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What is the Difference Between Research and Project

The main difference between research and project is that research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions, while a project is a specific and finite activity that gives a measurable and observable result under preset requirements.

Both research and projects use a systematic approach. We also sometimes use the term research project to refer to research studies.

Key Areas Covered

1.  What is Research       – Definition, Features 2. What is a Project      – Definition, Features 3.  Difference Between Research and Project      – Comparison of Key Differences

Research, Project

What is Research

Research is a careful study a researcher conducts using a systematic approach and scientific methods. A research study typically involves several components: abstract, introduction ,  literature review ,  research design, and method , results and analysis, conclusion, bibliography. Researchers usually begin a formal research study with a hypothesis; then, they test this hypothesis rigorously. They also explore and analyze the literature already available on their research subject. This allows them to study the research subject from multiple perspectives, acknowledging different problems that need to be solved.

There are different types of research, the main two categories being quantitative research and qualitative research. Depending on their research method and design, we can also categorize research as descriptive research, exploratory research, longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, etc.

Furthermore, research should always be objective or unbiased. Moreover, if the research involves participants, for example, in surveys or interviews, the researcher should always make sure to obtain their written consent first.

What is a Project

A project is a collaborative or individual enterprise that is carefully planned to achieve a particular aim. We can also describe it as a specific and finite activity that gives a measurable and observable result under preset requirements. This result can be tangible or intangible; for example, product, service, competitive advantage, etc. A project generally involves a series of connected tasks planned for execution over a fixed period of time and within certain limitations like quality and cost. The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) defines a project as a “temporary endeavor with a beginning and an end, and it must be used to create a unique product, service or result.”

Difference Between Research and Project

Research is a careful study conducted using a systematic approach and scientific methods, whereas a project is a collaborative or individual enterprise that is carefully planned to achieve a particular aim.

Research studies are mainly carried out in academia, while projects can be seen in a variety of contexts, including businesses.

The main aim of the research is to seek or revise facts, theories, or principles, while the main aim of a project is to achieve a tangible or intangible result; for example, product, service, competitive advantage, etc.

The main difference between research and project is that research is the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions, while the project is a specific and finite activity that gives a measurable and observable result under preset requirements.

1. “ What Is a Project? – Definition, Lifecycle and Key Characteristics .” Your Guide to Project Management Best Practices .

Image Courtesy:

1. “ Research ” by Nick Youngson (CC BY-SA 3.0) via The Blue Diamond Gallery 2. “ Project-group-team-feedback ” (CC0) via Pixabay

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Hasanthi is a seasoned content writer and editor with over 8 years of experience. Armed with a BA degree in English and a knack for digital marketing, she explores her passions for literature, history, culture, and food through her engaging and informative writing.

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Research vs. Project — What's the Difference?

Difference Between Research and Project

Table of contents, key differences, comparison chart, compare with definitions, common curiosities, what is a project, is research always part of academic work, can a project include research, how is a project managed, do all research leads to conclusive results, what is research, can anyone conduct research, what is a project timeline, does research require ethical approval, who funds research, are projects only for scientific purposes, what are project deliverables, how is research documented, can research be patented, what is a project budget, share your discovery.

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11.1: A “Research Essay” or a “Research Project” instead of a “Research Paper”

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• Steven D. Krause
• Eastern Michigan University

Throughout this book, I’ve purposefully avoided the term “research paper” for three reasons. First, while teachers assign and students write essays in college classes that are commonly called “research papers,” there is no clear consensus on the definition of a research paper. This is because the definition of “research” differs from field to field, and even between instructors within the same discipline teaching the same course.

Second, while the papers we tend to call “research papers” do indeed include research, most other kinds of college writing require at least some research as well. All of the exercises outlined in Part Two of the book, ” Exercises in the Process of Research” are examples of this: while none of these assignments are “research papers,” all of them involve research in order to make a point.

A third reason has to do with the connotations of the word “paper” versus the word “essay.” For me, “paper” suggests something static, concrete, routine, and uninteresting—think of the negative connotations of the term bureaucratic “paperwork,” or the policing mechanism of “showing your papers” to the authorities. On the other hand, the word “essay” has more positive connotations: dynamic, flexible, unique, and creative. The definitions of essay in dictionaries I have examined include terms like “attempt,” “endeavor,” and “a try.” As a writer, I would much rather work on something that was a dynamic and creative endeavor rather than a static and routine document. My hope is that you, as a student and a writer, feel the same way.

This chapter is about writing a research essay. While I cannot offer you exact guidelines of how to do this for each and every situation where you will be asked to write such a paper or essay, I can provide you with the general guidelines and advice you’ll need to successfully complete these sorts of writing assignments. In the next chapter, I’ll describe a few alternatives to presenting your research in a conventional essay.

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Similarities Between Research Papers & Project Proposals

This article examines the commonalities between research papers and project proposals, two distinct yet related genres of writing. It is well established that both types of documents share many similarities in terms of their purpose and structure; however, there are also some important differences between them that must be acknowledged. Through a critical review of current literature and analysis from relevant examples, this paper seeks to provide an insightful exploration into the relationships between research papers and project proposals. Ultimately, it aims to demonstrate how knowledge on these topics can lead to better-informed decisions when constructing either type of document for academic or professional use.

I. Introduction

Ii. definition of research papers and project proposals, iii. purpose of research papers and project proposals, iv. common features between research papers and project proposals, v. differences between research papers & project proposals, vi. implications for both forms of writing in the academic community, vii. conclusion.

Project proposals and research papers share several commonalities. The two genres are both written for academic purposes, with the intention of informing an audience about a particular topic or concept in great detail. Additionally, they both require extensive background knowledge on the chosen subject as well as accurate data gathering and analysis to be completed before either document can be drafted.

While there may seem like many more similarities between project proposals and research papers than differences at first glance, it is important to note that each document has its own unique purpose that sets them apart from one another. A project proposal seeks to provide an outline of what will likely happen if funding is granted for said project – while still leaving room for flexibility should circumstances change during the duration of it – whereas a research paper aims primarily to delve into already existing information regarding a specific topic in order to gain new insights or prove/disprove pre-existing hypotheses.

Research papers and project proposals are both common forms of research documents. Both involve a researcher proposing an idea or concept for investigation, gathering data to support the concept, and writing up findings in detail.

• Both require significant amounts of background knowledge on the topic being studied.
• Good planning is necessary before beginning work on either type of document.
• Time must be dedicated to researching sources such as journal articles or books related to the proposed study area.

Research papers and project proposals are two essential documents in academia. Both serve to communicate a research idea, plan, or outcome. Research papers typically present an original argument and evidence-based analysis of a subject. They often require the synthesis of knowledge from multiple sources while addressing opposing arguments. On the other hand, project proposals seek funding for implementation of ideas that have already been researched extensively elsewhere.

