reign of terror dbq essay

• The French Revolution

Introduction

How a revolution that began with the lofty purposes of the Declaration of Rights and Man and Citizen, a statement of universal individual rights, so rapidly devolved into a Reign of Terror is one of the most vexing questions about the French Revolution. Teachers who have but two or three days (a best-case scenario) to lecture on the French Revolution are often forced to rely on the largely discredited theory that the French Revolution was a creation of the French bourgeoisie and the Terror was a reaction to a proto-socialist worker's movement.

This lesson plan focuses on two competing interpretations of the Terror: one political and the other ideological. The political interpretation claims that the first-generation revolutionaries enshrined individual liberties only to have their aspirations crushed by an escalating set of political crises—the foreign war, the outbreak of civil war in western France, and the political maneuvering of a monarch who became increasingly hostile to the French Revolution. The Terror was, therefore, a political reaction to political and diplomatic circumstances by a revolutionary government under siege.

The ideological interpretation argues that the seeds of the Reign of Terror were already planted in 1789. Rather than creating the individual rights of the citizen, the revolutionaries of 1789, with no political experience on which to draw, drew upon the only political model available, the absolute monarchy. This claim holds that unity of the "nation" was far more important than the rights of the citizen. Onto this, the Revolution grafted the republican ideology of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose concept of a unanimous and infallible "general will" was a comfortable but abstract replacement for the absolute monarchy. However, the abstraction of the nation was a poor substitute for a flesh-and-blood king and thus generated hostility to the Revolution. The foreign and civil wars along with the Reign of Terror, therefore, were symptomatic of the failure to achieve national unity, not the cause of the excesses of the Terror government.

The focus on the debate between individual rights versus the unified nation and the related debate about the origins of the Reign of Terror presented here offers students the opportunity to analyze primary documents, both visual and printed. It also offers a good case study for the interrelationship between ideology and politics. Finally, by focusing on these issues specifically, this lesson should help prepare students for the study of the politics and ideologies of the nineteenth century, especially liberalism, conservatism, and socialism, all of which have connections to the political philosophy of the French Revolution.

To explain the collapse of absolutism in France and the consequences of the political vacuum created by its downfall for the course of the Revolution.

To be able to describe and contrast the two competing ideologies by which French revolutionaries reconstituted France as a nation, rather than a kingdom, and individuals as citizens instead of subjects.

To comprehend and analyze interpretations of the causes of the Reign of Terror as either the creation of specific political circumstances or as the logical consequence of the ideologies of the early Revolution.

To be able to interpret products of revolutionary political culture, such as written and visual political propaganda, as tools in understanding political ideology.

I. The Pre-Revolution Period

While it will be important to explain the various aspects of the pre-Revolution period, such as the financial crisis of the monarchy and the division of French society into distinct orders of clergy, nobility, and commoners, this lesson plan relies heavily on an understanding of Enlightenment philosophy.

The eighteenth-century philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment challenged both the social order and absolute monarchy by questioning the assumptions on which these institutions were based. Rather than accepting tradition as a basis for rule, reason dictated what was best for society and government. Thus, the philosophes of the Enlightenment began to speak of the social contract as a basis for governance and of individual rights.

John Locke, the English philosopher who was influential in France, argued that humans had "inalienable liberties" as individuals. In France, philosophes such as Voltaire promoted the ideology of individual liberty, but Voltaire was far from becoming a democrat. He believed in "enlightened absolutism" as the surest defender of individual liberty. Nevertheless, many of the philosophes of the later Enlightenment, the last two decades prior to the Revolution, such as the Marquis de Condorcet, would support both republicanism and the rights of the individual.

The focus on individual rights, however, was by no means the only voice of the Enlightenment concerning the social contract. The political philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau similarly dealt with the basis of a just form of government and the rights of citizens within that ideal state. However, unlike Locke, who believed that the rights of the individual could never be lost, Rousseau claimed that in the perfect form of government, citizens willingly alienated their rights in the name of the "general will"—that is, the unanimous consent of the citizenry who acted out of civic virtue rather than individual self-interest. The text of Rousseau's Social Contract can be found at the Enlightenment and Human Rights section of George Mason University's website Exploring the French Revolution .

