doi.org/10.3917/inno.071.0005

Responsible Innovation - Theoretical Debates and Facts Trends. Journal of Innovation Economics & Management, 43(2024/1). https://www.cairn.info/revue-journal-of-innovation-economics-2024-1.htm

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A bullish signal in the stock market is pointing to double-digit gains for the S&P 500 next year, research firm says

The stock market flashed a bullish technical indicator on Monday, according to Ned Davis Research.
NDR strategist Ed Clissold noted the market is its the fourth stage of bottoming as it approaches record highs.
Since July, three breadth thrust signals have flashed, indicating a strong market recovery.

The stock market just flashed a bullish technical indicator that suggests double-digit gains are in store for the S&P 500 over the next year.

That's according to a Wednesday note from Ned Davis Research strategist Ed Clissold, who said the stock market has entered the fourth stage of its bottoming process following its early August sell-off.

The stock market fell more than 5% in early August amid a confluence of risks, including a weak July jobs report, a yen carry-trade unwind, and Warren Buffett slashing his stake in Apple.

But since then, the S&P 500 has rallied nearly 10% and is just 1% shy of record highs.

"New breadth thrust signals confirm that the market is in step four of the bottoming process and moving past the recent pullback," Clissold explained, adding that the four stages of a stock market bottom are oversold, rally, retest, and breadth thrusts.

On August 19, a new breadth thrust signal flashed, which occurs when the stock market swiftly transitions from very few stocks participating in the upside to many stocks moving higher at the same time.

"The rationale is that if a few stocks run into trouble, others can propel the popular averages higher," Clissold said. "The beginning of major moves is often marked by breadth thrusts, or an extremely high percentage of stocks rallying together."

A breadth thrust "fired" on Monday when over 90% of stocks in NDR's internal Multi-Cap Equity Series jumped above their 10-day moving average.

Since 1980, there have been 42 such instances, and stocks were higher 95% of the time one-year later with an average gain of 10%.

Such a gain from current levels would put the S&P 500 at just above 6,100, which is nearly in-line with one Wall Street bull's 2025 price target.

Another breadth thrust flashed on August 8 when stocks saw an "11:1 up day," which occurs when volume in advancing stocks is 11 times that of the cumulative volume in declining stocks.

Ultimately, Clissold wants to see at least five breadth thrust signals flash in a three-month period to be certain that the stock market has more upside ahead.

So far three signals have flashed since July 16, but even if two more don't flash by the middle of October, stocks are likely still in a good spot thanks to the expected decline in interest rates, according to the note.

"We may not get five breadth thrust signals, but additional trend indicators are turning bullish," Clissold said. "Falling rates are another check in the bulls' favor."