In both cases it is necessary to provide clear descriptions on how time and resources will be allocated as well as explain the expected outcomes or benefits associated with their completion. Additionally, they both must take into account any ethical considerations within their respective fields and avoid plagiarism at all costs.

• The primary difference between research papers and project proposals lies in who is responsible for carrying out the proposed work.
• Project Proposals rely heavily on preexisting literature whereas research papers involve constructing new insights through empirical testing.

Ultimately, this distinction emphasizes why effective communication about these topics is so important – success relies upon understanding one another’s expectations before taking action!

Similar Structure and Content Requirements Research papers and project proposals often require the same level of structure, although this may vary between disciplines. Additionally, there are common requirements for content that must be included in both types of documents. Generally speaking, each paper or proposal should have an introduction outlining the purpose and goal of research as well as a literature review to provide context for the findings. Furthermore, it is important to include methods used during experiments if applicable alongside results section to discuss these outcomes. Lastly, all projects should end with a conclusion offering summarized observations from data collection.

Understanding Audience It is essential when crafting either type of document that authors understand their target audience: who they are writing for and what information they need from them? Research papers tend towards scientific inquiry while project proposals focus on gaining approval before beginning large-scale undertakings; thus their readership may differ significantly depending upon subject matter at hand. For example: engineering research might present key details such as feasibility analyses needed by investors whereas medical related topics could necessitate clear explanation regarding experimental design protocols desired by peer reviewers

The two documents, research papers and project proposals, have some differences as well as similarities. Research papers are typically longer in length than a project proposal since they provide an extensive discussion of the subject matter. This allows for deeper analysis and presentation of data compared to a proposal which summarizes the information.

• Research Papers : Focus on conveying results from experiments or surveys that were conducted
• Project Proposals: Focus on establishing objectives and how those can be met with proposed methods.

Both documents use references from other scholarly sources to strengthen their argument. In both cases the author needs to present evidence-based facts in support of his or her claim by citing reliable sources while providing proper attributions to maintain integrity within academia.

Exploring Interdependence The academic community is comprised of a variety of different forms of writing, both research papers and project proposals being two primary examples. While these distinct forms may appear quite separate at first glance, they are in fact intricately interwoven by virtue of their shared purpose: to communicate the results and findings gained from studies conducted within an academic setting. As such, understanding how each form affects the other is essential for realizing maximum efficiency when crafting either type.

On one hand, writing a project proposal provides an invaluable opportunity to practice the skills required for producing high quality research papers; it allows writers to strengthen foundational elements like structure organization and formatting conventions while exercising precision with regards to detail-oriented concerns such as referencing sources or outlining methodology steps. Moreover, effectively constructing arguments that support a given stance often necessitates considering evidence from multiple perspectives — something which can be honed through practice in any number of contexts including those found within project proposals.

• Insightful comprehension on logical connections between concepts.
• Formulating clear conclusions based on empirical data.

Similarly, knowledge gleaned from researching for research papers has direct applicability towards creating strong foundations upon which solidified projects can be developed over time — this includes gaining detailed insight into particular topics as well as developing sharp analytical faculties necessary for evaluating various potential solutions offered up during brainstorming sessions pertinent to problem solving scenarios associated with proposed initiatives outlined in respective documents. Ultimately then what we observe here is mutual benefit afforded via information exchange inherent amongst both types even if indirectly so!

In the pursuit of a research paper or project proposal, conclusions must be drawn. Both require an understanding of the main topics discussed and explored as well as thoughtful consideration about how to move forward with further study. The conclusion for either document should act as both a reflection on what has been done thus far and also a direction for future endeavors.

The similarities between these two documents are found in their overall purpose: to succinctly summarize relevant information while providing insight into next steps. When writing this section, it is important that one remains concise yet thorough; offering ideas which directly relate back to prior discussions but remain open-ended enough so that readers may generate their own interpretations from the material presented.

In conclusion, this article has provided a comprehensive overview of the similarities between research papers and project proposals. Although both documents involve different processes and goals, they are largely similar in their structure, purpose, and preparation process. It is important for those involved in any kind of scholarly work to have an understanding of these two document types as well as what sets them apart from one another. With this knowledge comes greater confidence when writing either type of document; thus allowing scholars to make effective use of resources available at their disposal.

Difference between Research and Project

What is the difference between research and project.

Research as a noun is diligent inquiry or examination to seek or revise facts, principles, theories, applications, et cetera; laborious or continued search after truth. while Project as a noun is a planned endeavor, usually with a specific goal and accomplished in several steps or stages.

Part of speech: noun

Definition: Diligent inquiry or examination to seek or revise facts, principles, theories, applications, et cetera; laborious or continued search after truth. A particular instance or piece of research.

Part of speech: verb

Definition: to search or examine with continued care; to seek diligently. to make an extensive investigation into. to search again.

Example sentence: Research is what I'm doing when I don't know what I'm doing.

Definition: A planned endeavor, usually with a specific goal and accomplished in several steps or stages. An urban low-income housing building.

Definition: To extend beyond a surface. To cast (an image or shadow) upon a surface. To extend (a protrusion or appendage) outward. To make plans for; to forecast.

We hope you now know whether to use Research or Project in your sentence.

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What'S The Difference Between A Project And A Research Project?

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However, the main difference is that while an academic research proposal is for a specific line of research, a project proposal is for approval of a relatively smaller enterprise or scientific scheme; most often, project proposals are written with the intent of obtaining support in the form of budget penalties and permission to devote time and effort to the chosen project. Here it must be remembered that the forms, procedures and principles of academic research proposals are much more rigorous than for project proposals; it goes without saying that even the standard is much more demanding than in the project proposals. 

While format, length, and content may vary, the overall goal of academic research proposals and project proposals remains the same: approval by supervisors, academic committees, or reviews . This article will discuss the complexities of academic research proposals and project proposals, thereby helping readers understand the differences between the two. The following steps describe a simple and effective research paper writing strategy.  You will most likely start your research with a working, preliminary, or preliminary thesis, which you will refine until you are sure where the evidence leads. The thesis says what you believe and what you are going to prove. Good thesis statement distinguishes a thoughtful research project from a mere review of the facts. A good experimental thesis will help you focus your search for information. 

Before embarking on serious research, do some preliminary research to determine if there is enough information for your needs and to set the context for your research. Now that the direction of your research is clear to you, you can start searching for material on your topic. Choose a topic on which you can find an acceptable amount of information.  People wishing to publish the results of a quality assurance project should read this guide. Worksheets for assessing whether a quality assurance activity is also exploratory The following are two worksheets to help researchers determine whether to consult with the IRB before starting a quality assurance project. 