II. The Revolution Begins

A. the meeting of the estates-general.

Prior to the meeting of the Estates-General, the issue of voting procedures became the dominant political theme, overshadowing specific grievances and reform proposals drawn up by each estate, known as Cahiers de doleances . Tradition mandated that each estate meet separately and vote as an estate, that is, one vote for the clergy, one for the nobility, and one for the commoners.

The Third Estate protested that because they represented the vast majority of the French population, voting should be by head, one vote per delegate. The crown turned the matter over to the Parlement of Paris, who decided that voting initially must be done in the traditional format, but did not forbid the possibility that the format could be amended by the Estates-General itself.

One argument, which certainly contemporaries believed, was that the Parlement's decision was part of an aristocratic reaction to prevent the Third Estate from having a legitimate voice. Abbé Sieyes's pamphlet "What Is the Third Estate?" is one of the more hostile responses to the Parlement's decision.

Once convened at Versailles, the Estates-General became bogged down in a debate over voting. The Third Estate hoped to debate the issue with the other two groups, but the crown provided no clear instruction on how to proceed, other than that the edict of the Paris court should be followed. The impasse led to the breakdown of the Estates-General and the Third Estate's declaration that they alone represented the French nation as the "National Assembly."

This was the beginning of the French Revolution. The defection of members of the First Estate, mostly parish clergy, and a handful of liberal members of the Second Estate to the National Assembly forced the crown to recognize the National Assembly as legitimate.

One approach to the opening of the Estates-General is to examine various images that represented the three orders of France. Some, such as the "The Joyous Accord" and Jacques-Louis David's "The Tennis Court Oath," emphasize the Estates-General and the creation of the National Assembly as a unifying experience. Others, such as "The Third Estate Awakens," stress the divisions between the orders. These images are available on the Exploring the French Revolution website. Search by title.

Activity: Reenacting the Estates-General

Divide the class into three “estates.” The numbers should be roughly divided so that half the class is divided into the First and Second Estates and the remaining half into the Third Estate—this is how the breakdown actually occurred in 1789.

Without the support of some members of the First or Second Estates, even "voting by head" was no guarantee of political victory for the Third Estate. Any proposals by the Third Estate must therefore appeal to some of the other two groups. Some students can be identified as impoverished priests or "enlightened" aristocrats. Have students "fix" the crown's financial crisis.

Students may very well ask how to proceed with their debate, much as did the Estates-General itself. Acting as the crown, the instructor should in fact give little indication of procedure. Hopefully, students will find the only way to agree as to procedure will be through uniting the three separate estates into one group.

Assignment: Document Analysis

Have students write an essay analyzing Sieyes's "What Is the Third Estate?" Is the primary ideological basis for Sieyes Voltaire's individual liberties or Rousseau's general will? Does this foreshadow what would actually transpire in 1789?

B. Popular Reaction and Creating a Constitutional Response

The "people" of France became a force in the Revolution through the taking of the Bastille in Paris on July 14, 1789, and the anti-aristocratic "Great Fear" of the peasantry during the entire summer. These are both important events in the course of the Revolution; however, for the purpose of this lesson plan, they form the backdrop against which the National Assembly was forced to create a new constitution for France.

A response to the Great Fear was the abolition of feudalism on August 5, 1789. This may be viewed as an immediate political response to the Great Fear or as part of the logic of creating a nation that was founded on the general will and therefore unified. The same analysis can be made with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of August 26, 1789. This text and the decree abolishing feudalism are also available on the Exploring the French Revolution website.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1791 was more complicated. Rather than drawing on the American model, which prohibited the establishment of a state church, the Assembly made the Catholic Church an organ of the State, and members of the clergy paid civil servants.

