results section of a research article

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Results

Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.

Results Section in Research

The results section of the research paper presents the findings of the study. It is the part of the paper where the researcher reports the data collected during the study and analyzes it to draw conclusions.

In the results section, the researcher should describe the data that was collected, the statistical analysis performed, and the findings of the study. It is important to be objective and not interpret the data in this section. Instead, the researcher should report the data as accurately and objectively as possible.

Structure of Research Results Section

The structure of the research results section can vary depending on the type of research conducted, but in general, it should contain the following components:

• Introduction: The introduction should provide an overview of the study, its aims, and its research questions. It should also briefly explain the methodology used to conduct the study.
• Data presentation : This section presents the data collected during the study. It may include tables, graphs, or other visual aids to help readers better understand the data. The data presented should be organized in a logical and coherent way, with headings and subheadings used to help guide the reader.
• Data analysis: In this section, the data presented in the previous section are analyzed and interpreted. The statistical tests used to analyze the data should be clearly explained, and the results of the tests should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
• Discussion of results : This section should provide an interpretation of the results of the study, including a discussion of any unexpected findings. The discussion should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
• Limitations: This section should acknowledge any limitations of the study, such as sample size, data collection methods, or other factors that may have influenced the results.
• Conclusions: The conclusions should summarize the main findings of the study and provide a final interpretation of the results. The conclusions should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
• Recommendations : This section may provide recommendations for future research based on the study’s findings. It may also suggest practical applications for the study’s results in real-world settings.

Outline of Research Results Section

The following is an outline of the key components typically included in the Results section:

I. Introduction

• A brief overview of the research objectives and hypotheses
• A statement of the research question

II. Descriptive statistics

• Summary statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation) for each variable analyzed
• Frequencies and percentages for categorical variables

III. Inferential statistics

• Results of statistical analyses, including tests of hypotheses
• Tables or figures to display statistical results

IV. Effect sizes and confidence intervals

• Effect sizes (e.g., Cohen’s d, odds ratio) to quantify the strength of the relationship between variables
• Confidence intervals to estimate the range of plausible values for the effect size

V. Subgroup analyses

• Results of analyses that examined differences between subgroups (e.g., by gender, age, treatment group)

VI. Limitations and assumptions

• Discussion of any limitations of the study and potential sources of bias
• Assumptions made in the statistical analyses

VII. Conclusions

• A summary of the key findings and their implications
• A statement of whether the hypotheses were supported or not
• Suggestions for future research

Example of Research Results Section

An Example of a Research Results Section could be:

• This study sought to examine the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance in college students.
• Hypothesis : College students who report better sleep quality will have higher GPAs than those who report poor sleep quality.
• Methodology : Participants completed a survey about their sleep habits and academic performance.

II. Participants

• Participants were college students (N=200) from a mid-sized public university in the United States.
• The sample was evenly split by gender (50% female, 50% male) and predominantly white (85%).
• Participants were recruited through flyers and online advertisements.

III. Results

• Participants who reported better sleep quality had significantly higher GPAs (M=3.5, SD=0.5) than those who reported poor sleep quality (M=2.9, SD=0.6).
• See Table 1 for a summary of the results.
• Participants who reported consistent sleep schedules had higher GPAs than those with irregular sleep schedules.

IV. Discussion

• The results support the hypothesis that better sleep quality is associated with higher academic performance in college students.
• These findings have implications for college students, as prioritizing sleep could lead to better academic outcomes.
• Limitations of the study include self-reported data and the lack of control for other variables that could impact academic performance.

V. Conclusion

• College students who prioritize sleep may see a positive impact on their academic performance.
• These findings highlight the importance of sleep in academic success.
• Future research could explore interventions to improve sleep quality in college students.

Example of Research Results in Research Paper :

Our study aimed to compare the performance of three different machine learning algorithms (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Neural Network) in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company. We collected a dataset of 10,000 customer records, with 20 predictor variables and a binary churn outcome variable.

Our analysis revealed that all three algorithms performed well in predicting customer churn, with an overall accuracy of 85%. However, the Random Forest algorithm showed the highest accuracy (88%), followed by the Support Vector Machine (86%) and the Neural Network (84%).

Furthermore, we found that the most important predictor variables for customer churn were monthly charges, contract type, and tenure. Random Forest identified monthly charges as the most important variable, while Support Vector Machine and Neural Network identified contract type as the most important.

Overall, our results suggest that machine learning algorithms can be effective in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company, and that Random Forest is the most accurate algorithm for this task.

Example 3 :

Title : The Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem

Abstract : This study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use, body image, and self-esteem among young adults. A total of 200 participants were recruited from a university and completed self-report measures of social media use, body image satisfaction, and self-esteem.

Results: The results showed that social media use was significantly associated with body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem. Specifically, participants who reported spending more time on social media platforms had lower levels of body image satisfaction and self-esteem compared to those who reported less social media use. Moreover, the study found that comparing oneself to others on social media was a significant predictor of body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem.

Conclusion : These results suggest that social media use can have negative effects on body image satisfaction and self-esteem among young adults. It is important for individuals to be mindful of their social media use and to recognize the potential negative impact it can have on their mental health. Furthermore, interventions aimed at promoting positive body image and self-esteem should take into account the role of social media in shaping these attitudes and behaviors.

Importance of Research Results

Research results are important for several reasons, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research results can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field, whether it be in science, technology, medicine, social sciences, or humanities.
• Developing theories: Research results can help to develop or modify existing theories and create new ones.
• Improving practices: Research results can inform and improve practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, business, and public policy.
• Identifying problems and solutions: Research results can identify problems and provide solutions to complex issues in society, including issues related to health, environment, social justice, and economics.
• Validating claims : Research results can validate or refute claims made by individuals or groups in society, such as politicians, corporations, or activists.
• Providing evidence: Research results can provide evidence to support decision-making, policy-making, and resource allocation in various fields.

How to Write Results in A Research Paper

Here are some general guidelines on how to write results in a research paper:

• Organize the results section: Start by organizing the results section in a logical and coherent manner. Divide the section into subsections if necessary, based on the research questions or hypotheses.
• Present the findings: Present the findings in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data and make the presentation more engaging.
• Describe the data: Describe the data in detail, including the sample size, response rate, and any missing data. Provide relevant descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and ranges.
• Interpret the findings: Interpret the findings in light of the research questions or hypotheses. Discuss the implications of the findings and the extent to which they support or contradict existing theories or previous research.
• Discuss the limitations : Discuss the limitations of the study, including any potential sources of bias or confounding factors that may have affected the results.
• Compare the results : Compare the results with those of previous studies or theoretical predictions. Discuss any similarities, differences, or inconsistencies.
• Avoid redundancy: Avoid repeating information that has already been presented in the introduction or methods sections. Instead, focus on presenting new and relevant information.
• Be objective: Be objective in presenting the results, avoiding any personal biases or interpretations.

When to Write Research Results

Here are situations When to Write Research Results”

• After conducting research on the chosen topic and obtaining relevant data, organize the findings in a structured format that accurately represents the information gathered.
• Once the data has been analyzed and interpreted, and conclusions have been drawn, begin the writing process.
• Before starting to write, ensure that the research results adhere to the guidelines and requirements of the intended audience, such as a scientific journal or academic conference.
• Begin by writing an abstract that briefly summarizes the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions.
• Follow the abstract with an introduction that provides context for the research, explains its significance, and outlines the research question and objectives.
• The next section should be a literature review that provides an overview of existing research on the topic and highlights the gaps in knowledge that the current research seeks to address.
• The methodology section should provide a detailed explanation of the research design, including the sample size, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used.
• Present the research results in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and figures to illustrate the findings.
• Discuss the implications of the research results, including how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the topic and what further research is needed.
• Conclude the paper by summarizing the main findings, reiterating the significance of the research, and offering suggestions for future research.

Purpose of Research Results

The purposes of Research Results are as follows:

• Informing policy and practice: Research results can provide evidence-based information to inform policy decisions, such as in the fields of healthcare, education, and environmental regulation. They can also inform best practices in fields such as business, engineering, and social work.
• Addressing societal problems : Research results can be used to help address societal problems, such as reducing poverty, improving public health, and promoting social justice.
• Generating economic benefits : Research results can lead to the development of new products, services, and technologies that can create economic value and improve quality of life.
• Supporting academic and professional development : Research results can be used to support academic and professional development by providing opportunities for students, researchers, and practitioners to learn about new findings and methodologies in their field.
• Enhancing public understanding: Research results can help to educate the public about important issues and promote scientific literacy, leading to more informed decision-making and better public policy.
• Evaluating interventions: Research results can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, such as treatments, educational programs, and social policies. This can help to identify areas where improvements are needed and guide future interventions.
• Contributing to scientific progress: Research results can contribute to the advancement of science by providing new insights and discoveries that can lead to new theories, methods, and techniques.
• Informing decision-making : Research results can provide decision-makers with the information they need to make informed decisions. This can include decision-making at the individual, organizational, or governmental levels.
• Fostering collaboration : Research results can facilitate collaboration between researchers and practitioners, leading to new partnerships, interdisciplinary approaches, and innovative solutions to complex problems.

Advantages of Research Results

Some Advantages of Research Results are as follows:

• Improved decision-making: Research results can help inform decision-making in various fields, including medicine, business, and government. For example, research on the effectiveness of different treatments for a particular disease can help doctors make informed decisions about the best course of treatment for their patients.
• Innovation : Research results can lead to the development of new technologies, products, and services. For example, research on renewable energy sources can lead to the development of new and more efficient ways to harness renewable energy.
• Economic benefits: Research results can stimulate economic growth by providing new opportunities for businesses and entrepreneurs. For example, research on new materials or manufacturing techniques can lead to the development of new products and processes that can create new jobs and boost economic activity.
• Improved quality of life: Research results can contribute to improving the quality of life for individuals and society as a whole. For example, research on the causes of a particular disease can lead to the development of new treatments and cures, improving the health and well-being of millions of people.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Thesis Format – Templates and Samples

Research Approach – Types Methods and Examples

Research Topics – Ideas and Examples

How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step...

Survey Instruments – List and Their Uses

APA Research Paper Format – Example, Sample and...

Generate accurate APA citations for free

• Knowledge Base
• APA Style 7th edition
• How to write an APA results section

Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples

Published on December 21, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on January 17, 2024.

The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses.

The APA manual provides rigorous guidelines for what to report in quantitative research papers in the fields of psychology, education, and other social sciences.

Use these standards to answer your research questions and report your data analyses in a complete and transparent way.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

What goes in your results section, introduce your data, summarize your data, report statistical results, presenting numbers effectively, what doesn’t belong in your results section, frequently asked questions about results in apa.

In APA style, the results section includes preliminary information about the participants and data, descriptive and inferential statistics, and the results of any exploratory analyses.

Include these in your results section:

• Participant flow and recruitment period. Report the number of participants at every stage of the study, as well as the dates when recruitment took place.
• Missing data . Identify the proportion of data that wasn’t included in your final analysis and state the reasons.
• Any adverse events. Make sure to report any unexpected events or side effects (for clinical studies).
• Descriptive statistics . Summarize the primary and secondary outcomes of the study.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes. Address the primary and secondary research questions by reporting the detailed results of your main analyses.
• Results of subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable. Place detailed results in supplementary materials.

Write up the results in the past tense because you’re describing the outcomes of a completed research study.

Are your APA in-text citations flawless?

The AI-powered APA Citation Checker points out every error, tells you exactly what’s wrong, and explains how to fix it. Say goodbye to losing marks on your assignment!

Get started!

Before diving into your research findings, first describe the flow of participants at every stage of your study and whether any data were excluded from the final analysis.

Participant flow and recruitment period

It’s necessary to report any attrition, which is the decline in participants at every sequential stage of a study. That’s because an uneven number of participants across groups sometimes threatens internal validity and makes it difficult to compare groups. Be sure to also state all reasons for attrition.

If your study has multiple stages (e.g., pre-test, intervention, and post-test) and groups (e.g., experimental and control groups), a flow chart is the best way to report the number of participants in each group per stage and reasons for attrition.

Also report the dates for when you recruited participants or performed follow-up sessions.

Missing data

Another key issue is the completeness of your dataset. It’s necessary to report both the amount and reasons for data that was missing or excluded.

Data can become unusable due to equipment malfunctions, improper storage, unexpected events, participant ineligibility, and so on. For each case, state the reason why the data were unusable.

Some data points may be removed from the final analysis because they are outliers—but you must be able to justify how you decided what to exclude.

If you applied any techniques for overcoming or compensating for lost data, report those as well.

Adverse events

For clinical studies, report all events with serious consequences or any side effects that occured.

Descriptive statistics summarize your data for the reader. Present descriptive statistics for each primary, secondary, and subgroup analysis.

Don’t provide formulas or citations for commonly used statistics (e.g., standard deviation) – but do provide them for new or rare equations.

Descriptive statistics

The exact descriptive statistics that you report depends on the types of data in your study. Categorical variables can be reported using proportions, while quantitative data can be reported using means and standard deviations . For a large set of numbers, a table is the most effective presentation format.

Include sample sizes (overall and for each group) as well as appropriate measures of central tendency and variability for the outcomes in your results section. For every point estimate , add a clearly labelled measure of variability as well.

Be sure to note how you combined data to come up with variables of interest. For every variable of interest, explain how you operationalized it.

According to APA journal standards, it’s necessary to report all relevant hypothesis tests performed, estimates of effect sizes, and confidence intervals.

When reporting statistical results, you should first address primary research questions before moving onto secondary research questions and any exploratory or subgroup analyses.

Present the results of tests in the order that you performed them—report the outcomes of main tests before post-hoc tests, for example. Don’t leave out any relevant results, even if they don’t support your hypothesis.

Inferential statistics

For each statistical test performed, first restate the hypothesis , then state whether your hypothesis was supported and provide the outcomes that led you to that conclusion.

Report the following for each hypothesis test:

• the test statistic value,
• the degrees of freedom ,
• the exact p- value (unless it is less than 0.001),
• the magnitude and direction of the effect.

When reporting complex data analyses, such as factor analysis or multivariate analysis, present the models estimated in detail, and state the statistical software used. Make sure to report any violations of statistical assumptions or problems with estimation.

Effect sizes and confidence intervals

For each hypothesis test performed, you should present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes .

Confidence intervals are useful for showing the variability around point estimates. They should be included whenever you report population parameter estimates.

Effect sizes indicate how impactful the outcomes of a study are. But since they are estimates, it’s recommended that you also provide confidence intervals of effect sizes.

Subgroup or exploratory analyses

Briefly report the results of any other planned or exploratory analyses you performed. These may include subgroup analyses as well.

Subgroup analyses come with a high chance of false positive results, because performing a large number of comparison or correlation tests increases the chances of finding significant results.

If you find significant results in these analyses, make sure to appropriately report them as exploratory (rather than confirmatory) results to avoid overstating their importance.

While these analyses can be reported in less detail in the main text, you can provide the full analyses in supplementary materials.

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

To effectively present numbers, use a mix of text, tables , and figures where appropriate:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence ,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table ,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure .

Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers.

Tables and figures should be numbered and have titles, along with relevant notes. Make sure to present data only once throughout the paper and refer to any tables and figures in the text.

Formatting statistics and numbers

It’s important to follow capitalization , italicization, and abbreviation rules when referring to statistics in your paper. There are specific format guidelines for reporting statistics in APA , as well as general rules about writing numbers .

If you are unsure of how to present specific symbols, look up the detailed APA guidelines or other papers in your field.

It’s important to provide a complete picture of your data analyses and outcomes in a concise way. For that reason, raw data and any interpretations of your results are not included in the results section.

It’s rarely appropriate to include raw data in your results section. Instead, you should always save the raw data securely and make them available and accessible to any other researchers who request them.

Making scientific research available to others is a key part of academic integrity and open science.

Interpretation or discussion of results

This belongs in your discussion section. Your results section is where you objectively report all relevant findings and leave them open for interpretation by readers.

While you should state whether the findings of statistical tests lend support to your hypotheses, refrain from forming conclusions to your research questions in the results section.

Explanation of how statistics tests work

For the sake of concise writing, you can safely assume that readers of your paper have professional knowledge of how statistical inferences work.

In an APA results section , you should generally report the following:

• Participant flow and recruitment period.
• Missing data and any adverse events.
• Descriptive statistics about your samples.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes.
• Results of any subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable.

According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses.

• the test statistic value
• the degrees of freedom
• the exact p value (unless it is less than 0.001)
• the magnitude and direction of the effect

You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant.

In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures . To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure.

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2024, January 17). Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 19, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/results-section/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, how to write an apa methods section, how to format tables and figures in apa style, reporting statistics in apa style | guidelines & examples, scribbr apa citation checker.

An innovative new tool that checks your APA citations with AI software. Say goodbye to inaccurate citations!

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 7. The Results
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

• Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings . This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis . This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE:   Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

• Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study . This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate . Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
• A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation . Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the " So What? " question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported . However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
• A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study . Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE:   Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III.  Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here .

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

• << Previous: Insiderness
• Next: Using Non-Textual Elements >>
• Last Updated: Aug 13, 2024 12:57 PM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Research Process
• Manuscript Preparation
• Manuscript Review
• Publication Process
• Publication Recognition
• Language Editing Services
• Translation Services

How to write the results section of a research paper

• 3 minute read
• 76.2K views

Table of Contents

At its core, a research paper aims to fill a gap in the research on a given topic. As a result, the results section of the paper, which describes the key findings of the study, is often considered the core of the paper. This is the section that gets the most attention from reviewers, peers, students, and any news organization reporting on your findings. Writing a clear, concise, and logical results section is, therefore, one of the most important parts of preparing your manuscript.

Difference between results and discussion

Before delving into how to write the results section, it is important to first understand the difference between the results and discussion sections. The results section needs to detail the findings of the study. The aim of this section is not to draw connections between the different findings or to compare it to previous findings in literature—that is the purview of the discussion section. Unlike the discussion section, which can touch upon the hypothetical, the results section needs to focus on the purely factual. In some cases, it may even be preferable to club these two sections together into a single section. For example, while writing  a review article, it can be worthwhile to club these two sections together, as the main results in this case are the conclusions that can be drawn from the literature.

Structure of the results section

Although the main purpose of the results section in a research paper is to report the findings, it is necessary to present an introduction and repeat the research question. This establishes a connection to the previous section of the paper and creates a smooth flow of information.

Next, the results section needs to communicate the findings of your research in a systematic manner. The section needs to be organized such that the primary research question is addressed first, then the secondary research questions. If the research addresses multiple questions, the results section must individually connect with each of the questions. This ensures clarity and minimizes confusion while reading.

Consider representing your results visually. For example, graphs, tables, and other figures can help illustrate the findings of your paper, especially if there is a large amount of data in the results.

Remember, an appealing results section can help peer reviewers better understand the merits of your research, thereby increasing your chances of publication.

Practical guidance for writing an effective results section for a research paper

• Always use simple and clear language. Avoid the use of uncertain or out-of-focus expressions.
• The findings of the study must be expressed in an objective and unbiased manner. While it is acceptable to correlate certain findings in the discussion section, it is best to avoid overinterpreting the results.
• If the research addresses more than one hypothesis, use sub-sections to describe the results. This prevents confusion and promotes understanding.
• Ensure that negative results are included in this section, even if they do not support the research hypothesis.
• Wherever possible, use illustrations like tables, figures, charts, or other visual representations to showcase the results of your research paper. Mention these illustrations in the text, but do not repeat the information that they convey.
• For statistical data, it is adequate to highlight the tests and explain their results. The initial or raw data should not be mentioned in the results section of a research paper.

The results section of a research paper is usually the most impactful section because it draws the greatest attention. Regardless of the subject of your research paper, a well-written results section is capable of generating interest in your research.

For detailed information and assistance on writing the results of a research paper, refer to Elsevier Author Services.

Writing a good review article

Why is data validation important in research?

You may also like.

Submission 101: What format should be used for academic papers?

Page-Turner Articles are More Than Just Good Arguments: Be Mindful of Tone and Structure!

A Must-see for Researchers! How to Ensure Inclusivity in Your Scientific Writing

Make Hook, Line, and Sinker: The Art of Crafting Engaging Introductions

Can Describing Study Limitations Improve the Quality of Your Paper?

A Guide to Crafting Shorter, Impactful Sentences in Academic Writing

6 Steps to Write an Excellent Discussion in Your Manuscript

How to Write Clear and Crisp Civil Engineering Papers? Here are 5 Key Tips to Consider

Input your search keywords and press Enter.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Int J Endocrinol Metab
• v.17(2); 2019 Apr

The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Results

Zahra bahadoran.

1 Nutrition and Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Parvin Mirmiran

2 Department of Clinical Nutrition and Diet Therapy, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Azita Zadeh-Vakili

3 Cellular and Molecular Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Farhad Hosseinpanah

4 Obesity Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Asghar Ghasemi

5 Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

The “results section” of a scientific paper provides the results related to all measurements and outcomes that have been posted earlier in the materials and methods section. This section consists of text, figures, and tables presenting detailed data and facts without interpretation and discussion. Results may be presented in chronological order, general to specific order, most to least important order, or may be organized according to the topic/study groups or experiment/measured parameters. The primary content of this section includes the most relevant results that correspond to the central question stated in the introduction section, whether they support the hypothesis or not. Findings related to secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses may be reported in this section. All results should be presented in a clear, concise, and sensible manner. In this review, we discuss the function, content, and organization of the “results section,” as well as the principles and the most common tips for the writing of this section.

The “results section” is the heart of the paper, around which the other sections are organized ( 1 ). Research is about results and the reader comes to the paper to discover the results ( 2 ). In this section, authors contribute to the development of scientific literature by providing novel, hitherto unknown knowledge ( 3 ). In addition to the results, this section contains data and statistical information for supporting or refuting the hypothesis proposed in the introduction ( 4 ).

“Results section” should provide an objective description of the main findings, clearly and concisely, without interpretation ( 5 , 6 ). The authors need to use an interesting combination of text, tables, and figures to answer the study questions and to tell the story without diversions ( 7 ). The systemic assessment of published articles highlights the fact that the literature frequently suffers from selective reporting of results only for certain assessed outcomes, selective reporting of statistical analyses, and confused, ambiguous, incomplete, or misleading presentation of data ( 8 , 9 ).

In this section of our series on the principles of biomedical scientific writing ( 10 , 11 ), we describe the function, content, and organization of the “results section” in a scientific paper (mostly for hypothesis-testing papers) and provide common recommendations that can help authors to write this section more effectively.

2. The Function of the Results Section

The function of the “results section” is to present the main results of experiments described in the materials and methods section ( 12 , 13 ) and to present the supporting data in the form of text, tables, and figures ( 13 ). This section should answer the basic question: “What did the authors find in research?” By providing the results, authors try to elucidate the research data, making it to the point and meaningful ( 13 ).

3. Content of the Results Section

The “results section” includes both results and data that are presented in text, tables, and figures. Results are presented in the text; data (the most important) are presented in figures and tables, with a limited amount presented in the text ( 13 ). Statistically relevant parameters including sample size, P values, and the type of statistics used are also presented in this section ( 13 ).

3.1. Difference Between Data and Results

Data and results are not the same ( 14 ); providing results but no data vs. data but no results should be avoided ( 14 , 15 ). Results are general statements in the main text that summarize or explain what the data (facts and numbers) show ( 13 , 14 ); in other words, results are text descriptions of what is important about data ( 16 ) and give meaning to the data ( 15 ). When reporting data or results, make sure that they are logical ( 2 ). See Box 1 for more differences between results and data.

a The text presented in square brackets is data and the remainder is a result.

3.2. The Appropriate Format for Presenting Data/Results

Depending on how the data best support the findings of the study, the “results section” is structured as text, tables, and figures ( 12 ) and should consist of a dynamic interplay between text and figures/tables; the most important data are usually presented in both formats ( 17 ). The reader should select the mode of presentation in a way that optimizes comprehension of the data; however, as a general rule, if you want to present three or fewer numbers, you should use a sentence; otherwise, you consider a table or a graph ( 18 ).

Selecting the best format for presenting results/data depends on the level of details (exact values or patterns) to present ( 19 ). Tables are useful to present specific information or exact values ( 19 ), and function as reference tools for readers ( 20 ) whereas figures are useful to show comparisons and patterns ( 19 ), functioning as analytic tools ( 20 ).

Tables are meant to summarize large amounts of data, to organize and display data more clearly than words, to compare groups of data, to simplify found information, and to facilitate calculations ( 19 ). A table typically has three or more interrelated columns and three or more interrelated rows; otherwise, presenting the information in the text may be more appropriate ( 19 ).

The functions of figures include: (1) showing the underlying patterns of data that are not presentable in text or tables, (2) displaying data more clearly than they can be done in text or tables, (3) more summarizing a large amount of data than they can be done in text or tables, and (4) improving the understanding and locating the specific information easily and rapidly ( 21 ).

3.3. Results

The primary content of this section includes the most relevant (but not all) results corresponding to the central question posed in the introduction section, whether they support the hypothesis or not ( 12 , 13 ). The secondary findings, e.g., results related to secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses, may also be reported in this section ( 22 ). Results must be presented for both experimental and control groups ( 13 ). Results of each item mentioned in the materials and methods should be given in the results section ( 12 , 15 ).

The text of the “results section” should state and summarize the main results and explain the data presented within tables and/or figures ( 23 ); reiteration of all numbers presented in tables and figures is not recommended ( 22 ); however, readers must be given the main messages derived from a table or figure without having to interpret the data themselves ( 7 ). It means that if there is a large amount of data in a table or figure, restating a key piece of data in the text is acceptable and helps the reader zero in on important data ( 14 ).

3.3.1. Reporting Negative Findings

Authors are highly recommended excluding irrelevant results but not ignoring valid anomalous results that contradict the research hypothesis or do not support the current scientific literature ( 22 ). The Feynman, says “if you are doing an experiment, you should report everything that you think might make it invalid-not only what you think is right about it” ( 24 ). Although reporting null or negative findings is not as straightforward as positive findings, it may lead to reexamining current scientific thinking, and guide scientists towards unabridged science ( 25 ). Reporting negative findings can also prevent the replication of the study and prevent the waste of time and resources ( 25 ). The ignorance of null or negative findings also leads to an overestimation of an effect size or treatment effect in available data ( 9 ).

3.3.2. Referring to Unpublished Results

Referring to unpublished results is not recommend unless there is a strong argument supporting their inclusion ( 14 ); therefore, authors are advised to avoid using the term “data not shown” ( 4 ).

3.3.3. Methods or Interpretation in the Results Section

Generally, the “results section” is not the place for presenting methods and experimental details or interpreting data ( 14 ). When experiments are described in this section, if a result leads to additional experiments, it is better to report the new experimental details in the “results section” ( 14 ). Sometimes authors want to refer to a specific experiment or method in results; in these cases, they should not repeat experimental details, but preferably use a transition phrase to link methods with results ( 14 ). To justify the rationale behind the experiment, using topic sentences/phrases (e.g. in order to determine whether…) provides an overview before giving details ( 12 ); however, in this case, the method statement should not be used as a topic sentence and the main verbs should describe results, not methods (e.g., “ when propranolol was administered during normal ventilation, phospholipids decreased ”; here “ method ” is subordinated in a transition clause and result is the main clause) ( 13 ). Two patterns of sentence structure are recommended for including methods in a result statement: making the method the subject of the sentence or stating the method using a transition phrase or clause and the result in the main clause ( 13 ).

The traditional view of writing the “results section” is just to report data and results without any interpretation; accordingly, the result is not expected to contain statements that need to be referenced (comparisons of findings) ( 13 , 26 ). In another view, some interpretation or brief comparisons that do not fit into the discussion may be included ( 13 , 27 ).

Data are facts and numbers, mostly presented as non-textual elements (usually in tables and figures) where they are easy to read ( 13 , 14 , 28 ). A limited amount of data may also be presented in the text, following a result statement ( 13 ) although too much data in the text make it too long ( Box 1 ) ( 28 ). Data may be in the form of raw data, summarized data, or transformed data ( 13 ); however, it is suggested that raw data (i.e. patients’ records, individual observations) not be presented in results ( 12 ). Note that numerical data are absolute while some data, e.g. microscopic data, are subjective ( 2 ).

3.4.1. Non-Textual Elements

Providing study findings visually, rather than entire textualizing, enables authors to summarize a great deal of data compactly within the text with an appropriate reference; some images convey more than words ( 29 ). The primary purpose of non-textual elements, i.e. tables, graphs, figures, and maps, is to present data such that they can be easily and quickly grasped ( 23 ) while being more informative than when appearing in the text ( 6 ). Tables and figures should be complete/comprehensible, being able to stand alone without the text ( 5 , 12 ).

Non-textual elements should be referred to in the text at the appropriate point ( 5 , 6 , 12 ). Location statements, i.e. statements referring to non-textual elements, may be presented in different patterns (e.g., A. X is shown in table/figure; B. table/figure shows; C. see table/figure; D. as shown in table/figure); pattern B is more and pattern C is less common ( 27 ).

Some general tips about using non-textual elements in the “results section” are reviewed in Box 2 . The most common rules in organizing tables and figures are given in the following. For more information about designing different types of tables/figures/graphs, please refer to additional references ( 7 , 19 , 20 , 30 , 31 ).

