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Further Education Unit (FEU)  

Between 1977 and 1994 the FEU advised on, and supported research into, curriculum and pedagogical matters relating to further education ...

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What is Further Education?

In A-Level , General by Think Student Editor January 31, 2022 Leave a Comment

For some people, knowing what to do after they finish their GCSEs (or equivalent qualifications) can be a difficult decision. However you feel about the future of your education, further education is something that you have to do by law. It shouldn’t be something that is scary and the more you know about your options, the less scary it will become.

In short, further education is simply education after you’ve completed secondary school, usually at age 16. There are different types of further education. These include level 3 courses such as A-Levels and BTECs. Alternatively, you can leave school and do other types of further education such as an apprenticeship or traineeship. 

If you interested in learning more about your options after you finish your GCSEs (or an equivalent) then you should definitely continue reading. This article will be especially useful to you if you want to know more on specific types of further education, such as A-Levels.

Table of Contents

Further education is education after Year 11 whereby you have completed your GCSEs, at this stage most students are 16 years old. When in further education it is generally a lot more specialised than secondary school education as you study fewer things and may even only be studying and working in one very specific role (such as with an apprenticeship).

Further education tends to be a lot more advanced than secondary school education because the qualifications that you acquire as a part of further education tend to be Level 3 qualifications . Level 3 qualifications include A-Levels, BTECs and some apprenticeships. however, there are also Level 2 qualifications that can be taken as part of further education.

Further education is often confused with higher education. To ensure you don’t make this mistake I will give you a brief explanation of the latter. Higher education is education after the age of 18 and is usually undertaken at a university. If you want to learn more about what further education is follow this link  by the goodschoolsguide.

Is it compulsory to be in full time education until age 18?

In England, it is compulsory for people under the age of 18 to be in some form of education . Essentially, this means that students have no choice but to be doing further education.

Although further education is compulsory, this stage isn’t like earlier stages of education and differs from school in many ways. An example of how further education may differ is your timetable won’t be the same as the school timetable, you will have free periods and much more independence. Also, if you are at a sixth form college you are unlikely to have to wear a uniform and may call your teachers by their first name.

When it comes to further education you have a few options. You could continue to study in a traditional way, where you are at sixth form or sixth form college . These options would involve you having to go to lessons and do specific work. Alternatively, you could do an apprenticeship, or you could even have a full-time job as long as you are doing one of the other two options alongside it. 

Further education in England only became compulsory recently as these laws were only put in place in 2014, see this link for more information.  The idea of introducing these laws was to improve the career prospects and opportunities that young people have for the future . This law means young people were able to develop more skills and qualifications that they could use later on in life.

What are A-Levels?

In the UK, taking A-Levels (Which is short for Advanced Levels) is a form of further education (please note that they are not taken in Scotland). As a type of further education, they are typically done after GCSEs and are considerably the most traditional route of further education . You can learn more about A-Levels in this Think Student article.

A-Levels are the most common form of further education, this is due to how A-Levels are taught. A-Levels are studied in a similar way to how you were taught during secondary school. If you go to a sixth form at your school you will actually be taught A-Levels in the same building, by many of the same teachers as you studied your GCSEs.

The experience you have while doing your A-Levels will be significantly different to if you were still a Year 11 in secondary school. For example, you are given free periods and you may even be given other freedoms in sixth form college that you wouldn’t even dream of while in secondary school. A-Levels although similar are different from your GCSEs. A-Levels are generally harder and go into more depth in each subject area. If you want to find out more about the step up from GCSEs to A-Levels check out this Think Student article.

Benefits of Taking A-Levels

Taking A-Levels can have many benefits, especially as they are the most recognised Level 3 qualification in the UK. While they don’t directly prepare you for the working world, they act as a great way for you to work towards your goals.  A-Levels enable students to learn about their favourite subjects in greater detail so that they are able to decide whether those subjects might be of interest when considering future career paths.

You can only study up to 3 or 4 subjects (except for rare occasions) and so you have to think about which subjects are best for you. This may be based on which ones you enjoy, or it could even be based on which ones you need for whatever you are working towards. If you are planning on going onto higher education you may require certain grades in specific A-Level subjects, therefore it’s important to pick the right A-Levels for you.

If you need some help making this decision then look here for 11 Tips to Help You Decide Which A-Levels to Take .

As you pick your subjects (or at least by the end of your courses), you will probably have begun to think about what you want to do next. You may want to go on to higher education (such as university),  taking A-Levels is considered the best route to get to university as it is a rather natural progression and is generally a common requirement for university . Having said this most universities also have entry requirements for other types of qualification, such as for BTECs.

What are BTECs?

BTECs are another form of further education that you can do at sixth form college. BTEC stands for Business and Technology Education Council, which is the council that created them. This council later merged with London Examinations (ULEAC) in 1996 to form the exam board, Edexcel (now known as Pearson Edexcel), click here to learn more.

Although BTECs and A-Levels can be studied alongside each other, they are very different. This is especially true because BTECs are a type of vocational qualification, so unlike A-Levels, they tend to be more practical and work-based.

BTECs also tend not to have the long exams at the end of the two years and instead are assessed more gradually with smaller tests or coursework throughout the course.  At the end of the course, you won’t receive a grade from the A*-G lettering system but instead a pass, merit, or distinction (or distinction star).  For more information about how BTECs are assessed looked at  this Think Student article .