The main similarity between a thesis and a research project is that both can be inserted as academic papers. To understand the difference between a thesis and a research project, it is necessary to understand the similarities between the two terms. A dissertation is much more thorough than a research project; is a collection of various studies carried out in the field of study, which includes a critical analysis of their results. It aims to present and justify the necessity and importance of conducting research, as well as to present practical ways of conducting research. In addition, he should discuss the main issues and questions that the researcher will raise during the course of the study. Take on a topic that can be adequately covered in the given project format. A strong thesis is provocative; takes a stand and justifies the discussion you present. 

It contains the introduction, problematic hypothesis, objectives, hypothesis, methodology, rationale, and implications of the research project. The information collected during the study culminates in an application document such as policy recommendations, curriculum development, or program evaluation. The purpose of a design study is to collect information that will help solve an identifiable problem in a specific context. The purpose of design research is not to add to our understanding of research on a topic. The key difference between design research and a dissertation is that design research does not start from a research problem. The main difference between a terminating project and a thesis is that a terminating project addresses a specific problem, problem, or problem in your field of study, while a dissertation attempts to create new knowledge. The final project focuses on a narrow and specific topic, while the dissertation addresses a broader and more general issue. 

The main difference between projects and programs is usually that projects are designed to produce results while programs are designed to achieve business results. Obviously, there are some similarities between projects and programs, namely that they are both interested in change, i.e., in creating something new, and both require the use of a team to achieve a goal. To make the difference between project and programme more concrete, let's look at a practical example of the difference between project and programme. But to understand the difference, you need to start by understanding the definitions of projects and programmes. In a project portfolio, each project is responsible for managing multiple projects. The figure also highlights the differences between the project management level and the program and portfolio. 

Program Managers Project Managers Program Managers create the overall plans that are used to manage projects. Project management has a defined timeline with a defined deliverable that determines the end date. The program manager defines the vision, which is especially important when he oversees several projects at the same time. Program managers need to think strategically, especially as they often have to negotiate between different organizations and sometimes between multiple projects interacting over a program. Indeed, some of these projects can be so large and complex that they are programs in their own right. Thus, our software projects will only be one of the projects controlled by the program. Project Report Research Report Mainly focuses on achieving the desired outcome of the project. The focus is on providing information derived from data and problem analysis. A project report, as the name suggests, is simply a report that provides useful and important information to make better business decisions and also helps in project management. 

Conversely, a research report defines what is being sought, sources of data collection, how data is collected (for example, a research report focuses on the results of a completed research work. The research proposal has been submitted, evaluated, taking into account a number of factors, such as the associated costs , potential impact, soundness of the project implementation plan This is usually a request for research funding on the subject of study.  Instead, the research report is prepared after the project is completed. The research proposal is written in the future, the time used in the research report is past because it is written in the third person. Research proposals are approximately 4-10 pages in length. On the other hand, research consists of proving the main thesis backed up by evidence and data. Originality and personal research are important components of a dissertation. This dissertation engages the student in stimulating or provocative research and shows a level of thinking that opens up new horizons. Researching and writing an article will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something interesting. 

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• Aims and Objectives – A Guide for Academic Writing
• Doing a PhD

One of the most important aspects of a thesis, dissertation or research paper is the correct formulation of the aims and objectives. This is because your aims and objectives will establish the scope, depth and direction that your research will ultimately take. An effective set of aims and objectives will give your research focus and your reader clarity, with your aims indicating what is to be achieved, and your objectives indicating how it will be achieved.

Introduction

There is no getting away from the importance of the aims and objectives in determining the success of your research project. Unfortunately, however, it is an aspect that many students struggle with, and ultimately end up doing poorly. Given their importance, if you suspect that there is even the smallest possibility that you belong to this group of students, we strongly recommend you read this page in full.

This page describes what research aims and objectives are, how they differ from each other, how to write them correctly, and the common mistakes students make and how to avoid them. An example of a good aim and objectives from a past thesis has also been deconstructed to help your understanding.

What Are Aims and Objectives?

Research aims.

A research aim describes the main goal or the overarching purpose of your research project.

In doing so, it acts as a focal point for your research and provides your readers with clarity as to what your study is all about. Because of this, research aims are almost always located within its own subsection under the introduction section of a research document, regardless of whether it’s a thesis , a dissertation, or a research paper .

A research aim is usually formulated as a broad statement of the main goal of the research and can range in length from a single sentence to a short paragraph. Although the exact format may vary according to preference, they should all describe why your research is needed (i.e. the context), what it sets out to accomplish (the actual aim) and, briefly, how it intends to accomplish it (overview of your objectives).

To give an example, we have extracted the following research aim from a real PhD thesis:

Example of a Research Aim

The role of diametrical cup deformation as a factor to unsatisfactory implant performance has not been widely reported. The aim of this thesis was to gain an understanding of the diametrical deformation behaviour of acetabular cups and shells following impaction into the reamed acetabulum. The influence of a range of factors on deformation was investigated to ascertain if cup and shell deformation may be high enough to potentially contribute to early failure and high wear rates in metal-on-metal implants.

Note: Extracted with permission from thesis titled “T he Impact And Deformation Of Press-Fit Metal Acetabular Components ” produced by Dr H Hothi of previously Queen Mary University of London.

Research Objectives

Where a research aim specifies what your study will answer, research objectives specify how your study will answer it.

They divide your research aim into several smaller parts, each of which represents a key section of your research project. As a result, almost all research objectives take the form of a numbered list, with each item usually receiving its own chapter in a dissertation or thesis.

Following the example of the research aim shared above, here are it’s real research objectives as an example:

Example of a Research Objective

• Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.
• Investigate the number, velocity and position of impacts needed to insert a cup.
• Determine the relationship between the size of interference between the cup and cavity and deformation for different cup types.
• Investigate the influence of non-uniform cup support and varying the orientation of the component in the cavity on deformation.
• Examine the influence of errors during reaming of the acetabulum which introduce ovality to the cavity.
• Determine the relationship between changes in the geometry of the component and deformation for different cup designs.
• Develop three dimensional pelvis models with non-uniform bone material properties from a range of patients with varying bone quality.
• Use the key parameters that influence deformation, as identified in the foam models to determine the range of deformations that may occur clinically using the anatomic models and if these deformations are clinically significant.

It’s worth noting that researchers sometimes use research questions instead of research objectives, or in other cases both. From a high-level perspective, research questions and research objectives make the same statements, but just in different formats.

Taking the first three research objectives as an example, they can be restructured into research questions as follows:

Restructuring Research Objectives as Research Questions

• Can finite element models using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum together with explicit dynamics be used to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion?
• What is the number, velocity and position of impacts needed to insert a cup?
• What is the relationship between the size of interference between the cup and cavity and deformation for different cup types?