3.4.1.1. Tables

The use of tables is an effective way to summarize demographic information and descriptive statistics ( 23 ). Note that tables must have a purpose and be integrated into the text ( 21 ). Tables are most useful to present counts, proportions, and percentages ( 8 ), and are appropriate also for presenting details especially when exact values matter ( 32 ), being are more informative than graphs ( 29 ). However, limited information should be presented in tables; otherwise, most readers find them difficult to read and thus, may ignore them ( 5 , 23 ). Data in tables can be arranged horizontally or vertically; whenever possible, primary comparisons are preferably presented horizontally from left to right ( 19 ).

3.4.1.1.1. Basic Elements of Tables

Tables usually have at least six elements: (1) table number, (2) table title, (3) row headings (stubs), and (4) column headings (boxes), identifying information in rows and columns, (5) data in data field, and (6) horizontal lines (rules). Most also have footnotes, row subheadings, spanner headings (identifying subgroups in column headings), and expanded forms of abbreviations in the table ( 19 , 21 , 31 , 33 ).

The table title should clearly state what appears in it and provide sufficient information on the study, i.e. provide a context helping readers interpret the table information ( 19 ). Some specific details may also be provided including the type and number of subjects or the period of study ( 30 ). For developing the title of a table, one can describe the main cell entries, followed by qualification or more description ( 32 ). The table’s title is presented as a phrase not a full sentence ( 19 ). Authors need to refer to the journal’s style for rules on which words in titles are capitalized.

As a rule, comparing two (or even three) numbers should be side-by-side rather than above and below ( 30 ). Column and row headings help readers find information and they should be included group sizes and measurement units ( 19 ). Tables should be in borderless grids of rows and columns ( 5 , 32 ) with no vertical rule and limited horizontal rules ( 32 ). The first column of a table includes usually a list of variables that are presented in the table; although the first column usually does not need a header, sometimes a simple description of what appears in each row may be provided as the heading of the first column. Units for variables may be placed in parentheses immediately below the row descriptions ( 30 ).

Headings for other columns should also be informative without vague labels, e.g. group A, group B, group C, etc.; instead, a brief description summarizing group characteristics is used ( 30 ). The last column may show P values for comparison between study groups ( 34 ), except for randomized clinical trials, where P values are not needed to compare baseline characteristics of participants ( 7 ). The first letters of lines and column headings in tables should be capitalized.

The fields of tables are points at which columns and rows intersect ( 19 ). Cells of a table are the data field of the table, other than those containing row and column headings ( 21 ). Cells contain information as numerals, text, or symbols ( 19 ). Every cell must contain information; if no information is available, one can use NA in the cell and define it in the footnote as not available or not applicable; alternatively, a dash mark may be inserted ( 19 ). The content of columns need to be aligned ( 19 ); words are usually left aligned, numerals are aligned at decimals, parenthesis, and factors of 10 ( 19 , 21 ).

Table footnotes should be brief, and define abbreviations, provide statistical results, and explain discrepancies in data, e.g., “percentages do not total 100 because of rounding” ( 19 , 30 ). In addition to asterisks usually used to show statistical significance ( 33 ), the following symbols are used, in sequence, for further notes: †, ‡, §, ¶, #, ††, ‡‡ ( 30 ).

3.4.1.1.2. Different Types of Tables

Table of lists, table of baseline or clinical characteristics of subjects, table of comparisons, and table of multivariable results are various types of tables that may be used ( 30 ). The table’s format should be selected according to the purpose of the table ( 30 ). A table of lists just presents a list of items including diagnostic criteria or causes of a disease; it is critical to arrange such tables based on their contents by order (e.g., alphabetical order) or their importance (most to least) ( 30 ). Tables of study participants’ characteristics usually provide a general overview of the essential characteristics of subjects, such as age, sex, race, disease stage, and selected risk factors ( 30 ). The table of comparisons (≥ two groups) provides details for each group and differences between the groups. Tables of multivariable results elaborate results of statistical analyses assessing relationships between predictor (independent) and outcome (dependent) variables, and usually include regression coefficients, standard errors, slopes, partial correlation coefficients, and P values or odds ratio, hazard ratios, and 95% confidence intervals for regression models ( 30 ).

3.4.1.2. Figures

Graphical elements convey the important messages of research ( 20 ). A figure is “any graphical display to present information or data” ( 20 ), and it effectively presents complicated patterns ( 32 ), best used for presenting an important point at a glance or indicating trends or relationships ( 20 ). Like tables, figures should have a purpose and be integrated with the rest of the text ( 21 ).

3.4.1.2.1. Basic Elements of Figures

Most figures that present quantitative information (charts and graphs) have at least seven elements, including figure number, figure caption/legend, data field, vertical scale, horizontal scale, labels, and data (plotting symbols, lines, and so on) ( 21 ). Some figures also have reference lines in the data field to help orient readers and keys that identify data ( 21 ).

Figure caption/legend, usually given below the figure, describes the figure and must reflect the figure entirely, independent of the main text ( 21 , 31 ). For the figure to stand alone, a figure legend needs to be included four parts (a brief title, experimental or statistical information/details, definitions of symbols, line, or bar patterns, and abbreviations) ( 31 ).

Data field is a space in the figure in which data are presented; it is usually bordered on the left by the X-axis (abscissa) and on the bottom by the Y-axis (ordinate) ( 20 , 21 ). Labels identify the variables graphed and the units of measurement ( 21 ). Figure lines should be broad and the labeling text should be large enough to be legible after reduction to a single- or two-column size ( 32 ). Appropriate font size should be used to maintain legibility after fitting figures to publication size ( 31 ).

Scales on each axis should match the data range and be slightly above the highest value ( 20 ). Symbols should be uniform across the figures ( 20 ). The data point symbols should be easily distinguishable; using black and white circles (● - ∘) is the easiest way when two are needed ( 31 ); if more are needed, using up-pointing triangles (▲ - Δ) and squares (■ - □) is suggested ( 31 ). Using symbols, line types, and colors is also effective in differentiating important strata in figures ( 8 ).

3.4.1.2.2. Emphasizing Important Data on Figures

To make figures visually efficient, the subordination of all non-data elements vs. data elements is advised (gridlines should be used as thin as possible and very faint). Directly labeling objects, instead of legends, may keep readers’ attention on the most important parts of the figure ( 8 ). Using different line weights may also be helpful to emphasize the important information/data in figures ( 31 ). The use of color, shading, or 3D perspectives is not suggested unless they serve a specific explanatory function in figure ( 8 ).

3.4.1.2.3. Different Types of Figures

Two major categories of figures are statistical figures (graphs) and non-statistical figures (clinical images, photographs, diagrams, illustrations, and textual figures) ( 20 ). Graphs are suitable for presenting relationships whereas non-statistical figures are used to confirm findings or provide explanatory information ( 20 ).

In statistical figures, selecting a graphical format (bar graph, line graph, dot plot, and scatterplot) is done according to the type of relationship that authors wish to communicate ( 20 ); for example, line graphs are appropriate for showing trends and bar graphs for magnitudes ( 20 ). Using a graphing format that is easy to interpret is preferred ( 20 ); pie graphs are sparingly used because comparing different angles is complicated with them ( 20 ). Graphs should accurately represent findings; when possible, scales should start at zero, and figure axes should not be altered in order to make data more meaningful ( 20 ).

Non-statistical figures are those that visually present information that does not contain data ( 20 ). Clinical images and photographs [ultrasonograms, computed tomographic scans (CT scans), magnetic resonance images (MRI), images of patients, tissue samples, microscopic findings, and so on] provide absolute proof of findings ( 20 ). Illustrations are used for explaining structures (parts of a cell), mechanisms, and relationships ( 20 ). Diagrams (flowcharts, algorithms, pedigrees, and maps) are useful for displaying complex relations ( 20 ). Textual figures, containing only text, are mostly used for describing steps of a procedure or summarizing guidelines ( 20 ). For photographs, patient information or identifiers should be removed ( 20 ).

3.5. Statistics in the Results Section

Statistics in the “results section” must report data in a way that enables readers to assess the degree of experimental variation and to estimate the variability or precision of the findings ( 22 ). For more details, one can see SAMPL (Statistical Analysis and methods in the Published Literature) guidelines ( 35 ). To report normally distributed data, the mean and estimated variation from mean should be stated ( 13 ). Variability should be reported using standard deviation (SD), which is a descriptive statistic ( 36 ) and reflects the dispersion of individual sample observation of the sample mean ( 37 ). The standard error (SE), an inferential statistic ( 36 ) reflecting the theoretical dispersion of sample means about some population means, characterizes uncertainty about true values of population means ( 37 ). It is useful for assessing the precision of an estimator ( 36 ) and is not an appropriate estimate of the variability in observations ( 37 ). Using “mean (SD or SE)” is preferred to “mean ± SD or SE” because the “±” sign can cause confusion ( 22 ). Increasing sample size decreases SE but not SD ( 36 ). To report data with a skewed distribution, the median and the interquartile range (between 25th and 75th percentiles) should be provided ( 22 ).

To report risk, rates, and ratios, one should use a type of rate (incidence rate, survival rate), ratio (odds ratio, hazards ratio), or risk (absolute risk, relative risk, relative risk reduction) ( 35 ). The measure of precision (95% CI) for estimated risks, rates, and ratios should also be provided ( 35 ). For correlation analysis, the exact values of the correlation coefficient and 95% CI should be reported. Describing correlation using qualitative words (low, moderate, high) without providing a clear definition is not acceptable ( 35 ). Results of regression analysis should include regression coefficients (β) of each explanatory variable, corresponding 95% CI and/or P value and a measure of the “goodness-of-fit” of the model ( 35 ).

3.5.1. Significance Levels

A P value is the probability of consistency between data and the hypothesis being tested ( 38 ). Reporting the exact P values ( P = 0.34 or P = 0.02) rather than the conventional P ( P < 0.05) is recommended for all primary analyses ( 12 , 37 ) as it conveys more information ( 37 ). The use of the term “partially significant” or “marginally significant”, where the P value is almost significant (e.g. P = 0.057) is not acceptable if the significance level is defined as P = 0.05 ( 39 ). Some, however, argue that it is not always necessary to stick to P = 0.05 for the interpretation of results and it is better to report the exact P value and confidence interval for the estimator ( 40 ).

The use of the 95% confidence interval (95% CI) can provide further information compared to P values per se, and prefigures the direction of the effect size (negative or positive), its magnitude, and the degree of precision ( 17 ). A confidence interval characterizes uncertainty about the true value of population parameters ( 37 ). It is essential to provide the sample size (n) and probability values for tests of statistical significance ( 13 ).

Statements about significance must be qualified numerically ( 41 ). In the text, it is suggested that P values be reported as equalities rather than as inequalities in relation to the alpha criterion ( 41 ). In tables and figures, inequalities may be useful for groups of data ( 41 ) where asterisks *, **, and *** are usually used to show statistical significance at 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 probability levels, respectively ( 33 ).

Although not consistent, P values < 0.001 are reported as P < 0.001; for 0.001 ≤ P values < 0.01, a three-significant digit is recommended, e.g. P = 0.003; for 0.01 ≤ P values < 0.1, a two-significant digit is sufficient (e.g. P = 0.05); for 0.1 ≤ P values ≤ 0.9, a one-significant digit is sufficient (e.g. P = 0.4); and P values > 0.9 are reported as P > 0.9 ( 42 ). For genome-wide association studies, the power of 10 is used for reporting P values, e.g. 6 × 10 -9 ( 42 ). It is generally suggested that zero be used before a decimal point when the value is below one, e.g. 0.37 ( 43 ). According to the American Psychological Association, zero before a decimal point is used for numbers that are below one, but it can also be used for values that may exceed one (e.g. 0.23 cm). Therefore, when statistics cannot be greater than one (e.g. correlations, proportions, and P values), do not use a zero before decimal fraction, e.g. P = .028 not P = 0.028 ( 18 ); this recommendation, however, is not always adopted by everyone. The international standard is P (large italic) although both ‘p’ and ‘P’ are allowed ( 40 ).

4. Organization of the Results Section

There are different ways for organizing the “results section” including ( 1 , 12 , 14 , 22 , 44 ): (1) chronological order, (2) general to specific, (3) most to least important, and (4) grouping results by topic/study groups or experiment/measured parameters. Authors decide which format is more appropriate for the presentation of their data ( 12 ); anyway, results should be presented in a logical manner ( 4 ).

4.1. Different Ways of Organizing the Results Section

4.1.1. chronological order.

The best order for organizing “results section” may be the chronological order ( 22 ). It is considered as the most straightforward approach using subheadings that parallel methods ( 14 ). This order facilitates referring to a method associated with a given result ( 14 ) such that results are presented in the same order as methods ( 15 ).

4.1.2. General to Specific

This format is mostly used in clinical studies involving multiple groups of individuals receiving different treatments ( 14 ). The “results section” usually proceeds from general to more specific findings ( 1 ). Characteristics of the overall study population (sex and age distribution and dropouts) are first given ( 14 ), followed by data and results for each group starting with the control group or the group receiving the standard treatment ( 14 ); finally, the disease group or group receiving the experimental treatment are addressed ( 14 ). As a general rule, secondary results should be given after presenting more important (primary) results, followed by any supporting information ( 22 ). A common order is stating recruitment/response, characteristics of the sample/study participants, findings from the primary analyses, findings from secondary analyses, and any additional or unexpected findings ( 17 ). In other words, the “results section” should be initiated by univariate statistics, followed by bivariate analyses to describe associations between explanatory and outcome variables; finally, it gets through by any multivariate analyses ( 7 ).

4.1.3. Most to Least Important

This format is used in case that the order of presenting results is not critical to their being comprehendible and allows the author to immediately highlight important findings ( 14 ). Results that answer the main question are presented at the beginning of the “results section,” followed by other results in next paragraphs ( 13 ).

4.1.4. Grouping by Topic or Experiment

Comparison of the diagnostic and analytical performance of a number of assays for analytes is an example of using this format ( 14 ).

4.2. Paragraphing of the Results Section

The “results section” may be initiated by two approaches: (1) by giving a general (not detailed) overview of the experiment and (2) by going directly to the results by referring to tables or figures ( 44 ). The first paragraph of this section, along with table 1, describes the characteristics of the study population (number, sex, age, and symptoms) ( 23 ). These data show the comparability of the study groups at baseline and the distribution of potential confounders between groups, as a source of bias that can affect the study findings ( 7 ). It allows the reader to decide whether or not the case and control groups are similar and represent the patient population in their private practice ( 23 ).

For clinical trials, the number of patients completing the protocol in each treatment/study group, the number of patients lost to follow-up, and the number and reasons for excluded/withdrawn subjects should be given. Commenting on whether baseline characteristics of study groups are statistically similar or different is also important ( 1 ). For further information, authors can consult reporting guidelines for the main study types available at http://www.equator-network.org.

The number of the middle paragraphs depends on the number of research questions/hypotheses and the types of statistical analyses; each hypothesis or specific analysis typically devotes at least a paragraph to itself ( 1 ). Figure legends, description of the methods and results for control groups should not be given at the beginning of paragraphs, as they do not narrate the story ( 28 ). However, sometimes, it is needed that results of the control group are presented first (e.g. for establishing the stability of baseline) ( 13 ).

5. Emphasizing Important Results

Since not all results are equally important, the reader must be able to distinguish important results and authors have to emphasize important information and de-emphasize less important information ( 13 ). There are various techniques for emphasizing important information, including condensing or omitting less important information, subordinating less important information, placing important results at the power position, and labeling, stating, and repeating important information ( 13 ).

For condensing or omitting less important information, you should be careful not to duplicate/repeat data in tables and figures or repeat them in the text ( 4 , 6 , 12 ); one or two values from tables/figures can be repeated in the text for emphasis ( 13 ).

For subordinating less important information, one should not use table titles, figure legends or methods statement as a topic sentence in the text ( 13 , 22 ). Instead, after stating the first result relevant to the table/figure, you can cite it in parenthesis ( 13 ). Since a result states a message and creates an expectation, it is a more powerful topic sentence than a figure legend or table title ( 13 ). Sometimes, control results can be subordinated by incorporating them into experimental results ( 13 ).

To highlight more important results (those that help answer questions), authors can put these results at the beginning of paragraphs, the strongest power position ( 12 , 22 , 28 ), followed by supporting details and control results ( 28 ).

Moreover, key findings may receive more attention by using a signal (e.g. we found or we observed) at the beginning of the sentence ( 13 ).

6. Other Considerations

6.1. length and paragraphing.

To see the forest for the tree, the “results section” should be as brief and uncluttered as possible ( 13 ), which can be accomplished by having a well-organized “materials and methods” section ( 3 ) and avoiding unnecessary repetition ( 13 ); for example, similar results for several variables can be reported together. The “results section” of an original manuscript usually includes 2 - 3 pages (~1000 words) with a 1.5 line spacing, font size 11 (including tables and figures) ( 45 ), and 4 - 9 paragraphs (each 130 words) on average ( 45 ); a paragraph should be devoted to one or more closely related figures ( 4 ).

Presenting additional results/data as supplementary materials is a suggestion for keeping the “results section” brief ( 17 ). In addition to save the text space, supplementary materials improve the presentation and facilitate communications among scientists ( 46 , 47 ). According to Springer, supplementary materials can be used for presenting data that are not needed to support the major conclusions but are still interesting. However, keep in mind that the unregulated use of supplementary materials is harmful to science ( 47 ). Supplementary materials should be referred to at the appropriate points in the main text.

For referring to results obtained in hypothesis testing studies, using past tenses is recommended ( 4 , 12 - 14 ); non-textual elements should be referred using present tenses, e.g. “as seen in table 1 …” or “table 1 shows …” in descriptive studies, results are reported in the present tense ( 13 ).

6.3. Word Choice

Although adverbs/adjectives are commonly used to highlight the importance of results, it is recommended altogether avoiding the use of such qualitative/emotive words in the “results section” ( 7 , 13 ). Some believe that qualitative words should not be used because they may imply an interpretation of findings ( 17 ). In biomedical publications, the terms ‘significant, significance, and significantly’ (followed by P values) are used to show statistical relationships and should not be used for other purposes for which, other terms such as substantial, considerable, or noteworthy can be used ( 14 ). See Box 3 for appropriate word choice for the “results section.”

In the “results section,” to make a comparison between the results, i.e. stating the similarity/equivalence or difference/non-equivalence, using appropriate signals is recommended ( 27 ). To show a similarity, a signal to the reader may be used such as “like”, “alike”, “similar to”, and “the same as”; to show differences, the following signals can be used: “but”, “while”, “however”, “in contrast”, “more likely than”, and “less likely than” ( 27 ).

6.4. Reporting Numbers

Numbers play an important role in scientific communication and there are some golden rules for reporting numbers in a scientific paper ( 43 , 48 ). Significant figures (significant digits) should reflect the degree of precision of the original measurement ( 12 ). The number of digits reported for a quantity should be consistent with scientific relevance ( 37 ); for example, a resolution to 0.001 units is necessary for pH but a resolution of < 1 mm Hg is unimportant for blood pressure ( 37 ). Avoid using “about” or “approximately” to qualify a measurement or calculation ( 12 ). The use of percentage for sample sizes of < 20 and decimal for sample sizes of < 100 is not recommended ( 43 ).

The numbers should be spelled out at the beginning of a sentence or when they are less than 10, e.g., twelve students improved… ( 43 ). In a sentence, the authors should be consistent where they use numbers as numerals or spelled-out ( 43 ). Before a unit of a measure, time, dates, and points, numbers should be used as numerals, e.g. 12 cm; 1 h 34 min; at 12:30 A.M., and on a 7-point scale ( 18 ).

A space between the numeral and the unit should be considered, except in the case of %. Because the terms “billion,” “trillion,” and “quadrillion” imply different numbers in Europe and the USA, they should not be used ( 48 ). To express ranges in text, the terms “to” or “through” are preferred to dashes; in tables, the use of dashes or hyphens is recommended ( 48 ).

7. Conclusions

The “results section” of a biomedical manuscript should clearly present findings of the study using an effective combination of results and data. Some dos and don’ts of writing the “results section” are provided in Box 4 . Authors should try to find the best format using a dynamic interplay between text and figures/tables. Results can be organized in different ways including chronological order or most to least important; however, results should be presented in a manner that makes sense.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge Ms. Niloofar Shiva for critical editing of English grammar and syntax of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interests: It is not declared by the authors.

Funding/Support: Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences supported the study.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• My Bibliography
• Collections
• Citation manager

Save citation to file

Email citation, add to collections.

• Create a new collection
• Add to an existing collection

Add to My Bibliography

Your saved search, create a file for external citation management software, your rss feed.

• Search in PubMed
• Search in NLM Catalog
• Add to Search

How to Write an Effective Results Section

Affiliation.

• 1 Rothman Orthopaedics Institute, Philadelphia, PA.
• PMID: 31145152
• DOI: 10.1097/BSD.0000000000000845

Developing a well-written research paper is an important step in completing a scientific study. This paper is where the principle investigator and co-authors report the purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions of the study. A key element of writing a research paper is to clearly and objectively report the study's findings in the Results section. The Results section is where the authors inform the readers about the findings from the statistical analysis of the data collected to operationalize the study hypothesis, optimally adding novel information to the collective knowledge on the subject matter. By utilizing clear, concise, and well-organized writing techniques and visual aids in the reporting of the data, the author is able to construct a case for the research question at hand even without interpreting the data.

PubMed Disclaimer

Similar articles

• Rules to be adopted for publishing a scientific paper. Picardi N. Picardi N. Ann Ital Chir. 2016;87:1-3. Ann Ital Chir. 2016. PMID: 28474609
• How to Write Effective Discussion and Conclusion Sections. Makar G, Foltz C, Lendner M, Vaccaro AR. Makar G, et al. Clin Spine Surg. 2018 Oct;31(8):345-346. doi: 10.1097/BSD.0000000000000687. Clin Spine Surg. 2018. PMID: 29979216
• The rites of writing papers: steps to successful publishing for psychiatrists. Brakoulias V, Macfarlane MD, Looi JC. Brakoulias V, et al. Australas Psychiatry. 2015 Feb;23(1):32-6. doi: 10.1177/1039856214560180. Epub 2014 Dec 2. Australas Psychiatry. 2015. PMID: 25469001
• How to write a research paper. Alexandrov AV. Alexandrov AV. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004;18(2):135-8. doi: 10.1159/000079266. Epub 2004 Jun 23. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2004. PMID: 15218279 Review.
• How to write an original radiological research manuscript. Bannas P, Reeder SB. Bannas P, et al. Eur Radiol. 2017 Nov;27(11):4455-4460. doi: 10.1007/s00330-017-4879-8. Epub 2017 Jun 14. Eur Radiol. 2017. PMID: 28616726 Free PMC article. Review.
• Essential Guide to Manuscript Writing for Academic Dummies: An Editor's Perspective. Aga SS, Nissar S. Aga SS, et al. Biochem Res Int. 2022 Sep 1;2022:1492058. doi: 10.1155/2022/1492058. eCollection 2022. Biochem Res Int. 2022. PMID: 36092536 Free PMC article. Review.
• Search in MeSH

LinkOut - more resources

Full text sources.

• Ovid Technologies, Inc.
• Wolters Kluwer

• Citation Manager

NCBI Literature Resources

MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer

The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation
• How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples

How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples

Published on 27 October 2016 by Bas Swaen . Revised on 25 October 2022 by Tegan George.

A results section is where you report the main findings of the data collection and analysis you conducted for your thesis or dissertation . You should report all relevant results concisely and objectively, in a logical order. Don’t include subjective interpretations of why you found these results or what they mean – any evaluation should be saved for the discussion section .

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Be assured that you'll submit flawless writing. Upload your document to correct all your mistakes.

Table of contents

How to write a results section, reporting quantitative research results, reporting qualitative research results, results vs discussion vs conclusion, checklist: research results, frequently asked questions about results sections.

When conducting research, it’s important to report the results of your study prior to discussing your interpretations of it. This gives your reader a clear idea of exactly what you found and keeps the data itself separate from your subjective analysis.

Here are a few best practices:

• Your results should always be written in the past tense.
• While the length of this section depends on how much data you collected and analysed, it should be written as concisely as possible.
• Only include results that are directly relevant to answering your research questions . Avoid speculative or interpretative words like ‘appears’ or ‘implies’.
• If you have other results you’d like to include, consider adding them to an appendix or footnotes.
• Always start out with your broadest results first, and then flow into your more granular (but still relevant) ones. Think of it like a shoe shop: first discuss the shoes as a whole, then the trainers, boots, sandals, etc.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

If you conducted quantitative research , you’ll likely be working with the results of some sort of statistical analysis .

Your results section should report the results of any statistical tests you used to compare groups or assess relationships between variables . It should also state whether or not each hypothesis was supported.

The most logical way to structure quantitative results is to frame them around your research questions or hypotheses. For each question or hypothesis, share:

• A reminder of the type of analysis you used (e.g., a two-sample t test or simple linear regression ). A more detailed description of your analysis should go in your methodology section.
• A concise summary of each relevant result, both positive and negative. This can include any relevant descriptive statistics (e.g., means and standard deviations ) as well as inferential statistics (e.g., t scores, degrees of freedom , and p values ). Remember, these numbers are often placed in parentheses.
• A brief statement of how each result relates to the question, or whether the hypothesis was supported. You can briefly mention any results that didn’t fit with your expectations and assumptions, but save any speculation on their meaning or consequences for your discussion  and conclusion.

A note on tables and figures

In quantitative research, it’s often helpful to include visual elements such as graphs, charts, and tables , but only if they are directly relevant to your results. Give these elements clear, descriptive titles and labels so that your reader can easily understand what is being shown. If you want to include any other visual elements that are more tangential in nature, consider adding a figure and table list .

As a rule of thumb:

• Tables are used to communicate exact values, giving a concise overview of various results
• Graphs and charts are used to visualise trends and relationships, giving an at-a-glance illustration of key findings

Don’t forget to also mention any tables and figures you used within the text of your results section. Summarise or elaborate on specific aspects you think your reader should know about rather than merely restating the same numbers already shown.

Figure 1: Intention to donate to environmental organisations based on social distance from impact of environmental damage.

In qualitative research , your results might not all be directly related to specific hypotheses. In this case, you can structure your results section around key themes or topics that emerged from your analysis of the data.

For each theme, start with general observations about what the data showed. You can mention:

• Recurring points of agreement or disagreement
• Patterns and trends
• Particularly significant snippets from individual responses

Next, clarify and support these points with direct quotations. Be sure to report any relevant demographic information about participants. Further information (such as full transcripts , if appropriate) can be included in an appendix .

‘I think that in role-playing games, there’s more attention to character design, to world design, because the whole story is important and more attention is paid to certain game elements […] so that perhaps you do need bigger teams of creative experts than in an average shooter or something.’

Responses suggest that video game consumers consider some types of games to have more artistic potential than others.

Your results section should objectively report your findings, presenting only brief observations in relation to each question, hypothesis, or theme.

It should not  speculate about the meaning of the results or attempt to answer your main research question . Detailed interpretation of your results is more suitable for your discussion section , while synthesis of your results into an overall answer to your main research question is best left for your conclusion .

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Correct my document today

I have completed my data collection and analyzed the results.

I have included all results that are relevant to my research questions.

I have concisely and objectively reported each result, including relevant descriptive statistics and inferential statistics .

I have stated whether each hypothesis was supported or refuted.

I have used tables and figures to illustrate my results where appropriate.

All tables and figures are correctly labelled and referred to in the text.

There is no subjective interpretation or speculation on the meaning of the results.

You've finished writing up your results! Use the other checklists to further improve your thesis.

The results chapter of a thesis or dissertation presents your research results concisely and objectively.

In quantitative research , for each question or hypothesis , state:

• The type of analysis used
• Relevant results in the form of descriptive and inferential statistics
• Whether or not the alternative hypothesis was supported

In qualitative research , for each question or theme, describe:

• Recurring patterns
• Significant or representative individual responses
• Relevant quotations from the data

Don’t interpret or speculate in the results chapter.

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Swaen, B. (2022, October 25). How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 19 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/results-section/

Is this article helpful?

Other students also liked

What is a research methodology | steps & tips, how to write a discussion section | tips & examples, how to write a thesis or dissertation conclusion.

• Langson Library
• Science Library
• Grunigen Medical Library
• Law Library
• Connect From Off-Campus
• Accessibility
• Gateway Study Center

Email this link

Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report
• INTRODUCTION

Writing a "good" results section

Figures and Captions in Lab Reports

"Results Checklist" from: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper. Chris A. Mack. SPIE. 2018.

Additional tips for results sections.

• LITERATURE CITED
• Bibliography of guides to scientific writing and presenting
• Peer Review
• Presentations
• Lab Report Writing Guides on the Web

This is the core of the paper. Don't start the results sections with methods you left out of the Materials and Methods section. You need to give an overall description of the experiments and present the data you found.