What are the different types of BTECs?

There are different types of BTEC, you would most likely take one (or more) of the Level 3 qualifications, which are BTEC Nationals. Although you could also take the Level 2 option, which are BTEC Firsts (this will depend on what you want to do and also possibly on how well you did on your GCSEs). For more information about the different type of BTECs you can look at this UCAS article.

There are 3 main types of BTEC National, that you can take at sixth form college, these are: the BTEC National Extended Certificate, the BTEC National Diploma and the BTEC National Extended Diploma (although these may also be called alternative names).

The best way to distinguish between them is to think about how many A-Levels they are equivalent to. Generally, the Extended Certificate is only worth one A-Level, the Diploma is worth two A-Levels and the Extended Diploma is worth three A-Levels. To understand more about BTECs check out this article by Pearson.

Studying a BTEC National for further education, can give you plenty of opportunities for the future .  As BTECs are highly job-specific, you can go straight into full-time employment once you turn 18 and finish your course . This option can be exceptionally great for you if you know exactly what you want to do or even if studying and school in general just isn’t for you.

What are Apprenticeships?

Apprenticeships are another, less traditional form of further education that you can do but unlike A-Levels or BTECs, you are not at sixth form college full-time.

Apprenticeships are all at least 12 months long and during this time you will be working alongside experienced staff, allowing you to train for the job. During an apprenticeship, you will also be working towards a nationally recognised formal qualification, so you will also have to go to college or some kind of training centre (but this is generally only about once a week).

The qualification that you get will depend on what apprenticeship you do as well as the level of apprenticeship but the most common are functional skills, a Nation Vocational Qualification (NVQ) and technical certificates (such as BTECs). Look at  this UCAS article  for more information about apprenticeships.

What are the different types of Apprenticeships?

Just like with BTECs, there are different levels of apprenticeship that you can take in the UK. There are intermediate apprenticeships, advanced apprenticeships, higher apprenticeships, and degree apprenticeships.  Click here to learn more.

For further education, you would generally take either an intermediate apprenticeship which is a level 2 qualification (equivalent to GCSEs), or you would take an advanced apprenticeship, which is a level 3 qualification which is equivalent to A-Levels.

For higher education, you could take a higher apprenticeship, which would either be a level 4 or a level 5 qualification. Degree apprenticeships are as the name suggests, as they are equivalent to bachelor’s or master’s degrees depending on the level.

Benefits of doing an Apprenticeship

Taking an apprenticeship for further education can really open up new doors for you in the future.  As apprenticeships directly train you for a specific job, you could immediately begin working once you have finished it. 

You would most likely have already built up the skills you need to begin working in that career. This is why 85% of people who finish their apprenticeships are still in employment. You may even be able to work for the company that you did your apprenticeship at as 64% of people who completed their apprenticeships did so. For more statistics about apprentices and apprenticeships look  here .

Alternatively, if you don’t want to go straight into official full-time work then you could begin another apprenticeship at a higher level . If you initially took an advanced apprenticeship, you could go on to take a higher apprenticeship and so on. This could also be a great opportunity for you to gain more experience but still keep the support than you have when doing an apprenticeship. This could also allow you to further your career without fully committing the position.

What are T-Levels?

T-Levels  are another form of further education that are worth 3 A-levels and last 2 years. When studying, your time is split between being taught in a classroom and having work experience at an actual business. T-Levels therefore can be described as something in between BTECs and apprenticeships.

During the course, you will have at least 315 hours at an industry placement, allowing you to build up your skills and put what you have learnt into practice. T-Levels are a much newer form of further education than the other examples as they were only launched in September 2020, so you may not have even heard about them.

This also means that the number of subjects currently available and the  places that you can study them  are both very limited, although this will increase . Click here to see where you can study T-Levels. You can also look at this Think Student article for more information about the subjects that you can take for T-Levels.

T-Levels are graded in a similar way to BTECs. Therefore, you will get either a pass, merit, or distinction grade. These grades can be converted into UCAS points which could help you go onto university if you so choose. Check out this Think Student article to learn how T-Levels are graded.

Taking a T-Level for further education can lead to many different opportunities.  They were created with businesses in mind, you could go straight into work and apply the skills that you have learnt. This is especially great for you if you don’t want to study anymore and if you feel confident to test out your abilities in the real world.

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Overview of the UK's further education sector

The UK boasts a diverse and wide-ranging further education sector that provides opportunities for school leavers, young adults and mature students

FE sector facts

• Further education includes study after secondary school.
• College is for people of all ages, with courses free for students aged 16 to 18.
• 1.6 million students go to college in England each year to develop their career, progress to university, engage in further education or increase their employability.

What is further education?

On GOV.UK it states that further education (FE) includes any study after secondary education that doesn't form part of an undergraduate or graduate degree.

These post-secondary school qualifications are delivered by FE, sixth form and specialist colleges that aim to provide top quality academic, technical and professional education and training for both young people and adults.

The Education and Training Foundation (ETF), the professional body for FE training and standards in England, has produced a Guide to the FE System in England .

How is the FE system structured?

According to the AoC, there are 270 colleges in the UK (June 2023):

• 225 colleges in England
• 26 in Scotland
• 13 in Wales
• 6 in Northern Ireland.