Difference Between Aims and Objectives

Hopefully the above explanations make clear the differences between aims and objectives, but to clarify:

• The research aim focus on what the research project is intended to achieve; research objectives focus on how the aim will be achieved.
• Research aims are relatively broad; research objectives are specific.
• Research aims focus on a project’s long-term outcomes; research objectives focus on its immediate, short-term outcomes.
• A research aim can be written in a single sentence or short paragraph; research objectives should be written as a numbered list.

How to Write Aims and Objectives

Before we discuss how to write a clear set of research aims and objectives, we should make it clear that there is no single way they must be written. Each researcher will approach their aims and objectives slightly differently, and often your supervisor will influence the formulation of yours on the basis of their own preferences.

Regardless, there are some basic principles that you should observe for good practice; these principles are described below.

Your aim should be made up of three parts that answer the below questions:

• Why is this research required?
• What is this research about?
• How are you going to do it?

The easiest way to achieve this would be to address each question in its own sentence, although it does not matter whether you combine them or write multiple sentences for each, the key is to address each one.

The first question, why , provides context to your research project, the second question, what , describes the aim of your research, and the last question, how , acts as an introduction to your objectives which will immediately follow.

Scroll through the image set below to see the ‘why, what and how’ associated with our research aim example.

Note: Your research aims need not be limited to one. Some individuals per to define one broad ‘overarching aim’ of a project and then adopt two or three specific research aims for their thesis or dissertation. Remember, however, that in order for your assessors to consider your research project complete, you will need to prove you have fulfilled all of the aims you set out to achieve. Therefore, while having more than one research aim is not necessarily disadvantageous, consider whether a single overarching one will do.

Research Objectives

Each of your research objectives should be SMART :

• Specific – is there any ambiguity in the action you are going to undertake, or is it focused and well-defined?
• Measurable – how will you measure progress and determine when you have achieved the action?
• Achievable – do you have the support, resources and facilities required to carry out the action?
• Relevant – is the action essential to the achievement of your research aim?
• Timebound – can you realistically complete the action in the available time alongside your other research tasks?

In addition to being SMART, your research objectives should start with a verb that helps communicate your intent. Common research verbs include:

Table of Research Verbs to Use in Aims and Objectives

Last, format your objectives into a numbered list. This is because when you write your thesis or dissertation, you will at times need to make reference to a specific research objective; structuring your research objectives in a numbered list will provide a clear way of doing this.

To bring all this together, let’s compare the first research objective in the previous example with the above guidance:

Checking Research Objective Example Against Recommended Approach

Research Objective:

1. Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.

Checking Against Recommended Approach:

Q: Is it specific? A: Yes, it is clear what the student intends to do (produce a finite element model), why they intend to do it (mimic cup/shell blows) and their parameters have been well-defined ( using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum ).

Q: Is it measurable? A: Yes, it is clear that the research objective will be achieved once the finite element model is complete.

Q: Is it achievable? A: Yes, provided the student has access to a computer lab, modelling software and laboratory data.

Q: Is it relevant? A: Yes, mimicking impacts to a cup/shell is fundamental to the overall aim of understanding how they deform when impacted upon.

Q: Is it timebound? A: Yes, it is possible to create a limited-scope finite element model in a relatively short time, especially if you already have experience in modelling.

Q: Does it start with a verb? A: Yes, it starts with ‘develop’, which makes the intent of the objective immediately clear.

Q: Is it a numbered list? A: Yes, it is the first research objective in a list of eight.

Mistakes in Writing Research Aims and Objectives

1. making your research aim too broad.

Having a research aim too broad becomes very difficult to achieve. Normally, this occurs when a student develops their research aim before they have a good understanding of what they want to research. Remember that at the end of your project and during your viva defence , you will have to prove that you have achieved your research aims; if they are too broad, this will be an almost impossible task. In the early stages of your research project, your priority should be to narrow your study to a specific area. A good way to do this is to take the time to study existing literature, question their current approaches, findings and limitations, and consider whether there are any recurring gaps that could be investigated .

Note: Achieving a set of aims does not necessarily mean proving or disproving a theory or hypothesis, even if your research aim was to, but having done enough work to provide a useful and original insight into the principles that underlie your research aim.

2. Making Your Research Objectives Too Ambitious

Be realistic about what you can achieve in the time you have available. It is natural to want to set ambitious research objectives that require sophisticated data collection and analysis, but only completing this with six months before the end of your PhD registration period is not a worthwhile trade-off.

3. Formulating Repetitive Research Objectives

Each research objective should have its own purpose and distinct measurable outcome. To this effect, a common mistake is to form research objectives which have large amounts of overlap. This makes it difficult to determine when an objective is truly complete, and also presents challenges in estimating the duration of objectives when creating your project timeline. It also makes it difficult to structure your thesis into unique chapters, making it more challenging for you to write and for your audience to read.

Fortunately, this oversight can be easily avoided by using SMART objectives.

Hopefully, you now have a good idea of how to create an effective set of aims and objectives for your research project, whether it be a thesis, dissertation or research paper. While it may be tempting to dive directly into your research, spending time on getting your aims and objectives right will give your research clear direction. This won’t only reduce the likelihood of problems arising later down the line, but will also lead to a more thorough and coherent research project.

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Research versus practice in quality improvement? Understanding how we can bridge the gap

Lisa r hirschhorn.

1 Department of Medical Social Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA

Rohit Ramaswamy

2 Department of Maternal and Child Health, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, 4107 McGavran-Greenberg Hall, CB #7469, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA

Mahesh Devnani

3 Department of Hospital Administration, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, OPD Block Sector 12, Chandigarh 160012, India

Abraham Wandersman

4 Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, 1512 pendleton st, Columbia, SC 29208, USA

Lisa A Simpson

5 AcademyHealth, 1666 K Street, Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20006, USA

Ezequiel Garcia-Elorrio

6 Department of Health Care Quality and Patient Safety, Institute for Clinical Effectiveness and Health Policy, Dr. Emilio Ravignani 2024 (C1414CPV), Buenos Aires, Argentina

The gap between implementers and researchers of quality improvement (QI) has hampered the degree and speed of change needed to reduce avoidable suffering and harm in health care. Underlying causes of this gap include differences in goals and incentives, preferred methodologies, level and types of evidence prioritized and targeted audiences. The Salzburg Global Seminar on ‘Better Health Care: How do we learn about improvement?’ brought together researchers, policy makers, funders, implementers, evaluators from low-, middle- and high-income countries to explore how to increase the impact of QI. In this paper, we describe some of the reasons for this gap and offer suggestions to better bridge the chasm between researchers and implementers. Effectively bridging this gap can increase the generalizability of QI interventions, accelerate the spread of effective approaches while also strengthening the local work of implementers. Increasing the effectiveness of research and work in the field will support the knowledge translation needed to achieve quality Universal Health Coverage and the Sustainable Development Goals.