• Factual statements supported by evidence. Short and sweet without excess words
• Present representative data rather than endlessly repetitive data
• Discuss variables only if they had an effect (positive or negative)
• Use meaningful statistics
• Avoid redundancy. If it is in the tables or captions you may not need to repeat it

A short article by Dr. Brett Couch and Dr. Deena Wassenberg, Biology Program, University of Minnesota

• Present the results of the paper, in logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary.
• Explain the results and show how they help to answer the research questions posed in the Introduction. Evidence does not explain itself; the results must be presented and then explained. 
• Avoid: presenting results that are never discussed;  presenting results in chronological order rather than logical order; ignoring results that do not support the conclusions; 
• Number tables and figures separately beginning with 1 (i.e. Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, etc.).
• Do not attempt to evaluate the results in this section. Report only what you found; hold all discussion of the significance of the results for the Discussion section.
• It is not necessary to describe every step of your statistical analyses. Scientists understand all about null hypotheses, rejection rules, and so forth and do not need to be reminded of them. Just say something like, "Honeybees did not use the flowers in proportion to their availability (X2 = 7.9, p<0.05, d.f.= 4, chi-square test)." Likewise, cite tables and figures without describing in detail how the data were manipulated. Explanations of this sort should appear in a legend or caption written on the same page as the figure or table.
• You must refer in the text to each figure or table you include in your paper.
• Tables generally should report summary-level data, such as means ± standard deviations, rather than all your raw data.  A long list of all your individual observations will mean much less than a few concise, easy-to-read tables or figures that bring out the main findings of your study.  
• Only use a figure (graph) when the data lend themselves to a good visual representation.  Avoid using figures that show too many variables or trends at once, because they can be hard to understand.

From:  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/imrad-results-discussion

• << Previous: METHODS
• Next: DISCUSSION >>
• Last Updated: Aug 4, 2023 9:33 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/scientificwriting

Off-campus? Please use the Software VPN and choose the group UCIFull to access licensed content. For more information, please Click here

Software VPN is not available for guests, so they may not have access to some content when connecting from off-campus.

• Affiliate Program

• UNITED STATES
• 台灣 (TAIWAN)
• TÜRKIYE (TURKEY)
• Academic Editing Services
• - Research Paper
• - Journal Manuscript
• - Dissertation
• - College & University Assignments
• Admissions Editing Services
• - Application Essay
• - Personal Statement
• - Recommendation Letter
• - Cover Letter
• - CV/Resume
• Business Editing Services
• - Business Documents
• - Report & Brochure
• - Website & Blog
• Writer Editing Services
• - Script & Screenplay
• Our Editors
• Client Reviews
• Editing & Proofreading Prices
• Wordvice Points
• Partner Discount
• Plagiarism Checker
• APA Citation Generator
• MLA Citation Generator
• Chicago Citation Generator
• Vancouver Citation Generator
• - APA Style
• - MLA Style
• - Chicago Style
• - Vancouver Style
• Writing & Editing Guide
• Academic Resources
• Admissions Resources

How to Write the Results/Findings Section in Research

What is the research paper Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information. It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is presented before the Discussion section —although the Results and Discussion are presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?”

What is included in the Results section?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the findings of your study. The findings include:

• Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed into the text or on separate pages at the end of the manuscript)
• A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form
• All data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
• All secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad, or if you studied a variety of variables, or if the methodology used yields a wide range of different results, the author should present only those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the Introduction section .

As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the journal requests that authors combine the Results and Discussion sections, explanations and interpretations should be omitted from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is “logically.” One logical and clear method of organizing research results is to provide them alongside the research questions—within each research question, present the type of data that addresses that research question.

Let’s look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey among patients who were treated at a hospital and received postoperative care. Let’s say your first research question is:

“What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?”

This can actually be represented as a heading within your Results section, though it might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55

Now present the results that address this specific research question first. In this case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert items can be included in this example. Tables can also present standard deviations, probabilities, correlation matrices, etc.

Following this, present a content analysis, in words, of one end of the spectrum of the survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases. For example:

“Sixty-five percent of patients over 55 responded positively to the question “ Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care ?” (Fig. 2)

Include other results such as subcategory analyses. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of tables and figures is necessary and how many examples the reader needs in order to understand the significance of your research findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey. For instance:

  “As Figure 1 shows, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively to Question 2.”

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently, move on to your next research question. For example:

  “How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to postoperative care?”

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for instance, a paired T-test table).

Explain the data you present, here in a table, with a concise content analysis:

“The p-value for the comparison between the before and after groups of patients was .03% (Fig. 2), indicating that the greater the dissatisfaction among patients, the more frequent the improvements that were made to postoperative care.”

Let’s examine another example of a Results section from a study on plant tolerance to heavy metal stress . In the Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as “determining the physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepa L. towards increased cadmium toxicity” and “evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its associated environmental consequences.” The Results section presents data showing how these aims are achieved in tables alongside a content analysis, beginning with an overview of the findings:

“Cadmium caused inhibition of root and leave elongation, with increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. 1a-c).”

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author has combined three graphs into one single figure. Separating the data into separate graphs focusing on specific aspects makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate the most relevant results.

Following this overall summary, the relevant data in the tables is broken down into greater detail in text form in the Results section.

• “Results on the bio-accumulation of cadmium were found to be the highest (17.5 mg kgG1) in the bulb, when the concentration of cadmium in the solution was 1×10G2 M and lowest (0.11 mg kgG1) in the leaves when the concentration was 1×10G3 M.”

Captioning and Referencing Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are central components of your Results section and you need to carefully think about the most effective way to use graphs and tables to present your findings . Therefore, it is crucial to know how to write strong figure captions and to refer to them within the text of the Results section.

The most important advice one can give here as well as throughout the paper is to check the requirements and standards of the journal to which you are submitting your work. Every journal has its own design and layout standards, which you can find in the author instructions on the target journal’s website. Perusing a journal’s published articles will also give you an idea of the proper number, size, and complexity of your figures.

Regardless of which format you use, the figures should be placed in the order they are referenced in the Results section and be as clear and easy to understand as possible. If there are multiple variables being considered (within one or more research questions), it can be a good idea to split these up into separate figures. Subsequently, these can be referenced and analyzed under separate headings and paragraphs in the text.

To create a caption, consider the research question being asked and change it into a phrase. For instance, if one question is “Which color did participants choose?”, the caption might be “Color choice by participant group.” Or in our last research paper example, where the question was “What is the concentration of cadmium in different parts of the onion after 14 days?” the caption reads:

 “Fig. 1(a-c): Mean concentration of Cd determined in (a) bulbs, (b) leaves, and (c) roots of onions after a 14-day period.”

Steps for Composing the Results Section

Because each study is unique, there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented. The content and layout of this section will be determined by the specific area of research, the design of the study and its particular methodologies, and the guidelines of the target journal and its editors. However, the following steps can be used to compose the results of most scientific research studies and are essential for researchers who are new to preparing a manuscript for publication or who need a reminder of how to construct the Results section.

Step 1 : Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study.

• The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will provide sound examples of successful approaches.
• Note length limitations on restrictions on content. For instance, while many journals require the Results and Discussion sections to be separate, others do not—qualitative research papers often include results and interpretations in the same section (“Results and Discussion”).
• Reading the aims and scope in the journal’s “ guide for authors ” section and understanding the interests of its readers will be invaluable in preparing to write the Results section.

Step 2 : Consider your research results in relation to the journal’s requirements and catalogue your results.

• Focus on experimental results and other findings that are especially relevant to your research questions and objectives and include them even if they are unexpected or do not support your ideas and hypotheses.
• Catalogue your findings—use subheadings to streamline and clarify your report. This will help you avoid excessive and peripheral details as you write and also help your reader understand and remember your findings. Create appendices that might interest specialists but prove too long or distracting for other readers.
• Decide how you will structure of your results. You might match the order of the research questions and hypotheses to your results, or you could arrange them according to the order presented in the Methods section. A chronological order or even a hierarchy of importance or meaningful grouping of main themes or categories might prove effective. Consider your audience, evidence, and most importantly, the objectives of your research when choosing a structure for presenting your findings.

Step 3 : Design figures and tables to present and illustrate your data.

• Tables and figures should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the main text of the paper.
• Information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory (with the aid of captions), and their design should include all definitions and other information necessary for readers to understand the findings without reading all of the text.
• Use tables and figures as a focal point to tell a clear and informative story about your research and avoid repeating information. But remember that while figures clarify and enhance the text, they cannot replace it.

Step 4 : Draft your Results section using the findings and figures you have organized.

• The goal is to communicate this complex information as clearly and precisely as possible; precise and compact phrases and sentences are most effective.
• In the opening paragraph of this section, restate your research questions or aims to focus the reader’s attention to what the results are trying to show. It is also a good idea to summarize key findings at the end of this section to create a logical transition to the interpretation and discussion that follows.
• Try to write in the past tense and the active voice to relay the findings since the research has already been done and the agent is usually clear. This will ensure that your explanations are also clear and logical.
• Make sure that any specialized terminology or abbreviation you have used here has been defined and clarified in the  Introduction section .

Step 5 : Review your draft; edit and revise until it reports results exactly as you would like to have them reported to your readers.

• Double-check the accuracy and consistency of all the data, as well as all of the visual elements included.
• Read your draft aloud to catch language errors (grammar, spelling, and mechanics), awkward phrases, and missing transitions.
• Ensure that your results are presented in the best order to focus on objectives and prepare readers for interpretations, valuations, and recommendations in the Discussion section . Look back over the paper’s Introduction and background while anticipating the Discussion and Conclusion sections to ensure that the presentation of your results is consistent and effective.
• Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your Results section and see if it can be improved in any way. Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insights.

One excellent option is to use a professional English proofreading and editing service  such as Wordvice, including our paper editing service . With hundreds of qualified editors from dozens of scientific fields, Wordvice has helped thousands of authors revise their manuscripts and get accepted into their target journals. Read more about the  proofreading and editing process  before proceeding with getting academic editing services and manuscript editing services for your manuscript.

As the representation of your study’s data output, the Results section presents the core information in your research paper. By writing with clarity and conciseness and by highlighting and explaining the crucial findings of their study, authors increase the impact and effectiveness of their research manuscripts.

For more articles and videos on writing your research manuscript, visit Wordvice’s Resources page.

Wordvice Resources

• How to Write a Research Paper Introduction 
• Which Verb Tenses to Use in a Research Paper
• How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper
• How to Write a Research Paper Title
• Useful Phrases for Academic Writing
• Common Transition Terms in Academic Papers
• Active and Passive Voice in Research Papers
• 100+ Verbs That Will Make Your Research Writing Amazing
• Tips for Paraphrasing in Research Papers

Guide to Writing the Results and Discussion Sections of a Scientific Article

A quality research paper has both the qualities of in-depth research and good writing ( Bordage, 2001 ). In addition, a research paper must be clear, concise, and effective when presenting the information in an organized structure with a logical manner ( Sandercock, 2013 ).

In this article, we will take a closer look at the results and discussion section. Composing each of these carefully with sufficient data and well-constructed arguments can help improve your paper overall.

The results section of your research paper contains a description about the main findings of your research, whereas the discussion section interprets the results for readers and provides the significance of the findings. The discussion should not repeat the results.

Let’s dive in a little deeper about how to properly, and clearly organize each part.

How to Organize the Results Section

Since your results follow your methods, you’ll want to provide information about what you discovered from the methods you used, such as your research data. In other words, what were the outcomes of the methods you used?

You may also include information about the measurement of your data, variables, treatments, and statistical analyses.

To start, organize your research data based on how important those are in relation to your research questions. This section should focus on showing major results that support or reject your research hypothesis. Include your least important data as supplemental materials when submitting to the journal.

The next step is to prioritize your research data based on importance – focusing heavily on the information that directly relates to your research questions using the subheadings.

The organization of the subheadings for the results section usually mirrors the methods section. It should follow a logical and chronological order.

Subheading organization

Subheadings within your results section are primarily going to detail major findings within each important experiment. And the first paragraph of your results section should be dedicated to your main findings (findings that answer your overall research question and lead to your conclusion) (Hofmann, 2013).

In the book “Writing in the Biological Sciences,” author Angelika Hofmann recommends you structure your results subsection paragraphs as follows:

• Experimental purpose
• Interpretation

Each subheading may contain a combination of ( Bahadoran, 2019 ; Hofmann, 2013, pg. 62-63):

• Text: to explain about the research data
• Figures: to display the research data and to show trends or relationships, for examples using graphs or gel pictures.
• Tables: to represent a large data and exact value

Decide on the best way to present your data — in the form of text, figures or tables (Hofmann, 2013).

Data or Results?

Sometimes we get confused about how to differentiate between data and results . Data are information (facts or numbers) that you collected from your research ( Bahadoran, 2019 ).

Whereas, results are the texts presenting the meaning of your research data ( Bahadoran, 2019 ).

One mistake that some authors often make is to use text to direct the reader to find a specific table or figure without further explanation. This can confuse readers when they interpret data completely different from what the authors had in mind. So, you should briefly explain your data to make your information clear for the readers.

Common Elements in Figures and Tables

Figures and tables present information about your research data visually. The use of these visual elements is necessary so readers can summarize, compare, and interpret large data at a glance. You can use graphs or figures to compare groups or patterns. Whereas, tables are ideal to present large quantities of data and exact values.

Several components are needed to create your figures and tables. These elements are important to sort your data based on groups (or treatments). It will be easier for the readers to see the similarities and differences among the groups.

When presenting your research data in the form of figures and tables, organize your data based on the steps of the research leading you into a conclusion.

Common elements of the figures (Bahadoran, 2019):

• Figure number
• Figure title
• Figure legend (for example a brief title, experimental/statistical information, or definition of symbols).

Tables in the result section may contain several elements (Bahadoran, 2019):

• Table number
• Table title
• Row headings (for example groups)
• Column headings
• Row subheadings (for example categories or groups)
• Column subheadings (for example categories or variables)
• Footnotes (for example statistical analyses)

Tips to Write the Results Section

• Direct the reader to the research data and explain the meaning of the data.
• Avoid using a repetitive sentence structure to explain a new set of data.
• Write and highlight important findings in your results.
• Use the same order as the subheadings of the methods section.
• Match the results with the research questions from the introduction. Your results should answer your research questions.
• Be sure to mention the figures and tables in the body of your text.
• Make sure there is no mismatch between the table number or the figure number in text and in figure/tables.
• Only present data that support the significance of your study. You can provide additional data in tables and figures as supplementary material.

How to Organize the Discussion Section

It’s not enough to use figures and tables in your results section to convince your readers about the importance of your findings. You need to support your results section by providing more explanation in the discussion section about what you found.

In the discussion section, based on your findings, you defend the answers to your research questions and create arguments to support your conclusions.

Below is a list of questions to guide you when organizing the structure of your discussion section ( Viera et al ., 2018 ):

• What experiments did you conduct and what were the results?
• What do the results mean?
• What were the important results from your study?
• How did the results answer your research questions?
• Did your results support your hypothesis or reject your hypothesis?
• What are the variables or factors that might affect your results?
• What were the strengths and limitations of your study?
• What other published works support your findings?
• What other published works contradict your findings?
• What possible factors might cause your findings different from other findings?
• What is the significance of your research?
• What are new research questions to explore based on your findings?

Organizing the Discussion Section

The structure of the discussion section may be different from one paper to another, but it commonly has a beginning, middle-, and end- to the section.

One way to organize the structure of the discussion section is by dividing it into three parts (Ghasemi, 2019):

• The beginning: The first sentence of the first paragraph should state the importance and the new findings of your research. The first paragraph may also include answers to your research questions mentioned in your introduction section.
• The middle: The middle should contain the interpretations of the results to defend your answers, the strength of the study, the limitations of the study, and an update literature review that validates your findings.
• The end: The end concludes the study and the significance of your research.

Another possible way to organize the discussion section was proposed by Michael Docherty in British Medical Journal: is by using this structure ( Docherty, 1999 ):

• Discussion of important findings
• Comparison of your results with other published works
• Include the strengths and limitations of the study
• Conclusion and possible implications of your study, including the significance of your study – address why and how is it meaningful
• Future research questions based on your findings

Finally, a last option is structuring your discussion this way (Hofmann, 2013, pg. 104):

• First Paragraph: Provide an interpretation based on your key findings. Then support your interpretation with evidence.
• Secondary results
• Limitations
• Unexpected findings
• Comparisons to previous publications
• Last Paragraph: The last paragraph should provide a summarization (conclusion) along with detailing the significance, implications and potential next steps.

Remember, at the heart of the discussion section is presenting an interpretation of your major findings.

Tips to Write the Discussion Section

• Highlight the significance of your findings
• Mention how the study will fill a gap in knowledge.
• Indicate the implication of your research.
• Avoid generalizing, misinterpreting your results, drawing a conclusion with no supportive findings from your results.

Aggarwal, R., & Sahni, P. (2018). The Results Section. In Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences (pp. 21-38): Springer.

Bahadoran, Z., Mirmiran, P., Zadeh-Vakili, A., Hosseinpanah, F., & Ghasemi, A. (2019). The principles of biomedical scientific writing: Results. International journal of endocrinology and metabolism, 17(2).

Bordage, G. (2001). Reasons reviewers reject and accept manuscripts: the strengths and weaknesses in medical education reports. Academic medicine, 76(9), 889-896.

Cals, J. W., & Kotz, D. (2013). Effective writing and publishing scientific papers, part VI: discussion. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 66(10), 1064.

Docherty, M., & Smith, R. (1999). The case for structuring the discussion of scientific papers: Much the same as that for structuring abstracts. In: British Medical Journal Publishing Group.

Faber, J. (2017). Writing scientific manuscripts: most common mistakes. Dental press journal of orthodontics, 22(5), 113-117.

Fletcher, R. H., & Fletcher, S. W. (2018). The discussion section. In Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences (pp. 39-48): Springer.

Ghasemi, A., Bahadoran, Z., Mirmiran, P., Hosseinpanah, F., Shiva, N., & Zadeh-Vakili, A. (2019). The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Discussion. International journal of endocrinology and metabolism, 17(3).

Hofmann, A. H. (2013). Writing in the biological sciences: a comprehensive resource for scientific communication . New York: Oxford University Press.

Kotz, D., & Cals, J. W. (2013). Effective writing and publishing scientific papers, part V: results. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 66(9), 945.

Mack, C. (2014). How to Write a Good Scientific Paper: Structure and Organization. Journal of Micro/ Nanolithography, MEMS, and MOEMS, 13. doi:10.1117/1.JMM.13.4.040101

Moore, A. (2016). What's in a Discussion section? Exploiting 2‐dimensionality in the online world…. Bioessays, 38(12), 1185-1185.

Peat, J., Elliott, E., Baur, L., & Keena, V. (2013). Scientific writing: easy when you know how: John Wiley & Sons.

Sandercock, P. M. L. (2012). How to write and publish a scientific article. Canadian Society of Forensic Science Journal, 45(1), 1-5.

Teo, E. K. (2016). Effective Medical Writing: The Write Way to Get Published. Singapore Medical Journal, 57(9), 523-523. doi:10.11622/smedj.2016156

Van Way III, C. W. (2007). Writing a scientific paper. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 22(6), 636-640.

Vieira, R. F., Lima, R. C. d., & Mizubuti, E. S. G. (2019). How to write the discussion section of a scientific article. Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy, 41.

Related Articles

A quality research paper has both the qualities of in-depth research and good writing (Bordage, 200...

How to Survive and Complete a Thesis or a Dissertation

Writing a thesis or a dissertation can be a challenging process for many graduate students. There ar...

12 Ways to Dramatically Improve your Research Manuscript Title and Abstract

The first thing a person doing literary research will see is a research publication title. After tha...

15 Laboratory Notebook Tips to Help with your Research Manuscript

Your lab notebook is a foundation to your research manuscript. It serves almost as a rudimentary dra...

Join our list to receive promos and articles.

• Competent Cells
• Lab Startup
• Z')" data-type="collection" title="Products A->Z" target="_self" href="/collection/products-a-to-z">Products A->Z
• GoldBio Resources
• GoldBio Sales Team
• GoldBio Distributors
• Duchefa Direct
• Sign up for Promos
• Terms & Conditions
• ISO Certification
• Agarose Resins
• Antibiotics & Selection
• Biochemical Reagents
• Bioluminescence
• Buffers & Reagents
• Cell Culture
• Cloning & Induction
• Competent Cells and Transformation
• Detergents & Membrane Agents
• DNA Amplification
• Enzymes, Inhibitors & Substrates
• Growth Factors and Cytokines
• Lab Tools & Accessories
• Plant Research and Reagents
• Protein Research & Analysis
• Protein Expression & Purification
• Reducing Agents

How to Present Results in a Research Paper

• First Online: 01 October 2023

Cite this chapter

• Aparna Mukherjee 4 ,
• Gunjan Kumar 4 &
• Rakesh Lodha 5  

1126 Accesses

The results section is the core of a research manuscript where the study data and analyses are presented in an organized, uncluttered manner such that the reader can easily understand and interpret the findings. This section is completely factual; there is no place for opinions or explanations from the authors. The results should correspond to the objectives of the study in an orderly manner. Self-explanatory tables and figures add value to this section and make data presentation more convenient and appealing. The results presented in this section should have a link with both the preceding methods section and the following discussion section. A well-written, articulate results section lends clarity and credibility to the research paper and the study as a whole. This chapter provides an overview and important pointers to effective drafting of the results section in a research manuscript and also in theses.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Conclusions

Research Method

Research Questions and Research Design

Kallestinova ED (2011) How to write your first research paper. Yale J Biol Med 84(3):181–190

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

STROBE. STROBE. [cited 2022 Nov 10]. https://www.strobe-statement.org/

Consort—Welcome to the CONSORT Website. http://www.consort-statement.org/ . Accessed 10 Nov 2022

Korevaar DA, Cohen JF, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, Gatsonis CA, Glasziou PP et al (2016) Updating standards for reporting diagnostic accuracy: the development of STARD 2015. Res Integr Peer Rev 1(1):7

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD et al (2021) The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372:n71

Page MJ, Moher D, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD et al (2021) PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372:n160

Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups | EQUATOR Network. https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/coreq/ . Accessed 10 Nov 2022

Aggarwal R, Sahni P (2015) The results section. In: Aggarwal R, Sahni P (eds) Reporting and publishing research in the biomedical sciences, 1st edn. National Medical Journal of India, Delhi, pp 24–44

Google Scholar  

Mukherjee A, Lodha R (2016) Writing the results. Indian Pediatr 53(5):409–415

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Lodha R, Randev S, Kabra SK (2016) Oral antibiotics for community acquired pneumonia with chest indrawing in children aged below five years: a systematic review. Indian Pediatr 53(6):489–495

Anderson C (2010) Presenting and evaluating qualitative research. Am J Pharm Educ 74(8):141

Roberts C, Kumar K, Finn G (2020) Navigating the qualitative manuscript writing process: some tips for authors and reviewers. BMC Med Educ 20:439

Bigby C (2015) Preparing manuscripts that report qualitative research: avoiding common pitfalls and illegitimate questions. Aust Soc Work 68(3):384–391

Article   Google Scholar  

Vincent BP, Kumar G, Parameswaran S, Kar SS (2019) Barriers and suggestions towards deceased organ donation in a government tertiary care teaching hospital: qualitative study using socio-ecological model framework. Indian J Transplant 13(3):194

McCormick JB, Hopkins MA (2021) Exploring public concerns for sharing and governance of personal health information: a focus group study. JAMIA Open 4(4):ooab098

Groenland -emeritus professor E. Employing the matrix method as a tool for the analysis of qualitative research data in the business domain. Rochester, NY; 2014. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2495330 . Accessed 10 Nov 2022

Download references

Acknowledgments

The book chapter is derived in part from our article “Mukherjee A, Lodha R. Writing the Results. Indian Pediatr. 2016 May 8;53(5):409-15.” We thank the Editor-in-Chief of the journal “Indian Pediatrics” for the permission for the same.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Clinical Studies, Trials and Projection Unit, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India

Aparna Mukherjee & Gunjan Kumar

Department of Pediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India

Rakesh Lodha

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rakesh Lodha .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Retired Senior Expert Pharmacologist at the Office of Cardiology, Hematology, Endocrinology, and Nephrology, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh

Professor & Director, Research Training and Publications, The Office of Research and Development, Periyar Maniammai Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Vallam, Tamil Nadu, India

Pitchai Balakumar

Division Cardiology & Nephrology, Office of Cardiology, Hematology, Endocrinology and Nephrology, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Fortunato Senatore

Ethics declarations

Rights and permissions.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Mukherjee, A., Kumar, G., Lodha, R. (2023). How to Present Results in a Research Paper. In: Jagadeesh, G., Balakumar, P., Senatore, F. (eds) The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_44

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_44

Published : 01 October 2023

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-99-1283-4

Online ISBN : 978-981-99-1284-1

eBook Packages : Biomedical and Life Sciences Biomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Results Section: Student Guidelines & Examples

• Icon Calendar 22 July 2024
• Icon Page 6840 words
• Icon Clock 31 min read

When students organize their scholarly papers, they need valid guidelines on how to write a results section of a research paper. In this case, a presented article offers critical insights, including a definition of a results section, its format, steps on how to write it, all the parts of a standard research paper and how this element differs from others, the information that should be included, and how to organize it correctly. A discussed guideline also teaches students specific differences between qualitative and quantitative research results sections, including examples and templates indicating how to present the main findings. In turn, an observed article provides recommendations with 8 dos and 8 don’ts of writing a results section, 20 tips that students should follow when organizing this part, and some examples of elements they can include in their research papers.

General Aspects

Students should read scholarly texts habitually to equip themselves with knowledge of specific requirements of high-standard papers. While these requirements are not similar for different types of papers , they have similar unique features. Basically, it is standard for writers of various types of essays to create a clear thesis statement that provides direction on a particular content and a well-organized outline that follows a correct essay structure and allows one to organize ideas logically. In turn, a presented guideline on how to write a results section provides insights into basic details students must address when writing this part, including all the other components of a research paper, the information essential to include, and its organization. Moreover, readers should view this article as an educational tool that empowers them to start writing a high-standard results section of a scientific research paper.

What Is a Results Section and Its Purpose

According to its definition, a results section of a research paper is a crucial component where study findings are presented in a clear, concise, and objective manner. Basically, the main purpose of writing a results section is to present the data collected and the outcomes of the analyses performed without any interpretation or bias (Carter et al., 2021). This section typically includes tables, figures, and descriptive text that detail key results, allowing readers to see the evidence that supports research hypotheses or questions. By systematically organizing and reporting the data, this part allows readers to assess a particular validity of study conclusions and an overall reliability of the data, serving as a valid foundation for a discussion section, where an actual significance of the findings is interpreted while broader implications are considered (Wallwork, 2022). In terms of pages and words, the length of a results section depends on academic levels, scopes of research, and assignment requirements, while general writing guidelines are:

High School

• Length: 1-2 pages
• Word Count: 250-500 words
• Length: 2-3 pages
• Word Count: 500-750 words

University (Undergraduate)

• Length: 2-6 pages
• Word Count: 500-1,500 words

Master’s

• Length: 3-8 pages
• Word Count: 750-2,000 words
• Length: 4-10+ pages
• Word Count: 1,000-2,500+ words

Note: Some sections can be added, deleted, or combined with each other, and such a writing depends on a particular purpose of the findings and their representations. Basically, a standard writing format of a results section includes an introduction, presentation of descriptive statistics, visual aids, such as tables and figures, detailed narrative descriptions of key findings, and a summary of significant outputs. For example, to structure a results section in a research paper, scholars start with a brief introduction, followed by presenting their descriptive data, visual aids, and statistical analyses, then detailing key findings in a narrative form, and ending with a summary of the most significant outputs (Carter et al., 2021). In this case, people should write their results section in the past tense, as they are describing what was found in their research papers. Moreover, a results section presents raw data and findings of a study objectively, while an analysis section interprets these findings, discussing their implications, significance, and relevance to research questions (Ross & Willson, 2018). In turn, to start a results section in a research paper, people begin by briefly summarizing a specific purpose of an obtained data and providing an overview of this information being presented.

Steps on How to Write a Results Section

To write a results section in a research paper, people present their findings clearly and objectively, using descriptive words, tables, and figures to highlight key data, and include statistical analyses to support their outputs without interpreting its implications, which are reserved for a discussion part.

• Begin With an Overview: Start by providing a brief overview of a specific purpose and scope of a results section.
• Organize by Research Questions or Hypotheses: Structure study findings around study questions or hypotheses to maintain a clear focus of writing.
• Present Descriptive Statistics: Provide basic descriptive statistics, such as means, medians, and standard deviations, to summarize an entire data.
• Include Visual Aids: Use tables, figures, and charts to visually represent a presented data, making it easier to understand trends and patterns.
• Report Inferential Statistics: Present outcomes of any inferential statistical tests, including p-values, confidence intervals, and effect sizes.
• Be Objective: Write about the findings without interpreting or drawing conclusions to maintain objectivity.
• Highlight Key Findings: Emphasize the most important outcomes that directly address research questions or hypotheses.
• Reference Visual Aids: Ensure all tables and figures are properly numbered and referenced within an entire paper’s text.
• Ensure Clarity and Precision: Write clearly and precisely, avoiding any ambiguous language or unnecessary jargon.
• Summarize Study Results: Conclude with a concise summary of the main outcomes to provide a clear take-home message for readers.