Papal condemnation of the Civil Constitution polarized French society into groups of "good Catholics" versus "good Revolutionaries." However, it is possible to argue that the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was necessary not only because the new government needed to gain control over Church income but also because ideologically, like feudalism, a "separate" corps of clergy prevented true national unity. Therefore, even priests and monks needed to become incorporated into the general will. See, for example, the image "Monks Learning to Exercise" on the Exploring the French Revolution site.

Divide students into groups representing "individual liberties" versus the "general will." Have them debate the merits and failings of specific aspects of the Abolition of Feudalism, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Is there ideological consistency in these documents and/or images?

III. The Revolution Radicalizes

The radical phase of the French Revolution, or the Reign of Terror, is currently analyzed as either a reaction to specific events, such as foreign wars and internal counterrevolution, or as the logical consequence of the ideologies of 1789. Historians who view the guiding political ideology of the early Revolution as one dedicated to protecting the individual liberties of "citizens" interpret the stripping away of those liberties as an unfortunate response to the crises created by foreign and civil war. However, many other historians view the Terror as a completion of the ideology of the general will—that in order to create a nation, the rights of the citizen became subordinate to the rights of the nation. War and counterrevolution thus were the symptoms, not the cause, of the failure to achieve unity, and the Terror was the attempt to enshrine the unified general will by force.

There is no question that the Reign of Terror was a complicated and confusing phenomenon. To account for details of the foreign and civil wars, the political struggles between the Jacobins and Girondins, the economic crisis, and urban unrest could take almost an entire course itself. One way to approach the Reign of Terror is by using the trial of Louis XVI as a case study. Royal recalcitrance toward the Revolutionary government, which accelerated following his failed attempt to flee France in 1791, eventually led to his arrest, trial as a traitor, and execution.

Analysis of the numerous documents in the Exploring the French Revolution database (search: "trial King") exposes both interpretations of the Reign of Terror. Having the monarch become an enemy of the Revolution certainly created a political crisis to which the Reign of Terror may well have been a response. However, many of the documents also demonstrate that the king was no more exempt from the dictates of the general will and therefore no more or less a part of the greater nation than any other individual.

Activity: The King's Trial

Assign roles to individual students and recreate the trial of Louis XVI (or Citizen Capet, as the charge formally read). Students without specific parts serve as the Constituent Assembly (formerly the National Assembly) and the jury. Those on the side of the prosecution can be further divided into advocates for the general will and those who support the trial because of political necessity. Similarly, the defense can be divided into two groups: one of "absolutists" who might argue that the king by definition can never be a traitor, and another of "individual rights" supporters who might claim that although the monarch was no different than any other citizen, his trial was a violation of his individual rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Assignment: The Constitutions of 1789 and 1793

A second approach to the Reign of Terror is through a document analysis of the Declaration of Rights within the French constitutions of 1789 and 1793. Again, the theory of circumstance will see the rights outlined in 1789 to be basic and individual while those of 1793 to be radically different. The alternate interpretation would view the rights outlined in 1793 as only an intensification of the same political ideology present in the Declaration of 1789. Ask students to write an essay comparing and contrasting the two views.

IV. The Rise of Napoleon

In many ways, the downfall of Robespierre and the collapse of the Terror government set the stage for the Napoleonic dictatorship, just as 1789 perhaps set the stage for the Terror. Over the course of the Directory, the government hoped to avoid the excesses of the radical revolution by maintaining a "middle ground" between Jacobinism and the resurgent aristocratic and monarchical movement that returned to France after the Thermidorian Reaction.

In order to preserve moderate politics, the Directory interfered with elections for the Council of 500 (the lower house of the post-Terror government) by nullifying election results that leaned either too far to the left or the right. Hence, the Directory increasingly invalidated its own constitution, was ineffective in governing, and made the 1799 Brumaire Coup of Napoleon, Abbé Sieyes, and Roger Ducos possible.