UK colleges are represented by the following organisations specific to each home nation:

• Association of Colleges (AoC) - The membership organisation representing FE, sixth form, tertiary and specialist colleges in England.
• Colleges Scotland - The collective voice of the college sector in Scotland.
• Colleges Wales - An education charity that promotes the public benefit of further education in Wales.
• Northern Ireland (NI) Direct - Oversees the two university colleges, six FE colleges and an agri-food and land-based college in NI.

Most colleges are referred to as general FE colleges, but there are a number of different types of institution.

For instance, of the 225 colleges in England:

• 158 are general FE colleges
• 44 sixth form colleges
• 11 land-based colleges
• 10 institutes of adult learning (formerly specialist designated colleges)
• two art, design and performing arts colleges.

Who are college courses aimed at?

Anyone aged 16 and over can go to college, although the AoC reported that the majority of college income for 2020/21 (£3.63billion), accounting for 55% of total spending, was focused on 16-18 education.

It's unsurprising that sixth form and general FE colleges providing qualifications at A-level standard benefit most from the funding, especially as education is still free for students in this age group.

Colleges are inclusive places to learn, with over a fifth (21%) of students studying in England in 2022/23 having indicated some form of learning difficulty and/or disability.

What FE courses can you study?

Widely available FE courses include:

• BTECs (Business and Technology Education Council)
• Higher National Certificates (HNCs)

See college courses for an overview of the main FE qualifications studied at college.

However, while these FE courses are offered by colleges rather than universities, some colleges also run undergraduate programmes.

Read our guide to undergraduate qualifications .

It was also revealed that colleges train around 1,000 apprentices, so you may wish to explore apprenticeships in more detail. You can learn more about vocational college courses at AoC - About colleges .

Can I still go on to university?

Some FE qualifications can be topped up to a full degree, so if you're thinking of going to university but still aren't sure, the course may offer credit should you choose to carry on with study after the college course.

What are the modes of study at college?

Similar to university, you can choose between full and part-time study for the majority of courses. While some will require you to spend a significant amount of time in the classroom, colleges often use a blended learning approach, with online distance learning complementing the traditional face-to-face teaching.

Online college courses, for qualifications such as A-levels and BTECs, are also very popular. This is because you'll get the opportunity to study and achieve a qualification without the need to visit the college in person. The course will typically involve interacting with tutors and other learners online through lectures, training sessions, webinars and chat forums.

Popular FE providers include the Open Study College and Online Learning College , while The Open University offers qualification options at undergraduate level and above. You can also explore free courses as signposted by the National Careers Service (NCS) .

This flexible approach to learning allows students to study at a time and place that fits in with their lifestyle, perfect if there isn't a local college accessible from your area. Read more about the benefits of online learning .

Am I eligible for student finance?

As mentioned, FE college courses are free for 16 to 18-year-olds, but for adult learners (anyone 19 and over), tuition fees are likely to be involved. Even younger students can still claim education-related costs through the government's 16 to 19 Bursary Fund .

If you're studying in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland, you may be able to claim for Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) .

When it comes to online learning with private course providers, you'll certainly need to pay course fees. For instance, if you're taking A-levels, you'll need to consider exam and invigilation fees as well as tuition costs, while for some courses, there's additional fees for the practical aspects of the programme.

There are a range of grants and loans offered at a local level for adult education. For example, see the booklet on Fees, finance and funding for adult learners from The Manchester College .

For undergraduate courses at college, you can consider applying for government support in the form of tuition fee and maintenance loans. Read more about student loans and finance at undergraduate level.

Can international students go to college in the UK?

International students can apply to go to college in the UK, but you'll need to have sorted out your visa first before entering the country.

As Britain has now left the European Union (EU), students from European countries will require 'settled' status under the EU Settlement Scheme to live and study here. However, in many cases, college fees are still generally quite reasonable.

The AoC has revealed that the average tuition fees for international students studying a further education qualification is £8,200 per year, with Level 3 courses proving the most popular.

As colleges are renowned for providing a pipeline for those progressing to university, a high proportion of international students choose to move on to HE courses.

They also found that as far as the international marketplace is concerned, the main drawing power in coming to the UK for FE-level study is to achieve A-levels, take English language courses and undertake teacher training .

Read more about studying in the UK at degree level.

You can also take a look at the scholarships and funding available from the British Council - and get information on how to apply to study in the UK .

Find out more

• Discover how to apply for college in the UK .
• Consider should I go to university or do an apprenticeship?
• Explore adult education .

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• Education, training and skills
• Teaching and leadership
• Teacher training and professional development

Teach in further education

Find out how you can become a further education teacher.

Applies to England

What is further education.

Further education ( FE ) is for learners who want to:

• learn a skill or trade
• study a vocational subject
• develop their professional career
• take post-16 academic studies
• study as part of an apprenticeship
• take adult learning courses in basic English, maths and other entry level courses

As a teacher in FE you could teach a diverse set of learners, including young people and adults.

If teaching a skill or trade, you’ll spend more time in practical settings such as workshops rather than in a classroom.

Visit Teach in further education to learn how to start your journey.