A research paper is unique because it has sections with varying writing details about a specific study topic. For example, these sections include an introduction, literature review, research methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion (Carter et al., 2021). In this respect, a research paper is a comprehensive document that requires students’ total focus and dedication. Writers should use each part to provide information for readers to understand a real essence and significance of research papers. Therefore, to write a quality results section, one must know how it differs from other scientific papers and the information it must provide for readers. In turn, students should focus on a particular uniqueness of each element because it underscores its relevance in a research paper.

1️⃣ Introduction

An introduction is a first section of a research paper. As a title suggests, it aims to introduce a reader to a specific study problem under analysis. In this respect, there are critical details writers must provide in this part, including a research problem, a background of an overall investigation, a significance of a particular study, and a research question or hypothesis (Wallwork, 2022). Typically, scientific paper topics indicate study problems students may use for writing their scholarly papers. In turn, a background information addresses existing research and some gaps writers intend to explore using bridge sentences in their current papers. Moreover, a real significance of a specific study must explain why a current scientific work is essential, and research question(s) or hypothesis(es) address what writers intend to prove through their papers, either answering questions or validating null and alternative hypotheses (Carter et al., 2021). Thus, an introduction section of a research paper gives readers basic information about a writer’s scientific work. In turn, before an introduction, students can include an abstract or executive summary part, which means an overall summary of a research paper, but this writing is optional.

2️⃣ Review of an Existing Literature

A literature review is a second section of a research paper that examines existing evidence relating to a particular research paper problem. Depending on a chosen topic, writing this section is robust because one must demonstrate an in-depth understanding of a researched issue under review (Wallwork, 2022). More importantly, students must convince readers that they have investigated the evidence and found a gap by reviewing credible sources that justify their studies. The most significant detail that students should focus on when writing this part is to examine numerous reliable sources, including books, peer-reviewed academic articles, and reports by government agencies, to cite information and statistics relevant to a specific scientific problem or theoretical framework (Wallwork, 2022). Such information is essential in revealing a particular knowledge gap that justifies writing a current scientific paper.

3️⃣ Research Methodology

Research methodology is a third section of a research paper and focuses on unique methods that students use to conduct their research works. For example, scholars should understand that a scholarly paper takes many writing forms or designs that determine a specific approach to take to execute their tasks (Carter et al., 2021). The two main designs are qualitative and quantitative studies, while research methods include descriptive, experimental, case study, and observation. Therefore, when writing this section, students must know they intend to give readers a roadmap for conducting their scientific papers. Essential details include study participants, how to identify them and their total number, how to collect data, and the data analysis procedure(s) for outputs (Noyes et al., 2019). In turn, a research design is the most important writing detail to consider because it determines all the other components of a methodology part. Besides, this section tends to be longer than an introduction.

4️⃣ Results Section

A results section is a fourth part of a research paper and is where students outline the findings of their scientific works. Typically, this section is shorter than a previous one because its writing purpose is to provide readers with the outcomes of a research paper. Moreover, a results chapter of a dissertation includes a particular presentation of the findings, supported by descriptive statistics, tables, figures, and detailed narratives, without interpretation or discussion of their implications (Carter et al., 2021). As a title suggests, presented details in this part should point to specific findings only. Therefore, a particular issue that makes this element unique is that writers do not provide details that contextualize their work but only those that indicate its outcomes. The information in this section underscores a specific purpose of writing a research paper, including its ultimate objective. In turn, some examples of sentence starters for beginning a results section are:

• A particular analysis of the collected data revealed several key findings, including … .
• Discussed outcomes indicate a significant correlation between discussed variables, particularly in terms of … .
• The data presented in Table 1 shows a notable difference in outcomes, which can be attributed to … .
• Results from an entire study demonstrate a clear trend in behavior, suggesting … .
• Obtained outcomes suggest a strong relationship between independent and dependent variables, as evidenced by … .
• Upon a particular examination of the data, it was found that there were significant variations in … .
• Statistical analysis confirmed an initial hypothesis, showing that … .
• Experimental results present a marked improvement in performance when … .
• Current research underlines several interesting patterns, particularly in a context of … .
• The observed information highlights an actual importance of a particular control group, as shown by differences in … .

5️⃣ Discussion

A fifth section of a research paper is a discussion part, where authors link the results with the literature review. To write a results and discussion section, people present their findings clearly with supporting data and statistical analysis, interpret them, discuss their implications, and compare them to previous research in a discussion part (Snyder et al., 2019). Ideally, the information in this writing part acts as a summary of a research paper that requires one to confirm that the findings are relevant to addressing a defined knowledge gap that writers expressed in an introduction and literature review. Typically, people show this linkage by indicating whether the outcomes have answered study question(s) or validated hypothesis(es). Other essential writing details are possible limitations of a research paper.

6️⃣ Conclusion

A conclusion is a last section of a research paper. Basically, writing a concluding paragraph reiterates a research question, how study findings impact an entire practice, such as nursing or psychology, and a particular need for conducting further studies to address unresolved questions (Wallwork, 2022). This last writing part summarizes a research paper and affects a reader’s perspective on a specific study problem.

Join our satisfied customers who have received perfect papers from Wr1ter Team.

Providing the Right Information

A results section is about the findings of a research paper only. As such, students should not address anything that does not relate to the study question(s) or hypothesis(es). Typically, specific details in this section include data that writers present in tables, charts, graphs, or other visual figures as part of a paper’s text or separately on pages at the end of an entire document, such as acknowledgments or appendices (Carter et al., 2021). Another detail is a contextual analysis of a provided data to give readers a better understanding of how it relates to the study question(s) or hypothesis(es), expanding on the meaning of the information presented. In writing, further essential details in this part are data corresponding to the study question(s) or hypothesis(es) and secondary findings, including secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses (Carter et al., 2021). In turn, to deal with negative results, people present them objectively, discuss their potential causes, and highlight their significance or implications for future analysis. All these writing details make a results section unique because it is where readers need to understand a real essence of a scientific paper.

🔸 Study Results

While a results section’s primary purpose is to communicate specific findings of a research paper, students should know they cannot copy-paste raw information without writing a good explanation. For example, the information in this part must have a pattern demonstrating a logical organization of the findings (Ross & Willson, 2018). The best way to organize such findings is to use headings following a logical order of study questions or hypotheses and integrate data through charts, graphs, visuals, or tables thematically. In this respect, when writing a results section, auhtors must refer to an introduction part to ensure the information aligns with what they said. An important detail to note is that a graphical presentation of the outputs’ information is not sufficient. However, students must mention the data by writing statements that allow readers to understand how the results answer the research question(s) or validate or invalidate hypothesis(es) as a final outcome (Ross & Willson, 2018). Besides, figure and table captions are important because they provide essential context and explanations, allowing readers to understand a specific content and relevance of an observed visual information without referring back to a main paper’s text.

🔸 Figures, Charts, or Other Visuals

A logical presentation of data requires students to organize all data figures by numbering them and citing numbers in their paragraphs to link study findings to a research question or hypothesis. In writing, people need to choose a figure when they want to illustrate trends, patterns, or relationships in the data visually, and they opt for a table when they need to present precise numerical values or detailed information for comparison (Carter et al., 2021). A particular numbering format should follow a similar writing order in which an author mentions the data in a main paper’s text. One should also explain a methodology part that led to each figure. For example, students should capture the following writing details:

Figure 1: Racial/ethnic representation of health problems in the United States.

• Integrate the data into a main paper’s text by mentioning a specific percentage of Whites, Blacks, Latinx, and American Indians with diabetes and heart disease.
• Mention Figure 1 but not necessarily a title. For example, one can write: “Figure 1 shows a specific proportion of Whites and Blacks with heart disease is 55 percent and 48 percent, respectively.” With that statement, readers can look at this chart and read its title to make sense of a given sentence.
• Depending on a specific type of figure, writers can indicate a figure legend at the top. In an above example, it reads, “Diabetes and Heart Disease in America.”
• At the bottom of a figure (footnote), one should indicate a specific figure number followed by a caption that briefly describes this figure. In an above example, a given caption reads, “Racial/ethnic representation of health problems in the United States.”
• Writers must use labels to identify specific elements or features in a graph. In an above example, a horizontal axis uses percentages as labels indicating a specific proportion of Whites, Blacks, Latinx, and American Indians with diabetes and heart disease.

Like figures, tables capture data reflecting a results section of a research paper. However, they differ from charts in how they reflect the information. For example, their unique writing features include columns and rows, each with a subheading (Ross & Willson, 2018). In turn, an obtained data should be presented in figures and tables instead of directly in a main paper’s text when writing involves complex information, trends, or large datasets that are easier to understand visually or require precise comparison. The following writing example shows how students should use tables in a results section:

Table 1. Demographics of Whites in the United States for 2020 showing how obesity affects this population in the country. Young individuals are the most affected, with 38 percent presenting as obese, followed by adult females at 22 percent and then adult males at 18 percent. However, on average, the BMI index for all groups is below the obese level of 30.

• Writers should identify the data in a given table above by mentioning “Table 1” in a main paper’s text about specific demographics of Whites for 2020.
• Typically, most research papers use a footnote rather than a table title. While a title is necessary to enhance readers’ understanding, footnotes are more detailed in writing because they offer some analysis. In an above example, a particular footnote that follows a given caption below a table analyzes the information for a reader’s benefit.
• Typically, row headings capture groups, and column headings indicate demographical data. In an above example, a given row heading captures Whites as a racial group, while a provided column heading indicates group’s demographics. Writers should understand each row and each column should reflect one group and one demographical data, respectively.
• Sometimes, writers may have row subheadings to indicate group categories and column subheadings to capture variables for a better writing. In an above example, given row subheadings are youths, adult males, and adult females as group categories, while provided column subheadings indicate average BMI and obesity as demographic categories.
• Tables provide self-explanatory data to readers, and footnotes only attempt to make sense of it superficially. By looking at a specific table, people should comprehend the results without reading all the paper’s text.

Therefore, students should use figures and tables as focal points to communicate a clear and informative narrative about the findings of a research paper. In writing, authors should repeat every detail in a main paper’s text, although they must reference all data in a results section or other body paragraphs by pointing readers to “Table 1.”

Recommendations

When writing a great results section, students should know what to talk about or do and what not to talk about or not do. The things to do to demonstrate a high-standard outputs and those not to do can affect an overall section’s quality. From this perspective, students must habitually read research papers to familiarize themselves with 8 dos and 8 don’ts of writing a results section.

• Write in the past tense only . All study findings are what an author has established after conducting an actual study. A particular language that reflects this aspect is past tense. Common terminologies include ‘found,’ ‘established,’ and ‘confirmed.’ Using this language tells readers that an entire study has already happened and outcomes are clear, as such a text is represented through visuals, charts, graphs, figures, and tables.
• Write concisely. The findings require interpretation from statistical data to statistical analyses. Typically, this exercise involves complex language that may need to be clarified for readers. As such, students should write a results section clearly and concisely to avoid sending a wrong message to other scholars. As such, one must be clear about which finding relates to which study question or hypothesis.
• Referencing the study question(s) or hypothesis(es). A results section aims to answer the research question(s) or validate or invalidate the hypothesis(es). As such, students must refer to them (as applicable) when writing a results section. In turn, the best approach is to refer to them according to a particular order they appear in an introduction section for logical consistency.
• Begin with broad results. Typically, study findings of a research paper vary in how they answer the study question(s) or validate or invalidate the hypothesis(es). Some outputs are broad, requiring some comprehensive analysis, and others narrow, covering a brief mention. Students should begin writing with general results because they affect the scientific question(s) or hypothesis(es) more than narrow findings. However, they should mention narrow findings later in a main paper’s text because they are precise to a specific study question or hypothesis.
• Write the most critical findings from figures or tables. A primary purpose of figures and tables is to provide a broad picture of the results. However, only some details capture the most critical finding. In a table above, the most critical finding is a particular rate of obesity in the White community, specifically youths, adult males, and adult females. When referring to Table 1, a student should mention specific percentages of obesity prevalence in these groups as the most critical finding despite a given chart indicating other details, such as the BMI, which are central to this crucial output.
• Avoid background information and explanation of findings. Students should avoid explaining the results or providing any background information. At this part of a research paper, readers already understand a particular background of a given study because they have read introduction and literature review sections. Consequently, they expect an in-depth explanation of their outputs in a later discussion section.
• Do not capture raw data or intermediate calculations. Obtained findings in a results section should make sense to all readers. In writing, students should not provide raw data or indicate its intermediate calculations. A data analysis section that falls in a research methodology offers an unique opportunity for these writing exercises. Therefore, students should understand that this part should provide an answer to readers about the study question(s) or hypothesis(es), not leaving them with a boring task of analyzing the information to make a connection.
• Never ignore negative results. Authors of research papers probably have a biased interpretation of the results because they already have a preferred outcome. In writing, most students may be tempted to ignore negative results if they do not conform to their expectations or preferences. However, they must understand that a results section should reflect the findings of a research paper regardless of whether they are positive or negative in their eyes. This capture of the outputs makes any research paper scholarly and valid.
• Do not capture all data generated in a research paper. Writers need to understand that a primary purpose of writing a results section is to answer the study question(s) or validate or invalidate the hypothesis(es). Doing so does not require all the data, but what is relevant for this task. Moreover, research papers have limited length, and one cannot have room in a findings section to indicate all the data from the study experiment.
• Do not use text to describe everything. A main purpose of charts, figures, visuals, and tables is to capture and present data in a short summary. As such, they help writers to avoid explaining every piece of information and related detail because it may be complex and confusing to readers. Therefore, one should only describe or explain some things but use figures, visuals, and tables to present broad data.
• Do not repeat the data in figures and tables. When referring to figures, visuals, and tables in a main paper’s text, students should avoid repeating every piece of information but instead interpret it for readers. What is important in writing is the most critical data because it provides a clear and concise message about a research question or hypothesis. Therefore, students should interpret the data instead of repeating the same information as it is in the chart, visual, figure, or table. In an example of a table above, one should not repeat all the information but summarize writing by stating the group most affected by obesity and how.
• Do not jump around the data to discuss the findings. A logical presentation of data requires students to provide information that answers the research questions or hypotheses as they appear in an introduction. As such, one should avoid mentioning data relevant to one question when answering a different question. The same case should apply to hypotheses.
• Do not give long explanations. A results section should be short but clear and concise. In this respect, students should refrain from writing long explanations because they reduce a particular space for the most essential information: critical findings. The best writing approach to avoid long descriptions is to use figures, visuals, charts, and tables.
• Do not use meaningless numbers. While a results section aims to show data mostly in numbers for a quantitative study, students should avoid using every number they have if it is not meaningful to a research question or hypothesis. Therefore, after writing data analysis, one should decide on the most relevant and meaningful numbers to include in a results section.
• Do not cite other research papers. Since a main purpose of all outputs is to provide the findings of a research paper, one should avoid irrelevant details, including comparing the results to those of other scholarly paper. Students must understand that writing a discussion section gives them room to do so.
• Do not use the results of other authors. Writing any academic paper is designed for a specific purpose. In this case, students must do their own research papers and present unique findings section, including negative or positive ones. In writing, the findings of other authors can be used only for a comparison of the results.

Examples of a Results Section

The two primary research paper designs that scholars use for writing their scientific papers are qualitative and quantitative studies. Each design has a unique way of capturing the findings of a research paper (Noyes et al., 2019). The two examples below show how students should write a results section in qualitative and quantitative research papers. However, students must note a specific language and details, such as statistical data.

Example of a Qualitative Results Section

[Introductory context] A total of 98 respondents from different countries gave essential data by answering the survey questionnaire. The representation was as follows: 30 respondents were from the U.S. (30.6% of the total), 26 from China (26.5%), 22 from Russia (22.4%), and 20 from the United Kingdom (20.4%). […] [Important finding] According to the results, the most important cultural identifiers are language (w=0.3402), followed by ethnicity (w=0.2930) and religion (w=0.2279). Most respondents viewed gender as the most insignificant compared to the other three (w=0,1388) (Table 1). […] [Interesting Finding] An interesting finding is that the U.S. and the U.K. respondents considered sexual orientation as a determinant of a country’s cultural vibrancy, while those from China and Russia viewed it as an indicator of negative liberalism. All the respondents had a uniform consistency ratio (C.R.) of less than 0.08 (8%). [Another important finding] According to all the respondents, the three critical drivers of cultural vibrancy are technology (mean value of 4.88), education (4.60), contact with other cultures (4.40), and the media (4.30). Conversely, the factors that influence cultural assimilation the least, according to all the respondents, are cultural artifacts (2.88) and friendships (2.66) (Figure 1). […] [Summary of Key Findings] The findings indicate differences of opinion regarding some cultural topics and convergence of thought in others between countries from the respondents’ perspective. On differences, respondents from the U.S. and U.K. hold more liberal views than their Chinese and Russian counterparts. The point of convergence for all the respondents is the belief that culture is the most instrumental factor for interrogating the attitudes and behaviors of people .

[Introductory Context] The student data system for 2010 through 2020 was the source of the demographic data for the sample. The descriptive statistics include age, gender, grades, and course selection. Table 1 describes the cross-tabulation frequencies of the study sample. The mean age was 28.42 years, with a standard deviation of 8.22 years. The age range of the sample was from 18 to 50 years. [Relevant Finding] Overall, more students selected online than physical courses, with a uniform enrollment rate in online courses in both males and females; however, the proportion of males was high (62.7%) for online instruction than that of females (58.8%) as shown in Figures 1 and 2. […] [Significant Finding (including a significant test result)] A statistically significant difference in grades is reported between students enrolled in online classes and their counterparts in the traditional classroom setting. The mean and standard deviation for grades calculated by delivery type showed no significant difference between online and physical instruction. In contrast, those calculated by the instructor showed no significant difference in the mean grade. […] [Reference to Visual Data] Table 6 shows the impact of the delivery method and the instructor on students’ grades. […] The delivery method did not influence significant grade differences (F = 0.078, p = 0.780, df = 1, 811). The same case was reported for the instructor (F = 0.002, p = .967, df = 1, 811). The two factors had no significant interaction (F = 0.449, p = 0.503, df = 1, 811). [Relevant Finding] There is a statistically significant difference in student course retention between those taking online courses and their counterparts in physical classrooms (Supplementary Appendix Figure 1). Data were included for testing if a final grade was reported for a participant (Supplementary Appendix Figure 2). [Context to a Research Question or Hypothesis] The analysis of the contingency data was essential in confirming the hypothesis. Data organization indicates the row variable as course selection (online or physical classroom) and the column variable as retention in the course. [Explanation of a study Test] The chi-square testing (X2 = 2.524, p = .112, df = 1, 884) indicated no statistically significant difference between retention in online and physical classroom courses. [Significant Findings] The study includes a statistically significant difference in student retention between those who begin the program online and those who begin in the physical classroom. […] [Summary of Key Findings] Results from testing of H1 showed no significant difference between course grades for students enrolled in online courses and their counterparts in physical classroom courses. Chi-square testing of H2 indicated no significant difference in course retention between students taking online courses and those taking courses in the physical classroom environment. Chi-square testing of H3 indicated no significant difference in program retention between students who began the course online and those who began it in the physical classroom.

Enhance your academic performance with our top-notch, plagiarism-free papers.

Qualitative Results Template

• [Introductory Context]
• [Finding 1 – Important]
• [Finding 2 – Interesting]
• [Another Important Finding 3 that refers to a chart, figure, visual, or table]
• [Summary of key findings]

Quantitative Results Template

• [Finding 1 – Relevant]
• [Finding 2 – Significant –  with reference to a test result]
• [Reference to a chart, figure, visual, or table]
• [Finding 3 – Relevant]
• [Context to a Research Question or Hypothesis]
• [Explanation of a Study Test]
• [Finding 3 – Significant]

Looking at the two templates, it is evident that crucial writing details appear in all but some only in quantitative research. In both templates, students should introduce this section by stating some facts, such as a study sample, and enumerate the results, using charts, figures, visuals, or tables as necessary. However, only in a quantitative study, one should mention tests and their outcomes.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Results Sections

There are areas of similarity and difference between the results sections of qualitative and quantitative research studies. The main similarities are that both types capture statistical data or reports and do not interpret the meanings of data with long explanations. However, there are many differences in presenting the content. Firstly, a qualitative results section emphasizes non-numerical, descriptive data, focusing on themes and ideas (Cristancho et al., 2021). In contrast, a quantitative results section highlights measurable (or quantifiable) numerical data relevant to interpreting trends, making predictions, running experiments, or testing hypotheses. Another difference is that a qualitative results section adopts descriptive and interpretive approaches to make sense of the collected data. On the other hand, a quantitative results section adopts numbers-based strategies, including statistics, calculations, and data measurements, to make sense of the collected information.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

When writing a results section, students must focus on the research question(s) or hypothesis(es) they stated in an introduction part because they underscore a paper’s importance or purpose. Regarding research questions, the data presented in this part must refer to specific questions as they appear in an introduction paragraph, giving outcomes that reflect answers to these queries. Concerning hypotheses, students should ensure a results section confirms or rejects them. In other words, a good results section should help readers to understand a specific scientific problem by answering the study question(s) or validating or invalidating the hypothesis(es). Therefore, when writing a results section, students should know they are answering a specific research question or confirming a study hypothesis. This determination is crucial because it must reflect proper language, concepts, and terms used in a main paper’s text.

Writing a high-standard results section of a research paper is a technical undertaking that requires students to grasp helpful insight. For example, the most common mistake beginner writers make in a results section is including interpretations and discussions of the data rather than strictly presenting study findings objectively (Carter et al., 2021). In writing, some of the useful tips include always using simple and clear language, avoiding irrelevant expressions, discussing the findings objectively without overinterpretation, using sub-sections if there are more study questions or hypotheses, including negative outputs even if they do not support a specific study hypothesis, providing visuals charts, figures, visuals, and tables to document the results, and mentioning the tests and their outcomes for a quantitative study.

10 things to do when writing a results section include:

• briefly and precisely summarizing the results at the beginning of the section;
• using visual illustrations, like charts, figures, and tables;
• arranging the outputs logically;
• linking the data to the research question(s) or hypothesis(es);
• following clear, simple, and concise language;
• being objective in writing;
• avoiding long explanations;
• including statistical analyses to make the data sensible to readers;
• providing the correct information for the right study question or hypothesis;
• presenting paragraphs that respond to different scientific questions or hypotheses.

10 things not to do when writing a results section include:

• using raw data;
• duplicating similar information by repeating the data in the visual illustrations within a paper’s main text;
• including repetitive background information;
• constantly referring to study methods while writing;
• overlooking negative findings that do not support biases or invalid claims;
• providing charts, figures, visuals, or tables excessively;
• explaining the outputs comprehensively;
• presenting a findings section of other research papers as writers’ study outcomes;
• failing to give graphs, figures, and tables a number;
• not mentioning a specific chart, figure, visual, or table number within a main paper’s text.

What to Include

Writing a results section of a research paper is crucial for presenting study outcomes in a clear and concise manner. Basically, this section should start with a brief introduction to a corresponding purpose of study findings and a methodology used to obtain the data. Then, presenting obtained outcomes should be done using a descriptive text and supported by tables, figures, and charts for clarity. Moreover, statistical analyses should be reported clearly, indicating significance levels and confidence intervals where appropriate. In writing, such a part of a research paper should focus solely on presenting information without interpretation, which is reserved for a discussion paragraph. Besides, proper organization and logical flow are essential, and visual aids should be numbered and referenced in an entire paper’s text. Finally, this writing approach ensures a results section is easily understandable and directly addresses research questions or hypotheses posed in a given study. In turn, some rules to remember include:

• Start writing a results section by restating a specific purpose of a research paper.
• Use the past tense to describe the paper’s findings.
• Avoid vague language.
• Provide a clear, coherent, and logical explanation of all outputs without bias.
• Include information that answers the study question(s) or validates or invalidates the hypothesis(es).
• Use useful and quality visual illustrations, like charts, figures, and tables.
• Present details about data analysis and interpretation and mention any statistical tests and their outcomes.
• Report statistically insignificant findings to give a research paper credibility.
• Conclude with writing a short paragraph that summarizes key findings.
• Proofread, revise, and edit a results section to eliminate any mistakes.

Carter, S., Guerin, C., & Aitchison, C. (2021). Doctoral writing: Practices, processes and pleasures . Springer.

Cristancho, S., Watling, C., & Lingard, L. (2021). Three principles for writing an effective qualitative results section. Focus on Health Professional Education: A Multi-Professional Journal , 22 (3), 110–124. https://doi.org/10.11157/fohpe.v22i3.556

Noyes, J., Booth, A., Moore, G., Flemming, K., Tunçalp, Ö., & Shakibazadeh, E. (2019). Synthesising quantitative and qualitative evidence to inform guidelines on complex interventions: Clarifying the purposes, designs and outlining some methods. BMJ Global Health , 4 (1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000893

Ross, A., & Willson, V. L. (2018). Basic and advanced statistical tests: Writing results sections and creating tables and figures . Sense Publishers.

Snyder, N., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2019). How to write an effective results section. Clinical Spine Surgery: A Spine Publication , 32 (7), 295–296. https://doi.org/10.1097/bsd.0000000000000845

Wallwork, A. (2022). Writing an academic paper in English: Intermediate level . Springer International Publishing Springer.

To Learn More, Read Relevant Articles

Understanding the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles

• Icon Calendar 21 August 2023
• Icon Page 902 words

Delving Into the Enigma of Alternate Universes: A Hypothetical Journey

• Icon Calendar 20 August 2023
• Icon Page 745 words

• Expert Journal of Finance
• Expert Journal of Economics
• Expert Journal of Marketing
• Expert Journal of Business and Management
• Send Your Article
• Google Plus

How to Write the Results Section of a Research Paper

This article is part of an ongoing series on academic writing help of scholarly articles. Previous parts explored how to write an introduction for a research paper , literature review outline and format , and how to write a research methodology .

Academics and researchers publish their scholarly articles to show the results they have obtained using gathered or collected data. Research papers present the process of testing hypotheses or models and how their findings help shape or advance a particular research topic. Thus, the ‘Results’ section is essential in expressing the significance of an academic article.

The findings of your research should be included in a separate section of your academic article, as it is the only section that contains data and results.

Aspects to Consider in Writing the Results Section of a Research Paper

A good place to start for your results section, it’s to restate the aim and objective of your research paper , so that your readers can refocus on the core of your academic article. So far in your research paper, your readers covered the introduction , literature review , research methodology and now it’s the time and place to bring their attention back to the purpose. A short paragraph is sufficient to restate your paper’s purpose.

Then, it’s key to consider that this is main section of your research paper where you present and explain the data you have collected or gathered and the findings of your data analysis and interpretation .

The academic writing should be clear, impartial, and objective . Each result, which confirms or refutes your assumptions, should be noted in an unbiased manner to increase the credibility of your study.

The results section gives you the opportunity to:

• summarize the collected data in the form of descriptive statistics and
• report on the findings from relevant and appropriate inferential statistical analyses and interpretation that are aimed at answering your academic article’s research questions or supporting your hypotheses, and show your research significance.

For an organized Research Results section, it’s best to use sub-sections. These sub-sections or divisions can be based on:

• Your research questions, hypotheses or models , or
• The statistical tests you have conducted.

How to Clearly Report Your Research Findings

If you have used statistical analyses in your academic article, and found answers to your research questions, report those facts in relation to your question.

A clear, coherent presentation of your research paper’s results should exhibit logical explanations without bias.

Confirming or Rejecting Hypotheses in Your Research Results

While defining the section of your research’s outcomes area, it’s important to keep in mind that the research results do not prove or demonstrate anything.

Your research findings can only affirm/ confirm or reject the hypotheses and assumptions elaborated upon in your academic article. In any case, your results:

• help with the understanding of a research problem from within,
• assist in dividing the research problem into different parts and concepts,
• add to the exploration of an issue from various vantage points.

Summarizing Key Findings in Your Results Section

In a coherent results presentation, you should:

• offer summarizing notes of your outcomes and
• save the explanations of your key discoveries for your Discussion section.

For example, in your empirical analysis you notice an uncommon correlation between two variables. In the Results section, it is okay to bring up this outcome, however, posing new hypotheses for this uncommon result should be presented in the Discussion section.

Using Tables and Figures to Highlight Research Results

Any valuable academic article should focus on using tables, figures and/or graphs to:

• provide accurate views about the research findings,
• summarize the analysis,
• help with the interpretation of these outcomes, and
• offer better understanding of the overall study.

Instead of using only descriptive text for your scholarly article, consider other visual ways and representations that improve the academic writing of your research paper.

Figures, tables and graphs are useful methods for gathering a great deal of information into one place that can then be mentioned in the content of your article. If any research question or hypothesis is confirmed by your data and analysis, you can point to a table or figure that illustrates your finding.

When you present tables or figures in your results section, make sure to describe at least some of the data included in these visual representations so that readers can clearly understand how the table works and what interpretations can be concluded from them.

You can also use appendices if you have many other helpful figures or tables that cannot be fully included in the text of your academic article.

By using a helpful combination of text, figures, and tables, you, as Authors and Academics, can use this section to effectively share your studies’ findings with the scientific community.

Presenting Research Findings and Statistical Significance

A systematic description of your research results and a correct data analysis and interpretation are related to statistical significance, as they help avoid speculations or misinterpretations by readers of your academic article.

In a valuable research paper:

• data must be directly and clearly presented,
• statistical tests need to be used, and
• the figures obtained and included in the study have to be explained.