Napoleon is, of course, as controversial as the Terror. Having claimed, "The revolution is over!" upon his seizure of power during the Brumaire Coup, he portrayed himself as the savior of the Revolution, bringing it to a successful completion. Indeed, his Civil Code, although harsh, was perhaps no worse than the laws passed by the Terror government. And with the Code, France was truly unified under a single code of law, with a political leader who possessed the power to enforce it.

However, Napoleon also restored the aristocracy, although his nobility was open to men of talent, not birthright, and he plunged France into a war of empire. In the end, Napoleon did not look much different than the absolute monarchs of the pre-Revolution period.

Additional Resources

Baker, Keith Michael. Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century . New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. This is one of the best studies of the impact of Rousseau's political philosophy on the French Revolution.

de Tocqueville, Alexis. The Old Regime and the French Revolution . Translated by Stuart Gilbert. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1955. This nineteenth-century classic originated the interpretation that the Terror originated in 1789.

Doyle, William. The Origins of the French Revolution . Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. See part 1 of this book for an excellent overview of the various interpretations of the French Revolution, including strengths and weaknesses of each.

Doyle, William. The Oxford History of the French Revolution . New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. This study favors the interpretation of individual rights and the circumstantial origins of the Reign of Terror, stressing the role of the foreign war.

Furet, Francois. "The Revolution Is Over." In Interpreting the French Revolution . Edited by Francois Furet. Translated by Elborg Forster. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. This essay focuses on the relationship between the events of 1789 and Old Regime absolutism leading to the Reign of Terror.

Hunt, Lynn. Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. An excellent study of revolutionary imagery, offers a compelling synthesis between the individual rights and circumstantial interpretations of the origins of the Terror.

Sutherland, Donald M. G. France, 1789-1815: Revolution and Counterrevolution . London: Fontana Press/Collins, 1985. This falls into the circumstantial origins of the Terror interpretation and emphasizes internal social divide and conflict.

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• Reign Of Terror Dbq Essay

The Reign of Terror, a dark chapter in the history of the French Revolution, marked a period of extreme violence and political turmoil in France. It began in 1793, following the execution of King Louis XVI, and lasted until 1794 under the leadership of the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Maximilien Robespierre. This period was characterized by mass executions, suspicion, and fear as the revolutionary government sought to eliminate perceived enemies of the revolution.

One of the primary reasons for the Reign of Terror was the perceived threat of counter-revolutionary activities. The revolutionaries were deeply concerned about internal and external opposition to their ideals, which they believed posed a significant threat to the newly established republic. Consequently, they resorted to drastic measures to suppress any dissent, real or perceived, leading to widespread paranoia and distrust among the populace. The Committee of Public Safety, wielding unchecked power, authorized the use of the guillotine to execute thousands of individuals accused of being counter-revolutionaries or enemies of the state.

Furthermore, the Reign of Terror was fueled by ideological fervor and a desire for radical societal transformation. The revolutionaries, inspired by Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, sought to create a utopian society free from the oppression of the monarchy and aristocracy. However, in their zeal to achieve this vision, they resorted to violence and authoritarianism, believing it necessary to purge society of all elements deemed antithetical to the revolutionary cause. This ideological extremism led to the suppression of basic civil liberties and the establishment of a totalitarian regime that ruled through fear and intimidation.

Moreover, the Reign of Terror had profound social and psychological impacts on French society. The constant threat of arbitrary arrest and execution created a climate of fear and suspicion, tearing apart the social fabric and undermining trust between citizens. Families were torn apart, friends betrayed each other, and neighbors lived in constant fear of denunciation. The guillotine became a symbol of terror, looming over society as a reminder of the consequences of dissent. As a result, the revolution that began with lofty ideals of liberty and equality descended into a brutal dictatorship that sacrificed individual rights for the sake of revolutionary purity.

In conclusion, the Reign of Terror was a dark and tumultuous period in the history of the French Revolution, characterized by extreme violence, political repression, and social upheaval. It was driven by a combination of paranoia, ideological extremism, and a desire for radical societal transformation. While it achieved some short-term objectives, such as consolidating revolutionary power, it ultimately undermined the very principles it sought to uphold, leaving a legacy of fear and bloodshed that would haunt France for years to come.

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• Reign Of Terror DBQ

The Reign of Terror, a tumultuous period during the French Revolution, marked by widespread violence and political upheaval, has left an indelible mark on history. This era, spanning from 1793 to 1794, was characterized by the dominance of the radical Jacobins, led by Maximilien Robespierre, who sought to consolidate power and purge the revolution of perceived enemies. The Reign of Terror, often seen as a dark chapter in the revolution's narrative, is a subject of intense scrutiny and debate among historians. One of the primary catalysts for the Reign of Terror was the external and internal threats facing the newly formed French Republic. Externally, France was engaged in a protracted war with neighboring monarchies, seeking to quash the revolutionary fervor and restore the old order. Internally, divisions within the revolutionary government, coupled with economic instability and social unrest, created a volatile environment ripe for radicalization. In response to these challenges, the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre, emerged as the de facto governing body, wielding unprecedented authority in the name of defending the revolution. The methods employed during the Reign of Terror were both brutal and far-reaching. The Committee of Public Safety implemented a system of mass surveillance and repression, targeting suspected counter-revolutionaries and dissenters with swift and often arbitrary justice. The infamous Revolutionary Tribunal, operating with little regard for due process, condemned thousands to the guillotine, including prominent figures such as King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. The use of terror as a political tool, justified by the Committee as a means of preserving revolutionary ideals, led to widespread fear and paranoia, as individuals sought to avoid being labeled enemies of the state. Despite its stated goals of safeguarding the revolution, the Reign of Terror ultimately proved to be self-destructive. The indiscriminate violence and suppression of dissent alienated many segments of society, including moderate revolutionaries who had initially supported the Jacobin cause. Robespierre's insistence on maintaining control at any cost ultimately led to his downfall, as rival factions within the government conspired to remove him from power. The Thermidorian Reaction of 1794, culminating in Robespierre's execution and the dismantling of the Committee of Public Safety, marked the end of the Reign of Terror and ushered in a new phase of the revolution. In conclusion, the Reign of Terror stands as a cautionary tale of the dangers of unchecked power and ideological extremism. While ostensibly undertaken in the name of defending the revolution, its legacy is one of repression, violence, and betrayal of the very principles it sought to uphold. By examining the complex factors that precipitated this dark chapter in French history, we gain insight into the inherent tensions between liberty and authority, idealism and pragmatism, that continue to shape political movements and revolutions to this day....

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• Cultural Exchange Programs

Columbian Exchange Dbq Essay

The Columbian Exchange was a period of significant cultural and biological exchange between the Old World and the New World. This exchange had a profound impact on both regions, leading to the spread of new ideas, technologies, and resources. The Columbian Exchange Dbq Essay explores the effects of this exchange on the economies, societies, and environments of Europe and the Americas. One of the most significant impacts of the Columbian Exchange was the introduction of new crops and animals to both regions. In the Americas, European explorers brought crops such as wheat, barley, and sugar cane, as well as animals like horses, cows, and pigs. These new resources transformed the diets and agricultural practices of Native American societies, leading to increased food production and population growth. In Europe, the introduction of crops like maize, potatoes, and tomatoes revolutionized the agricultural industry, leading to increased yields and improved nutrition for the population. The Columbian Exchange also had a profound impact on the economies of both regions. The influx of precious metals from the Americas, such as gold and silver, fueled the growth of the European economy and financed exploration and colonization efforts. In return, European goods such as textiles, firearms, and tools were introduced to the Americas, leading to the development of new industries and trade networks. This economic exchange had far-reaching consequences, shaping the global economy and laying the foundation for modern capitalism. Furthermore, the Columbian Exchange had significant social and cultural impacts on both regions. The exchange of ideas, technologies, and resources led to the blending of diverse cultures and traditions, creating a new global society. European explorers brought Christianity to the Americas, leading to the conversion of many Native American societies to the new religion. In return, Native American cultures influenced European art, music, and cuisine, leading to a rich exchange of ideas and traditions. Overall, the Columbian Exchange was a transformative period in world history, shaping the development of both the Old World and the New World in profound ways....

• History of the United States

Dbq Essay Examples

Document-Based Questions (DBQs) are a common assessment tool used in history and social studies courses to evaluate students' analytical skills and understanding of historical events. DBQ essays require students to analyze and interpret a set of primary and secondary sources related to a specific historical topic or theme and construct an argument supported by evidence from the documents provided. To illustrate the structure and approach to writing a DBQ essay, let's examine a couple of examples. Example 1: The Causes of World War I In this DBQ essay, students are presented with a collection of primary sources, including diplomatic correspondence, political speeches, and newspaper articles, addressing the complex causes of World War I. To craft an effective essay, students would begin by carefully reading and analyzing each document, identifying key themes, perspectives, and arguments presented. They would then organize their essay around a clear thesis statement that addresses the question prompt, such as "The causes of World War I were multifaceted and included militarism, nationalism, imperialism, and alliance systems." Next, students would incorporate evidence from the documents to support their thesis, citing specific examples and quotations to illustrate their points. For instance, they might use excerpts from political speeches to demonstrate the role of nationalism in escalating tensions among European powers. They could also reference diplomatic cables to highlight the impact of secret alliances in drawing nations into conflict. Throughout the essay, students would analyze the significance of each document within the broader historical context and explain how it contributes to their argument. Example 2: The Civil Rights Movement Another example of a DBQ essay topic might focus on the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. Students would analyze primary sources such as speeches by civil rights leaders, newspaper articles, and photographs documenting key events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott or the March on Washington. To construct their essay, students would develop a thesis statement that addresses the question prompt, such as "The Civil Rights Movement was a transformative period in American history marked by grassroots activism, legal challenges, and shifting public opinion." Students would then use evidence from the documents to support their thesis, drawing connections between specific events and broader themes such as segregation, nonviolent resistance, and the role of the federal government. They might analyze speeches by Martin Luther King Jr. to illustrate the strategies of civil disobedience employed by activists or examine court rulings like Brown v. Board of Education to discuss the legal battle against segregation. Throughout the essay, students would demonstrate their ability to critically evaluate the sources, consider multiple perspectives, and construct a cohesive argument based on historical evidence. In conclusion, DBQ essay examples provide valuable insight into the process of analyzing historical documents, constructing arguments, and supporting claims with evidence. By examining these examples, students can develop their skills in historical interpretation, critical thinking, and effective writing, preparing them to succeed on DBQ assessments and engage with complex historical topics more broadly....

Apush Labor Union Dbq Essay

Labor unions have played a significant role in shaping the labor landscape in the United States throughout history. The APUSH Labor Union DBQ explores the impact of labor unions on American society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This document-based question provides a glimpse into the struggles and successes of labor unions in advocating for workers' rights and improving working conditions. One of the key themes that emerge from the APUSH Labor Union DBQ is the fight for fair wages and better working conditions. During this period, many workers faced long hours, low pay, and unsafe working conditions. Labor unions such as the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor (AFL) emerged as powerful advocates for workers' rights, pushing for reforms such as the eight-hour workday and higher wages. These unions organized strikes and protests to demand better treatment for workers, often facing opposition from employers and government officials. Another important aspect highlighted in the APUSH Labor Union DBQ is the role of women and minorities in the labor movement. Women and minorities faced discrimination and unequal treatment in the workplace, leading them to join labor unions to fight for their rights. The document-based question showcases the contributions of individuals such as Mary Harris "Mother" Jones and Samuel Gompers, who played key roles in organizing workers and advocating for social and economic justice. Overall, the APUSH Labor Union DBQ provides valuable insights into the challenges and achievements of labor unions in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By examining primary source documents and historical context, students can gain a deeper understanding of the impact of labor unions on American society and the ongoing struggle for workers' rights. This document-based question serves as a reminder of the importance of collective action and advocacy in creating a more just and equitable society for all....

• Economic Theory
• Privacy & Security

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