Introduction

After mixed results from the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) strategy, the global agenda recognized the critical role of ensuring not just access but quality of health care delivery. As a result, quality and improvement have become a core focus within the Universal Health Coverage movement to achieve the goal of better population health and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)[ 1 – 3 ]. In low- and middle-income countries, quality improvement (QI) is used to identify performance gaps and implement improvement interventions to address these problems at the local, sub national and national levels. Methods used by these improvement interventions range from process improvements using incremental, cyclically implemented changes appropriate to the local context, to system-level interventions and policies to improve and sustain quality. Regardless of the scope of improvement efforts and methods employed, the impact and spread of QI has often fallen short. Causes of these lost opportunities include how decisions about improvement interventions are made, the methodology for measuring the effectiveness of the intervention, what data are collected and used and how the information on both the implementation and the intervention is communicated to drive spread and knowledge translation [ 4 , 5 ]. Practitioners engaged in improvement in their organizations are frustrated by research reviews which often show a lack of conclusiveness about the effectiveness of QI when many of them see the local benefits from their work. Researchers complain about the lack of rigor in the application of QI methods in practice sittings and about poor documentation of the implementation process [ 6 ].

There is a growing realization of the need for common ground between implementers and researchers that promotes use of more systematic and rigorous methods to assess the improvement intervention effectiveness when appropriate but does not demand that all QI implementations be subject to the experimental methods commonly considered to be the gold standard of evidence. To explore the causes of this gap and address how to bridge the gap and better engage the targeted consumers of generated knowledge, including communities, governments and funders, a session ‘Better Health Care: How do we learn about improvement?’ was organized by Salzburg Global Seminar (SGS) [ 7 ]. The session brought together experts from a range of fields and organizations, including researchers, improvement implementers from the field, policy makers, and representatives from countries and international organizations.

For a partnership between researchers and implementers to become more consistent in improvement projects and studies, the incentives and priorities of each of these groups need to be better aligned in QI work and its evaluation. In this paper, we build on the Salzburg discussions, existing literature, and our own experience to explore the barriers to collaboration and offer suggestions on how to start to address these barriers. In the spirit of quality improvement, we hope that these recommendations are adopted and tried by groups interested in advancing the research and the practice of QI.

Why the gap exists

Both groups use data to evaluate whether improvements have taken place and are interested in the question of ‘did it work’. However, these gaps have occurred in part because of differences in goals, evidence needs and methods used and incentives for results and dissemination.

As we consider the major differences between researchers and implementers, we should recognize that there is not a clearly defined dichotomy between these two groups. Rather, those who are focused on in improvement are part of a continuum and are driven by a range of goals from driving and demonstrating local improvements to a focus on attributing these improvements to QI methods that can be generalized and spread, as illustrated in Table ​ Table1, 1 , which also describes differences in incentives, discussed further below. Organization-based implementers focus on quality improvement projects, where the primary goal is driving change to a local problem to improve care. Policy and decision makers' goals are broader improvement, needing evidence for current and future decision on what methods and implementation strategies to use. Researchers have a goal of developing new and generalizable knowledge about the effectiveness of QI methods.

Selected participants and stakeholders in quality improvement work and research and their incentives and goals

Incentives for results and dissemination

The differences in goals and evidence are related to often competing incentives. Implementers are incentivized to improve quality and meet the demands of stakeholders, whether local communities, government or funders. Researchers are rewarded through dissemination of evidence in high-impact peer-reviewed journals, research grants and academic promotions. Policy makers are rewarded by timely response to gaps with broad visible changes in their populations. Timeframes of these incentives are also often different, with the most rigorous studies taking years to measure impact, followed by careful analysis and dissemination. Implementers and policy makers, however, are often under pressure to show short-term change and respond to new and emerging issues even as they continue with existing improvement work.

The goals of documentation and dissemination of projects can also differ between researchers and implementers and their stakeholders. There is a strong recognition that the evidence generated by even the best QI efforts is not effectively translated into further spread and adoption [ 8 ]. This is because implementers working on QI interventions in their organizations are incentivized by improvement and do not usually have a demand to document their work beyond communication with organizational leaders. While there are growing venues for sharing of case reports through learning collaboratives and local meetings designed to facilitate peer learning, this documentation typically involves a description of the process of implementation, but not at a level of detail or rigor of value to researchers and the broader community. There are a number of disincentives for implementers to increase the rigor and detail of their local work including competing demands to deliver services and ongoing improvement, and the paucity of journals interested in publishing even well- documented local results because they prioritize rigorous results of evaluations with strong designs involving carefully constructed QI research studies. Researchers are incentivized by more academic dissemination through these peer-reviewed journals and presentation at conferences. This nonalignment results in practitioners being deprived of access to broader venues to disseminate their work and researchers losing rich contextual data that is critically important to evaluate the effectiveness of QI.

Evidence needed and methods prioritized

The differences in the goals and incentives of different stakeholders lead to differences in the amount of evidence that is considered adequate and the methods used to generate this evidence. Implementers are interested in the evidence of change in their local projects, with less emphasis on transferring or generalizing what they did for use in other settings. They may rely on a combination of pre-and-post intervention data, QI statistical methods such as run charts and tacit organizational knowledge to assess the evidence of change in their projects. Policy makers have an interest in evidence which is robust enough from the QI to inform resource allocation, but may still have a focus on a specific geography rather than generalizability at scale. They are interested in generalizable knowledge about successful QI methods, but are sensitive to the burden and costs and time of requiring rigorous research methods on implementing groups.

Researchers aim for evidence which is robust enough to provide globally relevant conclusions with limited threats to internal validity. This group is most supportive of the use of rigorous experimental research designs to generate the highest possible standards of evidence. Traditionally, this had been limited to a small set of rigid experimental designs with appropriate controls or comparison groups driven in part by research funders and academic standards to be able to attribute change to the improvement interventions. This set of designs has been expanding in the past few years as better understanding of the value of quasi-experimental methods has emerged. [ 9 , 10 ]

Why better alignment is needed

QI interventions differ from many fixed clinical or public health interventions [ 11 ]. In this supplement, Ramaswamy and others describe QI interventions as complex (multi-pronged and context-specific) interventions in complex systems (non-linear pathways and emergent behaviors). For better learning from QI, implementers, policy makers and researchers both need to know not just effectiveness (the focus of local measurement, outcomes research and impact evaluation) but also 'how and why' the change happened (implementation), cost and sustainability ensuring that the evidence produced will be more relevant to the stakeholders at the local and broader level. Therefore, finding a common ground through ‘development of a culture of partnership’ [ 12 ] to co-identify appropriate methods and data collection to understand and disseminate implementation strategies is critical to inform how to how to create the different knowledge products: generalizable evidence for dissemination (researchers), insights into how to scale (policy makers) and how to sustain the improvements (implementers) [ 13 ]. A well-known and commonly cited example is the Surgical Safety Checklist, which was found to improve adherence to evidence-based practices and save lives across a range of settings [ 14 ]. However, attempts to replicate these successes were not always effective since capturing generalizable knowledge on how to introduce and support the implementation of this intervention with fidelity was not part of the original research dissemination, [ 15 ] a lesson understood by the original researchers and addressed through accompanying toolkits [ 16 ].