Tests of statistical significance should always be presented with your results to show that your research findings objectively confirm or disprove your hypotheses. You need to report the research results with enough details so that readers can see which statistical analyses were conducted and validated to justify or disprove your hypotheses. It is important to mention relevant research findings, including those that were are statistical insignificant, not validated within your model’s framework, and are at odds with your initial assumptions.

Even if not all of your research results are confirmed, you should not ignore them. These negative results that do not support a particular hypothesis should be noted in the results section, and then explained in the Discussion section.

Writing a Research Results section that do not address the negative results, invalidates the research paper and does not reflect appropriate academic writing.

Research Results Comparison with Similar Academic Articles

The largest part of interpreting and discussing your research findings should be reserved for the Discussion / Conclusion section.

However, there are instances when it is appropriate to compare or contrast your results with findings from previous and similar studies. For example:

• Similar to Author [Year], one of the findings of this study is the strong relationship between…
• While Author [Year] found an indirect relationship between, our study highlighted ….

Key Aspects for Your Research Results Section

For a good structure and organization of your research, keep in mind these aspects:

• Start your research results section by restating the purpose of your research, so that your readers can re-focus on core of your academic article
• Include helpful and quality tables, figures, graphs that can synthesize your research
• Make sure you include details about your data analysis and interpretation, as well as statistical significance tests
• Report the statistical insignificant research findings for your academic article’s credibility
• Use the past tense when describing to your research results
• Do not use vague terms and be as concise as possible when you are reporting your research findings
• Conclude your section with a short paragraph that summarizes your study’s key outcomes.

Which aspects do you focus on when writing your research results section?

This blog series focuses on useful academic writing tips. Next, we examine the Discussion and Conclusion section . Find our more on writing high-quality research papers

You may also like

Related policies and links, responsibilities of the publisher in the relationship with journal editors, general duties of publisher.

• How It Works
• PhD thesis writing
• Master thesis writing
• Bachelor thesis writing
• Dissertation writing service
• Dissertation abstract writing
• Thesis proposal writing
• Thesis editing service
• Thesis proofreading service
• Thesis formatting service
• Coursework writing service
• Research paper writing service
• Architecture thesis writing
• Computer science thesis writing
• Engineering thesis writing
• History thesis writing
• MBA thesis writing
• Nursing dissertation writing
• Psychology dissertation writing
• Sociology thesis writing
• Statistics dissertation writing
• Buy dissertation online
• Write my dissertation
• Cheap thesis
• Cheap dissertation
• Custom dissertation
• Dissertation help
• Pay for thesis
• Pay for dissertation
• Senior thesis
• Write my thesis

Results Section Of A Research Paper: How To Write It Properly

The results section of a research paper refers to the part that represents the study’s core findings from the methods that the researcher used to collect and analyze data. This section presents the results logically without interpretation or bias from the author.

Thus, this part of a research paper sets up the read for evaluation and analysis of the findings in the discussion section. Essentially, this section breaks down the information into several sentences, showing its importance to the research question. Writing results section in a research paper entails summarizing the gathered data and the performed statistical analysis. That way, the author presents or reports the results without subjective interpretation.

What Is The Results Section Of A Research Paper?

In its simplest definition, a research paper results section is where the researcher reports the findings of a study based on the applied methodology for gathering information. It’s the part where the author states the research findings in a logical sequence without interpreting them. If the research paper has data from actual research, this section should feature a detailed description of the results.

When writing a dissertation, a thesis, or any other academic paper, the result section should come third in sections’ sequence. It should follow the Methods and Materials presentation and the Discussion section comes after it. But most scientific papers present the Results and Discussion sections together. However, the results section answers the question, “What did your research uncover?”

Ideally, this section allows you to report findings in research paper, creating the basis for sufficiently justified conclusions. After writing the study findings in the results section, you interpret them in the subsequent discussion part. Therefore, your results section should report information that will justify your claims. That way, you can look back on the results section when writing the discussion part to ensure that your report supports your conclusions.

What Goes in the Results Section of a Research Paper?

This section should present results in research paper. The findings part of a research paper can differ in structure depending on the study, discipline, and journal. Nevertheless, the results section presents a description of the experiment while presenting the research results. When writing this part of your research paper, you can use graphs and tables if necessary.

However, state the findings without interpreting them. For instance, you can find a correlation between variables when analyzing data. In that case, your results section can explain this correlation without speculating about the causes of this correlation.

Here’s what to include in the results section of research paper:

A brief introductory of the context, repeating the research questions to help the readers understand the results A report about information collection, participants, and recruitment: for instance, you can include a demographic summary with the participants’ characteristics A systematic findings’ description, with a logical presentation highlighting relevant and crucial results A contextual data analysis explaining the meaning in sentences Information corresponding to the primary research questions Secondary findings like subgroup analysis and secondary outcomes Visual elements like charts, figures, tables, and maps, illustrating and summarizing the findings

Ensure that your results section cites and numbers visual elements in an orderly manner. Every table or figure should stand alone without text. That means visual elements should have adequate non-textual content to enable the audiences to understand their meanings.

If your study has a broad scope, several variables, or used methodologies that yielded different results, state the most relevant results only based on the research question you presented in your Introduction section.

The general rule is to leave out any data that doesn’t present your study’s direct outcome or findings. Unless the professor, advisor, university faulty, or your target journal requests you to combine the Results and Discussion sections, omit the interpretations and explanations of the results in this section.

How Long Should A Results Section Be?

The findings section of a research paper ranges between two and three pages, with tables, text, and figures. In most cases, universities and journals insist that this section shouldn’t exceed 1,000 words over four to nine paragraphs, usually with no references.

But a good findings section occupies 5% of the entire paper. For instance, this section should have 500 words if a dissertation has 10,000 words. If the educator didn’t specify the number of words to include in this chapter, use the data you collect to determine its length. Nevertheless, be as concise as possible by featuring only relevant results that answer your research question.

How To Write Results Section Of Research Paper

Perhaps, you have completed researching and writing the preceding sections, and you’re now wondering how to write results. By the time you’re composing this section, you already have findings or answers to your research questions. However, you don’t even know how to start a results section. And your search for guidelines landed you on this page.

Well, every research project is different and unique. That’s why researchers use different strategies when writing this section of their research papers. The scientific or academic discipline, specialization field, target journal, and the author are factors influencing how you write this section. Nevertheless, there’s a general way of writing this section, although it might differ slightly between disciplines. Here’s how to write results section in a research paper.

Check the instructions or guidelines. Check their instructions or guidelines first, whether you’re writing the research paper as part of your coursework or for an academic journal. These guidelines outline the requirements for presenting results in research papers. Also, check the published articles to know how to approach this section. When reviewing the procedures, check content restrictions and length. Essentially, learn everything you can about this section from the instructions or guidelines before you start writing. Reflect on your research findings. With instructions and guidelines in mind, reflect on your research findings to determine how to present them in your research paper. Decide on the best way to show the results so that they can answer the research question. Also, strive to clarify and streamline your report, especially with a complex and lengthy results section. You can use subheadings to avoid peripheral and excessive details. Additionally, consider breaking down the content to make it easy for the readers to understand or remember. Your hypothesis, research question, or methodologies might influence the structure of the findings sections. Nevertheless, a hierarchy of importance, chronological order, or meaningful grouping of categories or themes can be an effective way of presenting your findings. Design your visual presentations. Visual presentations improve the textual report of the research findings. Therefore, decide on the figures and styles to use in your tables, graphs, photos, and maps. However, check the instructions and guidelines of your faculty or journal to determine the visual aids you can use. Also, check what the guidelines say about their formats and design elements. Ideally, number the figures and tables according to their mention in the text. Additionally, your figures and tables should be self-explanatory. Write your findings section. Writing the results section of a research paper entails communicating the information you gathered from your study. Ideally, be as objective and factual as possible. If you gathered complex information, try to simplify and present it accurately, precisely, and clearly. Therefore, use well-structured sentences instead of complex expressions and phrases. Also, use an active voice and past tense since you’ve already done the research. Additionally, use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Take your time to present the findings in the best way possible to focus your readers on your study objectives while preparing them for the coming speculations, interpretations, and recommendations. Edit Your Findings Section. Once you’ve written the results part of your paper, please go through it to ensure that you’ve presented your study findings in the best way possible. Make sure that the content of this section is factual, accurate, and without errors. You’ve taken a considerable amount of time to compose the results scientific paper audiences will find interesting to read. Therefore, take a moment to go through the draft and eliminate all errors.

Practical Tips on How to Write a Results Section of a Research Paper

The results part of a research paper aims to present the key findings objectively in a logical and orderly sequence using text and illustrative materials. A common mistake that many authors make is confusing the information in the discussion and the results sections. To avoid this, focus on presenting your research findings without interpreting them or speculating about them.

The following tips on how to write a results section should make this task easier for you:

Summarize your study results: Instead of reporting the findings in full detail, summarize them. That way, you can develop an overview of the results. Present relevant findings only: Don’t report everything you found during your research. Instead, present pertinent information only. That means taking time to analyze your results to know what your audiences want to know. Report statistical findings: When writing this section, assume that the audiences understand statistical concepts. Therefore, don’t try to explain the nitty-gritty in this section. Remember that your work is to report your study’s findings in this section. Be objective and concise: You can interpret the findings in the discussion sections. Therefore, focus on presenting the results objectively and concisely in this section. Use the suitable format: Use the correct style to present the findings depending on your study field.

Get Professional Help with the Research Section

Maybe you’re pursuing your graduate or undergraduate studies but cannot write the results part of your paper. Perhaps, you’re done researching and analyzing information, but this section proves too tricky for you to write. Well, you’re not alone because many students across the world struggle to present their research findings.

Luckily, our highly educated, talented, and experienced writers are always ready to assist such learners. If you are stuck with the results part of your paper, our professionals can help you . We offer high-quality, custom writing help online. We’re a reliable team of experts with a sterling reputation for providing comprehensive assistance to college, high school, and university learners. We deliver highly informative academic papers after conducting extensive and in-depth research. Contact us saying something like, “please do my thesis” to get quality help with your paper!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Comment * Error message

Name * Error message

Email * Error message

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

As Putin continues killing civilians, bombing kindergartens, and threatening WWIII, Ukraine fights for the world's peaceful future.

Ukraine Live Updates

How to Write the Results Section of A Research Paper

How to Evaluate Research

Writing a research paper can be a daunting experience. Whether it is your first college paper, the very first lab report you have done in high school or something you are hoping to have published, it can feel like a lot to master. Clearly, when you are doing an experiment, you want to list the results of the experiment or the research.

How do you structure the results of an experiment, and how do you communicate the results of your research? By writing clearly and answering any questions you raised earlier in your paper, you can be sure that your results section will be easily comprehensible and will bring your paper to a strong conclusion.

What Is a Research Paper?

Defined broadly, a research paper is any sort of written account of work that you undertook in order to learn more about a specific topic or set of conditions. Whether you read books in a library about ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics or wanted to conduct an experiment to see whether the sun can melt pennies, the written account of this exploration can be termed a "research paper."

In some situations, a research paper is also called a "lab report." This is usually the case when the investigation in question pertains to an experiment that was conducted in lab-like conditions. Either way, it essentially functions as a research paper.

Most research papers begin as a school assignment. While people in the academic or scientific fields and individuals who are interested in pursuing topics independently may take on research papers as a work assignment, most people's first research paper takes place while in school. Whatever you are researching, begin to think about it as an investigation. That can help you to set the paper up for a results section that will reveal what you have learned.

How to Imagine Research as an Investigation

What questions do you have about your topic? How can you get curious about the subject if it's something you at first think is boring? The key to writing the results of the research is having a question to investigate in the first place. If you need to do a research paper on something having to do with Italy, get curious about Italy. What about Italy is interesting to you? If you can choose the topic yourself, try to find something about the topic that engages you or makes you think and ask questions.

If the topic of your paper has something to do with science, and you really dislike science, this is an opportunity to get curious. Do you need to do an experiment demonstrating that sponges soak up water? Why might that be interesting or important? These are great places to begin.

Getting curious about the topic you are researching is critical. Getting curious can help you connect to the research and can make the experience more unique and interesting than it would ever have been otherwise. It can also make your research paper stand out as being distinctly yours. A lot of people can write a lazy summary of something, but only you can bring your individuality to the proceedings and use it as a lens to guide your research.

How Do I Structure a Research Paper?

The structure of a research paper or a lab report on an experiment is critical. Because research is scientific, you want to be as meticulous as possible so that all the necessary information is conveyed. You will want to begin your paper by explaining why the topic you are pursuing is worth researching. Explain why it interests you.

Explain what you hope to gain from conducting this research or this experiment. Tell the reader what your hypothesis is and explain why you've come to believe this to be true. Next, lay out your strategy or methodology. What are you going to do in this paper?

How are you planning to discover whether or not your hypothesis is correct? Explain your plan for figuring out whether your hypothesis is correct or explain the way that you decided to research the topic. Offer a list of resources that you consulted. Make it clear why you chose to go about the research in the way that you did.

What Sections Does a Research Paper Have?

Typically, a research paper has five major parts:

• Introduction
• Review of literature

The introduction is the section of the research paper where you introduce the question you are looking to investigate and explain why you are doing so. If there are statistics or quotes or other writing you have found that lends itself to supporting your investigation, you can introduce it here. For example, if you are writing about whether or not the Loch Ness monster is real, you can share quotes or statistics about the number of times that people have said they've seen it.

The next section of the paper, the review of literature, should be a synthesis of the research that you've done thus far that has informed your hypothesis. Gather and summarize the information that has led you to this point and make it clear that going into your research, you were aware of this literature, and you used it to develop your methods. In the methods section, you will begin to detail the way that you went about conducting your experiment or conducting your research.

What Is the Results and Discussion Section?

The results and discussion pieces are the two most critical parts of the research paper. This tells us in factual terms exactly what you discovered. The results section is not the place for analysis. The results section is not the place for narrative discussion or emotion either. The results section is only for the results of the research.

The results section provides the facts about what you discovered in the course of your research or experiment. The discussion section is where you can get analytical or reflective about exactly what you have discovered. This is the place where you can tell us what the results mean. Does it mean that your hypothesis was correct, or does it mean that you need to do further research or experiments before you can come to a definitive conclusion about this issue?

How Do You Write the Results of the Research?

In the results section of your paper, you need to list what you have discovered. If your experiment confirmed your hypothesis, save the discussion about that for the discussion section. The results section should simply be hard facts written in the passive voice.

Many students get confused between the active and passive voices when writing a research paper. Unlike the rest of the paper, the results section should be written in the passive voice in order to draw attention to the action and not to the person performing the action.

Once you have clearly defined what your experiment or research has yielded, you can move on to the discussion section.

How Do You Write the Discussion Section?

The discussion section is where you can analyze and make inferences about your research or your experiment. Tell the reader what it means to you now that your hypothesis was confirmed or proved to be incorrect. Moreover, what does it mean for the future of this research?

If your hypothesis was proven to be correct, can that be brought to bear on any other research or hypotheses? If your experiment was wholly inconclusive, can you say why that was? What went wrong? Is it something that could be corrected?

In What Tone Should You Write a Research Paper?

Many people who read research papers, including teachers, editors and professors, hate the passive voice. They consider the passive voice to be an example of poor writing. Many colleges have writing centers where they can help students to improve the quality of their writing, and one of the tasks they face most often is getting students out of the passive voice.

A sentence written in the active voice shows the subject acting on a direct object. "David mailed the package" is an example of a sentence in the active voice. On the contrary, a sentence written in the passive voice shows the object being acted on by a verb. An example is: "The package was mailed by David."

While technically the passive voice is not grammatically incorrect – and in some cases, given literary license, it is necessary – the passive voice is considered an example of less-than-ideal writing. Active and passive voice can change the quality of a piece of writing, particularly academic writing. If you find that you have written any sentences in your research paper in the passive voice anywhere other than in the results section, it is a good rule of thumb to go back and do a passive-to-active conversion.

What Part of My Research Paper Should Be in the Passive Voice?

The passive voice is not gramatically incorrect. It is used correctly when the intention of the sentence is to draw attention to the action and not the person performing the action. This is why when you write the results section of the research paper, you will want to employ the passive voice.

The passive voice tells us that the results of the experiment or the research are more important in this instance than the way that the research was carried out. Said another way, the results section is not about you. It is not about the way that you performed the research or the way that you set up the experiment. It is purely and simply about the results.

What Are Some Active and Passive Voice Rules?

There are some tips to make sure that you are writing in the active voice. However, keep in mind that in some cases, such as in the results section, you will need to use the passive voice. After all, if you talk about something that happened in the past or that happened to someone, you will need to use words like "was" and "had."

Sometimes, it can be effective to make something passive. For example, the phrase "the city of Rome was attacked by invaders" shows that the subject of the sentence is Rome and that is the thing that is being acted on, even if it is in a passive sense. "Invaders attacked the city of Rome" turns the focus to the invaders. A reader may well expect the following sentence to be about the invaders.

Pay close attention to the subject in the sentence. Is the subject the one carrying out the activities described in the verb? If not, go back and fix it.

Related Articles

How to Write an Investigation Essay

How to Make a Strong Argument in an Essay

How to Write a Lab Report

How to Write a Nursing Abstract

How to write a humanities paper

How to Do a Summary of a News Article

How to Write a Dissertation Summary

How to Write a Thesis Statement for "Robinson Crusoe"

• Towson University: Active/Passive Voice
• College of Western Idaho: What Are the Differences Between Active and Passive Voice?
• University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center: Use the Active Voice
• A Research Guide For Students: How to Write a Research Paper
• American Psychological Association
• Try starting this section by creating an outline of each hypothesis or research question followed by each statistical test you will use for it.
• Where relevant, state the effect size of the particular statistical test.
• Only include statistical tests that are relevant to your particular hypotheses or research questions. Excessive irrelevant statistical tests detract from the big picture and make it difficult for the reader to follow.
• Do not include specific calculations used to determine the statistic.

Ashley Friedman is a freelance writer with experience writing about education for a variety of organizations and educational institutions as well as online media sites. She has written for Pearson Education, The University of Miami, The New York City Teaching Fellows, New Visions for Public Schools, and a number of independent secondary schools. She lives in Los Angeles.

Organizing Academic Research Papers: 7. The Results

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

The results section of the research paper is where you report the findings of your study based upon the information gathered as a result of the methodology [or methodologies] you applied. The results section should simply state the findings, without bias or interpretation, and arranged in a logical sequence. The results section should always be written in the past tense. A section describing results [a.k.a., "findings"] is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Research results can only confirm or reject the research problem underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise, using non-textual elements, such as figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other material that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good rule is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper].

Bates College; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Structure and Approach

For most research paper formats, there are two ways of presenting and organizing the results .

• Present the results followed by a short explanation of the findings . For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is correct to point this out in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists, and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening, belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
• Present a section and then discuss it, before presenting the next section then discussing it, and so on . This is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it can be helpful to provide a brief conclusion in the results section that ties each of the findings together and links to the discussion.

NOTE: The discussion section should generally follow the same format chosen in presenting and organizing the results.

II.  Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following elements:

• An introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem that underpins the purpose of your study.
• A summary of your key findings arranged in a logical sequence that generally follows your methodology section.
• Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate the findings, if appropriate.
• In the text, a systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation [remember that not all results that emerge from the methodology that you used to gather the data may be relevant].
• Use of the past tense when refering to your results.
• The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported. However, focus only on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem.

Using Non-textual Elements

• Either place figures, tables, charts, etc. within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the report--do one or the other but never do both.
• In the text, refer to each non-textual element in numbered order [e.g.,  Table 1, Table 2; Chart 1, Chart 2; Map 1, Map 2].
• If you place non-textual elements at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data.
• Regardless of placement, each non-textual element must be numbered consecutively and complete with caption [caption goes under the figure, table, chart, etc.]
• Each non-textual element must be titled, numbered consecutively, and complete with a heading [title with description goes above the figure, table, chart, etc.].
• In proofreading your results section, be sure that each non-textual element is sufficiently complete so that it could stand on its own, separate from the text.

III. Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

• Discussing or interpreting your results . Save all this for the next section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
• Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings ; this should have been done in your Introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need to provide additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Revise your introduction as needed.
• Ignoring negative results . If some of your results fail to support your hypothesis, do not ignore them. Document them, then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, often provides you with the opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be afraid to highlight them.
• Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
• Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater or lesser than..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...."
• Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you feel the need to highlight something, you will have a chance to do that in the discussion section.
• Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. If you are not sure, look up the term in a dictionary.

Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008;  Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers . Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results . Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings from the study with a discussion about their implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two sections for each element in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your  paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret your data and answer the "so what?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you may want to meld the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

• << Previous: Quantitative Methods
• Next: Using Non-Textual Elements >>
• Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
• URL: https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803
• QuickSearch
• Library Catalog
• Databases A-Z
• Publication Finder
• Course Reserves
• Citation Linker
• Digital Commons
• Our Website

Research Support

• Ask a Librarian
• Appointments
• Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
• Research Guides
• Databases by Subject
• Citation Help

Using the Library

• Reserve a Group Study Room
• Renew Books
• Honors Study Rooms
• Off-Campus Access
• Library Policies
• Library Technology

User Information

• Grad Students
• Online Students
• COVID-19 Updates
• Staff Directory
• News & Announcements
• Library Newsletter

My Accounts

• Interlibrary Loan
• Staff Site Login

FIND US ON  

Journal Article: Results

Criteria for success.

• Data and conclusions drawn from them are described clearly and without speculation.
• Data are presented in a narrative flow with no logical leaps.
• The narrative builds to a take-home message.

Structure Diagram

Also, compare Authentic Annotated Examples for Methods and Results: note the correspondence of subheadings between the two sections.

The goals of your Results section are:

• To describe and explain the data that you obtained with your methods, as objectively as possible and in a narrative form, and
• To communicate a take-home message based on those data.

While your figures give your readers the opportunity to directly examine your data and draw their own conclusions, the Results section offers more support for the process of interpreting data by explaining experimental logic, highlighting important data features, and stating your conclusions.

Speculation and extended interpretations belong in the Discussion , not in the Results.

Analyze Your Audience

The Results section of your paper is intended for readers who don’t feel confident analyzing your data and conclusions based on figures alone, or who prefer verbal information in addition to visual.

Certain types of readers may draw their conclusions directly from your figures, only occasionally referring to your results: readers who are in a hurry, or who are experts in your sub-field and therefore used to interpreting the same kinds of data as you (e.g., not just a biological engineer, but a systems biologist or a tissue engineer). However, many other readers rely on the Results to help them more thoroughly explore what you did and what you learned.

In particular, non-experts will benefit the most from your explanations in Results. Hence, don’t assume that readers know what the purpose of a given method is, or assume that the meaning of a given observation is self-evident: state your motivations and interpretations as explicitly as possible. Also, avoid field-specific jargon if a simpler term can be used instead.

You might ask a friend from a different lab to read your Results and help you identify unexplained jargon or places where rationale needs to be stated more clearly.

Create a logical narrative, organized into subsections

An excellent way to find a narrative order for your Results is to first organize your figures. Before writing your Results, you should have decided on the set of figures that will be included in your paper. Each Figure should support a specific conclusion, and provide the data that the reader needs to evaluate that conclusion (see figures ). Rearrange your figures until you’ve found an order that creates the most logical possible series of conclusions, leading to your final take-home. Use this series of figures/conclusions as the outline for your Results.

Each major conclusion (which may correspond to one or multiple figures) can become the title for a subsection of your Results. This modular organization will help readers navigate your paper by quickly matching figures to Results and vice versa. (See also “Use subheadings to organize content” in Methods .)

Each Results paragraph has rationale, data, and a transition

A single Results paragraph typically corresponds to a single experiment (or a group of closely related experiments), and a single figure or sub-panel within a larger figure. (See Structure Diagram above.)

• Begin each Results paragraph with a topic sentence that explains the rationale for performing the experiment. For example, you may use a structure like this:

“In order to determine X , Y was performed, showing Z major results.”

• After the topic sentence, describe your data and the conclusions that you learned from it in a logical order: e.g., pro then con, most to least important, experimental versus control group.
• Conclude with a transition sentence that sums up findings, and, if necessary, justifies why you moved to the next experiment or hypothesis.

The only time that speculation can be included in Results is when it is necessary to explain a transition between experiments:

“Having observed data A , we speculated that mechanism B might cause phenomenon Z . Hence, the next experiment tested the activity of mechanism B by…”

Show minimal essential data

Describe all data necessary for your readers to evaluate your conclusions and no more than that. Forcing your reader to parse through unnecessary details will distract them from your main message. Do not include data that are irrelevant to the given conclusion. Deciding which data are relevant can be tricky and often involves some judgment calls. It also depends on journal article length restrictions—the shorter your article, the more content you might have to move to Supplementary Information, or leave out.

Here are some general guidelines to help you decide which data to include and exclude:

The amount of time you spend describing an individual result should be proportional to the importance of that result to the paper’s main conclusion. It’s tempting to write more when describing a result that’s complicated or confusing, but you don’t want to fill your reader’s head with details if they distract from the main conclusion. As you write, keep reminding yourself what the most important conclusions are, and allocate the most space and detail for their supporting details.

Use appropriate style

Results should be written in past tense.

Be as objective as possible. In addition to avoiding speculation, avoid phrases like “interestingly, we found that…”, unless that interestingness can be concretely justified—e.g., the result contradicts a major hypothesis, or past findings in the field.

This content was adapted from from an article originally created by the  MIT Biological Engineering Communication Lab .

Resources and Annotated Examples

Annotated example 1.

Zetsche et al. , "Cpf1 is a single RNA-guided endonuclease...", Cell 2015. Note that although all Results pages are included, only the first subsection is annotated. 5 MB

Database Information in References

Database information is seldom provided in reference list entries. The reference provides readers with the details they will need to perform a search themselves if they want to read the work—in most cases, writers do not need to explain the path they personally used.

Think of it this way: When you buy a book at a bookstore or order a copy off the internet, you do not write the name of the (online) bookstore in the reference. And when you go to the library and get a book off the shelf, you do not write the name of the library in the reference. It is understood that readers will go to their bookstore or library of choice to find it.

The same is true for database information in references. Most periodicals and books are available through a variety of databases or platforms as well as in print. Different readers will have different methods or points of access, such as university library subscriptions. Most of the time, it does not matter what database you used, so it is not necessary to provide database information in references.

However, there are a few cases when it is necessary for readers to retrieve the cited work from a particular database or archive, either because the database publishes original, proprietary content or because the work is of limited circulation. This page explains how to write references for works from academic research databases and how to provide database information in references when it is necessary to do so.

Database information in references is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 9.30 and the Concise Guide Section 9.30

Related handout

• Creating an APA Style Reference List (PDF, 179KB)

Works from academic research databases

Do not include database information for works obtained from most academic research databases or platforms because works in these resources are widely available. This includes journal articles, books, and book chapters from academic research databases.

• Examples of academic research databases and platforms include APA PsycNet, PsycInfo, Academic Search Complete, CINAHL, Ebook Central, EBSCOhost, Google Scholar, JSTOR (excluding its primary sources collection because these are works of limited distribution), MEDLINE, Nexis Uni, Ovid, ProQuest (excluding its dissertations and theses databases because dissertations and theses are works of limited circulation), PubMed Central (excluding authors’ final peer-reviewed manuscripts because these are works of limited circulation), ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science.
• When citing a work from one of these databases or platforms, do not include the database or platform name in the reference list entry unless the work falls under one of the exceptions described next ( databases with original, proprietary content and works of limited circulation ).
• Likewise, do not include URLs from these academic research databases in reference list entries because these URLs will not resolve for readers.
• Instead of a database URL, include a DOI if the work has one. If a widely available work (e.g., journal article, book, book chapter) from an academic research database does not have a DOI, treat the work as a print version. See the guidelines for how to include DOIs and URLs in references for more information.

The following example shows how to create a reference list entry for a journal article with a DOI from an academic research database.

Hallion, M., Taylor, A., Roberts, R., & Ashe, M. (2019). Exploring the association between physical activity participation and self-compassion in middle-aged adults. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology , 8 (3), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000150

• Parenthetical citation: (Hallion et al., 2019)
• Narrative citation: Hallion et al. (2019)

If the article did not have a DOI, the reference would simply end after the page range, the same as the reference for a print work.

Databases with original, proprietary content

Provide the name of the database or archive when it publishes original, proprietary works available only in that database or archive (e.g., UpToDate or the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews). Readers must retrieve the cited work from that exact database or archive, so include information about the database or archive in the reference list entry.

References for works from proprietary databases are similar to journal article references. The name of the database or archive is written in italic title case in the source element, the same as a periodical title, and followed by a period. After the database or archive information, also provide the DOI or URL of the work . If the URL is session-specific (meaning it will not resolve for readers), provide the URL of the database home page or login page instead.

The following example shows how to create a reference list entry for an article from the UpToDate database:

Stein, M. B., & Taylor, C. T. (2019). Approach to treating social anxiety disorder in adults. UpToDate . Retrieved September 13, 2019, from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/approach-to-treating-social-anxiety-disorder-in-adults

• Parenthetical citation: (Stein & Taylor, 2019)
• Narrative citation: Stein and Taylor (2019)

Works of limited circulation

Provide the name of the database or archive for works of limited circulation, such as dissertations and theses, manuscripts posted in a preprint archive, and monographs in ERIC. The database may also contain works of wide circulation, such as journal articles—only the works of limited circulation need database information in the reference.