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Research Topics
Research Topic. Definition: Research topic is a specific subject or area of interest that a researcher wants to investigate or explore in-depth through research. It is the overarching theme or question that guides a research project and helps to focus the research activities towards a clear objective.
How to Identify and Develop a Topic:
It is difficult to define a topic with much specificity before starting your research. But until you define your topic, you won't know where to begin your search for information and you won't know what to look for. With a well-defined topic, you can focus your search strategies to find lots of relevant information without also finding a lot of ...
PDF DEVELOPING A RESEARCH TOPIC
Microsoft Word - topic.doc. DEVELOPING A RESEARCH TOPIC. Every good research project has a well-defined topic. Selecting and developing a topic is an ongoing process by which you define and refine your ideas. You can then focus your research strategies to find relevant and appropriate information. Before you begin the research process, be sure ...
Defining the research topic
Conceptualizing a research topic entails formulating a "defensible and researchable" research question. Conducting a literature search as one of the first steps in a graduate degree is often quite helpful as published peer-reviewed research articles are key to identify knowledge gaps in current literature. Thus, students can design and ...
LibGuides: Research Process: Finding a Research Topic
Identifying a topic with these characteristics at the beginning of the research process will ultimately save you time. Finding a research topic that is interesting, relevant, feasible, and worthy of your time may take substantial effort so you should be prepared to invest your time accordingly. Considering your options, doing some background ...
What is Research? Definition, Types, Methods and Process
Research is defined as a meticulous and systematic inquiry process designed to explore and unravel specific subjects or issues with precision. This methodical approach encompasses the thorough collection, rigorous analysis, and insightful interpretation of information, aiming to delve deep into the nuances of a chosen field of study.
Research Topic, Definition of
A research topic is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested in when conducting research. A well-defined research topic is the starting point of every successful research project. Choosing a topic is an ongoing process by which researchers explore, define, and refine their ideas. There are four steps for defining a research topic ...
Define a Topic
Define a Topic. Effective research takes time. This page will help students: Understand assignment requirements. Select a topic for their research paper. Formulate a research question. Narrow or broaden a research question. Determine keywords and brainstorm search terms. If you are unsure about what is expected about your assignment, consult ...
A Beginner's Guide to Starting the Research Process
Step 1: Choose your topic. First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad. Think about the general area or field you're interested in—maybe you already have specific research interests based on classes you've taken, or maybe you had to consider your topic when applying to graduate school and writing a statement of purpose.
Sage Research Methods
Philosophy of Research. Defining a Topic. Reviewing the Literature. Developing a Researchable Question. Research Design. Planning and Practicalities. Research Ethics. Data Collection. Data Analysis and Interpretation.
Define Your Topic
STEP 1: Define Your Topic. The first step when planning and writing a research paper is picking a good topic. A good topic is relevant to the assignment and has enough information available for you to use and is neither too broad nor too narrow. This section will help you pick a subject that interests you, and refine that subject to a specific ...
Research Definition & Meaning
The meaning of RESEARCH is studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws. How to use research in a sentence.
Research
Research. Definition: Research refers to the process of investigating a particular topic or question in order to discover new information, develop new insights, or confirm or refute existing knowledge.It involves a systematic and rigorous approach to collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, and requires careful planning and attention to detail. ...
Define a Topic
Topics. The first, and often the hardest, step in the research process is to define your topic. Listed below are some things to consider when selecting a topic: Choose something that interests you. Working on a topic that is within your major may help you later in your academic career. Begin with reference works to get some background ...
What is the difference between a research topic and a ...
Answer: A research topic is a specific part of study in a broader area of study. For instance, for your research topic, the broader research area is malaria prevention in households. A research question aims to further narrow down the scope of the study. It is a possibility you explore through your study aiming to solve the problem of your ...
What's the difference between 'research topic' and 'research area'?
A research area is what a research topic is placed into, but is much broader than the scope of the topic. For example a research area can be human physiology, computer science (as you mentioned) or even relate to a specific field within these broader terms such as cardiac electrophysiology or machine learning respectively.
RESEARCH
RESEARCH definition: 1. a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a…. Learn more.
RESEARCH TOPIC definition and meaning
RESEARCH TOPIC definition | Meaning, pronunciation, translations and examples
How to Define a Research Problem
A research problem is a specific issue or gap in existing knowledge that you aim to address in your research. You may choose to look for practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge. Some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem focuses on one or the other.
Research Methods
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
Topic Definition
Topic definition is an important stage in the legal research process. A clearly defined research topic will steer your research, dictate where to start with your research, and help you more quickly find relevant legal information. If you do not spend time on this Stage, you will likely find yourself down the research rabbit hole looking at ...
RESEARCH
RESEARCH meaning: 1. a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new) information or reach a…. Learn more.
RESEARCH Definition & Meaning
Research definition: diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, applications, etc.. See examples of RESEARCH used in a sentence.
research, n.¹ meanings, etymology and more
The earliest known use of the noun research is in the late 1500s. OED's earliest evidence for research is from 1577, in 'F. de L'Isle''s Legendarie. research is apparently formed within English, by derivation; modelled on a French lexical item. Etymons: re- prefix, search n. See etymology.
The meaning of responsible innovation: theses, antitheses, synthesis
The meaning of responsible innovation: theses, antitheses, synthesis. Pierre-Jean Barlatier, ... ex ante, to define precisely what responsible innovation is, or even to determine whether a particular innovation is responsible, this research emphasises the procedural and non-substantive nature of responsible innovation. ... there is a real risk ...
Stock Market Outlook: Breadth Thrust Signal Says Bullish S&P 500 Gains
"New breadth thrust signals confirm that the market is in step four of the bottoming process and moving past the recent pullback," Clissold explained, adding that the four stages of a stock market ...

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Step 1: Understand Your Assignment

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Background Research

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Research Guide

STEP 1: Define Your Topic

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