How to get into FE teaching

To teach in FE , you’ll need:

• skills, knowledge and experience in your subject
• the willingness to work towards a teaching qualification (or have one already)

Ideally you’ll have industry experience. For some providers, it is preferable for you to have a relevant trade qualification, usually at level 3. You can find out more information about what qualification levels mean .

You’ll also need level 2 maths and English skills. If you do not have these qualifications, FE providers might want to assess your knowledge and skills. They may support you to improve your maths and English skills as part of your training.

It will be expected that those who train on the job or in their own time will be working towards completing either a teaching qualification or a level 5 FE teaching apprenticeship .

Train on the job

There is no specific entry path to becoming a teacher in  FE . One way is to apply for a teaching job with an  FE  provider that can support you to train on the job.

Government programmes, such as Taking Teaching Further, cover the cost of training while working as a teacher. If you are an education provider and would like to find out more about how to apply for this scheme, visit Taking Teaching Further .

You can start work as an FE teacher as soon as you can get a job with an FE provider . When you apply for a job, FE providers will look for:

• knowledge of your subject
• experience of your industry
• practical skills you’ve learnt in your career

Find a job in FE teaching .

Benefits of training on the job

This may be the best approach if:

• you want to start teaching in FE soon
• there is a suitable job available at a local college or training provider
• you do not want to pay for teacher training yourself

The provider may support you to study, for example:

• a teaching qualification
• a level 5 FE teaching apprenticeship

The qualification you work towards will be decided by your employer. Find out more about what qualification levels mean .

Train in your own time

If you prefer to train before starting a new role, you can do your teacher training in your own time around your commitments.

Once you have completed your training you can apply for any suitable jobs.

Benefits of training in your own time

• you do not want to be tied-in to any one provider once you’ve qualified
• you want to get a taste for FE before you commit to teaching in it

You may be eligible to apply for a student loan to help pay for the course fees and living expenses. Find out about student finance .

Depending on your subject, you may be able to get a tax-free bursary with your teacher training course. The value of these bursaries has increased for the 2024 to 2025 academic year.

FE teacher training bursaries are worth up to £30,000 over the length of the course. The value of the bursary depends on the subject you are training to teach.

If you are training to teach maths and your course is 2 years in length, a £30,000 bursary would amount to £15,000 per year.

A limited number of bursaries are available each year. Your course provider will let you know if you are eligible. Find out about bursaries available for 2024 to 2025 .

Where you could work

Places where FE teachers work include:

• independent training providers ( ITPs )
• adult community learning

FE is not the same as:

• secondary school, including school sixth forms

There are many types of colleges including general colleges, sixth form colleges, land-based colleges and national specialist colleges. Colleges offer a wide range of courses, both vocational and academic, and you may teach a wide variety of full-time and part-time students.

Independent training providers ( ITPs )

ITPs are typically a part of the private or charity sector, with many working closely with employers to deliver work-based courses.

Adult community learning

Adult community learning includes a range of community-based and outreach learning opportunities. This type of learning is managed and coordinated by local authorities and their partners to deliver adult education and training courses.

Some companies deliver in-house training which allows them to support their staff through their qualifications.

Courses are normally available to help prisoners gain new skills, for example learning to read and write, use computers, or do basic maths.

What you could teach

FE providers teach a huge range of courses, from social care to construction.

Often the subjects taught reflect the needs of the local economy.

The courses taught include:

• T levels (new qualifications in technical subjects, broadly equivalent to 3 A levels)
• apprenticeships
• entry level courses

Professions, vocations and trades

There are many subjects taught in FE . The best way of discovering them is to explore your local FE provider websites.

Here’s a sample list of sectors covered by  FE  teaching:

• agriculture, environment and animal care
• business, administration and office management
• catering and hospitality
• childcare and education
• construction
• creative and design
• digital and IT
• emergency and armed services
• engineering and manufacturing
• hair and beauty
• health and life sciences
• legal, finance and accounting
• sales, marketing and procurement
• social care
• transport and logistics

Academic subjects

You could teach subjects like:

• social sciences
• modern foreign languages
• art and design
• performing arts

Some FE providers require you to have a degree in the subject you want to teach.

Benefits of working in FE

FE  providers are independent employers and may offer a range of benefits, in addition to salary packages.

These may include:

• pension schemes
• childcare vouchers
• cycle to work schemes
• support with travel costs

This is not a complete list. You can find what each  FE  provider offers on their website.

FE providers like colleges and training providers can:

• set their own entry requirements in terms of qualifications or prior experience needed to teach in FE
• have their own pay structure and other terms and conditions

This means that you will need to make your own assessment of any FE provider you consider applying to work for.

Like colleges, some  ITPs  will provide teacher training on the job. ITPs may differ from colleges in other ways, and could:

• be industry or sector specific
• have a more commercial focus
• have a greater use of remote working

Working hours

A full-time  FE  teacher is typically contracted to 35 to 37 hours a week. Some teaching occurs in the evening, so the working day may vary.

Many  FE  teachers work part-time or flexible hours to fit around other commitments.

Look at job vacancies on FE job boards or providers’ websites to gain an idea of how flexible jobs in FE can be.

As an employee you are entitled to paid holidays.

Term-based holidays mean college-based  FE  teachers typically get 37 days’ paid leave per year, plus all bank holidays.

ITPs  do not usually follow academic terms, so annual leave can usually be taken at any time.

The amount of leave offered varies by provider.