References for works of limited circulation from databases or archives are similar to report references. The name of the database or archive is provided in the source element (in title case without italics ), the same as a publisher name, and followed by a period. After the database or archive information, also provide the DOI or URL of the work. If the URL is session-specific (meaning it will not resolve for readers), provide the URL of the database home page or login page instead.

The following are examples of works of limited circulation from databases or archives (for additional examples, see Section 9.30 of the Publication Manual ):

• dissertations and theses published in ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global

Risto, A. (2014). The impact of social media and texting on students’ academic writing skills (Publication No. 3683242) [Doctoral dissertation, Tennessee State University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

• Parenthetical citation: (Risto, 2014)
• Narrative citation: Risto (2014)
• manuscripts posted in a preprint archive such as PsyArXiv

Inbar, Y., & Evers, E. R. K. (2019). Worse is bad: Divergent inferences from logically equivalent comparisons . PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ueymx

• Parenthetical citation: (Inbar & Evers, 2014)
• Narrative citation: Inbar and Evers (2014)
• monographs published in ERIC

Riegelman, R. K., & Albertine, S. (2008). Recommendations for undergraduate public health education (ED504790). ERIC. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED504790.pdf

• Parenthetical citation: (Riegelman & Albertine, 2008)
• Narrative citation: Riegelman and Albertine (2008)

If you are in doubt as to whether to include database information in a reference, refer to the template for the reference type in question (see Chapter 10 of the Publication Manual ).

• Open access
• Published: 16 August 2024

Examining the perception of undergraduate health professional students of their learning environment, learning experience and professional identity development: a mixed-methods study

• Banan Mukhalalati 1 ,
• Aaliah Aly 1 ,
• Ola Yakti 1 ,
• Sara Elshami 1 ,
• Alaa Daud 2 ,
• Ahmed Awaisu 1 ,
• Ahsan Sethi 3 ,
• Alla El-Awaisi 1 ,
• Derek Stewart 1 ,
• Marwan Farouk Abu-Hijleh 4 &
• Zubin Austin 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  886 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

122 Accesses

Metrics details

The quality of the learning environment significantly impacts student engagement and professional identity formation in health professions education. Despite global recognition of its importance, research on student perceptions of learning environments across different health education programs is scarce. This study aimed to explore how health professional students perceive their learning environment and its influence on their professional identity development.

An explanatory mixed-methods approach was employed. In the quantitative phase, the Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure [Minimum–Maximum possible scores = 0–200] and Macleod Clark Professional Identity Scale [Minimum–Maximum possible scores = 1–45] were administered to Qatar University-Health students ( N  = 908), with a minimum required sample size of 271 students. Data were analyzed using SPSS, including descriptive statistics and inferential analysis. In the qualitative phase, seven focus groups (FGs) were conducted online via Microsoft Teams. FGs were guided by a topic guide developed from the quantitative results and the framework proposed by Gruppen et al. (Acad Med 94:969-74, 2019), transcribed verbatim, and thematically analyzed using NVIVO®.

The questionnaire response rate was 57.8% (525 responses out of 908), with a usability rate of 74.3% (390 responses out of 525) after excluding students who only completed the demographic section. The study indicated a “more positive than negative” perception of the learning environment (Median [IQR] = 132 [116–174], Minimum–Maximum obtained scores = 43–185), and a “good” perception of their professional identity (Median [IQR] = 24 [22–27], Minimum–Maximum obtained scores = 3–36). Qualitative data confirmed that the learning environment was supportive in developing competence, interpersonal skills, and professional identity, though opinions on emotional support adequacy were mixed. Key attributes of an ideal learning environment included mentorship programs, a reward system, and measures to address fatigue and boredom.

Conclusions

The learning environment at QU-Health was effective in developing competence and interpersonal skills. Students' perceptions of their learning environment positively correlated with their professional identity. Ideal environments should include mentorship programs, a reward system, and strategies to address fatigue and boredom, emphasizing the need for ongoing improvements in learning environments to enhance student satisfaction, professional identity development, and high-quality patient care.

Peer Review reports

The learning environment is fundamental to higher education and has a profound impact on student outcomes. As conceptualized by Gruppen et al. [ 1 ], it comprises a complex interplay of physical, social, and virtual factors that shape student engagement, perception, and overall development. Over the last decade, there has been a growing global emphasis on the quality of the learning environment in higher education [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. This focus stems from the recognition that a well-designed learning environment that includes good facilities, effective teaching methods, strong social interactions, and adherence to cultural and administrative standards can greatly improve student development [ 2 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Learning environments impact not only knowledge acquisition and skill development but also value formation and the cultivation of professional attitudes [ 5 ].

Professional identity is defined as the “attitudes, values, knowledge, beliefs, and skills shared with others within a professional group” [ 8 ]. The existing research identified a significant positive association between the development of professional identity and the quality of the learning environment, and this association is characterized by being multifaceted and dynamic [ 9 ]. According to Hendelman and Byszewski [ 10 ] a supportive learning environment, characterized by positive role models, effective feedback mechanisms, and opportunities for reflective practice, fosters the development of a strong professional identity among medical students. Similarly, Jarvis-Selinger et al. [ 11 ] argue that a nurturing learning environment facilitates the socialization process which enables students to adopt and integrate the professional behaviors and attitudes expected in their field. Furthermore, Sarraf-Yazdi et al. [ 12 ] highlighted that professional identity formation is a continuous and multifactorial process involving the interplay of individual values, beliefs, and environmental factors. This dynamic process is shaped by both clinical and non-clinical experiences within the learning environment [ 12 ].

Various learning theories, such as the Communities of Practice (CoP) theory [ 13 ], emphasize the link between learning environments and learning outcomes, including professional identity development. The CoP theory describes communities of professionals with a shared knowledge interest who learn through regular interaction [ 13 , 14 ]. Within the CoP, students transition from being peripheral observers to central members [ 15 ]. Therefore, the CoP theory suggests that a positive learning environment is crucial for fostering learning, professional identity formation, and a sense of community [ 16 ].

Undoubtedly, health professional education programs (e.g., Medicine, Dental Medicine, Pharmacy, and Health Sciences) play a vital role not only in shaping the knowledge, expertise, and abilities of health professional students but also in equipping them with the necessary competencies for implementing healthcare initiatives and strategies and responding to evolving healthcare demands [ 17 ]. Within the field of health professions education, international organizations like the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), European Union (EU), American Council on Education (ACE), and World Federation for Medical Education (WFME) have emphasized the importance of high-quality learning environments in fostering the development of future healthcare professionals and called for considerations of the enhancement of the quality of the learning environment of health profession education programs [ 18 , 19 ]. These environments are pivotal for nurturing both the academic and professional growth necessary to navigate an increasingly globalized healthcare landscape [ 18 , 19 ].

Professional identity development is integral to health professions education which evolves continuously from early university years until later stages of the professional life as a healthcare practitioner [ 20 , 21 ]. This ongoing development helps students establish clear professional roles and boundaries, thereby reducing role ambiguity within multidisciplinary teams [ 9 ]. It is expected that as students advance in their professional education, their perception of the quality of the learning environment changes, which influences their learning experiences, the development of their professional identity, and their sense of community [ 22 ]. Cruess et al. [ 23 ] asserted that medical schools foster professional identity through impactful learning experiences, effective role models, clear curricula, and assessments. A well-designed learning environment that incorporates these elements supports medical students' socialization and professional identity formation through structured learning, reflective practices, and constructive feedback in both preclinical and clinical stages [ 23 ].

Despite the recognized importance of the quality of learning environments and their influence on student-related outcomes, this topic has been overlooked regionally and globally [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. There is a significant knowledge gap in understanding how different components of the learning environment specifically contribute to professional identity formation. Most existing studies focus on general educational outcomes without exploring the detailed ways in which the learning environment shapes professional attitudes, values, and identity. Moreover, there is a global scarcity of research exploring how students’ perceptions of the quality of the learning environment and professional identity vary across various health profession education programs at different stages of their undergraduate education. This lack of comparative studies makes it challenging to identify best practices that can be adapted across different educational contexts. Furthermore, most research tends to focus on single-discipline studies, neglecting the interdisciplinary nature of modern healthcare education, which is essential for preparing students for collaborative practice in real-world healthcare settings. Considering the complex and demanding nature of health profession education programs and the increased emphasis on the quality of learning environments by accreditation bodies, examining the perceived quality of the educational learning environment by students is crucial [ 19 ]. Understanding students’ perspectives can provide valuable insights into areas needing improvement and highlight successful strategies that enhance both learning environment and experiences and professional identity development.

This research addresses this gap by focusing on the interdisciplinary health profession education programs to understand the impact of the learning environment on the development of the professional identity of students and its overall influence on their learning experiences. The objectives of this study are to 1) examine the perception of health professional students of the quality of their learning environment and their professional identity, 2) identify the association between health professional students’ perception of the quality of their learning environment and the development of their professional identity, and 3) explore the expectations of health professional students of the ideal educational learning environment. This research is essential in providing insights to inform educational practices globally to develop strategies to enhance the quality of health profession education.

Study setting and design

This study was conducted at Qatar University Health (QU Health) Cluster which is an interdisciplinary health profession education program that was introduced as the national provider of higher education in health and medicine in the state of Qatar. QU Health incorporates five colleges: Health Sciences (CHS), Pharmacy (CPH), Medicine (CMED), Dental Medicine (CDEM) and Nursing (CNUR) [ 31 ]. QU Health is dedicated to advancing inter-professional education (IPE) through its comprehensive interdisciplinary programs. By integrating IPE principles into the curriculum and fostering collaboration across various healthcare disciplines, the cluster prepares students to become skilled and collaborative professionals. Its holistic approach to teaching, research, and community engagement not only enhances the educational experience but also addresses local and regional healthcare challenges, thereby making a significant contribution to the advancement of population health in Qatar [ 32 ]. This study was conducted from November 2022 to July 2023. An explanatory sequential mixed methods triangulation approach was used for an in-depth exploration and validation of the quantitative results qualitatively [ 33 , 34 ]. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Qatar University Institutional Review Board (approval number: QU-IRB 1734-EA/22).

For the quantitative phase, a questionnaire was administered via SurveyMonkey® incorporating two previously validated questionnaires: the Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure (DREEM), developed by Roff et al. in 1997 [ 35 ], and the Macleod Clark Professional Identity Scale-9 (MCPIS-9), developed by Adam et al. in 2006 [ 8 ]. Integrating DREEM and MCPIS-9 into a single questionnaire was undertaken to facilitate a comprehensive evaluation of two distinct yet complementary dimensions—namely, the educational environment and professional identity—that collectively influence the learning experience and outcomes of students, as no single instrument effectively assesses both aspects simultaneously [ 36 ]. The survey comprised three sections—Section A: sociodemographic characteristics, Section B: the DREEM scoring scale for assessing the quality of the learning environment, and Section C: the MCPIS-9 scoring scale for assessing professional identity. For the qualitative phase, seven focus groups (FGs) were arranged with a sample of QU-Health students. The qualitative and quantitative data obtained were integrated at the interpretation and reporting level using a narrative, contiguous approach [ 37 , 38 ].

Quantitative phase

Population and sampling.

The total population sampling approach in which all undergraduate QU-Health students who had declared their majors (i.e., the primary field of study that an undergraduate student has chosen during their academic program) at the time of conducting the study in any of the four health colleges under QU-Health ( N  = 908), namely, CPH, CMED, CDEM, and CHS, such as Human Nutrition (Nut), Biomedical Science (Biomed), Public Health (PH), and Physiotherapy (PS), were invited to participate in the study. Nursing students were excluded from this study because the college was just established in 2022; therefore, students were in their general year and had yet to declare their majors at the time of the study. The minimum sample size required for the study was determined to be 271 students based on a margin error of 5%, a confidence level of 95%, and a response distribution of 50%.

Data collection

Data was collected in a cross-sectional design. After obtaining the approval of the head of each department, contact information for eligible students was extracted from the QU-Health student databases for each college, and invitations were sent via email. The distribution of these invitations was done by the administrators of the respective colleges. The invitation included a link to a self-administered questionnaire on SurveyMonkey® (Survey Monkey Inc., San Mateo, California, USA), along with informed consent information. All 908 students were informed about the study’s purpose, data collection process, anonymity and confidentiality assurance, and the voluntary nature of participation. The participants were sent regular reminders to complete the survey to increase the response rate.

A focused literature review identified the DREEM as the most suitable validated tool for this study. The DREEM is considered the gold standard for assessing undergraduate students' perceptions of their learning environment [ 35 ]. Its validity and reliability have been consistently demonstrated across various settings (i.e., clinical and non-clinical) and health professions (e.g., nursing, medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy), in multiple countries worldwide, including the Gulf Cooperation Council countries [ 24 , 35 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. The DREEM is a 50-item inventory divided into 5 subscales and developed to measure the academic climate of educational institutions using a five-point Likert scale from 0 “strongly disagree” to 4 “strongly agree”. The total score ranges from 0 to 200, with higher scores reflecting better perceptions of the learning environment [ 35 , 39 , 43 ]. The interpretation includes very poor (0–50), plenty of problems (51–100), more positive than negative (101–151), and excellent (151–200).

The first subscale, Perception to Learning (SpoL), with 12 items scoring 0–48. Interpretation includes very poor (0–12), teaching is viewed negatively (13–24), a more positive approach (25–36), and teaching is highly thought of (37–48). The second domain, Perception to Teachers (SpoT), with 11 items scoring 0–44. Interpretation includes abysmal (0–11), in need of some retraining (12–22), moving in the right direction (23–33), and model teachers (34–44). The third domain, academic self-perception (SASP), with 8 items scoring 0–32. Interpretation includes a feeling of total failure (0–8), many negative aspects (9–16), feeling more on the positive side (17–24), and confident (25–32). The fourth domain, Perception of the atmosphere (SPoA), with 12 items scoring 0–48. Interpretation includes a terrible environment (0–12); many issues need to be changed (13–24), a more positive atmosphere (25–36), and a good feeling overall (37–48). Lastly, the fifth domain, social self-perception (SSSP), with 7 items scoring 0–28. Interpretation includes Miserable (0–7), Not a nice place (8–14), Not very bad (15–21), and very good socially (22–28).

Several tools have been developed to explore professional identity in health professions [ 44 ], but there is limited research on their psychometric qualities [ 45 ]. The MCPIS-9 is notable for its robust psychometric validation and was chosen for this study due to its effectiveness in a multidisciplinary context as opposed to other questionnaires that were initially developed for the nursing profession [ 8 , 46 , 47 ]. MCPIS-9 is a validated 9-item instrument, which uses a 5-point Likert response scale, with scores ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”. Previous studies that utilized the MCPIS-9 had no universal guidance for interpreting the MCPIS-9 score; however, the higher the score, the stronger the sense of professional identity [ 46 , 48 ].

Data analysis

The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS software (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 27.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). The original developers of the DREEM inventory identified nine negative items: items 11, 12, 19, 20, 21, 23, 42, 43, and 46 – these items were reverse-coded. Additionally, in the MCPIS-9 tool, the original developers identified three negative items: items 3, 4, and 5. Descriptive and inferential analyses were also conducted. Descriptive statistics including number (frequencies [%]), mean ± SD, and median (IQR), were used to summarize the demographics and responses to the DREEM and MCPIS-9 scoring scales. In the inferential analysis, to test for significant differences between demographic subgroups in the DREEM and MCPIS-9 scores, Kruskal–Wallis tests were used for variables with more than two categories, and Mann–Whitney U-tests were used for variables with two categories. Spearman's rank correlation analysis was used to investigate the association between perceived learning environment and professional identity development. The level of statistical significance was set a priori at p  < 0.05. The internal consistency of the DREEM and MCPIS-9 tools was tested against the acceptable Cronbach's alpha value of 0.7.

Qualitative phase

A purposive sampling approach was employed to select students who were most likely to provide valuable insights to gain a deeper understanding of the topic. The inclusion criteria required that participants should have declared their major in one of the following programs: CPH, CMED, CDEM, CHS: Nut, Biomed, PS, and PH. This selection criterion aimed to ensure that participants had sufficient knowledge and experience related to their chosen fields of study within QU-Health. Students were included if they were available and willing to share their experiences and thoughts. Students who did not meet these criteria were excluded from participation. To ensure a representative sample, seven FGs were conducted, one with each health professional education program. After obtaining the approval of the head of each department, participants were recruited by contacting the class representative of each professional year to ask for volunteers to join and provide their insights. Each FG involved students from different professional years to ensure a diverse representation of experiences and perspectives.

The topic guide (Supplementary Material 1) was developed and conceptualized based on the research objectives, selected results from the quantitative phase, and the Gruppen et. al. framework [ 1 ]. FGs were conducted online using Microsoft Teams® through synchronous meetings. Before initiating the FGs, participants were informed of their rights and returned signed consent forms to the researchers. FGs were facilitated by two research assistants (AA and OY), each facilitating separate sessions. The facilitators, who had prior experience with conducting FGs and who were former pharmacy students from the CPH, were familiar with some of the participants, and hence were able to encourage open discussion, making it easier for students to share their perceptions of the learning environment within the QU Health Cluster. Participants engaged in concurrent discussions were encouraged to use the "raise hand" feature on Microsoft Teams to mimic face-to-face interactions. Each FG lasted 45–60 min, was conducted in English, and was recorded and transcribed verbatim and double-checked for accuracy. After the seventh FG, the researchers were confident that a saturation point had been reached where no new ideas emerged, and any further data collection through FGs was unnecessary. Peer and supervisory audits were conducted throughout the research process.

The NVIVO ® software (version 12) was utilized to perform a thematic analysis incorporating both deductive and inductive approaches. The deductive approach involved organizing the data into pre-determined categories based on the Gruppen et al. framework, which outlines key components of the learning environment. This framework enabled a systematic analysis of how each component of the learning environment contributes to students' professional development and highlighted areas for potential improvement. Concurrently, the inductive approach was applied to explore students' perceptions of an ideal learning environment, facilitating the emergence of new themes and insights directly from the data, independent of pre-existing categories. This dual approach provided a comprehensive understanding of the data by validating the existing theory while also exploring new findings [ 49 ]. Two coders were involved in coding the transcripts (AA and BM) and in cases of disagreements between researchers, consensus was achieved through discussion.

The response rate was 57.8% (525 responses out of 908), while the usability rate was 74.3% (390 responses out of 525) after excluding students who only completed the demographic section. The demographic and professional characteristics of the participants are presented in Table  1 . The majority were Qataris (37.0% [ n  = 142]), females (85.1% [ n  = 332]), and of the age group of 21–23 years (51.7% [ n  = 201]). The students were predominantly studying at the CHS (36.9%[ n  = 144]), in their second professional year (37.4% [ n  = 146]), and had yet to be exposed to experiential learning, that is, clinical rotations (70.2% [ n  = 273]).

Perceptions of students of their learning environment

The overall median DREEM score for study participants indicated that QU Health students perceive their learning environment to be "more positive than negative" (132 [IQR = 116–174]). The reliability analysis for this sample of participants indicated a Cronbach's alpha for the total DREEM score of 0.94, and Cronbach's alpha scores for each domain of the DREEM tool, SPoL, SPoT, SASP, SPoA, and SSSP of 0.85, 0.74, 0.81, 0.85, and 0.65, respectively.

Individual item responses representing each domain of the DREEM tool are presented in Table  2 . For Domain I, QU Health students perceived the teaching approach in QU Health to be "more positive" (32 [IQR = 27–36]). Numerous participants agreed that the teaching was well-focused (70.7% [ n  = 274]), student-focused (66.1% [ n  = 254]) and aimed to develop the competencies of students (72.0% [ n  = 278]). The analysis of students’ perceptions related to Domain II revealed that faculty members were perceived to be “moving in the right direction” (30 [IQR = 26–34]). Most students agreed that faculty members were knowledgeable (90.7%[ n  = 345]) and provided students with clear examples and constructive feedback (77.6% [ n  = 294] and 63.8% [ n  = 224], respectively. Furthermore, the analysis of Domain III demonstrated that QU Health students were shown to have a "positive academic self-perception" (22 [IQR = 19–25]). In this regard, most students believed that they were developing their problem-solving skills (78% [ n  = 292]) and that what they learned was relevant to their professional careers (76% [ n  = 288]). Furthermore, approximately 80% ( n  = 306) of students agreed that they had learned empathy in their profession. For Domain IV, students perceived the atmosphere of their learning environment to be "more positive" (32 [IQR = 14–19]). A substantial number of students asserted that there were opportunities for them to develop interpersonal skills (77.7% [ n  = 293]), and that the atmosphere motivated them as learners (63.0% [ n  = 235]). Approximately one-third of students believed that the enjoyment did not outweigh the stress of studying (32.3% [ n  = 174]). Finally, analysis of Domain V indicates that students’ social self-perception was “not very bad” (17 [IQR = 27–36]). Most students agreed that they had good friends at their colleges (83% [ n  = 314]) and that their social lives were good (68% [ n  = 254]).

Table 3 illustrates the differences in the perception of students of their overall learning environment according to their demographic and professional characteristics. No significant differences were noted in the perception of the learning environment among the subgroups with selected demographic and professional characteristics, except for the health profession program in which they were enrolled ( p -value < 0.001), whether they had relatives who studied or had studied the same profession ( p -value < 0.002), and whether they started their experiential learning ( p -value = 0.043). Further analyses comparing the DREEM subscale scores according to their demographic and professional characteristics are presented in Supplementary Material 1.

Students’ perceptions of their professional identities

The students provided positive responses relating to their perceptions of their professional identity (24.00 IQR = [22–27]). The reliability analysis of this sample indicated a Cronbach's alpha of 0.605. The individual item responses representing the MCPIS-9 tool are presented in Table  2 . Most students (85% [ n  = 297]) expressed pleasant feelings about belonging to their own profession, and 81% ( n  = 280) identified positively with members of their profession. No significant differences were noted in the perception of students of their professional identity when analyzed against selected demographic subgroups, except for whether they had relatives who had studied or were studying the same profession ( p -value = 0.027). Students who had relatives studying or had studied the same profession tended to perceive their professional identity better (25 IQR = [22–27] and 24 IQR = [21–26], respectively) (Table  3 ).

Association between MCPIS-9 and DREEM

Spearman's rank correlation between the DREEM and MCPIS-9 total scores indicated an intermediate positive correlation between perceptions of students toward their learning environment and their professional identity development (r = 0.442, p -value < 0.001). The DREEM questionnaire, with its 50 items divided into five subscales, comprehensively assessed various dimensions of the learning environment. Each subscale evaluated a distinct aspect of the educational experience, such as the effectiveness of teaching, teacher behavior and attitudes, academic confidence, the overall learning atmosphere, and social integration. The MCPIS-9 questionnaire specifically assessed professional identity through nine items that measure attitudes, values, and self-perceived competence in the professional domain. The positive correlation demonstrated between the DREEM and MCPIS-9 scores indicated that as students perceive their learning environment more positively, their professional identity is also enhanced.

Thirty-seven students from the QU Health colleges were interviewed: eleven from CPH, eight from CMED, four from CDEM, and fourteen from CHS (six from Nut, three from PS, three from Biomed, and three from PH). Four conventional themes were generated deductively using Gruppen et al.’s conceptual framework, while one theme was derived through inductive analysis. The themes and sub-themes generated are demonstrated in Table  4 .

Theme 1. The personal component of the learning environment

This theme focused on student interactions and experiences within their learning environment and their impact on perceptions of learning, processes, growth, and professional development.

Sub-theme 1.1. Experiences influencing professional identity formation

Students classified their experiences into positive and negative. Positive experiences included hands-on activities such as on-campus practical courses and pre-clinical activities, which built their confidence and professional identity. In this regard, one student mentioned:

“Practical courses are one of the most important courses to help us develop into pharmacists. They make you feel confident in your knowledge and more willing to share what you know.” [CPH-5]

Many students claimed that interprofessional education (IPE) activities enhanced their self-perception, clarified their roles, and boosted their professional identity and confidence. An interviewee stated:

"I believe that the IPE activity,…., is an opportunity for us to explore our role. It has made me know where my profession stands in the health sector and how we all depend on each other through interprofessional thinking and discussions." [CHS-Nut-32]

However, several participants reported that an extensive workload hindered their professional identity development. A participant stated:

“The excessive workload prevents us from joining activities that would contribute to our professional identity development. Also, it restricts our networking opportunities and makes us always feel burnt out.” [CHS-Nut-31]

Sub-theme 1.2. Strategies used by students to pursue their goals

QU Health students employed various academic and non-academic strategies to achieve their objectives, with many emphasizing list-making and identifying effective study methods as key approaches:

“Documentation. I like to see tasks that I need to do on paper. Also, I like to classify my tasks based on their urgency. I mean, deadlines.” [CHS-Nut-31]

“I always try to be as efficient as possible when studying and this can be by knowing what studying method best suits me.” [CHS-Biomed-35]

Nearly all students agreed that seeking feedback from faculty was crucial for improving their work and performance. In this context, a student said:

“We must take advantage of the provided opportunity to discuss our assignments, projects, and exams, like what we did correctly, and what we did wrongly. They always discuss with us how to improve our work on these things.” [CHS-Nut-32]

Moreover, many students also believed that developing communication skills was vital for achieving their goals, given their future roles in interprofessional teams. A student mentioned:

“Improving your communication skills is a must because inshallah (with God’s will) in the future we will not only work with biomedical scientists, but also with nurses, pharmacists, and doctors. So, you must have good communication abilities.” [CHS-Biomed-34]

Finally, students believe that networking is crucial for achieving their goals because it opens new opportunities for them as stated by a student:

“Networking with different physicians or professors can help you to know about research or training opportunities that you could potentially join.” [CMED-15]

Subtheme 1.3. Students’ mental and physical well-being

Students agreed that while emotional well-being is crucial for good learning experiences and professional identity development, colleges offered insufficient support. An interviewee stated:

“We simply don't have the optimal support we need to take care of our emotional well-being as of now, despite how important it is and how it truly reflects on our learning and professional development” [CDEM-20]

Another student added:

“…being in an optimal mental state provides us with the opportunity to acquire all required skills that would aid in our professional identity development. I mean, interpersonal skills, adaptability, self-reflection” [CPH-9]

Students mentioned some emotional support provided by colleges, such as progress tracking and stress-relief activities. Students said:

“During P2 [professional year 2], I missed a quiz, and I was late for several lectures. Our learning support specialist contacted me … She was like, are you doing fine? I explained everything to her, and she contacted the professors for their consideration and support.” [CPH-7]

“There are important events that are done to make students take a break and recharge, but they are not consistent” [CHS-PS-27]

On the physical well-being front, students felt that their colleges ensured safety, especially in lab settings, with proper protocols to avoid harm. A student mentioned:

“The professors and staff duly ensure our safety, especially during lab work. They make sure that we don't go near any harmful substances and that we abide by the lab safety rules” [CHS-Biomed -35]

Theme 2. Social component of the learning environment

This theme focused on how social interactions shape students’ perceptions of learning environments and learning experiences.

Sub-theme 2.1. Opportunities for community engagement

Participants identified various opportunities for social interactions through curricular and extracurricular activities. Project-based learning (PBL) helped them build connections, improve teamwork and enhance critical thinking and responsibility as stated by one student:

“I believe that having PBL as a big part of our learning process improves our teamwork and interpersonal skills and makes us take responsibility in learning, thinking critically, and going beyond what we would have received in class to prepare very well and deep into the topic.” [CMED-12]

Extracurricular activities, including campaigns and events, helped students expand their social relationships and manage emotional stress. A student stated:

“I think that the extracurricular activities that we do, like the campaigns or other things that we hold in the college with other students from other colleges, have been helpful for me in developing my personality and widening my social circle. Also, it dilutes the emotional stress we are experiencing in class” [CDEM-22]

Sub-theme 2.2. Opportunities for learner-to-patient interactions

Students noted several approaches their colleges used to enhance patient-centered education and prepare them for real-world patient interactions. These approaches include communication skills classes, simulated patient scenarios, and field trips. Students mentioned:

“We took a class called Foundation of Health, which mainly focused on how to communicate our message to patients to ensure that they were getting optimal care. This course made us appreciate the term ‘patient care’ more.” [CHS-PH-38]

“We began to appreciate patient care when we started to take a professional skills course that entailed the implementation of a simulated patient scenario. We started to realize that communication with patients didn’t go as smoothly as when we did it with a colleague in the classroom.” [CPH-1]

“We went on a field trip to ‘Shafallah Center for Persons with Disability’ and that helped us to realize that there were a variety of patients that we had to care for, and we should be physically and mentally prepared to meet their needs.” [CDEM-21]

Theme 3. Organizational component of the learning environment

This theme explored students' perceptions of how the college administration, policies, culture, coordination, and curriculum design impact their learning experiences.