Another important area where collaboration between implementers and researchers is needed to improve learning from QI in understanding the impact of different contextual factors to identify which aspects of an improvement intervention are generalizable, which are context-specific and which are critical to address when planning replication. During the seminar, a study of antenatal corticosteroids (ANCS), an intervention found in higher income settings to reduce death among premature infants, was discussed to identify how contextual factors can be better addressed through local knowledge to inform implementation [ 17 ]. The randomized controlled trial showed that implementation of ANCS in low-resource settings resulted in increased mortality among some of the infants who were given steroids; the published conclusion was that ANCS was not a recommended improvement intervention in these settings. The group identified the gap in the translation of ANCS use from resource richer settings did not consider the different contextual factors which required adaption such as the lack of capacity to accurately determine prematurity needed to determine eligibility for the steroids.

Starting the work to bridge the gap

Based on the reasons for the gaps identified above, we recommend a number of initial steps to better bridge the gap between researchers and implementers:

• Aligning project goals and joint planning : Before QI projects get launched, the initial work must start with implementers and researchers discussing and agreeing on the goals and objectives of the work including and beyond local improvement. In addition to alignment of improvement goals, all stakeholders must be engaged at the start of the QI project to agree on the purposes and uses of the results, local learning or broader dissemination or both. This work needs to happen at the design phase and continue with ongoing planned communication throughout the work. This will ensure that all stakeholders are jointly engaged in identifying the most appropriate research questions and the most appropriate methods to answer them.

The need to understand both process and context in the evaluation and study of QI interventions also cannot be accomplished without engaging both researchers and practitioners in the process [ 13 ]. The knowledge about how the project was implemented, and what was relevant to the context often resides with those responsible for implementation. However, as mentioned previously, the implementers often have neither the incentives nor the support to systematically document and disseminate this knowledge in a way that makes it available for general use. Researchers can play a key role in influencing the QI research integration by supporting systematic documentation of the implementation process in addition to an evaluation of outcomes and by partnering with implementers to make this happen. Introduction of adaptive designs such as SMART trials into improvement research may also offer a common ground where improvement implementers and researchers can collaborate introducing use of data to make mid-course changes to the implementation design.

• Building implementer research capacity. Building capacity of implementers as potential producers of and better consumers of research and evaluation results in another important approach to bridge the gap. For example, empowerment evaluation is designed to increase the likelihood that programs will achieve results by increasing the capacity of program stakeholders to plan, implement and evaluate their own program [ 19 ]. Building capacity within implementing organizations through technical support provided by researchers for interested implementers can establish a viable infrastructure for practitioners and researchers to work together more effectively. For example, multi-year research practice partnerships in facilities in Kenya has led to sustainable QI programs with dissemination of methods and results through co-authored peer-reviewed journals and conference presentations [ 20 ] Similar results were seen for research capacity building targeting implementers in the Africa Health Initiative in five countries in Africa [ 21 ]. Support for practice-based researchers to build their capacity in QI and in process evaluation using implementation science methods can also increase the potential of improvement projects to produce the knowledge needed about the implementation to spread learning within and beyond their organization.
• Aligning incentives to drive collaboration : Creating areas of shared incentives will require initiatives from funders and universities to appreciate the higher value of co-produced research, reward capacity building of researchers in the field and fund innovative models of embedded research where researchers are part of or embedded into the implementing organization [ 22 ]. In addition, offering opportunities for meaningful participation in research and building capacity for this work among implementers has also been associated with better improvement and dissemination [ 23 ].
• Simplifying documentation for dissemination of learning : As mentioned earlier, it is useful for both implementers and researchers if documenting the implementation of QI programs becomes part of routine practice. However, this will not happen without simplifying documentation standards. SQUIRE and TiDieR guidelines are very helpful for academic publications. However, they are not always a good fit for projects whose primary purpose is not research but who have the potential to add to the knowledge needed to improve QI [ 24 , 25 ]. Researchers could partner with implementers to develop simpler, practice-based research guidelines and to create other venues such as through existing organizations focused on quality and improvement where methods and results could be posted using these guidelines without a formal peer-review process. Templates and examples could be provided to improve the quality of documentation as well as editorial staff to assist with structure and formatting. The incentive for implementers is to get their stories told, and at the same time provide an opportunity for researchers to get data on where to focus further research. In addition, there are growing options to share knowledge and research findings such as the WHO Global Learning Lab for Quality UHC which provides a forum for implementers to disseminate work available to broader community [ 26 ].

To improve learning from and effectiveness of QI work requires involvement and collaboration between both researchers and practitioners. Researchers can advance the field by creating generalizable knowledge on the effectiveness of interventions and on implementation strategies and practitioners improve outcomes on the ground by implementing QI interventions. By increasing the collaboration, more systematic evaluations of interventions in local contexts and better design of research will result in production of the generalizable knowledge needed to increase the impact of QI. In order for this to take place, there needs to be an intentional effort to address the gaps that challenge researchers and practitioners working together. This can occur by aligning incentives, increasing the value and utility of produced research to implementers, and as a shared community developing new guidance to bring these different groups to more effective collaboration. The growing experience in QI and improvement science offers many opportunities for better collaboration between researchers and implementers to increase the value of this partnership to accelerating progress toward quality Universal Health Coverage and the Sustainable Development Goals.

M.D. received financial support from SGS to attend this seminar.

Managing Your Academic Research Project pp 101–117 Cite as

Outputs Versus Outcomes

• Jacqui Ewart 3 &
• Kate Ames 4  
• First Online: 02 October 2020

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This chapter explores what we mean by research project deliverables—particularly the difference between outputs and outcomes. This is an increasingly important distinction to funding bodies. Research outputs, which are key performance indicators for academics, are not always the same as project outcomes. Setting expectations amongst team members and between researchers and funders is critical in the early stages of research project management, and can make the difference between whether a team is willing to work together, and/or able to be funded in an ongoing capacity. We also examine issues we can encounter when reporting for industry and government.

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Juniper, E. F. (2009). Validated questionnaires should not be modified. European Respiratory Journal , 34, 1015–1017. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00110209 .

Mills-Scofield, D. (2012, November 26). It’s Not Just Semantics: Managing Outcomes Vs. Outputs. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2012/11/its-not-just-semantics-managing-outcomes .