Read real-life stories of current FE teachers and discover what it’s like to teach in FE .

Find a teaching qualification

Teacher training is not linked to your subject. Instead, it will help you gain the specific teaching skills you need to best share your skills, knowledge and experience with your students.

The college or training provider will arrange this for you when you start a job with them.

Teacher training courses vary by:

• minimum qualification requirements

What qualifications are available

These qualifications are good if you want to:

• complete teacher training part-time or on the job
• get a full teaching qualification

These are not the best qualifications if you want to:

• teach in secondary schools
• teach in sixth forms in secondary schools

Course structure

Typically, full-time study will involve at least 100 hours of teaching practice, including 50 in your chosen area if you are on a specialist pathway. You can do this over 1 year if studying full-time or 2 years if part-time.

Teaching status

Following the course, you will be eligible to apply for Qualified Teacher Leaning and Skills status ( QTLS ) .

This varies by provider, but is usually between £6,000 and £9,250. You can have this funded by a student loan or by your provider.

Non-teaching roles

There are many other roles in addition to teaching in FE , which includes working as a:

• teaching assistant
• learning support assistant

These sorts of jobs are advertised on FE providers’ websites, and on general job finder websites.

Where to find a job

The first place to look for a job is on your local college or training provider’s website.

Other places to look include:

• Association of Colleges job site
• FE Jobs - Further Education job site
• College Jobs
• Education Week Jobs
• FE Careers - Further Education careers site
• Times Educational Supplement ( TES ) job site
• job sites such as Indeed, TotalJobs and Reed

The Department for Education does not endorse any particular providers or job sites.

Got a question about finding a job in FE ?

Call our advisors on 0800 389 2502. Lines are open Monday to Friday 9am to 5:30pm.

If you prefer, you can email us instead at Teach. FE @education.gov.uk .

Sign up for updates and hear from current teachers on the Teach in further education website.

Updated the bursaries information for the 2024 to 2025 academic year.

Information on FE teacher training bursaries has been updated for the 2023 to 2024 academic year.

First published.

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Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education

Misrah mohamed.

1 Centre for Enhancement of Learning and Teaching, University of West London, London, United Kingdom

Radzuwan Ab Rashid

2 Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia

Marwan Harb Alqaryouti

3 Department of English Language, Literature and Translation, Zarqa University, Zarqa, Jordan

In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth. While it is now a prominent part of educators, many still find it challenging to apply the concept for it carries diverse meaning for different people in different contexts. This article attempts to (re)conceptualize the complexity of reflective practice in an educational context. Scholars in this field have taken different approaches to reflective practice, but all these approaches consist of four main components in common: (i) reflecting; (ii) planning for future action; (iii) acting; and (iv) evaluating the outcomes. We extend the existing literature by proposing a model which integrates these four components with three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation, and criticality. The novelty of this model lies within its alignment of the three key aspects with different levels of criticality in a comprehensive framework with detailed descriptors provided. The model and its descriptors are useful in guiding individuals who directly or indirectly involve in critical reflection, especially educators, in appraising their levels of criticality and consequently engage in a meaningful reflection.

Introduction

In the field of education, reflective practice has been recognized as an important aspect in continuing professional development. Through reflective practice, we can identify the factors, the consequences of and the assumptions that underlie our actions. In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process ( Ai et al., 2017 ) that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth ( McAlpine et al., 2004 ; De Geest et al., 2011 ; Davies, 2012 ; Marshall, 2019 ). It enables professional judgment ( Day, 1999 ) and fosters professional competence through planning, implementing and improving performance by rethinking about strengths, weaknesses and specific learning needs ( Huda and Teh, 2018 ; Cirocki and Widodo, 2019 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ; Seyed Abolghasem et al., 2020 ; Huynh, 2022 ). Without routinely engaging in reflective practice, it is unlikely that educators will comprehend the effects of their motivations, expectations and experiences upon their practice ( Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). Thus, reflective practice becomes an important tool that helps educators to explore and articulate lived experiences, current experience, and newly created knowledge ( Osterman and Kottkamp, 2004 ). Educators are continually recommended to apply reflective practice in getting a better understanding of what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice ( Loughran, 2002 ; Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). In fact, reflective practice is now a prominent part of training for trainee teachers (e.g., Shek et al., 2021 ; Childs and Hillier, 2022 ; Ruffinelli et al., 2022 ) because it can help future teachers review their own practices and develop relevant skills where necessary.

Despite the wide acceptance of the concept of reflective practice, the notion of ‘reflection’ in itself is still broad. Our review of literature reveals that reflection is a term that carries diverse meaning. For some, “it simply means thinking about something” or “just thinking” (e.g., Loughran, 2002 , p. 33), whereas for others, it is a well-defined practice with very specific purpose, meaning and action (e.g., Dewey, 1933 ; Schön, 1983 ; Grimmett and Erickson, 1988 ; Richardson, 1990 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Spalding et al., 2002 ; Paterson and Chapman, 2013 ). We found many interesting interpretations made along this continuum, but we believe the most appealing that rings true for most people is that reflection is useful and informing in the development and understanding of teaching and learning (e.g., Seitova, 2019 ; McGarr, 2021 ; Huynh, 2022 ). This, however, is not enough to signify the characteristics of reflection. Consequently, many teachers find it hard to understand the concept and engage in reflective practice for their professional development ( Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ; Kovacs and Corrie, 2022 ). For example, some teachers from higher arts education have considered reflective practice as antithetical to practical learning ( Guillaumier, 2016 ; Georgii-Hemming et al., 2020 ) as they often frame explicit reflection as assessed reflective writing, which is “disconnected from the embodied and non-verbal dimensions of making and reflecting on art” ( Treacy & Gaunt, 2021 , p. 488). The lack of understanding of the concept has created disengagement in reflection and reflective practice ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ) which resulted in poor insight and performance in practice ( Davies, 2012 ). To overcome this, educators should foster their understanding of the reflective practice, so they not only can reap its benefits for their own learning, but also facilitate and maximize reflective skills within their students.

In this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the concepts of effective reflective practice and present the value of reflective practice that can help teachers to professionally develop. First, we situate our conceptual understanding of reflective practice by discussing key issues surrounding reflection and reflective practice. Second, we present the key aspects of effective reflective practice. Finally, based on our discussion of key aspects of effective reflective practice, we introduce a revised model of reflective practice that may serve as a guide for educators to professionally develop. Although the model is but one approach, we believe it holds promise for others grappling as we are with efforts to encourage reflective practices among educators who find reflection in and on their practices a complex concept.

Key issues in reflective practice

The concepts of “reflection,” “reflective thought,” and “reflective thinking” have been discussed since 1904, when John Dewey claimed that an individual with good ethical values would treat professional actions as experimental and reflect upon their actions and consequences. Dewey defined reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1904 , p. 10). His basic notion is that reflection is an active, deliberative cognitive process involving a sequence of interconnected ideas that include the underlying beliefs and knowledge of an individual.

Following Dewey’s original work and its subsequent interpretation, four key thought-provoking issues are worthy of discussion: reflective thinking versus reflective action; time of reflection; reflection and problem solving; and critical reflection. The first concern is whether reflection is a process limited to thinking about action or also bound up in action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). There seems to be broad agreement that reflection is a form of thought process ( Ross, 1989 ; McNamara, 1990 ; Sparks-Langer et al., 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ) even though some do not lead to action. However, Dewey’s first mention of “reflective action” suggests he was concerned with the implementation of solutions after thinking through problems. Therefore, reflective practice, in our view, is bound up with the constant, careful consideration of practice in the light of knowledge and beliefs. The complete cycle of reflection should then lead to clear, modified action and this needs to be distinguished from routine action derived from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ).

The time frames within which reflection takes place, needs to be addressed—relatively immediate and short term, or rather more extended and systematic. Schön (1983) holds that professionals should learn to frame and reframe the problems they often face and after trying out various interpretations, modify their actions as a result. He proposes “reflection-in-action,” which requires conscious thinking and modification, simultaneously reflecting and doing almost immediately. Similar to this concept is “technical reflection,” involving thinking about competencies or skills and their effectiveness and occurs almost immediately after an implementation and can then lead to changes in subsequent action ( Cruickshank, 1985 ; Killen, 1989 ). While the notion of immediacy in reflective practice seems appropriate, some argue that the process should involve conscious detachment from an activity after a distinct period of contemplation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ). This is because reflection demands contemplating rational and moral practices in order to make reasoned judgments about better ways to act. Reflective practice often involves looking back at actions from a distance, after they have taken place ( Schön, 1983 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ). While immediate and extended “versions” of reflections are both recognized, we suppose no one is better than another. However, we believe that being able to think consciously about what is happening and respond instantaneously makes for a higher level of reflective competence.

The third issue identified from our literature review is whether reflection by its very nature is problem orientated ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ). Reflection is widely agreed to be a thought process concerned with finding solutions to real problems ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, it is unclear whether solving problems is an inherent characteristic of reflection. For example, Schön’s (1983) reflection-in-action involves thought processing simultaneously with a group event taking place, and reflection-on-action refers to a debriefing process after an event. Both aims to develop insights into what took place—the aims, the difficulties during the event or experience and better ways to act. While focusing on reacting to practical events, these practices do not often intend to find solutions to specific practical problems. Instead, reflective practitioners are invited to think about a new set of actions from if not wider, at least different perspectives.

The fourth issue in the literature revolves around “critical reflection.” Very often critical reflection is concerned with how individuals consciously consider their actions from within wider historical, cultural and political beliefs when framing practical problems for which to seek solutions ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). It is a measure of a person’s acceptance of a particular ideology, its assumptions and epistemology, when critical reflection is developed within reflective practice ( McNamara, 1990 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). It implies the individual locates any analysis of personal action within her/his wider socio-historical and political-cultural contexts ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). While this makes sense, critical reflection in the literature appears to loosely refer to an individual’s constructive self-criticism of their actions to improve in future ( Calderhead, 1989 ), not a consideration of personal actions with both moral and ethical criteria ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ). Thus, we see a need to define critical reflection in line with the key characteristics of reflective practice.

Effective reflective practice

Reflecting on the issues discussed above, we conclude that for reflective practice to be effective, it requires three key aspects: problem-solving, critical reflection and action-orientation. However, these aspects of reflective practice have different levels of complexity and meaning.

Problem-solving

A problem is unlikely to be acted upon if it is not viewed as a problem. Thus, it is crucial to problematize things during reflection, to see concerns that require improvement. This is not a simple process as people’s ability to perceive things as problems is related to their previous experiences. For example, a senior teacher with years of teaching experience and a rapport with the students s/he teaches will be immediately aware of students experiencing difficulties with current teaching strategies. However, a junior teacher whose experience is restricted to a three-month placement and who has met students only a few times will be less aware. The differences in experience also influence the way people interpret problems. For example, the senior teacher may believe his/her teaching strategy is at fault if half the students cannot complete the given tasks. A junior teacher with only 2 weeks teaching experience may deduce that the students were not interested in the topic, and that is why they cannot complete the tasks given. This example illustrates the range of ways a problem can be perceived and the advantages of developing the ability to frame and reframe a problem ( Schön, 1983 ). Problems can also be perceived differently depending on one’s moral and cultural beliefs, and social, ethical and/or political values ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). This could be extended to other factors such as institutional, educational and political system ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ).

Framing and reframing a problem through reflection can influence the practice of subsequent actions ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Treacy and Gaunt, 2021 ). In the example above, the junior teacher attributes the problem to the students’ attitude, which gives her/him little to no incentive to address the situation. This is an ineffective reflective practice because it has little impact on the problem. Thus, we believe it is crucial for individuals to not only recognize problems but to examine their practices ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. This requires critical reflection.

Critical reflection

We believe it is the critical aspect of reflection that makes reflective practice effective and more complex, formulated by various scholars as different stages of reflection. Zeichner and Liston (1987) proposed three stages of reflection similar to those described by Van Manen (1977) . They suggested the first stage was “technical reflection” on how far the means to achieve certain end goals were effective, without criticism or modification. In the second stage, “practical reflection,” both the means and the ends are examined, with the assumptions compared to the actual outcomes. This level of reflection recognizes that meanings are embedded in and negotiated through language, hence are not absolute. The final stage, “critical reflection,” combined with the previous two, considers both the moral and ethical criteria of the judgments about professional activity ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ).

While the three stages above capture the complexity of reflection, individuals will only reach an effective level of reflection when they are able to be self-critical in their judgments and reasoning and can expand their thinking based on new evidence. This aligns with Ross’ (1989) five stages of reflection (see Table 1 ). In her five stages of reflection, individuals do not arrive at the level of critical reflection until they get to stages 4 and 5, which require them to contextualize their knowledge and integrate the new evidence before making any judgments or modification ( Van Gyn, 1996 ).

Five stages of reflections ( Ross, 1989 ).

Action-orientation

We believe it is important that any reflections should be acted upon. Looking at the types and stages of reflection discussed earlier, there is a clear indication that reflective practice is a cyclical process ( Kolb, 1984 ; Richards and Lockhart, 2005 ; Taggart and Wilson, 2005 ; Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Babaei and Abednia, 2016 ; Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ; Oo and Habók, 2020 ). Richards and Lockhart (2005) suggest this cyclical process comprises planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This is further developed by Hulsman et al. (2009) who believe that the cyclical process not only involves action and observation, but also analysis, presentation and feedback. In the education field, reflective practice is also considered cyclical ( Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Kennedy-Clark et al., 2018 ) because educators plan, observe, evaluate, and revise their teaching practice continuously ( Pollard et al., 2014 ). This process can be done through a constant systematic self-evaluation cycle ( Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ) which involves a written analysis or an open discussion with colleagues.

From the descriptions above, it seems that cyclical reflective practice entails identifying a problem, exploring its root cause, modifying action plans based on reasoning and evidence, executing and evaluating the new action and its results. Within this cyclical process, we consider action as a deliberate change is the key to effective reflective practice, especially in the field of education. Reflection that is action-oriented is an ongoing process which refers to how educators prepare and teach and the methods they employ. Educators move from one teaching stage to the next while gaining the knowledge through experience of the importance/relevance of the chosen methods in the classroom situation ( Oo and Habók, 2020 ).

While reflection is an invisible cognitive process, it is not altogether intuitive ( Plessner et al., 2011 ). Individuals, especially those lacking experience, may lack adequate intuition ( Greenhalgh, 2002 ). To achieve a certain level of reflection, they need guidance and this can be done with others either in groups ( Gibbs, 1988 ; Grant et al., 2017 ) or through one-on-one feedback ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). The others, who can be peers or mentors, can help provide different perspectives in exploring alternative interpretations and behaviors. Having said this, reflecting with others may not always feasible as it often requires investment of time and energy from others ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). Therefore, teachers must learn how to scaffold their own underlying values, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions, and critically challenge and evaluate assumptions of everyday practice on their own. With this in mind, we have created a cyclical process of reflective practice which may help in individual reflections. It captures the three key aspects of reflective practice discussed above. This model may help teachers having a range of experience enhance their competence through different focus and levels of reflection (see Figure 1 ).

Cyclical reflective practice model capturing problem-solving, action-oriented critical reflection.

The model illustrates the cyclical process with three stages: reflection, modification and action. At the reflection stage, a problem and the root of the problem is explored so it can be framed as it is/was and then reframed to identify a possible solution. This is followed by a modification for change based on the reasoning and evidence explored during the reflection stage. Finally, the action stage involves executing action (an event), followed by the reflection stage to begin another cycle and continue the process.

As presented earlier, it is crucial for individuals to be able to frame and reframe problems through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. Thus, the model above expands Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan’s (1994) framework by adding together the element of problematizing. The current revised framework highlights the four focuses of reflection; technical addresses the management or procedural aspects of teaching practice; situational addresses the context of teaching; sensitizing involves reflecting upon the social, moral, ethical or political concerns of teaching; and problematizing concerns the framing and reframing of the problem identified within the teaching context. Considering the different levels of critical reflection, we extend the four focuses of reflection to three different levels of critical reflection: descriptive involves reflection of the four focuses without reasoning or criticism; descriptive with rationale involves reflection of the four focuses with reasoning; and descriptive with rationale and evaluation involves reflection of the four focuses with both reasoning and criticism (see Table 2 ). Each of these levels requires different degrees of critical analysis and competence to extract information from actions and experiences. Overall, level three best captures effective critical reflection for each focus.

A framework of reflection.

This revised model that we proposed encompasses different levels of critical reflection and is action-oriented. There is also a clear link to problem-solving which requires framing and reframing problems to accurately identify them, which may influence the value and effectiveness of the actions that follow ( Loughran, 2002 ). Thus, this model may help people, especially those with lack experience to recognize the different aspects of reflection so they can make better assessments of and modifications to their procedures ( Ross, 1989 ; Van Gyn, 1996 ).

The meaning of reflection and reflective practice is not clear cut. However, we believe a reflective educator should cultivate a set of responses to how their teaching operates in practice. As Dewey (1933) suggested, educators must find time to reflect on their activity, knowledge, and experience so that they can develop and more effectively serve their community, nurturing each student’s learning. However, this does not always happen. Some educators do not reflect on their own practice because they find the concept of reflective practice difficult to put into practice for their professional development ( Jay and Johnson, 2002 ; Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ).

Our review of the literature indicates that reflective practice is a complex process and some scholars argue that it should involve active thinking that is more bound up with action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). Thus, the complete cycle of reflective practice needs to be distinguished from routine action which may stem from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). In addition, some also argue that reflective practice involves the conscious detachment from an activity followed by deliberation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ), and therefore reflective practice should not occur immediately after action. Although this is acceptable, we believe that instant reflection and modification for future action can be a good indicator of an individual’s level of reflective competence.

Reflective practice is an active process that requires individuals to make the tacit explicit. Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that reflection is, by its very nature, problem-centered ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). Only with this in mind can individuals frame and reframe their actions or experiences to discover specific solutions. Reflective practice is also complex, requiring critical appraisal and consideration of various aspects of thought processes. Individuals must play close attention to what they do, evaluate what works and what does not work on a personal, practical and professional level ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, some would consider critical reflection as no more than constructive self-criticism of one’s actions with a view to improve ( Calderhead, 1989 ). Consequently, scholars have taken different approaches to reflective practice in teaching areas that include critical thinking (e.g., Ross, 1989 ; Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan, 1994 ; Loughran, 2002 ). These approaches had four components in common: reflecting (observing actions, reviewing, recollecting), planning for future action (thinking and considering), acting (practice, experience, and learning), and evaluating (interpreting and assessing outcomes). We propose a model that embraces these four sub-areas and three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation and critical reflection. We align these key aspects with level of criticality in a framework with detailed descriptors. It is hoped that these elements, combined together, demonstrate the complexities of reflection in a better, clearer way so that those struggling to adopt reflective practice will now be able to do so without much difficulty.

Author contributions

MM contributed to conception and written the first draft of the manuscript. RR contributed in the discussion of the topic. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

NU Reflect - Newcastle University

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There are substantial benefits in being a reflective student. Research shows that students who are reflective when learning will have a deeper understanding of their subject.

From ePortfolio JISC Infokit "The process of reflection through which learning experiences are explored can lead to deeper levels of learning (Barrett, 2004b) and help develop a range of skills essential to lifelong and lifewide learning. It is also a central element of Personal Development Planning and Continuing Professional Development. Reflective learners are likely to be more self-critical, self-aware, independent in their learning, motivated, self-managed and open to feedback and different approaches. By engaging with reflection and the associated processes of self-evaluation, action planning and goal setting, levels of achievement can be raised as evidenced by Becta’s report on the impact of e-portfolios on learning (Hartnell-Young et al 2007)."

What does being reflective mean?

There is a lot of research on reflective learning. Described below are three of the main contributors to this research. You can click on any of the images to expand them.

David Kolb - Experiential Learning

David Kolb is an American educationalist whose work focuses on experiential learning. Experiential learning is learning that takes place from experiences. He developed a learning cycle that shows learning taking place initially from experiencing a situation, then reflecting on that situation, forming generalisations and concepts, and then applying the knowledge learned.

Donald Schön - Reflection-in-action/Reflection-on-action

Reflection does not just take place after an event. Schon explained that reflection, albeit quick and less considered reflection, can take place during an event as well.

Graham Gibbs - Reflective Cycle

Gibbs expanded on Kolb's experiental learning cycle. He described a structured debriefing process to enable reflection.

Further reading:

Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner, How Professionals Think In Action , Basic Books.

Kolb. D. A. and Fry, R. (1975) Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. in C. Cooper (ed.), Theories of Group Process, London: John Wiley.

Gibbs, G. (1988)  Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods , Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development, . London: Further Education Unit.