Sub-theme 3.1. Curriculum and study plan

Students valued clinical placements for their role in preparing them for the workplace and developing professional identity. A student stated:

“Clinical placements are very crucial for our professional identity development; we get the opportunity to be familiarized with and prepared for the work environment.” [CHS-PS-27]

However, students criticized their curriculum for not equipping them with adequate knowledge and skills. For example, a student said:

“… Not having a well-designed curriculum is of concern. We started very late in studying dentistry stuff and that led to us cramming all the necessary information that we should have learned.” [CDEM-20]

Furthermore, students reported that demanding schedules and limited course availability hindered learning and delayed progress:

“Last semester, I had classes from Sunday to Thursday from 8:00 AM till 3:00 PM in the same classroom, back-to-back, without any break. I was unable to focus in the second half of the day.” [CHS-Nut-38]

“Some courses are only offered once a year, and they are sometimes prerequisites for other courses. This can delay our clinical internship or graduation by one year.” [CHS-Biomed-36]

Additionally, the outdated curriculum was seen as misaligned with advancements in artificial intelligence (AI). One student stated:

“… What we learn in our labs is old-fashioned techniques, while Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC) is following a new protocol that uses automation and AI. So, I believe that we need to get on track with HMC as most of us will be working there after graduation.” [CHS-Biomed-35]

Sub-theme 3.2. Organizational climate and policies

Students generally appreciated the positive university climate and effective communication with the college administration which improves course quality:

“Faculty members and the college administration usually listen to our comments about courses or anything that we want to improve, and by providing a course evaluation at the end of the semester, things get better eventually.” [CPH-2]

Students also valued faculty flexibility with scheduling exams and assignments, and praised the new makeup exam policy which enhances focus on learning:

“Faculty members are very lenient with us. If we want to change the date of the exam or the deadline for any assignment, they agree if everyone in the class agrees. They prioritize the quality of our work over just getting an assignment done.” [CHS-PS-37]

“I am happy with the introduction of makeup exams. Now, we are not afraid of failing and losing a whole year because of a course. I believe that this will help us to focus on topics, not just cramming the knowledge to pass.” [CPH-9]

However, students expressed concerns about the lack of communication between colleges and clinical placements and criticized the lengthy approval process for extracurricular activities:

“There is a contract between QU and HMC, but the lack of communication between them puts students in a grey area. I wish there would be better communication between them.” [CMED-15]

“To get a club approved by QU, you must go through various barriers, and it doesn't work every time. A lot of times you won't get approved.” [CMED-14]

Theme 4. Materialistic component of the learning environment

This theme discussed how physical and virtual learning spaces affect students' learning experiences and professional identity.

Sub-theme 4.1. The physical space for learning

Students explained that the interior design of buildings and the fully equipped laboratory facilities in their programs enhanced focus and learning:

“The design has a calming effect, all walls are simple and isolate the noise, the classrooms are big with big windows, so that the sunlight enters easily, and we can see the green grass. This is very important for focusing and optimal learning outcomes.” [CPH-5]

“In our labs, we have beds and all the required machines for physiotherapy exercises and practical training, and we can practice with each other freely.” [CHS-PS-27]

Students from different emphasized the need for dedicated lecture rooms for each batch and highlighted the importance of having on-site cafeterias to avoid disruptions during the day:

“We don't have lecture rooms devoted to each batch. Sometimes we don't even find a room to attend lectures and we end up taking the lectures in the lab, which makes it hard for us to focus and study later.” [CDEM-23]

“Not having a cafeteria in this building is a negative point. Sometimes we miss the next lecture or part of it if we go to another building to buy breakfast.” [CHS-Nut-29]

Sub-theme 4.2. The virtual space for online learning

Students appreciated the university library's extensive online resources and free access to platforms like Microsoft Teams and Webex for efficient learning and meetings. They valued recorded lectures for flexible study and appreciated virtual webinars and workshops for global connectivity.

“QU Library provides us with a great diversity and a good number of resources, like journals or books, as well as access medicine, massive open online courses, and other platforms that are very useful for studying.” [CMED-16].

“Having your lectures recorded through virtual platforms made it easier to take notes efficiently and to study at my own pace.” [CHS-PS-38]

"I hold a genuine appreciation for the provided opportunities to register in online conferences. I remember during the COVID-19 pandemic, I got the chance to attend an online workshop. This experience allowed me to connect with so many people from around the world." [CMED-15]

Theme 5. Characteristics of an ideal learning environment

This theme explored students’ perceptions of an ideal learning environment and its impact on their professional development and identity.

Sub-theme 5.1. Active learning and professional development supporting environment

Students highlighted that an ideal learning environment should incorporate active learning methods and a supportive atmosphere. They suggested using simulated patients in case-based learning and the use of game-based learning platforms:

“I think if we have, like in ITQAN [a Clinical Simulation and Innovation Center located on the Hamad Bin Khalifa Medical City (HBKMC) campus of Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC)], simulated patients, I think that will be perfect like in an “Integrated Case-Based Learning” case or professional skills or patient assessment labs where we can go and intervene with simulated patients and see what happens as a consequence. This will facilitate our learning.” [CPH-4]

“I feel that ‘Kahoot’ activities add a lot to the session. We get motivated and excited to solve questions and win. We keep laughing, and I honestly feel that the answers to these questions get stuck in my head.” [CHS-PH-38].

Students emphasized the need for more opportunities for research, career planning, and equity in terms of providing resources and opportunities for students:

“Students should be provided with more opportunities to do research, publish, and practice.” [CMED-16]

“We need better career planning and workshops or advice regarding what we do after graduation or what opportunities we have.” [CHS-PS-25]

“I think that opportunities are disproportionate, and this is not ideal. I believe all students should have the same access to opportunities like having the chance to participate in conferences and receiving research opportunities, especially if one fulfills the requirements.” [CHS-Biomed-35]

Furthermore, the students proposed the implementation of mentorship programs and a reward system to enable a better learning experience:

“Something that could enable our personal development is a mentorship program, which our college started to implement this year, and I hope they continue to because it’s an attribute of an ideal learning environment.” [CPH-11]

“There has to be some form of reward or acknowledgments to students, especially those who, for example, have papers published or belong to leading clubs, not just those who are, for example, on a dean’s list because education is much more than just academics.” [CHS-PS-26]

Subtheme 5.2. Supportive physical environment

Participants emphasized that the physical environment of the college significantly influences their learning attitudes. A student said:

“The first thing that we encounter when we arrive at the university is the campus. I mean, our early thoughts toward our learning environment are formed before we even know anything about our faculty members or the provided facilities. So, ideally, it starts here.” [CPH-10]

Therefore, students identified key characteristics of an optimal physical environment which included: having a walkable campus, designated study and social areas, and accessible food and coffee.

“I think that learning in what they refer to as a walkable campus, which entails having the colleges and facilities within walking distance from each other, without restrictions of high temperature and slow transportation, is ideal.” [CPH-8]

“The classrooms and library should be conducive to studying and focusing, and there should also be other places where one can actually socialize and sit with one’s friends.” [CDEM-22]

“It is really important to have a food court or café in each building, as our schedules are already packed, and we have no time to go get anything for nearby buildings.” [CHS-Biomed-34]

Data integration

Table 5 represents the integration of data from the quantitative and qualitative phases. It demonstrates how the quantitative findings informed and complemented the qualitative analysis and explains how quantitative data guided the selection of themes in the qualitative phase. The integration of quantitative and qualitative data revealed both convergences and divergences in students' views of their learning environment. Both data sources consistently indicated that the learning environment supported the development of interpersonal skills, fostered strong relationships with faculty, and promoted an active, student-centered learning approach. This environment was credited with enhancing critical thinking, independence, and responsibility, as well as boosting students' confidence and competence through clear role definitions and constructive faculty feedback.

However, discrepancies emerged between the two phases. Quantitative data suggested general satisfaction with timetables and support systems, while qualitative data uncovered significant dissatisfaction. Although quantitative results indicated that students felt well-prepared and able to memorize necessary material, qualitative findings revealed challenges with concentration and focus. Furthermore, while quantitative data showed contentment with institutional support, qualitative responses pointed to shortcomings in emotional and physical support.

This study examined the perceptions of QU Health students regarding the quality of their learning environment and the characteristics of an ideal learning environment. Moreover, this study offered insights into the development of professional identity, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of learning environments and their substantial impact on professional identity formation.

Perceptions of the learning environment

The findings revealed predominantly positive perceptions among students regarding the quality of the overall learning environment at QU Health and generally favorable perception of all five DREEM subscales, which is consistent with the international studies using the DREEM tool [ 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. Specifically, participants engaged in experiential learning expressed heightened satisfaction, which aligns with existing research indicating that practical educational approaches enhance student engagement and satisfaction [ 55 , 56 ]. Additionally, despite limited literature, students without relatives in the same profession demonstrated higher perceptions of their learning environment, possibly due to fewer preconceived expectations. A 2023 systematic review highlighted how students’ expectations influence their satisfaction and academic achievement [ 57 ]. However, specific concerns arose regarding the learning environment, including overemphasis on factual learning in teaching, student fatigue, and occasional boredom. These issues were closely linked to the overwhelming workload and conventional teaching methods, as identified in the qualitative phase.

Association between learning environment and professional identity

This study uniquely integrated the perceptions of the learning environment with insights into professional identity formation in the context of healthcare education which is a relatively underexplored area in quantitative studies [ 44 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. This study demonstrated a positive correlation between students' perceptions of the learning environment (DREEM) and their professional identity development (MCPIS-9) which suggested that a more positive learning environment is associated with enhanced professional identity formation. For example, a supportive and comfortable learning atmosphere (i.e., high SPoA scores) can enhance students' confidence and professional self-perception (i.e., high MCPIS-9 scores). The relationship between these questionnaires is fundamental to this study. The DREEM subscales, particularly Perception of Learning (SpoL) and Academic Self-Perception (SASP), relate to how the learning environment supports or hinders the development of a professional identity, as measured by MCPIS-9. Furthermore, the Perception of Teachers (SpoT) subscale examines how teacher behaviors and attitudes impact students, which can influence their professional identity development. The Perception of Atmosphere (SPoA) and Social Self-Perception (SSSP) subscales evaluate the broader environment and social interactions, which are crucial for professional identity formation as they foster a sense of community and belonging.

Employing a mixed methods approach and analyzing both questionnaires and FGs through the framework outlined by Gruppen et al. highlighted key aspects across four dimensions of the learning environment: personal development, social dimension, organizational setting, and materialistic dimension [ 1 ]. First, the study underscored the significance of both personal development and constructive feedback. IPE activities emerged as a key factor that promotes professional identity by cultivating collaboration and role identification which is consistent with Bendowska and Baum's findings [ 61 ]. Similarly, the positive impact of constructive faculty feedback on student learning outcomes aligned with the work of Gan et al. which revealed that feedback from faculty members positively influences course satisfaction and knowledge retention, which are usually reflected in course results [ 62 ]. Importantly, the research also emphasized the need for workload management strategies to mitigate negative impacts on student well-being, a crucial factor for academic performance and professional identity development [ 63 , 64 ]. The inclusion of community events and support services could play a significant role in fostering student well-being and reducing stress, as suggested by Hoferichter et al. [ 65 ]. Second, the importance of the social dimension of the learning environment was further highlighted by the study. Extracurricular activities were identified as opportunities to develop essential interpersonal skills needed for professional identity, mirroring the conclusions drawn by Achar Fujii et al. who argued that extracurricular activities lead to the development of fundamental skills and attitudes to build and refine their professional identity and facilitate the learning process, such as leadership, commitment, and responsibility [ 66 ]. Furthermore, Magpantay-Monroe et al. concluded that community and social engagement led to professional identity development in nursing students through the expansion of their knowledge and communication with other nursing professionals [ 67 ]. PBL activities were another key element that promoted critical thinking, learning, and ultimately, professional identity development in this study similar to what was reported by Zhou et al. and Du et al. [ 68 , 69 ]. Third, the organizational setting, particularly the curriculum and clinical experiences, emerged as crucial factors. Clinical placements and field trips were found to be instrumental in cultivating empathy and professional identity [ 70 , 71 ]. However, maintaining an up-to-date curriculum that reflects advancements in AI healthcare education is equally important, as highlighted by Randhawa and Jackson in 2019 [ 72 ]. Finally, the study underlined the role of the materialistic dimension of the learning environment. Physical learning environments with natural light and managed noise levels were found to contribute to improved academic performance [ 73 , 74 ]. Additionally, the value of online educational resources, such as online library resources and massive open online course, as tools facilitating learning by providing easy access to materials, was emphasized, which is consistent with the observations of Haleem et al. [ 75 ].

The above collectively contribute to shaping students' professional identities through appreciating their roles, developing confidence, and understanding the interdependence of different health professions. These indicate that a supportive and engaging learning environment is crucial for fostering a strong sense of professional identity. Incorporating these student-informed strategies can assist educational institutions in cultivating well-rounded healthcare professionals equipped with the knowledge, skills, and emotional resilience needed to thrive in the dynamic healthcare landscape. Compared to existing quantitative data, this study reported a lower median MCPIS-9 score of 24.0, in contrast to previously reported scores of 39.0, 38.0, 38.0, respectively. [ 76 , 77 , 78 ]. This discrepancy may be influenced by the fact that the participants were in their second professional year, known for weaker identity development [ 79 ]. Students with relatives in the same profession perceived their identity more positively, which is likely due to role model influences [ 22 ].

Expectations of the ideal educational learning environment

This study also sought to identify the key attributes of an ideal learning environment from the perspective of students at QU-Health. The findings revealed a strong emphasis on active learning strategies, aligning with Kolb's experiential learning theory [ 80 ]. This preference suggests a desire to move beyond traditional lecture formats and engage in activities that promote experimentation and reflection, potentially mitigating issues of student boredom. Furthermore, students valued the implementation of simple reward systems such as public recognition, mirroring the positive impact such practices have on academic achievement reported by Dannan in 2020 [ 81 ]. The perceived importance of mentorship programs resonates with the work of Guhan et al. who demonstrated improved academic performance, particularly for struggling students [ 82 ]. Finally, the study highlighted the significance of a walkable campus with accessible facilities. This aligns with Rohana et al. who argued that readily available and useable facilities contribute to effective teaching and learning processes, ultimately resulting in improved student outcomes [ 83 ]. Understanding these student perceptions, health professions education programs can inform strategic planning for curricular and extracurricular modifications alongside infrastructural development.

The complementary nature of qualitative and quantitative methods in understanding student experiences

This study underscored the benefits of employing mixed methods to comprehensively explore the interplay between the learning environment and professional identity formation as complex phenomena. The qualitative component provided nuanced insights that complemented the baseline data provided by DREEM and MCPIS-9 questionnaires. While DREEM scores generally indicated positive perceptions, qualitative findings highlighted the significant impact of experiential learning on students' perceptions of the learning environment and professional identity development. Conversely, discrepancies emerged between questionnaire responses and FG interviews, revealing deeper issues such as fatigue and boredom associated with traditional teaching methods and heavy workloads, potentially influenced by cultural factors. In FGs, students revealed cultural pressures to conform and stigma against expressing dissatisfaction, which questionnaire responses may not capture. Qualitative data allowed students to openly discuss culturally sensitive issues, indicating that interviews complement surveys by revealing insights overlooked in quantitative assessments alone. These insights can inform the design of learning environments that support holistic student development. The study also suggested that cultural factors can influence student perceptions and should be considered in educational research and practice.

Application of findings

The findings from this study can be directly applied to inform and enhance educational practices, as well as to influence policy and practice sectors. Educational institutions should prioritize integrating active learning strategies and mentorship programs to combat issues such as student fatigue and boredom. Furthermore, practical opportunities, including experiential learning and IPE activities, should be emphasized to strengthen professional identity and engagement. To address these challenges comprehensively, policymakers should consider developing policies that support effective workload management and community support services, which are essential for improving student well-being and academic performance. Collaboration between educational institutions and practice sectors can greatly improve students' satisfaction with their learning environment and experience. This partnership enhances the relevance and engagement of their education, leading to a stronger professional identity and better preparation for successful careers.

Limitations

As with all research, this study has several limitations. For instance, there was a higher percentage of female participants compared to males; however, it is noteworthy to highlight the demographic composition of QU Health population, where students are majority female. Furthermore, the CHS, which is one of the participating colleges in this study, enrolls only female students. Another limitation is the potentially underpowered statistical comparisons among the sociodemographic characteristics in relation to the total DREEM and MCPIS-9 scores. Thus, the findings of this study should be interpreted with caution.

The findings of this study reveal that QU Health students generally hold a positive view of their learning environment and professional identity, with a significant positive correlation exists between students’ perceptions of their learning environment and their professional identity. Specifically, students who engaged in experiential learning or enrolled in practical programs rated their learning environment more favorably, and those with relatives in the same profession had a more positive view of their professional identity. The participants of this study also identified several key attributes that contribute to a positive learning environment, including active learning approaches and mentorship programs. Furthermore, addressing issues like fatigue and boredom is crucial for enhancing student satisfaction and professional development.

To build on these findings, future research should focus on longitudinal studies that monitor changes in the perceptions of students over time and identify the long-term impact of implementing the proposed attributes of an ideal learning environment on the learning process and professional identity development of students. Additionally, exploring the intricate dynamics of learning environments and their impact on professional identity can allow educators to better support students in their professional journey. Future research should also continue to explore these relationships, particularly on diverse cultural settings, in order to develop more inclusive and effective educational strategies. This approach will ensure that health professional students are well-prepared to meet the demands of their profession and provide high-quality care to their patients.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

European Union

American Council on Education

World Federation for Medical Education

Communities of Practice

Qatar University Health

College of Health Sciences

College of Pharmacy

College of Medicine

Dental Medicine

College of Nursing

Human Nutrition

Biomedical Science

Public Health

Physiotherapy

Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure

Perception to Learning

Perception to Teachers

Academic Self-Perception

Perception of the Atmosphere

Social Self-Perception

Macleod Clark Professional Identity Scale

Focus Group

InterProfessional Education

Project-Based Learning

Hamad Medical Corporation

Hamad Bin Khalifa Medical City

Artificial Intelligence

Gruppen LD, Irby DM, Durning SJ, Maggio LA. Conceptualizing Learning Environments in the Health Professions. Acad Med. 2019;94(7):969–74.

Article   Google Scholar  

OECD. Trends Shaping Education 2019. 2019.

Rawas H, Yasmeen N. Perception of nursing students about their educational environment in College of Nursing at King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences. Saudi Arabia Med Teach. 2019;41(11):1307–14.

Google Scholar  

Rusticus SA, Wilson D, Casiro O, Lovato C. Evaluating the Quality of Health Professions Learning Environments: Development and Validation of the Health Education Learning Environment Survey (HELES). Eval Health Prof. 2020;43(3):162–8.

Closs L, Mahat M, Imms W. Learning environments’ influence on students’ learning experience in an Australian Faculty of Business and Economics. Learning Environ Res. 2022;25(1):271–85.

Bakhshialiabad H, Bakhshi G, Hashemi Z, Bakhshi A, Abazari F. Improving students’ learning environment by DREEM: an educational experiment in an Iranian medical sciences university (2011–2016). BMC Med Educ. 2019;19(1):397.

Karani R. Enhancing the Medical School Learning Environment: A Complex Challenge. J Gen Intern Med. 2015;30(9):1235–6.

Adams K, Hean S, Sturgis P, Clark JM. Investigating the factors influencing professional identity of first-year health and social care students. Learn Health Soc Care. 2006;5(2):55–68.

Brown B, Crawford P, Darongkamas J. Blurred roles and permeable boundaries: the experience of multidisciplinary working in community mental health. Health Soc Care Community. 2000;8(6):425–35.

Hendelman W, Byszewski A. Formation of medical student professional identity: categorizing lapses of professionalism, and the learning environment. BMC Med Educ. 2014;14(1):139.

Jarvis-Selinger S, MacNeil KA, Costello GRL, Lee K, Holmes CL. Understanding Professional Identity Formation in Early Clerkship: A Novel Framework. Acad Med. 2019;94(10):1574–80.

Sarraf-Yazdi S, Teo YN, How AEH, Teo YH, Goh S, Kow CS, et al. A Scoping Review of Professional Identity Formation in Undergraduate Medical Education. J Gen Intern Med. 2021;36(11):3511–21.

Lave J, Wenger E. Learning in Doing: Social, cognitive and computational perspectives. Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1991. https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/situatedlearning/6915ABD21C8E4619F750A4D4ACA616CD#overview .

Wenger, E. Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University; 1998.

Eberle J, Stegmann K, Fischer F. Legitimate Peripheral Participation in Communities of Practice: Participation Support Structures for Newcomers in Faculty Student Councils. J Learn Sci. 2014;23(2):216–44.

Graven M, Lerman S, Wenger E. Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. J Math Teacher Educ. 1998;2003(6):185–94.

Brown T, Williams B, Lynch M. The Australian DREEM: evaluating student perceptions of academic learning environments within eight health science courses. Int J Med Educ. 2011;2:94.

International standards in medical education: assessment and accreditation of medical schools'--educational programmes. A WFME position paper. The Executive Council, The World Federation for Medical Education. Med Educ. 1998;32(5):549–58.

Frank JR, Taber S, van Zanten M, Scheele F, Blouin D, on behalf of the International Health Professions Accreditation Outcomes C. The role of accreditation in 21st century health professions education: report of an International Consensus Group. BMC Medical Education. 2020;20(1):305.

Trede F, Macklin R, Bridges D. Professional identity development: A review of the higher education literature. Stud High Educ. 2012;37:365–84.

de Lasson L, Just E, Stegeager N, Malling B. Professional identity formation in the transition from medical school to working life: a qualitative study of group-coaching courses for junior doctors. BMC Med Educ. 2016;16(1):165.

Findyartini A, Greviana N, Felaza E, Faruqi M, Zahratul Afifah T, Auliya FM. Professional identity formation of medical students: A mixed-methods study in a hierarchical and collectivist culture. BMC Med Educ. 2022;22(1):443.

Cruess RL, Cruess SR, Boudreau JD, Snell L, Steinert Y. A schematic representation of the professional identity formation and socialization of medical students and residents: a guide for medical educators. Acad Med. 2015;90(6):718–25.

Prashanth GP, Ismail SK. The Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure: A prospective comparative study of undergraduate medical students’ and interns’ perceptions in Oman. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2018;18(2):e173–81.

Helou MA, Keiser V, Feldman M, Santen S, Cyrus JW, Ryan MS. Student well-being and the learning environment. Clin Teach. 2019;16(4):362–6.

Brown T, Williams B, McKenna L, Palermo C, McCall L, Roller L, et al. Practice education learning environments: the mismatch between perceived and preferred expectations of undergraduate health science students. Nurse Educ Today. 2011;31(8):e22–8.

Wasson LT, Cusmano A, Meli L, Louh I, Falzon L, Hampsey M, et al. Association Between Learning Environment Interventions and Medical Student Well-being: A Systematic Review. JAMA. 2016;316(21):2237–52.

Aktaş YY, Karabulut N. A Survey on Turkish nursing students’ perception of clinical learning environment and its association with academic motivation and clinical decision making. Nurse Educ Today. 2016;36:124–8.

Enns SC, Perotta B, Paro HB, Gannam S, Peleias M, Mayer FB, et al. Medical Students’ Perception of Their Educational Environment and Quality of Life: Is There a Positive Association? Acad Med. 2016;91(3):409–17.

Rodríguez-García MC, Gutiérrez-Puertas L, Granados-Gámez G, Aguilera-Manrique G, Márquez-Hernández VV. The connection of the clinical learning environment and supervision of nursing students with student satisfaction and future intention to work in clinical placement hospitals. J Clin Nurs. 2021;30(7–8):986–94.

QU Health QU. QU Health Members https://www.qu.edu.qa/sites/en_US/health/members2020 . Accessed 11 May 2024.

QU Health QU. Vision and Mission https://www.qu.edu.qa/sites/en_US/health/2018 . Accessed 11 May 2024.

Schoonenboom J, Johnson RB. How to Construct a Mixed Methods Research Design. Kolner Z Soz Sozpsychol. 2017;69(Suppl 2):107–31.

Almeida F. Strategies to perform a mixed methods study. Eur J Educ Stud. 2018;5(1):137–51. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1406214 .

Roff S, McAleer S, Harden RM, Al-Qahtani M, Ahmed AU, Deza H, et al. Development and validation of the Dundee ready education environment measure (DREEM). Med Teach. 1997;19(4):295–9.

Woodside AG. Book Review: Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement. J Mark Res. 1993;30(2):259–63.

Creswell JW, Poth CN. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design Choosing among Five Approaches. 4th Edition, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2018.

Fetters MD, Curry LA, Creswell JW. Achieving integration in mixed methods designs-principles and practices. Health Serv Res. 2013;48(6 Pt 2):2134–56.

Dunne F, McAleer S, Roff S. Assessment of the undergraduate medical education environment in a large UK medical school. Health Educ J. 2006;65(2):149–58.

Koohpayehzadeh J, Hashemi A, Arabshahi KS, Bigdeli S, Moosavi M, Hatami K, et al. Assessing validity and reliability of Dundee ready educational environment measure (DREEM) in Iran. Med J Islam Repub Iran. 2014;28:60.

Shehnaz SI, Sreedharan J. Students’ perceptions of educational environment in a medical school experiencing curricular transition in United Arab Emirates. Med Teach. 2011;33(1):e37–42.

Zawawi A, Owaiwid L, Alanazi F, Alsogami L, Alageel N, Alassafi M, et al. Using Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure (DREEM) to evaluate educational environments in Saudi Arabia. Int J Med Develop Countr. 2022;1:1526–33.

McAleer S, Roff S. A practical guide to using the Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure (DREEM). AMEE medical education guide. 2001;23(5):29–33.

Soemantri D, Herrera C, Riquelme A. Measuring the educational environment in health professions studies: a systematic review. Med Teach. 2010;32(12):947–52.

Matthews J, Bialocerkowski A, Molineux M. Professional identity measures for student health professionals–a systematic review of psychometric properties. BMC Med Educ. 2019;19(1):1–10.

Worthington M, Salamonson Y, Weaver R, Cleary M. Predictive validity of the Macleod Clark Professional Identity Scale for undergraduate nursing students. Nurse Educ Today. 2013;33(3):187–91.

Cowin LS, Johnson M, Wilson I, Borgese K. The psychometric properties of five Professional Identity measures in a sample of nursing students. Nurse Educ Today. 2013;33(6):608–13.

Brown R, Condor S, Mathews A, Wade G, Williams J. Explaining intergroup differentiation in an industrial organization. J Occup Psychol. 1986;59(4):273–86.

Proudfoot K. Inductive/Deductive Hybrid Thematic Analysis in Mixed Methods Research. J Mixed Methods Res. 2022;17(3):308–26.

Kossioni A, Varela R, Ekonomu I, Lyrakos G, Dimoliatis I. Students’ perceptions of the educational environment in a Greek Dental School, as measured by DREEM. Eur J Dent Educ. 2012;16(1):e73–8.

Leman M. Conctruct Validity Assessment of Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measurement (Dreem) in a School of Dentistry. Jurnal Pendidikan Kedokteran Indonesia: The Indonesian Journal of Medical Education. 2017;6:11.

Mohd Said N, Rogayah J, Hafizah A. A study of learning environments in the kulliyyah (faculty) of nursing, international islamic university malaysia. Malays J Med Sci. 2009;16(4):15–24.

Ugusman A, Othman NA, Razak ZNA, Soh MM, Faizul PNK, Ibrahim SF. Assessment of learning environment among the first year Malaysian medical students. Journal of Taibah Univ Med Sci. 2015;10(4):454–60.

Zamzuri A, Ali A, Roff S, McAleer S. Students perceptions of the educational environment at dental training college. Malaysian Dent J. 2004;25:15–26.

Ye J-H, Lee Y-S, He Z. The relationship among expectancy belief, course satisfaction, learning effectiveness, and continuance intention in online courses of vocational-technical teachers college students. Front Psychol. 2022;13: 904319.

Ashby SE, Adler J, Herbert L. An exploratory international study into occupational therapy students’ perceptions of professional identity. Aust Occup Ther J. 2016;63(4):233–43.

Al-Tameemi RAN, Johnson C, Gitay R, Abdel-Salam A-SG, Al Hazaa K, BenSaid A, et al. Determinants of poor academic performance among undergraduate students—A systematic literature review. Int J Educ Res Open. 2023;4:100232.

Adeel M, Chaudhry A, Huh S. Physical therapy students’ perceptions of the educational environment at physical therapy institutes in Pakistan. jeehp. 2020;17(0):7–0.

Clarke C, Martin M, Sadlo G, de-Visser R. The development of an authentic professional identity on role-emerging placements. Bri J Occupation Ther. 2014;77(5):222–9.

Hunter AB, Laursen SL, Seymour E. Becoming a scientist: The role of undergraduate research in students’ cognitive, personal, and professional development. Sci Educ. 2007;91(1):36–74.

Bendowska A, Baum E. The significance of cooperation in interdisciplinary health care teams as perceived by polish medical students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023;20(2):954.

Gan Z, An Z, Liu F. Teacher feedback practices, student feedback motivation, and feedback behavior: how are they associated with learning outcomes? Front Psychol. 2021;12: 697045.

Sattar K, Yusoff MSB, Arifin WN, Mohd Yasin MA, Mat Nor MZ. A scoping review on the relationship between mental wellbeing and medical professionalism. Med Educ Online. 2023;28(1):2165892.

Yangdon K, Sherab K, Choezom P, Passang S, Deki S. Well-Being and Academic Workload: Perceptions of Science and Technology Students. Educ Res Reviews. 2021;16(11):418–27.