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• What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on August 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 20, 2023.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper , the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research and your dissertation topic .

It should include:

• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• How you mitigated or avoided research biases
• Why you chose these methods
• Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
• Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
• Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

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Table of contents

How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about methodology.

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Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

• Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
• Explore an under-researched topic?
• Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

• Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
• Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
• Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

• Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ? How did you prevent bias from affecting your data?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalizable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalized your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion and exclusion criteria , as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

• How did you design the experiment ?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
• What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on July 4–8, 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

• Information bias
• Omitted variable bias
• Regression to the mean
• Survivorship bias
• Undercoverage bias
• Sampling bias

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyze?
• How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness store’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

• The Hawthorne effect
• Observer bias
• The placebo effect
• Response bias and Nonresponse bias
• The Pygmalion effect
• Recall bias
• Social desirability bias
• Self-selection bias

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods.

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

• How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
• Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis : Categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

• Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
• Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
• Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalizable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

• Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
• Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
• Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles

Methodology

• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

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Literature review

A general guide on how to conduct and write a literature review.

Please check course or programme information and materials provided by teaching staff, including your project supervisor, for subject-specific guidance.

What is a literature review?

A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context.  A literature review also includes a critical evaluation of the material; this is why it is called a literature review rather than a literature report. It is a process of reviewing the literature, as well as a form of writing.

To illustrate the difference between reporting and reviewing, think about television or film review articles.  These articles include content such as a brief synopsis or the key points of the film or programme plus the critic’s own evaluation.  Similarly the two main objectives of a literature review are firstly the content covering existing research, theories and evidence, and secondly your own critical evaluation and discussion of this content. 

Usually a literature review forms a section or part of a dissertation, research project or long essay.  However, it can also be set and assessed as a standalone piece of work.

What is the purpose of a literature review?

…your task is to build an argument, not a library. Rudestam, K.E. and Newton, R.R. (1992) Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive guide to content and process. California: Sage, p49.

In a larger piece of written work, such as a dissertation or project, a literature review is usually one of the first tasks carried out after deciding on a topic.  Reading combined with critical analysis can help to refine a topic and frame research questions.  Conducting a literature review establishes your familiarity with and understanding of current research in a particular field before carrying out a new investigation. After doing a literature review, you should know what research has already been done and be able to identify what is unknown within your topic.

When doing and writing a literature review, it is good practice to:

• summarise and analyse previous research and theories;
• identify areas of controversy and contested claims;
• highlight any gaps that may exist in research to date.

Conducting a literature review

Focusing on different aspects of your literature review can be useful to help plan, develop, refine and write it.  You can use and adapt the prompt questions in our worksheet below at different points in the process of researching and writing your review.  These are suggestions to get you thinking and writing.

Developing and refining your literature review (pdf)

Developing and refining your literature review (Word)

Developing and refining your literature review (Word rtf)

Writing a literature review has a lot in common with other assignment tasks.  There is advice on our other pages about thinking critically, reading strategies and academic writing.  Our literature review top tips suggest some specific things you can do to help you submit a successful review.

Literature review top tips (pdf)

Literature review top tips (Word rtf)

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IOE - Faculty of Education and Society

Using a learning outcomes focus to develop the education of children with special educational needs

This research project investigates if a focus on learning outcomes can make a difference to the inclusion of children with special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream classrooms.

The project runs from February 2022 to February 2025 and is funded by the  Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Science .

Methodology

Learning outcomes, related links.

The key aim of this project is to see if focusing, in a targeted way, on learning outcomes, can make a difference to how teachers work to include children with special educational needs in mainstream classrooms. In this project, we focus particularly on maths education in Year 5 primary classrooms, and on children with barriers to learning in maths. 

A focus on learning outcomes means that we ask teachers to think about specific targets for progress in individual units of work and to track progress against those targets explicitly before, during and at the end of the unit. To aid with doing this we use a technology platform which allows teachers to record targets and progress and receive regular reports.

The system is called AMLO and was developed by Dr Zaid Al-Shammari at Kuwait University, who is the Kuwait University project lead. This international project is a collaboration between Kuwait University and IOE, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society and involves working with schools in London and Kuwait City. We discussed the proposed methodology for the project in a conference paper at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (see Outputs ). 

There is a long-standing recognition that a focus on learning outcomes can be associated with improved educational attainment and can focus teachers and students on intended achievements from engaging in learning activities. Focusing on learning outcomes also provides an assessment structure for measuring individual and collective student achievement. Moving away from notions of "differentiation" has sometimes meant that teachers in mainstream schools might lose out on understanding at a fine-grained level what progress individual children are making. There is some discussion in theory and practice literature as to whether teachers can keep such tracking “all in their head”. One of the key aims of this project is to explore how such tracking works in practice. 

• Conference Paper: Mintz, J. and Al-Shammari, Z. (2022) 'A Learning Outcomes Approach for Special Educational Needs: Research Design and Expected Preliminary Results',  American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting , San Diego

Project Lead

• Dr Joseph Mintz
• Dr Zaid Al-Shammari, Kuwait University
• Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences
• Kuwait University  

Department of Learning and Leadership IOE, UCL's Faculty of Education and Society University College London 20 Bedford Way London WC1H 0AL

Dr Joseph Mintz email:  [email protected]

Resources for

Research and prep for arch project continues in advance of fall installation.

Progress continues in the planning for  Don't Forget to Remember (Me) ,  a monument by artist Nekisha Durrett addressing the legacy of exclusionary practices at the College that will be placed in the Cloisters at the center of Old Library.

The project will use custom pavers to create pathways in the Cloisters’ courtyard which, when seen from above, create a woven path that “takes the shape of a knot that cannot be undone, symbolizing interconnectivity, and making visual that Bryn Mawr is reexamining its history to tell all of its stories.” Engraved pavers will include the names of Black staff whose work was critical to building and operating the College, particularly in its early decades, but whose contributions were historically unrecognized.

Student interns Annalise Ashman ’24 and Katelyn Kim ’26 have been doing archival research on the individuals whose names will be etched into the pavers and Durrett is moving along with designing the elements of the project. 

On Feb. 23, Ashman, Kim, and others from Bryn Mawr and our partner organization Monument Lab visited one of Durrett's previous works with the artist and visited her studio in Washington, D.C.

Initial construction began this spring. It’s estimated that upwards of 30,000 pavers will be needed for the project.

Durrett's monument is the centerpiece of a collaboration between Bryn Mawr and  Monument Lab  known as  The ARCH (Art Remediating Campus Histories) Project.

Bryn Mawr College’s ARCH Project (Art Remediating College Histories), in partnership with Monument Lab, is a multi-year collaboration to design a process and commission a campus public artwork that responds to the legacy of exclusionary practices at the College. This vital work builds on previous and ongoing College-supported efforts by students, staff, alumni, and faculty to reveal and repair harm, ensuring a reckoning with Bryn Mawr College’s history and a clear-sighted look at the way to a future of inclusion and reconciliation.

• Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Anti-Racism

Gender wage gap persists in 2023 : Women are paid roughly 22% less than men on average

March 12 is Equal Pay Day, a reminder that there is still a significant pay gap between men and women in our country. The date represents how far into 2024 women would have to work on top of the hours they worked in 2023 simply to match what men were paid in 2023. Women were paid 21.8% less on average than men in 2023, after controlling for race and ethnicity, education, age, and geographic division. 

There has been little progress in narrowing this gender wage gap over the past three decades, as shown in Figure A . While the pay gap declined between 1979 and 1994—due to men’s stagnant wages, not a tremendous increase in women’s wages—it has remained mostly flat since then.

Little to no progress in closing the gender wage gap in three decades : Regression-adjusted gender wage gap, 1979–2023

The data below can be saved or copied directly into Excel.

The data underlying the figure.

Notes: Wages are adjusted into 2023 dollars by the CPI-U-RS. The regression-based gap is based on average wages and controls for gender, race and ethnicity, education, age, and geographic division. The log of the hourly wage is the dependent variable.

Source: Author’s analysis of Current Population Survey, Outgoing Rotation Group (CPS-ORG), 1979–2023, and Economic Policy Institute, Current Population Survey Extracts, Version 1.0.48 (2024), https://microdata.epi.org, 1979–2023. 

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The gender wage persists across the wage distribution  

The experience of men and women across the wage distribution differs considerably, but the  gender wage gap persists no matter how it’s measured . Women are paid less than men as a result of  occupational segregation , devaluation of women’s work, societal norms, and discrimination, all of which  took root well before women entered the labor market .  Figure B shows that women are paid less than men at all parts of the wage distribution.

The wage gap is smallest among lower-wage workers, in part due to the minimum wage creating a wage floor. At the 10th percentile, women are paid $1.86 less an hour, or 12.8% less than men, while at the middle the wage gap is $3.87 an hour, or 14.9%. These low- and middle-wage gaps translate into annual earnings gaps of over $3,800 and $8,000, respectively, for a full-time worker. The 90th percentile is the highest wage category we can compare due to issues with topcoding in the data , which make it difficult to measure wages at the top of the distribution, particularly for men. Women are paid $14.74 less an hour, or 22.6% less, than men at the 90th percentile. That would translate into an annual earnings gap of over $30,000 for a full-time worker. 

The gender wage gap persists at all parts of the wage distribution : Average hourly wages at select points in the wage distribution, by gender, 2023

Notes: See Gould and deCourcy (2023) for details on wage group specification. 

Source :  EPI analysis of Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Group microdata. For more information on the data sample see EPI's State of Working America Data Library .

Women are paid less than men at every education level  

Despite gains in educational attainment over the last five decades, women still face a significant wage gap. Among workers, women are more likely to graduate from college than men, and are more likely to receive a graduate degree than men. Even so, women are paid less than men at every education level, as shown in Figure C . 

Among workers who have only a high school diploma, women are paid 21.3% less than men. Among workers who have a college degree, women are paid 26.8% less than men. That gap of $13.52 on an hourly basis translates to roughly $28,000 less annual earnings for a full-time worker. Women with an advanced degree also experience a significant the wage gap, at 25.2% in 2023. What’s very stark from the data is that women with advanced degrees are paid less per hour, on average, than men with college degrees. Men with a college degree only are paid $50.37 per hour on average compared with $48.21 for women with an advanced degree.  

Women are paid less than men at every education level : Average hourly wages, by gender and education, 2023

Source :  EPI analysis of Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Group microdata. For more information on the data sample see EPI's State of Working America Data Library .

Black and Hispanic women experience the largest wage gaps  

If the overall gender pay gap isn’t enough cause for alarm, the wage gaps for Black and Hispanic women relative to white men are even larger due to compounded discrimination and occupational segregation based on both gender and race/ethnicity. In Figure D , we compare middle wages—or the average hourly wage between the 40th and 60th percentile of each group’s wage distribution—for white, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American/Pacific Islander (AAPI) women with that of white men. 

White women and AAPI women are paid 83.1% and 90.3%, respectively, of what non-Hispanic white men are paid at the middle. Black women are paid only 69.8% of white men’s wages at the middle, a gap of $8.65 on an hourly basis which translates to roughly $18,000 less annual earnings for a full-time worker. For Hispanic women, the gap is even larger at the middle: Hispanic women are paid only 64.6% of white men’s wages, an hourly wage gap of $10.15. For a full-time worker, that gap is over $21,000 a year. 

Black and Hispanic women experience the largest pay gaps : Women's hourly wages as a share of white men's and their per hour wage penalties, by race and ethnicity, 2023

Notes: Hourly wages for each group are represented by the average wage of the middle 20% of their respective wage distributions, that is, the average of the 40th–60th percentiles for each group. See Gould and deCourcy (2023) for more details on that specification. 

Hourly wages for each group are represented by the average wage of the middle 20% of their respective wage distributions, that is, the average of the 40th–60th percentiles for each group. See Gould and deCourcy (2023) for more details on that specification. White men are represented by 100% in each column, and the percent shown is the share of white male wages that are received by white, Black, Hispanic, and AAPI women, respectively. AAPI refers to Asian American and Pacific Islander. Race/ethnicity categories are mutually exclusive (i.e., white non-Hispanic, Black non-Hispanic, AAPI non-Hispanic, and Hispanic any race).

These pay gaps are even larger when examining average hourly wages for all workers instead of just the average for middle-wage workers because of the disproportionate share of highly paid workers who are white men, which pulls up their average. Using the average measure, Black and Hispanic women are paid 6 3 .4% and 5 8 . 3 %, respectively, of white men’s wages, an hourly wage gap of $1 4 . 80 for Black women and $16. 90 for Hispanic women. Even when controlling for age, education, and geographic division , Black and Hispanic women are both paid about 6 8 % of white men’s wages. In other words, very little of the observed difference in pay is explained by differences in education , experience , or regional economic conditions.  

Policymakers must pursue a range of options to close the gender pay gap  

There is no silver bullet to solving pay equity, but rather a menu of policy options that can close not only the gender pay gap but also gaps by race and ethnicity. These include requiring federal reporting of pay by gender, race, and ethnicity; prohibiting employers from asking about pay history; requiring employers to post pay bands when hiring; and adequately staffing and funding the Equal Employment and Opportunity Commission and other agencies charged with enforcement of nondiscrimination laws. 

We also need policies that lift wages for most workers while also reducing gender and racial/ethnic pay gaps, such as running the economy at full employment, raising the federal minimum wage, and protecting and strengthening workers’ rights to bargain collectively for higher wages and benefits. 

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