Hoferichter F, Kulakow S, Raufelder D. How teacher and classmate support relate to students’ stress and academic achievement. Front Psychol. 2022;13: 992497.

Achar Fujii RN, Kobayasi R, Claassen Enns S, Zen Tempski P. Medical Students’ Participation in Extracurricular Activities: Motivations, Contributions, and Barriers. A Qualitative Study. Advances in Medical Education and Practice. 2022;13:1133–41. https://doi.org/10.2147/amep.s359047 .

Magpantay-Monroe ER, Koka O-H, Aipa K. Community Engagement Leads to Professional Identity Formation of Nursing Students. Asian/Pacific Island Nurs J. 2020;5(3):181.

Zhou F, Sang A, Zhou Q, Wang QQ, Fan Y, Ma S. The impact of an integrated PBL curriculum on clinical thinking in undergraduate medical students prior to clinical practice. BMC Med Educ. 2023;23(1):460.

Du X, Al Khabuli JOS, Ba Hattab RAS, Daud A, Philip NI, Anweigi L, et al. Development of professional identity among dental students - A qualitative study. J Dent Educ. 2023;87(1):93–100.

Zulu BM, du Plessis E, Koen MP. Experiences of nursing students regarding clinical placement and support in primary healthcare clinics: Strengthening resilience. Health SA Gesondheid. 2021;26:1–11. https://doi.org/10.4102/hsag.v26i0.1615 .

McNally G, Haque E, Sharp S, Thampy H. Teaching empathy to medical students. Clin Teach. 2023;20(1): e13557.

Randhawa GK, Jackson M. The role of artificial intelligence in learning and professional development for healthcare professionals. Healthc Manage Forum. 2019;33(1):19–24.

Cooper AZ, Simpson D, Nordquist J. Optimizing the Physical Clinical Learning Environment for Teaching. J Grad Med Educ. 2020;12(2):221–2.

Gad SE-S, Noor W, Kamar M. How Does The Interior Design of Learning Spaces Impact The Students` Health, Behavior, and Performance? J Eng Res. 2022;6(4):74–87.

Haleem A, Javaid M, Qadri MA, Suman R. Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: A review. Sustain Operation Comput. 2022;3:275–85.

Faihs V, Heininger S, McLennan, S. et al. Professional Identity and Motivation for Medical School in First-Year Medical Students: A Cross-sectional Study. Med Sci Educ. 2023;33:431–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-023-01754-7 .

Johnston T, Bilton N. Investigating paramedic student professional identity. Australasian J Paramed. 2020;17:1–8.

Mumena WA, Alsharif BA, Bakhsh AM, Mahallawi WH. Exploring professional identity and its predictors in health profession students and healthcare practitioners in Saudi Arabia. PLoS ONE. 2024;19(5): e0299356.

Kis V. Quality assurance in tertiary education: Current practices in OECD countries and a literature review on potential effects. Tertiary Review: A contribution to the OECD thematic review of tertiary education. 2005;14(9):1–47.

Kolb D. Experiential learning as the science of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1984.

Dannan A. The Effect of a Simple Reward Model on the Academic Achievement of Syrian Dental Students. International Journal of Educational Research Review. 2020;5(4):308–14.

Guhan N, Krishnan P, Dharshini P, Abraham P, Thomas S. The effect of mentorship program in enhancing the academic performance of first MBBS students. J Adv Med Educ Prof. 2020;8(4):196–9.

Rohana K, Zainal N, Mohd Aminuddin Z, Jusoff K. The Quality of Learning Environment and Academic Performance from a Student’s Perception. Int J Business Manag. 2009;4:171–5.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all students who participated in this study.

This work was supported by the Qatar University Internal Collaborative Grant: QUCG-CPH-22/23–565.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Practice, College of Pharmacy, QU Health, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar

Banan Mukhalalati, Aaliah Aly, Ola Yakti, Sara Elshami, Ahmed Awaisu, Alla El-Awaisi & Derek Stewart

College of Dental Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar

College of Health Sciences, QU Health, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar

Ahsan Sethi

College of Medicine, QU Health, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar

Marwan Farouk Abu-Hijleh

Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Zubin Austin

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Study conception and design: BM, and SE; data collection: BM, OY, AA, and AD; analysis and interpretation of results: all authors; draft manuscript preparation: all authors. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Banan Mukhalalati .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The data of human participants in this study were conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Qatar University Institutional Review Board (approval number: QU-IRB 1734-EA/22). All participants provided informed consent prior to participation.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary material 1, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Mukhalalati, B., Aly, A., Yakti, O. et al. Examining the perception of undergraduate health professional students of their learning environment, learning experience and professional identity development: a mixed-methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 886 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05875-4

Download citation

Received : 03 July 2024

Accepted : 08 August 2024

Published : 16 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05875-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Learning Environment
• Professional Identity
• Healthcare Professions Education
• Gruppen et al. Framework

BMC Medical Education

ISSN: 1472-6920

• Submission enquiries: [email protected]
• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Open access
• Published: 17 August 2024

Digital anatomical features of morphological development in C 2 –C 7 neurocentral synchondrosis in children aged 1–6 years: a retrospective study of CT images

• Yuying Yi 1   na1 ,
• Ziyu Li 1   na1 ,
• Ruifen Sun 2 ,
• Zhaozheng Yin 1 ,
• Fengzhen Zhang 1 ,
• Xing Wang 3 , 4 ,
• Kun Li 3 , 4 ,
• Shaojie Zhang 3 , 4 &
• Xiaoyan Ren 5  

European Journal of Medical Research volume  29 , Article number:  424 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

With the continuous improvement of diagnosis and treatment technology for cervical spine-related diseases in children at home and abroad, the demand for exploring the developmental anatomy and function of children's cervical spine of different ages is increasing. So the aim of this study was to investigate the changes of anatomical indicators in neurocentral synchondrosis (NCS) of C 2 –C 7 with age and the developmental characteristics of different vertebrae in children aged 1–6 years old.

A retrospective collection of 160 cases of normal cervical spine CT images of children aged 1–6 years old in provincial tertiary hospitals, according to the age group of 1-year-old into 6 groups. The original data of continuously scanned cervical spine tomography images were imported into Mimics16.0 software, under the two-dimensional image window, selected the measurement tool under the Measurements toolbar to measure and statistically analyzed the anatomical indicators such as cross diameter, sagittal diameter, height, perimeter and area of NCS in the C 2 –C 7 segment of the cervical spine on the coronal plane and cross-section.

There was no significant difference in the anatomical indexes of cervical spine NCS in children compared with the left and right sides of the same vertebrae ( P  > 0.05). The same cervical spine generally had differences between the age groups of 1–4 years old and 5–6 years old ( P  < 0.05).The transverse diameter and circumference gradually decreased with age; the sagittal diameter and height showed a slight increase trend; there was a maximum area at 2 years of age. In different cervical vertebrae of the same age group, the NCS values of C 3 , C 4 , and C 5 varied greatly, which showed that the ossification process of cervical cartilage was faster than that at the upper and lower ends. There were obvious differences between C 2 and the rest of the cervical vertebral segments’ NCS ossification process. C 7 was also very different from the rest of the cervical vertebrae segments, presumably more similar to the thoracic spine.

Conclusions

The anatomical indexes of C 2 –C 7 NCS in children have obvious developmental regularities at different ages, and there are also regularities between cervical segments.

Introduction

The development process of the human cervical vertebra is complex, and it is also a common site for congenital malformation [ 1 ]. Neurocentral synchondrosis (NCS) is a conjunctional cartilage located at the junction of the vertebral arch and the vertebral body, which plays an important role in the normal growth of the vertebral body and the vertebral arch [ 2 ]. In the cervical vertebra, NCS only appears in C 2 –C 7 segments [ 3 ], while the cartilage of the atlas is relatively special and lacks NCS. Scholars at home and abroad have conducted more studies on the cartilage of the atlas, while relatively few studies have been conducted on the anatomy of NCS in the cervical vertebra at C 2 –C 7 segments [ 4 ]. Previous studies only focused on the closing age but did not explain the normal growth characteristics of NCS [ 5 ]. At present, little is known about the growth and development anatomical characteristics of NCS in normal children's C 2 –C 7 cervical vertebrae. There are still questions about the growth direction of NCS at different segments with age and whether the growth characteristics of NCS at different segments of the spine are the same, which makes us confused about the characteristics of C 2 –C 7 cervical NCS in normal spinal growth or the development of spinal deformity [ 6 ].

In this study, 160 normal children with C 2 –C 7 cervical NCS CT imaging data were collected. Based on the CT imaging data, the anatomical parameters of NCS in different cervical segments of children were measured. The anatomical and developmental characteristics of NCS in different cervical segments of C 2 –C 7 were discussed to guide clinical application and imaging diagnosis.

Materials and methods

The neck CT images and case data of children aged 1–6 between January 2017–December 2021 were retrospectively collected from provincial tertiary hospitals, and the C 2 –C 7 imaging CT data of 160 patients were selected through inclusion criteria. According to the age group of 1 year, it was divided into six groups (Table  1 ). The informed consent of the guardian of the volunteer aged 1–6 years old groups has been obtained.

Inclusion criteria: No previous cervical spine dysplasia and intraspinal lesions; no obvious trauma or injury to the cervical spine; no history of cervical spine lesions and surgery; the image data were taken in a normal position; and there was no abnormal position, such as side bend and turning head.

Inspection position and inspection equipment

Used 64-row spiral CT scanner (GE Company, USA) to scan cervical head-to-toe direction, the scanning line was perpendicular to the body axis. Scanning parameters: layer thickness 1.25 mm, layer spacing 1.25 mm, scanning time 0.4 s, ball tube voltage 120 kV, current 200 mA, 512 × 512 matrix imaging, scanning imaging field 15 cm × 15 cm, pixel size 0.625 × 0.625.

Technology and method for the measurement of morphological parameters

Raw data of the continuously scanned cervical tomography images were imported into Mimics16.0 software in DICOM format (Materialise interactive medical image control system, Materialise, Belgium). Under the two-dimensional image window, selected the measurements tool to measure the morphological parameters of NCS on the coronal and cross-sections of the cervical spine.

Main observation indicators

Measured cervical NCS-related indicators in the cross-section and coronal surface. Each indicator was measured three times and the average value taken. The data accuracy was 0.10 mm, and the allowable error range was ± 0.10 mm. Cross section: Based on the center of the vertebral body, the vertebral body was divided into cross-sections of equal height; coronal plane: based on the center of the vertebral body, the vertebral body was divided into cross-sections with equal sagittal diameters. The anatomical indexes of C 2 –C 7 NCS were measured, including the transverse diameter of neurocentral synchondrosis, the sagittal diameter of neurocentral synchondrosis, the area of neurocentral synchondrosis, the perimeter of neurocentral synchondrosis, and the height of neurocentral synchondrosis (Table  2 , Figs.  1 , 2 ).

Measurement diagram of C 2 NCS: a the C 2 NCS on the transverse section; b the C 2 NCS on the coronal plane; c the transverse diameter of the C 2 NCS; d the sagittal diameter of the C 2 NCS; e the area and the perimeter of the C 2 NCS; f the height of the C 2 NCS

Measurement diagram of C 3 –C 7 NCS: a the C 3 –C 7 NCS on the transverse section; b the C 3 –C 7 NCS on the coronal plane; c the transverse diameter of the C 3 –C 7 NCS; d the sagittal diameter of the C 3 –C 7 NCS; e the area and the perimeter of the C 3 –C 7 NCS; f the height of the C 3 –C 7 NCS

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 22.0 software and measurement data were expressed as \(\overline{x }\) ±s. One-way ANOVA was used when the data satisfied the normal distribution and the variance was homogeneous, the LSD test was used for pairwise comparisons within the group, and the Kruskal–Wallis test was used for nonparametric test for uneven variance. It was significant to establish that the test level was α  = 0.05, and the difference was significant with P  < 0.05.

Comparison of the NCS transverse diameter

The transverse diameter anatomic indexes of C 2 –C 7 NCS were measured and the transverse diameter values decreased gradually with the increase of age. The transverse diameter values of the left and right sides of the same vertebral body at the same age had similar changes, and there was no statistical difference between the two sides ( P  > 0.05). In the comparison of different vertebral bodies in the same age group, the left and right lateral transverse diameter values of group 2 were statistically different between C 3 and C 5 –C 7 ( P  < 0.05). The left and right lateral transverse diameter values of group 6 were statistically different between C 2 , C 6 –C 7 and C 3 ( P  < 0.05). In the comparison of different age groups in the same vertebral body, except for C 3 , the left and right transverse diameter values of C 2 –C 7 were statistically different between groups 1–2 and groups 4–6 ( P  < 0.05). The left and right cross-diameter values of C 2 –C 7 were statistically different between group 3 and groups 5–6 ( P  < 0.05) (Table  3 , Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ).

Trend chart of NCS anatomical indexes in all groups of C 2

Trend chart of NCS anatomical indexes in all groups of C 3

Trend chart of NCS anatomical indexes in all groups of C 4

Trend chart of NCS anatomical indexes in all groups of C 5

Trend chart of NCS anatomical indexes in all groups of C 6

Trend chart of NCS anatomical indexes in all groups of C 7

Trend of anatomical indexes of NCS at each cervical spine segment at group 1

Trend of anatomical indexes of NCS at each cervical spine segment at group 2

Trend of anatomical indexes of NCS at each cervical spine segment at group 3

Trend of anatomical indexes of NCS at each cervical spine segment at group 4

Trend of anatomical indexes of NCS at each cervical spine segment at group 5

Trend of anatomical indexes of NCS at each cervical spine segment at group 6

Comparison of the NCS sagittal diameter

The anatomical index of the sagittal diameter of C 2 –C 7 NCS showed that the sagittal diameter value first increased and then decreased with age, but there was a maximum value in groups 4–5. The left and right sagittal diameter values of C 3 were larger than those in other vertebral bodies. The sagittal diameter values of the left and right sides of the same vertebral body at the same age had similar amplitudes, and there was no statistical difference between the two sides ( P  > 0.05). In the comparison of different vertebral bodies in the same age group, the left and right sagittal diameter values of group 5 were statistically different between C 2 , C 5 , C 6 and C 3 ( P  < 0.05). The left and right sagittal diameter values of group 6 were statistically different between C 2 , C 4 –C 6 and C 3 ( P  < 0.05). In the comparison of different age groups of the same vertebral body, there was a statistical difference between group 6 and group 4 of the NCS sagittal diameter values on the left and right sides of C 4 ( P  < 0.05) (Table  3 , Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ).

Comparison of the NCS height

The height anatomical index measurement of C 2 –C 7 NCS showed that the height value roughly increased gradually between 1–6 years old, and there was a maximum value between groups 5–6. The height value of the left and right sides of C 2 was larger than that of other vertebral bodies. The change range of NCS height values on the left and right sides of the same vertebral body at the same age was similar, and there was no statistical difference between the two sides ( P  > 0.05). In the comparison of different vertebral bodies of the same age, the left and right height values of groups 2–6 were statistically different in C 3 –C 6 and C 2 ( P  < 0.05). In the comparison of different age groups of the same vertebral body, the left and right height values of C 2 value were statistically different between group 1 and groups 3–6 ( P  < 0.05). The left and right height values of C 3 were statistically different between group 6 and groups 1–4 ( P  < 0.05). The left and right height values of C 7 were statistically different between groups 1–3 and groups 5–6 ( P  < 0.05) (Table  3 , Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ).

Comparison of the NCS area

The area anatomical index of C 2 –C 7 NCS was measured and it was found that the area value in groups 1–6 showed a gradual decrease with age. There was a maximum value in group 2, and the largest change was in groups 4–5. and the change range of NCS area value on the left and right sides of the same vertebral body of the same age was similar, and there was no statistical difference between the two sides ( P  > 0.05). In the comparison of different vertebral bodies of the same age, the NCS area values of the left and right sides of group 1 were statistically different between C 4 –C 5 and C 2 and C 7 ( P  < 0.05). The values of the left and right NCS areas of group 1 were statistically different between C 7 and C 3 ( P  < 0.05). In the comparison of different ages of the same vertebral body, the NCS area values of C 2 –C 7 were statistically different between groups 1–2 and groups 5–6 ( P  < 0.05) (Table  3 , Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ).

Comparison of the NCS perimeter

The measurement of circumference anatomical indexes of C 2 –C 7 NCS showed that the circumference value gradually decreased with age between 1–6 years old, and the value changed little. The variation of the circumference of the left and right sides of the same vertebral body at the same age was similar, and there was no significant difference between the two sides ( P  > 0.05). In the comparison of different vertebral bodies in the same age group, the circumference values of the left and right NCS sides of group 2 were statistically different between C 5 and C 2 –C 3 ( P  < 0.05). In the comparison of different ages of the same vertebral body, the left and right NCS perimeter values of C 2 and C 6 were statistically different between groups 1–2 and groups 5–6 ( P  < 0.05) (Table  3 , Figs.  3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ).

Changes of cervical NCS with age in children

The spine is made up of bone and soft tissues that provide a range of motion and mechanical support for the body and protection of the central nervous system [ 7 ]. The spinal segment consists of vertebral bodies and vertebral arches, and in childhood, the NCS of the neural arch connects the incompletely ossified vertebral bodies to the vertebral arches. Studies [ 5 ] have shown that the growth of NCS can be divided into five stages, and NCS closes in a specific order on the spine, first occurring in the cervical spine region and closing at about 6 years old. It then occurred in the lumbar region, where closure was completed around the age of 12. The thoracic region closed the latest, around the age of 14. It has also been found that unclosed NCS can still be observed on the thoracic spine in adults [ 8 ].

This study found that the transverse diameter and circumference of NCS on the left and right sides of C 2 –C 7 in children aged 1–6 years gradually decreased with age. The area had a maximum value when it was more than 2 years old. NCS gradually narrowed in the transverse direction, which was consistent with previous research results. Knutsson [ 9 ] and Schmorl, Junghaus [ 8 ] also believed that with age, NCS gradually began to ossify into bone, resulting in a general decrease in various anatomical indicators. The values of sagittal diameter and height showed a slight increase trend overall. NCS was gradually elongated longitudinally, and it was initially speculated that NCS first ossified from the center and then ossified around NCS. Yamazaki et al. [ 10 ] believed that this may be due to the irregular shape of cartilage ossification, which is consistent with the ossification pattern of interblock cartilage on the anterior arch and the intervertebral cartilage ossification pattern of the axial dentition. In the measurement of NCS cross diameter and sagittal diameter, it was found that the NCS cross diameter and sagittal diameter gradually changed with age. The values were similar in the age group of 5–6 years old, indicating that NCS may close at about 6 years old. This was consistent with the findings of Rajwani et al. [ 5 ]. There were no statistical differences in the left and right anatomical indexes of each cervical vertebrae segment, and the numerical changes were small, reflecting that the ossification process of NCS on both sides was consistent, which was consistent with Adib [ 11 ] and other studies.

Morphological changes of NCS in various segments of the cervical spine in children

At present, scholars at home and abroad have gradually paid attention to the law of growth and development of children's spinal ossification centers, and more and more scholars have paid attention to the fragility and importance of children's spinal growth. The cervical spine is one of the most vulnerable areas of the spine, bearing the weight of the head and in close contact with the central nervous system, making it susceptible to greater damage [ 12 ]. Therefore, studies have been conducted on the anatomical characteristics of the morphological development of the ossification center and cartilage of the cervical spine in children of different ages and the mechanical properties that maintain their stability during growth have gradually increased. But the differences between the morphological characteristics and positional anatomical features of NCS in each segment of the cervical spine have been relatively few studies [ 13 ]. Since cartilage structures such as the NCS of each cervical spine jointly promote the growth of vertebral arches and spinal canals [ 14 ], it is particularly important to understand the correlation and difference in the structure of each cervical vertebra. This provides timely theoretical support for understanding the abnormal growth and development of congenital cervical spine deformity and vertebral ossification center and cartilage [ 15 ].

This study found that as the transverse diameter of the descending NCS of the vertebral body gradually increased between C 2 –C 7 . During the age of 1–3 years old, the transverse diameter of C 7 NCS was greater than the above cervical vertebrae segment, the change of NCS transverse diameter tended to be gentle at the age of 4–6 years old. So it was initially speculated that the development of NCS during the period of 1–3 years was large, and the growth rate of NCS in the stage of 4–6 years old with the descent of cervical spine was slow. Both sagittal diameter and circumference had large values in the middle cervical segment, and the area had smaller values in the middle cervical segment, which was inferred to indicate that the ossification process of the intermediate cervical segment progressed rapidly. These inferences are consistent with the observations of normal pediatric cervical spine imaging data by Vital [ 8 ]. The graph analysis further showed that the ossification process of NCS was obvious with age, and there were obvious differences between C 2 and other cervical segments. Through the measurement of C 7 NCS occupies a larger area, through imaging observation and measurement of vertebral body diameter, it can be seen that the C 7 structure is similar to the thoracic vertebrae and larger than other cervical vertebral segments. This result shows that NCS in C 7 segment, the anatomical structure is more similar to the thoracic NCS, which is consistent with the view of Madura et al. [ 16 ].

Deficiencies in basic research and clinical application of cervical NCS in children

The incomplete development of the cervical NCS in children can lead to corresponding injuries to the cervical spine, such as hypoplasia and abnormal ossification of the cervical vertebrae leading to insufficient cervical spine support [ 17 ]. Zhang [ 18 ] and others have found that impaired growth processes of the NCS can lead to scoliosis, and traumatic rupture of the cartilage of the NCS can occur in abused children [ 19 ].While most of these disorders may involve the NCS in the thoracic and lumbar spine, NCS injuries in the cervical spine can also lead to serious spinal disorders in children, and timely detection and treatment of cervical spine developmental disorders can have a significant impact on children's growth. Currently, studies on NCS imaging and NCS growth and development are increasingly being used to determine whether spinal growth and development are complete and to estimate bone age. Studies on the age of NCS closure, the mode of closure, and the relationship with developmental spinal disorders have not been clearly defined [ 6 ].

At present, the research on cervical vertebral cartilage by scholars at home and abroad focuses on the morphologic development of cervical vertebral cartilage in the fetal period or the diagnosis and treatment of cervical vertebral cartilage injury in adults, and there are fewer systematic researches on the regularity of cervical vertebral cartilage growth and development in childhood, which ignores this important stage of cervical vertebrae development in childhood. At present, the basic research on cervical NCS in children is still insufficient, mostly staying in the laboratory stage, and insufficiently combined with the clinical diseases of cervical spine injury in children. In this study, the data of 160 children aged 1–6 years were measured and analyzed according to the characteristics of cartilage closure, but there are still shortcomings, and we will further expand the sample size and conduct in-depth exploration by gender in the future. We will continue to explore the help of NCS development and ossification in maintaining normal cervical spine structure and explaining the mechanisms of cervical spine injury in children.

In this study, we measured and analyzed multiple anatomical indices of C 2 –C 7 NCS in children aged 1–6 years, and found that the anatomical indices of cervical spine NCS in children were different between different age groups of the same vertebrae and between different cervical segments of the same age group, and that there was a clear pattern of developmental characteristics. This study provides basic data on the developmental characteristics and patterns of cervical NCS in children and is expected to provide a theoretical basis for analyzing its evolutionary patterns and effects on cervical spine developmental disorders in children.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

• Neurocentral synchondrosis

Computed tomography

Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine

Materialise’s interaticve medical image control system

Botelho RV, Botelho PB, Diniz JM. Where does the cranial base flexion take place in humans? An Acad Bras Cienc. 2020;92(1): e20190825.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Armiento AR, Alini M, Stoddart MJ. Articular fibrocartilage - why does hyaline cartilage fail to repair? Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2019;146:289–305.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Byrd SE, Comiskey EM. Postnatal maturation and radiology of the growing spine. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2007;18(3):431–61.

Blakemore L, Schwend R, Akbarniak BA, et al. Growth patterns of the neurocentral synchondrosis (NCS) in immature cadaveric vertebra. J Pediatr Orthop. 2018;38(3):181–4.

Rajwani T, Bhargava R, Moreau M, et al. MRI characteristics of the neurocentral synchondrosis. Pediatr Radiol. 2002;32(11):811–6.

Zhang H, Sucato DJ, Nurenberg P, et al. Morphometric analysis of neurocentral synchondrosis using magnetic resonance imaging in the normal skeletally immature spine. Spine. 2010;35(1):76–82.

Maeda T, Saito T, Harimaya K, et al. Atlantoaxial instability in neck retraction and protrusion positions in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Spine. 2004;29(7):757–62.

Vital JM, Beguiristain JL, Algara C, et al. The neurocentral vertebral cartilage: anatomy, physiology and physiopathology. Surg Radiol Anat. 1989;11(4):323–8.

Nutsson FK. Growth and differentiation of the postnatal vertebra. Acta Radiol. 2010;55(6):401–8.

Article   Google Scholar  

Yamazaki A, Mason DE, Caro PA. Age of closure of the neurocentral cartilage in the thoracic spine. J Pediatr Orthop. 1998;18(2):168–72.

Adib O, Berthier E, Loisel D, et al. Pediatric cervical spine in emergency: radiographic features of normal anatomy, variants and pitfalls. Skeletal Radiol. 2016;45(12):1607–17.

Jagannathan J, Dumont AS, Prevedello DM, et al. Cervical spine injuries in pediatric athletes: mechanisms and management. Neurosurg Focus. 2006;21(4):E6.

Zuozhen L, Yanan Q, Jincheng C, et al. Study of normal development and variation of atlantospondylus by CT. Tissue Eng China. 2023;27(22):3573–9.

Google Scholar  

Maat GJ, Matricali B, Van Persijn EL. Postnatal development and structure of the neurocentral junction. Its relevance for spinal surgery. Spine. 1996;21(6):661–6.

Zhang SJ, Li K, Li ZJ, et al. Anatomical study on the safety of anterior cervical craniovertebral fusion with clival screw placement in children aged 1–6 years. Int J Gen Med. 2021;14:5787–94.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Madura CJ, Johnston JM Jr. Classification and management of pediatric subaxial cervical spine injuries. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2017;28(1):91–102.

Wong ST, Zovickian J, Hou Y, et al. Traumatic rupture of the neurocentral synchondrosis of the axis in a child. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;13(5):548–52.

Zhang H, Sucato DJ. Neurocentral synchondrosis screws to create and correct experimental deformity: a pilot study. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2011;469(5):1383–90.

Fulkerson DH, Hwang SW, Patel AJ, et al. Open reduction and internal fixation for angulated, unstable odontoid synchondrosis fractures in children: a safe alternative to halo fixation? J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;9(1):35–41.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Heartfelt thanks to professor Shaojie Zhang, associate professor Xing Wang, teacher Ruifen Sun, teacher Xiaoyan Ren, teacher Kun Li for their guidance of the paper and the help provided by the Imaging Center of the provincial tertiary hospitals.

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81660358); the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Health Science and Technology Program (202201219); the Department of Education's Science and Technology Leading Talents and Innovation Team Building Project (NMGIRT2307); the Youth Leader Team Project (QNLC-2020025); the Key project of Inner Mongolia Medical University (YKD2022ZD007).

Author information

Yuying Yi and Ziyu Li contributed equally to this work and share the first authorship.

Authors and Affiliations

Graduate School, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, Inner Mongolia, China

Yuying Yi, Ziyu Li, Zhaozheng Yin & Fengzhen Zhang

Imaging Center, Second Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010000, Inner Mongolia, China

Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, Inner Mongolia, China

Xing Wang, Kun Li & Shaojie Zhang

Inner Mongolia Medical University Digital Medical Center, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010110, Inner Mongolia, China

Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital of Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010050, Inner Mongolia, China

Xiaoyan Ren

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

YY and ZY wrote the main manuscript text; YY, ZY, FZ and ZZ prepared figures and Tables. All authors reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the fnal manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Shaojie Zhang or Xiaoyan Ren .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The informed consent of the guardian of the volunteer aged 1–6 years old has been obtained.

Consent for publication

All the authors have read, approved, and agreed to send the manuscript for Publication.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Yi, Y., Li, Z., Sun, R. et al. Digital anatomical features of morphological development in C 2 –C 7 neurocentral synchondrosis in children aged 1–6 years: a retrospective study of CT images. Eur J Med Res 29 , 424 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-024-02020-1

Download citation

Received : 01 August 2023

Accepted : 08 August 2024

Published : 17 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-024-02020-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Cervical vertebra
• Digital measurement
• Developmental regularity

European Journal of Medical Research

ISSN: 2047-783X

• Submission enquiries: [email protected]
• General enquiries: [email protected]

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Optimization of cold-formed thin-walled cross-sections in portal frames, share and cite.

Stulpinas, M.; Daniūnas, A. Optimization of Cold-Formed Thin-Walled Cross-Sections in Portal Frames. Buildings 2024 , 14 , 2565. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082565

Stulpinas M, Daniūnas A. Optimization of Cold-Formed Thin-Walled Cross-Sections in Portal Frames. Buildings . 2024; 14(8):2565. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082565

Stulpinas, Mantas, and Alfonsas Daniūnas. 2024. "Optimization of Cold-Formed Thin-Walled Cross-Sections in Portal Frames" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2565. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082565

Article Metrics

Further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals