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Education Policy in Japan: Building Bridges towards 2030

Education in japan: strengths and challenges.

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The Journal of Japanese Studies

Established in 1974, the Journal of Japanese Studies features original, analytically rigorous articles from across the humanities and social sciences, including comparative and transnational scholarship in which Japan plays a major part

Journal of Japanese Studies Timeline

Highlights of the first 50 years of JJS publication

Interview with David R. Ambaras & Kate McDonald

Directors’ insights into the innovative digital platform Bodies and Structures 2.0

Pyle Prize for Best Article in JJS

A selection committee has chosen Pedro Bassoe’s article “ Life Through the Lens : Ozaki Kōyō and the Birth of the Photographic Imagination in Japanese Literature” as winner of the 2022 Pyle Prize

Established in 1974, the Journal of Japanese Studies is a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary forum for communicating new information, interpretations, and research on Japan.  Its core objective is to maintain an enduring record of highest-quality and evidence-based scholarship through publication of empirical and interpretive work on Japan.  The Journal is committed to inclusion and the opportunity for scholars to engage with others without malice or harassment. Original submissions from across the humanities and social sciences are welcome, as are those on comparative and transnational topics in which Japan plays a major part.  The Journal values analytically rigorous articles that locate specialized research findings in a broader context for scholars working on Japan.  Other features of the Journal are its extensive and substantive book review section and its “Perspectives” essays offering broader evaluations of particular topics or literatures.

The Journal is published twice each year, winter and summer.  Submissions are welcomed from both early-career and established scholars.  All submissions undergo a rigorous peer-review process.  Authors are expected to engage with Japanese-language sources and scholarship.

The Journal of Japanese Studies is published by the Society for Japanese Studies and housed at the University of Washington.  It is supported by an endowment and by the Japan Foundation, the University of Washington, and private gifts.  Contents of the Journal of Japanese Studies are available online in the Project Muse and JSTOR databases.  The publication policies of the Journal meet the normal requirements for Open Access.

Japanese Educational Research Association Website

Greetings from the president.

The purpose of the Japanese Educational Research Association is to “advance and promote educational research -- through the presentation of its theory and application, exchange of knowledge, and collaboration with relevant associations, both at home and abroad -- and thus contribute to the development of our nation’s academia” (see the Regulations and Rules of Operation). Founded in 1941, the Association now has some 2800 individual members as one of the leading Japanese research associations with a focus on research areas involving educational studies.

As well as holding a yearly conference every August, the Association publishes a Japanese journal (Kyoikugaku Kenkyu) quarterly and an English journal (Educational Studies in Japan) yearly. Various symposia, research gatherings, and seminars for young researchers are also held frequently, along with research activities and meetings focused within seven geographical sectors of Japan, in order to work toward the further development of educational studies research in this country. Last year, a new term began with the re-election of board members in August 2023, and based on the achievements of the previous term (August 2021 to August 2023), we are trying to develop our activities from the following four points.

The first is to create an association that members want to join, and to expand the range of researchers who can play a leading role in pedagogy. The number of members of our association fell below the 3,000 mark in 2012, and in recent years has even fallen to the 2,700 range, which has been a factor putting pressure on the association's finances. In order to respond to this situation, we are working on reforming academic journals with the aim of increasing the paper acceptance rate and thereby creating a virtuous cycle of knowledge. Additionally, the Research Promotion Committee and Public Relations Committee have worked together to promote video distribution of online roundtable discussions, which have become popular during the covid-19 pandemic, in an effort to improve accessibility to research. By further promoting these initiatives, we hope to encourage more and more people to take an interest in our association and find it interesting.

The second is to improve work efficiency and convenience through the introduction of the system. In the previous term, we moved the membership management system and the journal editorial and peer review system online. This term, based on these achievements, we would like to further improve the efficiency of the association's operations and at the same time improve convenience for all members.

Third, by having high school and undergraduate students participate in academic conferences, we hope to bring new perspectives to academy and lead to innovation in knowledge. Last term, the Public Relations Committee took the initiative in realizing a project in which undergraduate students participated, and it was very well received. This term, we hope to expand this framework to include high school students as well, so that high school students and undergraduate students can participate in academic activities. We would like to build the foundation that will enable them to participate in our association.

Fourth, we will further strengthen the internationalization of academic activities. Our association has already been working to create a forum for international collaboration, such as by holding the annual meeting of the World Educational Research Association (WERA) in Tokyo in parallel with the JERA conference in 2019. We will further strengthen these activities and actively pursue the international expansion of educational research in collaboration with the ESJ editorial, international exchange committee, and research promotion committee. We would also like to increase the opportunities for our members to access such activities.

Now in the world, there are trends that threaten democracy at home and abroad, including wars in Ukraine and Palestine, and how we should academically confront them is being seriously questioned. In light of this situation, for example, in 2022, the International Exchange Committee took the lead in publishing War and Education in the Light of the Ukraine Crisis. We would like to continue to actively promote activities as an academic association while reflecting diverse opinions.

We will continue to strive to make our association an even more meaningful place for our members. We sincerely hope that many people will participate in this association and be involved in deepening and revitalizing educational research.

January 31, 2024

Publication

Publication of the record of the presidential symposium of educational research associations in east asia.

The record of the Presidential Symposium of Educational Research Associations in East Asia on Education Reform in East Asia: Prospects for International Linkage among Educational Research Associations has been published. The symposium, hosted by President Teruyuki Hirota of JERA, was held at the 78th Annual JERA Conference in 2019, featuring the presidents of educational research associations in China and Korea as speakers. The record, available in three languages (Japanese, Korean, and Chinese) is downloadable from the following URL. - Japanese (PDF) - Korean (PDF) - Chinese (PDF)

News and Information

Educational studies in japan (esj).

Our English journal, Educational Studies in Japan (ESJ) welcomes manuscripts related to the topics of particular special issues, as well as general submissions in all fi elds and disciplines of educational research. For details, please refer to the following URL: ESJ Manuscript Submission (PDF) Call for Papers (ESJ No.19) (PDF) Submission deadline: August 31, 2024

Japanese Academic Societies Unite to Release a Joint Statement to Protect the Independence of the Science Council of Japan

For details, please refer to the following page: A Joint Statement to Protect the Independence of the Science Council of Japan

Japan Educational Research Association conducted a webinar series on “Pandemic and Education”

For details, please refer to the following page: Webinar series on “Pandemic and Education”

WERA Focal Meeting 2023, Singapore: 22-24 November 2023 For details, please refer to the following URL: https://wera-tokyo.com/ https://2023eraswera.dryfta.com/ Submissions for the Call must be completed by: First submission round deadline: 15 March 2023; 23:59 Singapore (GMT+8) [Notifications by 30 May 2023] Final submission round deadline: 28 July 2023; 23:59 Singapore (GMT+8) [Notifications by 1 September 2023] JERA Annual Conference 2019 (PDF)

#102, Creart Kanda Bldg. 2-15-2, Kanda-Sudacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo101-0041, Japan Copyright（C）2011-2019 Japanese Educational Research Association All Right Reserved.

Background and Context of Education System in Japan

• First Online: 10 January 2019

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• Yuto Kitamura 22  

Part of the book series: Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects ((EDAP,volume 47))

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Japan has been known for its success in building an efficient and effective educational system, particularly for school education. International academic achievement tests such as PISA and TIMSS have shown significant performance for Japanese students at the primary and secondary levels. At the tertiary level, Japan’s higher education system has been academically productive compared to its foreign counterparts, especially those in Asia. However, today Japanese education is considered one of the major reform areas, because of its rigidity and inflexibility despite rapidly changing environments inside as well as outside Japan. Many people in Japan are raising questions over whether Japanese education can still produce good-quality human resources who will be able to respond to the needs and demands of a knowledge-based society in the twenty-first century.

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“Zest for living” has been one of the most important key phrases in Japanese educational reforms since the 1990s. The 15th Central Council for Education submitted a report called “The Model for Japanese Education in the Perspective of the Twenty-first Century” in July 1996 and it explains that “fostering zest for living is a vitally important task in our so-called lifelong-learning society, in which there is an increase in the needs for the learning required for self-realization along with demands for appropriate adaptation to social change” (excerpted from MEXT website [ http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpae199601/hpae199601_2_042.html ] accessed on January 13, 2018).

Akita, K., & Sagawa, S. (2011). Hoiku no shitsu ni kansuru judan kenkyu no tenbo [A vision for transversal research into the quality of childcare]. Bulletin of the Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, 51 , 217–234.

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Hebert, D. G. (2011). Wind bands and cultural identity in Japanese schools . Springer.

Hood, C. P. (2001). Japanese education reform: Nakasone’s legacy . London/New York: Routledge.

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MEXT (Monbukagakusho: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). (2008). Yochien kyoiku yoryo [Kindergarten educational guideline]. Tokyo: MEXT.

Okano, K. (1999). Education in contemporary Japan: Inequality and diversity . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Shibuya, M. (2010). Nyuyoji o torimaku tabunkateki jokyo no shinten: 2006 iko no jokyo o chushin ni [Development of multicultural situations surrounding infants and young children: Mainly situations since 2006]. In Tabunka ni ikiru kodomotachi: nyuyojiki kara no ibunkakan kyoiku [Children living in multiple cultures: Cross-cultural education since infancy and early childhood], C. Yamada (Ed.). Tokyo: Akashi Shoten.

Stephens, M. D. (1991). Japan and education . New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Tsuneyoshi, R., Okano, K. H., & Boocock, S. S. (2011). Minorities and education in multicultural Japan: An interactive perspective . London/New York: Routledge.

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Acknowledgment

The chapters of this book are outcomes of the research project called “Theoretical and Empirical Studies on Governance Reform and Quality Assurance in Education” led by Toshiyuki Omomo, which has been funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (KAKENHI Research No.: 26245075). Also, for the creation of the Chronological Table of Education Reforms in Postwar Japan, we are grateful for extensive support from Mr. Naofumi Sueoka, a Master’s student in Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo.

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Chronological Table of Education Reforms in Postwar Japan

• Note: In order to develop this table, the editors referred to Nihon Jidou Shinkou Zaidan [The Foundation for the Advancement of Juvenile Education in Japan] (eds.) (2016). Gakko-Kyouiku no Sengo 70 Nen Shi ( 70 Years of the Post-War History of Japanese Education ). Tokyo: Shogakkan

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Kitamura, Y. (2019). Background and Context of Education System in Japan. In: Kitamura, Y., Omomo, T., Katsuno, M. (eds) Education in Japan. Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects, vol 47. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2632-5_1

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Financial resources invested in education, teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools, more information, key facts for japan in education at a glance 2023, diagram of the education system.

This country note provides an overview of the key characteristics of the education system in Japan. It draws on data from Education at a Glance 2023 . In line with the thematic focus of this year’s Education at a Glance, it emphasises vocational education and training (VET), while also covering other parts of the education system. Data in this note are provided for the latest available year. Readers interested in the reference years for the data are referred to the corresponding tables in Education at a Glance 2023 .

Vocational programmes at the upper secondary level attract a relatively small share of young people in Japan. Amongst those aged 15-19, only 12% are enrolled in upper secondary vocational programmes, while the average in OECD countries is 23%.

Short-cycle tertiary programmes are the second most common level of education for new entrants into tertiary education among OECD countries, but their importance differs widely across countries. Such programmes are popular in Japan, with 35% of first-time entrants to tertiary education choosing this level of education, compared to 19% on average across the OECD.

In spite of challenges to international movement resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, international student mobility persisted in many OECD countries. In Japan, although the number of international students decreased due to the pandemic, the share of these students at tertiary level remained between 5% and 6% in 2019-2021.

Across all levels from primary to tertiary education, Japan spends USD 13 006 annually per full-time equivalent student (adjusted for purchasing power), compared to the OECD average of USD 12 647. In 2020, Japan spent 4.1% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on primary to tertiary educational institutions, while OECD countries spent 5.1% of GDP on average.

On average across OECD countries and other participants, instruction in reading, writing and literature and in mathematics accounts for 41% of compulsory instruction time at primary level and 27% of compulsory instruction time at lower secondary level. In Japan, these subjects account for 39% of instruction time for primary school students and 24% of instruction time for lower secondary school students. At the same time, a relatively large share of instruction time at these levels in Japan is devoted to “other subjects,” including, among others, the Period for Integrated Studies and student-led activities ( Tokkatsu ). At primary level, 13% of instruction time is devoted to other subjects, while other subjects account for 12% of instruction time at lower secondary level, compared to OECD averages of 4% and 3%, respectively.

The salaries of upper secondary teachers (with the most prevalent qualification and 15 years of experience) decreased in real terms in many OECD countries between 2015 and 2022. This was also the case in Japan, where they decreased by 2% in real terms between 2015 and 2022.

Participation in high-quality early childhood education (ECE) has a positive effect on children’s well-being, learning and development in the first years of their lives. In Japan, 9% of 2-year-olds are enrolled in ECE and 53% in other registered Early Childhood Education and Care services. This increases to 89% of 3-year-olds, 98% of 4-year-olds and 97% of 5-year-olds.

Compulsory education in Japan starts at the age of 6 and continues until the age of 15. Students can typically graduate from age 17 from general upper secondary programmes. (Here, the typical age refers to the age of the students at the beginning of the school year; most students will be 18 when they graduate at the end of the school year.) Students also typically graduate from vocational upper secondary programmes at age 17 onwards. This is different from most OECD countries, where graduates from vocational upper secondary programmes have a wider age range, reflecting the greater diversity of pathways into these programmes than for general ones.

Bachelor’s programmes are the most popular programmes for new entrants to tertiary education. On average across the OECD, they attract 76% of all new students compared to 63% in Japan. Short-cycle tertiary programmes are the second most common level of education for new entrants into tertiary education, but their importance differs widely across countries. In Japan, they are chosen by 35% of all new entrants.

Perhaps surprisingly, the share of international students at tertiary level has not been negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in many OECD countries. However, a few countries experienced double digit declines in the share of international students. Japan is not one of them, as the share of international students remained between 5% and 6% between 2019 and 2021.

All OECD and partner countries devote a substantial share of their domestic output to education. In 2020, OECD countries spent on average 5.1% of their gross domestic product (GDP) on primary to tertiary educational institutions. In Japan, the corresponding share was 4.1% of GDP, of which 29% was dedicated to primary education, 17% to lower secondary education, 19% to upper secondary and post-secondary education combined, 5% to short-cycle tertiary programmes and 29% to bachelor's, master's and doctoral or equivalent programmes (Figure 1). Of note, spending on short-cycle tertiary programmes as a share of GDP devoted to educational institutions was higher in Japan than in all but three other OECD countries with available data.

Funding for education in absolute terms is strongly influenced by countries’ income levels. Countries with higher per capita GDP tend to spend more per student than those with lower per capita GDP. Across all levels from primary to tertiary education, Japan spends USD 13 006 annually per full-time equivalent student (adjusted for purchasing power), compared to the OECD average of USD 12 647. Annual expenditure per student is equivalent to 30% of annual per capita GDP, which is above the OECD average of 27%. Strong expenditure at tertiary level helps to explain this, with expenditure per student equivalent to 49% of per capita GDP in Japan, compared to the OECD average of 38%. At all other levels of education, Japan is either at or slightly above the corresponding OECD average.

The COVID-19 pandemic has created unprecedented challenges for education systems across the world. On average across the OECD, expenditure on primary to tertiary educational institutions per full-time equivalent student (including expenditure on research and development) grew by 0.4% from 2019 to 2020 (the first year of the pandemic and the latest period with available data). In Japan, it increased by 1.4%. This change in expenditure per student is the result of total expenditure on educational institutions increasing by 0.7% and the total number of full-time equivalent students decreasing by 0.8%.

1. Year of reference differs from 2020. Refer to the source table for more details.

2. Upper secondary vocational programmes include lower secondary vocational programmes.

3. Upper secondary programmes include lower secondary programmes.

4. Primary education includes pre-primary programmes.

Countries are ranked in descending order of total expenditure on primary and lower secondary institutions.

Source: OECD/UIS/Eurostat (2023), Table C2.1. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (OECD, 2023 [1] ).

Government sources dominate non-tertiary education funding in all OECD countries, while the private sector contributes 9% of the total expenditure on educational institutions on average. Private funding in Japan accounted for 7% of expenditure at primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary levels.

On average across OECD countries, more than half of government expenditure on primary to post-secondary non-tertiary education comes from subnational governments. In Japan, 1% of the funding comes from the central government, after transfers between government levels, 29% from the regional level and 70% from the local level.

The total compulsory instruction time throughout primary and lower secondary education varies widely from country to country (Figure 2). Across the OECD, over the course of primary and lower secondary education, compulsory instruction time totals an average of 7 634 hours, distributed over nine grades. In Japan, the total compulsory instruction time is lower, at 7 338 hours, over nine grades.

Note: Instruction hours for each grade refer to average hours per grade for the level of education. Numbers in square brackets refer to the total number of years for primary and lower secondary education.

1. Estimated number of hours by level of education based on the average number of hours per year, as for some subjects, the allocation of instruction time across multiple levels is flexible.

2. Year of reference 2022.

3. The number of grades in lower secondary education is three or four, depending on the track. The fourth year of pre-vocational secondary education was excluded from the calculation.

Countries and other participants are ranked in ascending order of the total number of compulsory instruction hours.

Source: OECD (2023), Table D1.1. For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (OECD, 2023 [1] ).

On average across OECD countries, 25% of the compulsory instruction time in primary education is devoted to reading, writing and literature and 16% to mathematics. In lower secondary education, the share is 15% for reading, writing and literature and 13% for mathematics. In Japan, 23% of instruction time is devoted to reading, writing and literature and 16% to mathematics at primary level compared to 12% each to both subjects at lower secondary level. The relatively low share of instruction time devoted to reading, writing and literature and mathematics is due in part to the relatively large share of instruction time devoted to “other subjects,” which include Home Economics, Living Environment Studies, the Period for Integrated Studies and student-led activities ( Tokkatsu ) at primary level and Technology and Home Economics, the Period for Integrated Studies and student-led activities ( Tokkatsu ) at lower secondary level. At primary level, 13% of instruction time is devoted to these other subjects, while other subjects account for 12% of instruction time at lower secondary level, compared to OECD averages of 4% and 3%, respectively.

Teachers’ salaries are an important determinant of the attractiveness of the teaching profession, but they also represent the single largest expenditure category in formal education. In most OECD countries, the salaries of teachers in public educational institutions increase with the level of education they teach, and also with experience. On average, annual statutory salaries for upper secondary teachers in general programmes with the most prevalent qualification and 15 years of experience are USD 53 456 across the OECD. In Japan, the corresponding salary adjusted for purchasing power is USD 47 349, which is equivalent to JPY 5 549 000.

Between 2015 and 2022, statutory salaries of upper secondary teachers in general programmes (with the most prevalent qualification and 15 years of experience) declined in real terms in roughly half of all OECD countries with available data. In Japan, upper secondary teachers’ salaries decreased by 2% between 2015 and 2022.

National/central assessments (standardised tests with no consequence on students’ progression through school or certification) are more common at primary and lower secondary levels than at upper secondary level, while most OECD countries conduct national/central examinations (standardised tests with formal consequence) in the final years of upper secondary education. These national/central assessments and examinations take place at different grades and can have different periodicities, and their contents may vary over years and/or across students and are not necessarily compulsory for students. In Japan, there is one national/central assessment at primary level and one at lower secondary level. At upper secondary level, there is no national/central assessment that all students are expected to take. There is no national/central examination at any level.

OECD (2023), Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes , OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d7f76adc-en .

OECD (2023), Education at a Glance Database, https://stats.oecd.org/ .

OECD (2023), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators , OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en .

For more information on Education at a Glance 2023 and to access the full set of indicators, see: https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en .

For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes ( https://doi.org/10.1787/d7f76adc-en ).

For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018 ( https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en ).

Updated data can be found on line at https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en and by following the StatLinks   2 under the tables and charts in the publication.

Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS:

https://gpseducation.oecd.org/ .

Questions can be directed to:

Directorate for Education and Skills

[email protected]

This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries.

This document, as well as any data and any map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

The use of this work, whether digital or print, is governed by the terms and conditions to be found at www.oecd.org/termsandconditions/ .

Source: OECD (2023), “Japan: Diagram of education system”, OECD Education GPS, http://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/MapOfEducationSystem/JPN/JPN_2011_EN.pdf

Please refer to “Japan: Diagram of education system” for information on the keys.

This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. Extracts from publications may be subject to additional disclaimers, which are set out in the complete version of the publication, available at the link provided.

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The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on elementary school education in Japan

Associated data.

Education has an important meaning for the Japanese. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a major impact on the education sector, giving rise to new problems due to the unpreparedness of society to face sudden changes. Elementary school is the most basic education in the formal education system in Japan, so it plays an important role as the main gate for Japanese society to obtain a formal education. Previous research has not specifically discussed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on elementary school education in Japan, therefore the discussion of this research focuses on phenomena that occur in elementary schools in Japan to find out more about the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the educational policies made by the government. This study uses qualitative and descriptive-analytical methods through a literature review of books, journals, articles, and government or institutional reports related to elementary school in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the data, it was found that compared to higher education, basic education in Japan is far behind in using technology as a learning media. In addition, there was an increase in cases of child violence and child suicide in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Japanese government tried to overcome education challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic.

1. Introduction

Japan is considered one of the countries with the best education system. This can be seen in several institutions that rank the quality of education in countries worldwide. According to the ranking results, Japan is generally in the top five in Asia and the top ten in the world. According to the ranking results by “Educational Rankings by Country” 2021, Japan is ranked sixth in the world and fifth in Asia with a total score of 1588 ( World Top 20 Project, 2021 ). However, the 2021 Best Countries for Education are ranked based on a perception-based global survey, Japan is ranked seventh in the world and first in Asia ( US News, 2021 ).

Education is defined as a conscious control process in which behavior change is produced in a person through a group ( Brown, 1961:127 ). Education has three functions: a place to combine traditions, the development of new social patterns, and a means of creating creativity.

Education is one of the most important aspects of Japanese national identity and pride ( Chawala, 2021 ). Japan still applies the 6–3–3–4 education system: six years of elementary school, three years of junior high school, three years of senior high school, and four years of university. The government enforces nine years of compulsory education, elementary school (6 years), and Junior High School (3 years). This shows that Japan firmly places elementary school education as the primary stage of the entire formal education system. In addition, Japan's elementary school graduation rate is almost 100%. According to "Japan Case Study: Situation Analysis on the Effects of and Responses to COVID-19 on the Education Sector in Asia," released by UNICEF and UNESCO in 2021, the dropout rate in Japan is relatively low, at only 1.2% (2019), while the percentage of elementary school graduation rates is more than 99% ( UNESCO & UNICEF, 2021 ).

World Health Organization (WHO) announced the name for the new virus infection, namely coronavirus, COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019), on February 11, 2020 ( WHO, 2020 ). Japan is one of the countries most affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the sectors affected by the COVID-19 pandemic is education. The Prime Minister of Japan also called for temporary school closures nationwide on February 28, 2020. The temporary school closures began on March 2, 2020, but policies can be adjusted for each region.

Education during the COVID-19 pandemic poses new challenges, and system preparation is needed to overcome them ( Daniel, 2020 ). In addition, school closures have increased the mental health gap between parents of their sexes and educational backgrounds ( E. Yamamura & Tsustui, 2021 ). School closures have impacted the increasing workload of women and caused stress for themselves and their children ( E. Yamamura & Tsustui, 2021 ).

The Japanese government tries to make the best possible policy to overcome the problems in education in Japan because education is one of the important sectors of the country. In formal primary education in Japan, elementary school has more complex problems than higher and secondary education.

This study will discuss further and in-depth the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on elementary school education in Japan, especially in the range of 2020–2021. This research aims to answer Research Questions, (a) How does the COVID-19 pandemic affect the course of elementary school education in Japan? (b) How does the Japanese government respond to educational problems due to the COVID-19 pandemic?

This study aims to explore more deeply the phenomena that occur in elementary school education in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic, thus this study uses a qualitative method. Data collection through literature review from 31 data sources, including books, journals, articles, and government or institutional reports related to education in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic. The data used is the range of 2020 to 2021. The writing is presented using a descriptive analytical method and in the form of a narrative. This study aims to describe the education policies issued by the Japanese government in the COVID-19 pandemic situation and explain the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the education sector in Japan, especially elementary schools.

3. Discussion

3.1. the meaning of education for japanese society.

Japanese society has instilled that education is important and can affect one's life. For example, the better the quality of someone's high school, the greater the chance of being accepted into the best universities in Japan. Not only school but the world of work is also determined by educational history. The better a person's educational background, the easier it is for someone to get a job.

Japan is a country that adheres to the concept of gakureki shakai (学歴社会) or education-credential society. Education-credential in Japanese society implies that education credentials are the main determinant of socioeconomic success, and the quality or rank of tertiary institutions has an impact on achieving socioeconomic rewards ( Ishida, Spilerman & Su, 1997 :867). They place greater emphasis on where they study than on what they learn ( Amano & Poole, 2005 ).

Elementary school is the first gate of education in Japan. Elementary school in Japan takes a holistic approach, such as solid academic ability (知- chi ), richness in mind (徳- toku ), and healthy body (体- tai ) ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2018 ). Therefore, providing the best primary education is the first investment of parents to children for the impact on their future.

However, gakureki shakai became a greater challenge during the COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on children and parents which caused children not to be able to get maximum education. The impact of this COVID-19 pandemic on Japanese education will be described in more detail in the next sub-discussion.

3.2. Education policy in Japan during the COVID-19 pandemic

3.2.1. school closure.

Shinzō Abe, Prime Minister of Japan, on February 28, 2020, called for school closures, but the final decision remains with the governments in each prefecture. Schools in Japan began to close on March 2, 2020. However, after the emergency for the spread of the COVID-19 virus was expanded nationwide on April 7, 2020, school closures were completed. This caused most schools to postpone learning for a certain period ( Kang, 2021 :17). The policy of closing educational institutions was also extended, so educational institutions decided to implement remote learning.

The reality is that remote learning develops well only in higher education. Elementary school and secondary school are developing slower than higher education. Most schools still use textbooks and paper teaching materials as references ( Kang, 2021 :29). Not only for students who feel the challenge of new adjustments to learning activities in school but also for teachers and parents.

Since school closures were carried out to prevent the spread of the COVID-19 virus in Japan, teachers have taken advantage of various learning media that can be accessed online. The following are the learning media used by elementary schools in Japan during the school closure period based on the results of a survey conducted by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) in June 2020.

From the Table 1 , it can be concluded that, in general, elementary schools in Japan still use learning media in the form of textbooks and paper materials than other media, such as television programs and videos. This demonstrates that using technology in elementary classrooms has not maximized distance learning.

Types of Learning Media Assigned by Sampled Elementary Schools During the COVID −19 Pandemic (MEXT, 2020).

Source: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379495.locale=en .

3.2.2. Leave No One Behind

Japan applies a Leave No One Behind (LNOB) approach to answer challenges in education due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Leave No One Behind is an approach initiated by the United Nations and adopted in November 2016. This approach aims to realize the Sustainable Development Goals, which are included in the “2030 Agenda”. The LNOB approach is simultaneously a commitment of all UN member states to eradicate poverty, end discrimination, and reduce inequality ( UNSDG ).

Through Leave No One Behind, Japan's main focus is to address education sector problems during the COVID-19 pandemic, including:

• 1) Ensure children can catch up on learning through supplementary material or transfer some material to next year's lesson;
• 2) Looking for solutions to reduce the impact on students who will face important exams, such as high school and university entrance exams;
• 3) Reducing additional costs when children do learning at home, assistance is provided for households with low incomes. Assistance in the form of additional internet quota and exemption from school fees.

3.2.3. Review length of long vacation

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) provides assistance to support effective learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on a circular issued by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) in September 2020, several policies that can be implemented for primary and secondary education during the COVID-19 pandemic were determined ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology-Japan, 2020 ). One of the policies is to revise student attendance schedules, such as reviewing the length of a long vacation. If the first policy of rearranging the schedule is difficult to realize, the school can move the learning materials to the following year.

3.2.4. Addition of teachers and school support staff

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省- MEXT) also provides the necessary personnel and material resources to support effective learning. MEXT assigns additional teachers, school support staff, and others ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology-Japan, 2020 ). To anticipate prolonged school closures or gradual reopening of schools, MEXT will invite various groups of personnel, including retired teachers and students. The additional personnel will help students get additional teaching outside of school hours. The policy ensures that no student is left behind in their learning.

3.2.5. GIGA school technology development

The technology developed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) aims to make it easier for students to learn from home. The government initially launched the GIGA School Program (Global Innovation Gateway for All) in 2018 to ensure that Japan would have computers and high-speed internet ( The Government of Japan, 2021 ). Educators will also have teaching techniques by mastering digital tools and conducting online learning. Initially, the GIGA School Program was targeted for completion by the end of March 2024. Still, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) has accelerated its preparations to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) accelerates the integration of hardware, software, and personnel to realize "One computer for one student" at the earliest possible time with the GIGA School Program project. Through this step, the MEXT will ensure that all children can learn via computers even in emergencies such as temporary school closures caused by natural disasters or infectious diseases.

The GIGA School Program is expected to answer the global challenges of Society 5.0. The program allows learning in schools to be done anywhere and anytime. Through GIGA School as well, students can access different learning content at the same time, it is easy to have discussions to obtain various information from different perspectives, and collaborate in doing assignments at the same time ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2020c ). The teacher cannot observe the expression of each student when conducting face-to-face learning in class, but through GIGA School, the teacher can find out each student's reaction through online meetings ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2020c ).

Artificial intelligence-based educational technology is the most innovative finding among other media during the COVID-19 pandemic. This technology allows students to answer questions and solve problems using a tablet or computer. Then, the incoming data will be analyzed to determine students' level of understanding, strengths, and weaknesses.

3.2.6. Budget allocation for education during the COVID-19 pandemic

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT), in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, provided a supplementary budget of 276.3 billion yen in the first and 161.7 billion yen in the second. The following is a breakdown of the budget determined by MEXT to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

Based on Table 2 above, the first supplementary budget, the Japanese government focused most of the budget on the acceleration of the GIGA School Program. This is in accordance with the objectives of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT), to make it easier for students to learn from home. The focus of this budget of 229.2 billion is to provide one ICT device per student at school and the integrated preparation of high-speed, high-capacity ICT networks in schools ( UNESCO and UNICEF, 2021:12 ).

First Supplementary Budget (267, 3 billion yen).

Source: https://www.mext.go.jp/en/content/20200904_mxt_kouhou01–000008961_1.pdf .

Based on Table 3 Emergency Comprehensive Support for Cultural Arts and Sports Activities has the largest budget allocation of 58 billion on the second supplementary budget. The second supplementary budget focuses on ensuring sports and cultural activities have a clear way to the future ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2020a:8 ). The budget allocation is not only to support artists, but also children through the cultural appreciation classes forced to be suspended with the closure of schools and activities for children to experience cultural activities ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2020a:9 ). The second largest budget allocation is support for resuming school education activities. This shows that Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology strives to ensure that learning at school does not stop.

Second Supplementary Budget (161.7 billion yen).

3.3. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic

3.3.1. increase in suicide cases of school students in japan.

The biggest problem during the COVID-19 pandemic was the increasing number of suicides in Japan. The increase in suicide cases is related to other effects caused by the COVID-19 pandemic situation on educators in Japan. Suicide was a major health problem in Japan, even before the COVID-19 pandemic. However, what is surprising is that during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, there was a spike in suicides committed by school students in Japan ( Saori, 2021 ). The increase in suicide cases among school students in Japan in 2020 was quite high, so it was recorded as the highest number of cases ever recorded ( Kyodo, 2021 ).

Based on the Fig. 1 , student suicide cases in Japanese schools continued to increase from 2016 to 2020. Student suicide cases in 2020 reached the highest peak with a fairly high increase. There were 499 suicides from elementary to high school students in Japan in 2020. Every year there is an increase. The following is a table of suicide rates for school students in Japan by school level.

Student Suicide Case in Japan.

The Table 4 above shows that high school students are more prone to committing suicide than elementary and junior high school students. However, the number of elementary school student suicides in 2020 showed a fairly large number with 14 people and an increase of 6 people from the previous year. The increase in suicide cases committed by school students is indirectly influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Japanese School Student Suicide Rates.

Source: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2021/03/20/national/social-issues/suicides-japanese-students-record-2020/ .

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in sudden changes in human life. The sudden change raises new concerns that affect the mental health of students. According to research by Masahide Koda, Ph.D. et al. in January 2022, it is estimated that the spike in student suicides is due to unstable school schedules, school closures, and the sudden shift to online learning ( Koda et al., 2022 ). This causes stress to students and increases suicidal ideation. This phenomenon began in March 2020, when the Japanese government issued a school closure policy.

According to news released by The Mainichi on October 16, 2021, 1 based on the results of school investigations, the most common causes of suicide are family disputes, followed by mental health, career concerns, reprimands from parents, or others, and cases of unknown cause.

3.3.2. Vulnerable children become victims of domestic violence

Children have become vulnerable to domestic violence since the school closure policy was enacted during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Nagatomi, Hanafusa and Ono, 2020 ). The home, which is intended to be a secure place for children, has become a frightening environment for some Japanese children. This can be seen from the increasing violence against children that occurred in the household during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Child abuse is any harmful and hurtful act, for example, in the form of threats, coercion, and abuse of children under the age of 18. Violence includes physical, psychological, and sexual abuse and neglect. In recent years, cases of violence against children in Japan have continued to increase. At its peak, there was a large spike in 2020. This was indirectly related to the policy of closing schools and public institutions. The following is a graph of cases of violence against children reported by the police to the Japan National Children's Consultation Center.

Based on Fig. 2 , there was a spike in cases of child violence in 2020, from 98,222 cases up to 106,991. The increase in cases also occurred in 2021, with the addition of 1059, to 108,050 cases. School closures took place on March 2, 2020, so the children spent most of their time at home. Not only schools, offices, and other public places also implement a work-from-home policy so that parents of students also spend most of their time at home.

Child Violence Cases Reported by Police to Japan National Child Consultation Centers.

Violence against children during the COVID-19 pandemic is generally caused by parents at home channeling stress to their children. According to Fumihiko Kawasaki, a former worker at a child consulting center and head of the Children's Rainbow Center in Yokohama ( The Mainichi, February 3, 2022 ), parents' stress due to economic hardship triggered by workplace closures and potential unemployment causes them to direct that stress toward child violence.

3.3.3. Mental health effect

Summarized from the Asahi Shimbun (July 12, 2020), 2 according to research by the National Center for Child Health and Development in Tokyo from April 30 to May 31, 2020, it was found that about 30% of 2591 respondents aged 7 to 17 years experienced frustration because they had to be at home and cannot meet up with friends at school ( Ichino, 2020 ). In addition, according to the survey results, children hurt themselves or commit violence against families and pets as an outlet for anger or frustration. As many as 16% of students in grades 1–3 elementary school have injured themselves or been violent to their family members or pets. Meanwhile, for students in grades 4–6 elementary school, the percentage is 10%. This shows that school closures cause mental problems in children, causing them to injure themselves and others.

Summarized from the Asahi Shimbun (October 14, 2021), 3 the number of elementary school students who skipped school increased in 2020. According to a survey conducted by the Japanese Ministry of Education, 63,350 elementary school students skipped school, 10,000 more than the previous year. The school truancy rate for elementary and middle school students totaling 196,127 in 2020, became the highest record since the 1991 fiscal year ( Kuwabara, 2021 ). According to a Japanese Ministry of Education survey, 46.9% of respondents answered that fatigue and anxiety were the causes of skipping school. The reason is the highest answer obtained from the overall results.

The reduced direct interaction of children because they have to be at home made the number of child bullying in Japan in 2020 decrease by 15.6% from the previous year. According to a Japanese Ministry of Education survey, bullying experienced by elementary to middle school students was 517,163 cases. However, elementary to middle school students who experienced violence through computers and smartphones increased by 5.3% from 2019, or 18,870 cases. This number is the highest since the question was added to the survey in fiscal 2006.

3.3.4. Educational inequality

Educational inequality with the digital divide is a new problem in implementing remote learning. The digital divide refers to inequality in society regarding knowledge, the gap between people who have access to computer technology and those who do not ( Kang, 2021 :25). According to a report released by UNESCO and UNICEF, 39% of students reported that there was no computer at home to use for schoolwork ( UNESCO and UNICEF, 2021 ).

Even though Japan is a developed country, not every region in Japan has the same technological capabilities ( Iwabuchi, Hodama and Onishi, 2022 ). Elementary schools in Japan mostly still use textbooks and paper learning media and have not used internet technology maximally when setting school closure policies due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Remote learning is also more developed in higher education than primary and secondary education. This shows the existence of educational inequality and the digital gap in Japanese elementary schools between regions.

According to the previous research by Rikuto Minami ( Reiko, 2022 ), 4 low-income families have cut educational expenditure by 15.1% in 2021 compared with 2019. During the same period, higher-income families increased equivalent spending by 4.8%, ( Reiko, 2022 ). Education inequality is seen as particularly problematic because it limits opportunities for people struggling with poverty to find a way out ( Reiko, 2022 ). Accordingly, children from low-income families are more at risk of not getting proper education due to the family's economic conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic.

3.3.5. Raises new concern

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to the closure of educational institutions in Japan. The closure of schools in Japan was announced by Prime Minister Shinzō Abe on February 28, 2020. The closure of these schools was considered sudden and caused concern for students, educators, and parents of students. Students worry if their education is left behind ( Kang, 2021 :23). These concerns are only temporary, as schools can provide additional learning hours.

As summarized in Nikkei Asia news (March 14, 2020), 5 Florence, a non-governmental organization in Tokyo, conducted a survey of parents in Japan regarding their concerns and difficulties during school closures. As many as 70% of the 8339 respondents, parents, and caregivers of preschool (kindergarten) to high school in Japan experienced problems due to school closures ( Murata, 2020 ). The survey results show that 69.9% of respondents are worried that their children are not getting enough exercise. The second biggest concern is that 56.8% of parents worry that their children will experience mental stress because they don't meet their friends. In addition, 56.6% of respondents said they were afraid that children would be left behind in their learning. The survey results were obtained from questions with more than one answer (multiple answers).

Remote learning raises new concerns. The main concern is whether students can learn independently well; whether parents can teach their children who are in elementary school while they also have to work; whether inadequate learning from home will result in poor educational development; whether children should socialize with classmates while studying from home; and whether students have a good internet network to support distance learning ( Kang, 2021 :29).

Not only do students have to adjust to educational conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic, but also educators. Many educators have had to adapt quickly to new teaching methods, such as online or hybrid learning, due to school closures during the pandemic. While some educators may have found this transition challenging, others have embraced the opportunity to innovate and experiment with new teaching techniques. Educators have also had to consider the safety and well-being of their students in the context of COVID-19. This includes implementing safety measures such as wearing masks, practicing social distancing, and ensuring adequate ventilation in classrooms. Educators have expressed concerns about the impact of the pandemic on students' academic progress and mental health. They may worry that remote or hybrid learning models may not be as effective as traditional classroom learning, or that students may be struggling to cope with the stress and uncertainty of the pandemic

3.3.6. Parental workload inequality

Not only schools, offices, and institutions in Japan were also closed at the beginning of the COVID-19 virus spreading in Japan. As a result, parents are forced to work from home. According to research conducted by Eiji Yamamura and Yoshiro Tsustsui in 2020 on parents of children under 12 years old, there are differences in the workload at home between women and men. Both parents who work in an office will bring their work home. At home, they are also responsible for their children's education.

Unlike men, women in Japan are also responsible for household chores. The burden on women (wives) will increase during this COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to women's career work, at the same time, they have to do housework and accompany children at home. This situation will be difficult, especially for parents who have careers or women who are raising children without a husband (single parent). The increase in workload causes stress on women and impacts their children's mental health ( Yamamura and Tsustsui, 2021a ).

3.4. School reopening

Remote learning is not optimal in Japan, demanding the government to allow schools to reopen. The policy to open schools was accompanied by implementing strict health protocols, such as reducing the number of students in class, cutting school hours, isolating student seats, checking temperature before entering class, and washing hands. Students can also choose to continue studying at home or go to school considering parents who are worried about the spread of the COVID-19 virus.

After Japan temporarily closed schools on April 7, 2020, schools were reopened on June 1, 2020. The government also made various policies to support school openings. The Leave No One Behind approach adopted from the United Nations is one of the efforts of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) in responding to the challenges of the education sector in dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic.

Since schools in Japan reopened from June 1, 2020, to July 31, 2020, 242 of the 12 million students in 35,874 schools were reported to have been infected with the COVID-19 virus ( Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2020b ). High Schools occupy the highest number with 97 students, followed by Elementary Schools with 90 students. However, the transmission of the COVID-19 virus occurs generally through household transmission rather than in schools. The following is a report on the transmission of COVID-19 that impacted students from June 1 - July 31, 2020.

Based on the Table 5 above, it can be concluded that schools are not the main transmission route for COVID-19. This can be seen from the relatively low number of school transmission cases (13%) compared to household transmission (57%). In addition, there were no cases of transmission originating from schools at the elementary school level, so the opening of schools was not the main reason for infection with the COVID-19 virus in students.

COVID-19 Transmission Route to School Students on June 1 - July 31, 2020.

4. Conclusion

The meaning of education in Japanese society is complex and multifaceted. In general, education is highly valued in Japan and is seen as a means of personal and societal development. The Japanese believe that education is essential for preparing individuals to become productive members of society and contribute to the betterment of their communities. Furthermore, academic achievement is highly valued in Japanese society, and students are expected to work hard and excel in their studies. Overall, education is viewed as a critical aspect of Japanese society and is seen as a pathway to personal success, social mobility, and national prosperity.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an educational gap caused by economic factors. Parents from low-income families tend to be unable to provide a good education for their children, such as not being able to provide learning outside of school. In addition, children who are not ready to face the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic also choose to skip school, and even commit suicide.

Another issue raised by the COVID-19 pandemic is the digital gap in Japan. While many students in urban areas have access to the internet and technology, students in rural areas or from disadvantaged backgrounds may not have access to the necessary technology and resources to participate in online learning. This has highlighted the need for more equitable access to technology and resources in Japanese schools. After analyzing various primary education problems in Japan caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, society is contrary to the concept of gakureki shakai or education-credential society, especially low-income families.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on elementary school education in Japan was interrelated. the sudden shift to online learning may have been difficult to adjust to, particularly for those who do not have access to the necessary technology and resources at home. Students may also feel isolated or disconnected from their classmates and teachers due to the lack of face-to-face interaction. This may impact their motivation and engagement with their studies. Some students may be struggling with the stress and anxiety of the pandemic, particularly if they or their family members have been affected by COVID-19. This may impact their ability to focus on their studies and engage with their learning. This has highlighted the need for a more holistic approach to education that considers students' mental health and well-being.

Overall, the perspectives of educators and students in the context of COVID-19 in Japan highlight the challenges and opportunities of adapting to a new learning environment. While educators may be grappling with the new teaching methods and safety measures, students may be struggling with the lack of social interaction and the stress of the pandemic. It is important for educators to be mindful of these challenges and to work towards creating a supportive and engaging learning environment for all students.

Most of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on primary education in Japan is negative. The known negative impact can be used as evaluation material to determine the next government education policy. However, it is not only negative influences that arise in elementary school education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through the acceleration of the GIGA School Program, educational technology will also develop rapidly.

Japan dares to take risks by reopening schools in the COVID-19 pandemic situation because it sees the huge negative impact of school closures and does not want basic education to be further left behind. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (文部科学省 - MEXT) is adopting a Leave No One Behind approach as a solution to deciding policies aimed at ensuring that no one is left behind during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic has exposed several issues that Japanese school education was already facing, including the rigidity of the curriculum, the digital divide, and the mental health challenges faced by students. These issues highlight the need for a more flexible, equitable, and holistic approach to education in Japan.

This research has limited data because it was conducted while the COVID-19 pandemic was still raging. Therefore, further research is required to determine the effectiveness of the Japanese government's education policy in overcoming the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Fig. 1 , Tables 1 , ​ ,4 4 , ​ ,5 5

Declaration of Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

1 Akira Okubo, “ Adult stress seen linked to record high child suicides in Japan: education ministry ” ( https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20211015/p2a/00m/0na/010000c , retrieved April 14, 2022)

2 Kai Ichino, “ Stuck at Home All Day, Stress Levels Going Through Roof, Study Finds ” ( https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/13491686 , retrieved March 28, 2022)

3 Norihiko Kuwabara, “ Record 196,000 students cut class in FY2020 during COVID-19 crisis ” ( https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14460781 , retrieved April 15, 2022)

4 Sakurai Reiko, “Inequality gap widens amid coronavirus pandemic: NHK World-Japan News. NHK WORLD” ( https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/backstories/1906/ , retrieved March 4, 2023)

5 Atsushi Murata, “ 70% of Japanese parents feel troubled by school closures ” ( https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Society/70-of-Japanese-parents-feel-troubled-by-school-closures2 , retrieved April 13, 2022)

Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100239 .

Appendix. Supplementary materials

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• An Inquiry from the Perspective of Teaching Methods into Connecting Early Childhood Education with Elementary Education: A Critical Examination of Developmental Stage Theory Akira SAKAI 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 384-395 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_384 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  Many children experience problems during the process of transiting from nursery schools or kindergartens to elementary schools. One of the reasons is the difference of teaching methods between early childhood education and elementary education. Educational administrators explain this difference as corresponding to the two different developmental stages; early childhood and childhood.  This study describes in detail the teaching methods of early childhood education and elementary education, and examines their historical and social backgrounds. It then analyzes the dominant discourse which connects the difference with developmental stage theory and suggests an alternative approach to integrating the teaching methods by considering kindergartners and elementary school students as children in an integrated way.  Early childhood education in Japan accomplishes its aims through children’s lives and play. The key phrase of its method is “educating children through the environment.” The major role of kindergarten teachers as well as nursery school teachers is to constitute the environment surrounding children from an educational point of view. Children are supposed to engage independently in various activities which interest them.  The aims of elementary education are accomplished by integrating all the outcomes of activities in schools, such as subject teaching, moral education, and extracurricular activities. Teachers make their teaching plans based on the annual teaching schedule and are to teach systematically and progressively.  The difference of teaching methods between early childhood education and elementary education is partly explained by the historical backgrounds of the two education systems. The Japanese early childhood education system was introduced separately from the elementary school system during the Meiji era. The present gap is also caused by different methods of handling the educational reform movement during the 1980s, which emphasized students’ individualization and their independent minds.  However, educational administrators often explain the dissimilarities of these teaching methods as a result of the difference between the two developmental stages. This development theory functions to justify the existing difference. But the theory has been questioned for many years by educational psychologists, and many scholars report that five-year-olds should be treated like elementary school pupils. There are some possibilities of lowering the elementary school entrance age to five if we depend too much on the psychological developmental stage theory.  We need to start to discuss methods of educating children based on the findings of educational theory as well as those of early childhood education theory. In order to start the discussions which will connect teaching methods, we need to examine the three themes below. 1. Composing an overall curriculum which considers children’s cumulative experiences. 2. Capturing young people as children in an integrated way. 3. Connecting the two teaching methods; the method of “educating through the environment” and the theory of class design. View full abstract Download PDF (633K)
• Trends and Issues in the Connective Curriculum between Preschool and Elementary School: Two Approaches in Education Policy Mayumi FUKUMOTO 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 396-407 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_396 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  This paper aims to outline trends in Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) policies on the connective curriculum between preschool and elementary school education in Japan, and to discuss features of the content of this curricular reform. To this end, policy directions are divided into two approaches for analysis. The first approach concerns reform of the structure of schools and the second concerns problems in Grade 1 of elementary school.  The paper first examines the school-restructuring approach, clarifying that a concept for the preschool curriculum, Fundamentals for Learning, was debated and a conflict arose over whether play or learning was more appropriate as the core principle of preschool education. Since the 2000s, with globalization and the emergence of the knowledge-based society and international academic abilities surveys (e.g. PISA), moves have been made to promote education policy as a national strategy and reform of the connective curriculum between preschool and elementary school has become more zealous. Thus, the connection between preschool and compulsory education has been enshrined in legislation through changes to the Fundamental Law of Education and the School Education Law; furthermore, schools have also called for the creation of a connective curriculum. The concept of collaborative learning was suggested based on project-centered lesson practice; in preschool education, the principles of collaboration and learning were adopted in addition to the existing principles of initiative and play. Collaborative learning is an idea for reforming both the teaching of play and life skills in preschool and subject study among school-aged children. However, this concept was never widely adopted in preschool education.  Subsequently, this paper examines the approach to preventing problems in Grade 1 of elementary school. It clarifies that the debate around Grade 1 problems has centered on the gap between preschool and elementary school education and that the Start Curriculum, which aims to prepare students to adapt to elementary school life, was proposed in the Education Guidelines. The debate has problematized the anxiety and confusion experienced by children due to the various differences in teaching method, content, and environment between preschool and elementary school. The Start Curriculum, which has been proposed in living environment education, poses the problem of changing the aims of lesson practice in this subject area: rather than the creation of individualistic educational content, the adaptation of students to school life should be the goal.  Today, new principles and concepts for the connective curriculum between preschool and elementary school continue to be generated and attempts are moving forward to build a curricular system. As the curriculum is being reconceptualized based on the principle of collaborative learning, drawing on the core idea of continuity between development and learning, concepts and explanations for the transition from preschool outcomes to elementary school education still require investigation. View full abstract Download PDF (641K)
• How Japan’s “New System of Children and Childcare Support” will Disrupt the “ Hoiku ” Concept Noriyuki YAMAUCHI 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 408-422 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_408 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  The purpose of this paper is to examine the catastrophic effects of the “New System of Children and Childcare Support,” which starts April 2015, on the “ Hoiku ” concept.  The concept of “ Hoiku ”—original to Japan—has a history dating back to the Meiji era. Despite being interpreted in various ways, it came to have two essential aspects in the post-war era :“ Hoiku as the integration of child care and early childhood education” and “ Hoiku as a public service”. People involved have taken the “ Hoiku ” concept very seriously.  In Japan, two systems, “nursery as child welfare” and “kindergarten as school,” have been followed since World War II. However, under the “New System of Children and Childcare Support”, new “Certified Children Centers” will be instituted legally as child welfare facilities and schools. In these Centers, the concept of “ Hoiku as an integral part of child care and early childhood education” will collapse. In spite of opposition by researchers of Hoiku , the concept will be divided into “childcare” and “education”. “Childcare” will be for children from 0 to 2 years old ;“childcare” and “education” will be for children three years or older. In this way, the “ Hoiku ” concept will lose simplicity and comprehensibility.  In the post-war era, local governments have maintained a system of “nurseries” and “kindergartens” as public institutions and have guaranteed the “quality of Hoiku ” in Japan. But when the revised “Child Welfare Act” for this “New System” takes effect, the local governments will have their hands tied with respect to the implementation of “public nurseries.” Focusing on children from 0 to 2 years old, the intervention of child care industry companies will be permitted. These companies will be able to receive subsidies from the national government. At the same time, subsidies related to new construction and renovation of nurseries, which have been supplied by the national government to local governments, will be cut. Even though nurseries in Japan have over two million children in their charge, they face a crisis. In fact the “New System” is being established not for Childcare Support Services, but for the industrialization of Hoiku . “ Hoiku as a public service” will certainly collapse.  The new system destroys the two great ideas of “ Hoiku as the integration of child care and early childhood education” and “ Hoiku as a public service.” What can we do to remedy this situation? First, researchers in Hoiku studies should reflect on the fact that they were uncritical of the new system. They should present ways to deal with the new system and the grand design of the Hoiku system in Japan. Fundamental research into the “ Hoiku ” concept is necessary, so that we can fight against future detrimental reform of the Hoiku system. Second, we should request the holding of “local meetings on Children and Childcare Support.” With this type of gathering, we can continue to monitor the “ Hoiku plans and issues” of local governments in order to prevent the decrease of Hoiku quality. View full abstract Download PDF (777K)
• The Inquiry into “Yonen-Kyoiku” (Early Childhood Education) in the 1950s-1960s:An Examination of Teacher Discourse in the Japan Teachers Union Sachiko ASAI 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 423-435 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_423 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  The relationship between preschool education and primary school education has been an issue for a long time. The purpose of this paper is to describe the process of the inquiry into “Yonen-Kyoiku” (early childhood education) in the 1950s-1960s. This concept was mainly used in the educational research conferences of the Japan Teachers Union. With a focus on the teachers’ discourses in the movement, this paper examines various viewpoints from which teachers have inquired into the relationships between preschool education and primary school education. The conferences of the Japan have been a unique space where teachers from the three different sectors (kindergartens, nursery schools and primary schools) met and discussed how to cooperate together.  The conception of “Yonen-Kyoiku” was presented to the teachers in the preschool education session of the conference of the Japan Teachers Union in 1953, by Hiroshi Sugo (Ochanomizu University) and Setsuko Hani (Jiyu Gakuen School) as an ideal to be inquired into. They gave the concept the following three meanings. First, preschool education and the first two years of primary school education should be coherent. Second, preschool education should not become no more than a preparation for primary school. Third, “Yonen-Kyoiku” should be different from existing pre-school and primary school education. In 1957, the preschool education session of the conference was named “Yonen-Kyoiku”. As an advisor, Hani encouraged teachers to join dialogues with the teachers from other sections of the educational system. Many trials to make connection between preschool education section and primary school education section were made in each prefecture.  It seems that dialogue exploring the concept of “Yonen-Kyoiku” was not easy. Many of the primary school teachers’ discourses seemed to be based on the idea that preschool education should prepare children for primary school. Three points emerge from the examination of the teacher discourses. First, kindergarten and nursery school were still in the process of expanding at that time. Second, the perspective of primary school education functioned in the discussions too strongly, and it was difficult to make an equal partnership between the preschool and primary school sections. Third, the conception of “Yonen-Kyoiku” focused on the reform of the existing 6-3-3 educational system. In 1970, as the policy makers made a proposal for school reform called “Yonen-Gakko” (early childhood school) which was similar to the ideal of “Yonen-Kyoiku,” they gave this concept the meaning of early instruction. After that, The inquiry into “Yonen-Kyoiku” was defeated.  However, in reading the texts of the conference attentively, small possibilities in the concept of “Yonen-Kyoiku” for new education emerge. Some primary teachers learned from preschool education and changed their practices. Some kindergarten teachers inquired into approaches to literacy education that were different from those of primary school.  Preschool education has spread among almost all children in Japan. Now, can we imagine another education with the concept of “Yonen-Kyoiku”? View full abstract Download PDF (747K)
• The Space Between Early Childhood Education and Care and School Education Based on the Emotional Expression and Suppression of Early Childhood and School Teachers Fuminori NAKATSUBO 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 436-447 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_436 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  In this study, behaviors of early childhood teachers in nursery centers were compared with those of elementary, junior high and high school teachers discussed in previous studies with respect to the way they express and suppress emotions toward children/students. The practical significance of the result is also discussed.  A documentary film, Yomogi Dango Jiken (“The Mugwort Dumpling Incident”), set at Osaka Atom Day Care, Japan, was shown on TV (NHK) in 2003; it was used in this study as a stimulus medium to induce spontaneous answers from six early childhood teachers who were the subjects of a “focus group interview”. The model of this study was the research conducted by Tobin (1989).  The results revealed the following points: 1) When early childhood teachers dealt with children’s interior lives, empathy was consciously suppressed and a neutral expression was mainly shown. Such emotional suppression was also indicated in elementary, junior high and high school teachers. The difference between these two groups was, however, that early childhood teachers suppressed their emotional expressions in order to motivate children’s independent behavior, while elementary, junior high and high school teachers suppressed their emotions in order to maintain their systematized authoritative influence toward students. 2) Intentional emotional suppression was seen in both groups: early childhood teachers used this technique to motivate children while elementary, junior high and high school teachers used it to control their classroom atmosphere. The striking difference between the two groups were that the varying emotional control of elementary, junior high and high school teachers was used to avoid any stagnation in classroom activities, while that of early childhood teachers was used to let children decide on their actions, even if that caused a temporary stagnation.  The results showed that emotional suppression in early childhood teachers has the practical significance of allowing children to learn to be independent in a real-life setting. View full abstract Download PDF (690K)
• “Course of Study for Kindergarten” in the Heisei Era (1989-) and Professionalism among Practitioners in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) of Japan Junko HAMAGUCHI 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 448-459 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_448 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  This study aims to explore the influence on practitioners of early childhood and care (ECEC) of the modification of the “Course of Study for Kindergarten” of 1989 (the first year of the Heisei Era), along with two minor reforms following it, and to find solutions for the present problematic issues.  The Course of Study did cause confusion at workplaces due to its characteristics emphasizing ‘educating young children through their environment’ and ‘encouraging children to undertake voluntary activities’, despite its lack of clarity _in defining the roles and leadership of practitioners. Nevertheless, it led to the development of some advantages, as it has fostered discourse among teachers on expressing ‘the child’s personal growth’ and developed a circulatory system of assessing the child’s growth based on his/her initiative through reflection in and on practice (by means of, for example, conferences with their colleagues and daily documentations), as well as practitioners’ “mimamori (observation)” in which the leadership factor is hard to trace.  However, the structure of Japanese ECEC is said to be difficult for outsiders to judge. It seems that a decontextualization of Japanese ECEC education from insiders will become more necessary in order to take part in essential discussions on education theories. View full abstract Download PDF (701K)
• International Trends in Early Childhood Education and Care: Improving Quality of ECEC and Policy Based on Discussions in OECD Early Childhood Education and Care Network Masatoshi SUZUKI 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 460-472 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_460 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  All countries recognize that early childhood education and care (ECEC) is worth investing in for their future development. In this paper, the author analyzes best practices in early childhood programs nominated by OECD, as well as methods and policies of evaluating early childhood programs.  As examples for good practices in early childhood education, those in Reggio Emilia (Italy) and New Zealand were introduced. Both practices involve project-oriented activities of children, and adopt documentation as their method of evaluation. The quality of ECEC is likely to shift from academic teaching to such a project-oriented inquiry model of children’s activities.  Evaluation of ECEC also shifted its focus from structural quality to process quality. External evaluation systems such as NAEYC accreditation and England’s OFSTED inspections tried to include more elements of self-evaluation. ECERS and ITERS focused more on the structural quality of facilities for young children, but SICS in Belgium tried to evaluate children’s well-being and involvement in their daily activities in the facilities. In doing so, each teacher/caregiver becomes involved in improving their own practices. Examples from New Jersey (USA) and the EPPE Project (UK) were described as good practices for improvement of quality in ECEC.  Based upon the analysis of such practice, evaluation methods, and policies, the following recommendations are made for the Japanese educational research community; 1) to work to convey messages to the general public drawing attention to the importance of investment in ECEC; 2) to establish a new system for improvement of ECEC quality; and 3) to promote collaboration between ECEC and researchers in pedagogy for longitudinal studies to prove the effectiveness of ECEC. View full abstract Download PDF (898K)
• Debates on the Conceptualization of Educational Issues of Early Childhood Education and Care in Germany Sayaka NAKANISHI 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 473-483 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_473 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  The purpose of this paper is to clarify the contents of debates on the conceptualization of educational issues of early childhood education and care in Germany, with a particular focus on two readings of the concept of Bildung: ‘self-formation (Selbstbildung)’ and ‘co-construction/development of competency’.  In recent years, early childhood education and care have been receiving public policy attention in many countries around the world. The main themes of early childhood education and care are children’s learning and connectivity from preschool to primary school. Accordingly, early childhood education and care is at a turning point.  Traditionally, early childhood education and care has its own role to play, distinct from that of schools. Early childhood education and care has been characterized by an emphasis on children’ play and subjective activities derived from their own interests. However, demands for learning have brought fundamental change to the field of early childhood education and care. How should we respond to this situation?  This paper focuses on debates on the conceptualization of educational issues of early childhood education and care in Germany. Currently, the results of the OECD-PISA are acting as a catalyst in terms of reforming early childhood education and care. Educational policy measures concerning early childhood education and care were (1) to improve language and literacy competence in the early years and (2) to improve the link between kindergarten and school, with the aim of earlier entry into public schooling. In this situation, the role of German early childhood institutions is changing from ‘care’ to ‘education (Bildung)’. In response to this change, professional discourse on the early childhood education and care centres around the conceptualization of educational issues.  German experts in this field have suggested two readings of education (Bildung): ‘self-formation’ and ‘co-construction/development of competency’. ‘Self-formation’ is a reading focusing on children’s construction of inner worlds, while ‘co-construction/development of competency’ focuses on the interaction between children and adults. These two readings of Bildung are contrasted in various respects. The important thing, however, is to focus on the issue in relations between these two readings of Bildung. Results suggest that it is a matter of the starting point of pedagogical ideas. This debate in Germany suggests a possibility of rethinking Japanese early childhood education and care radically. View full abstract Download PDF (633K)
• Issues Concerning Starting School at Age 5 in the United Kingdom Hodaka FUJII 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 484-495 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_484 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Show abstract Hide abstract  Japan has a rigid system which distinguishes preschool facilities and primary schools. Therefore there are few arguments on how to divide early years education and primary education. In the UK, where children start school at age 5, there are a lot of discussions on the appropriate school starting age compared to Japan. In this paper, we examine the issues to be discussed when the school starting age is under question.  According to research evidence reviews, there is no compelling educational rationale for a school starting age of five. Research on the relationship between school starting age and academic attainment has shown that school starting age has little influence on later educational outcomes. It is not the educational setting per se that is advantageous for children’s learning, but the nature of that setting and the quality of teachers.  In 2000, Foundation Stage was introduced for children aged 3 through the end of reception year in England. For the first time in this country, reception year children were provided with a curriculum of their own, relevant to their needs. But at the same time, it must be pointed out that developments in early years education policy coincided with a drive to raise standards of academic achievement, with a particular focus on literacy and an emphasis on teaching and assessment.  The English government has commissioned a series of reports focusing on the significance of early years education in preparing children for success in later life. They are very concerned with children’s “readiness” to start primary education. The model of “readiness for school” has merits for the government as it prepares children who conform to classroom procedures and possess basic literacy skills.  From the point of view of early-years educators and researchers, the early years are recognized as a crucial stage in their own right, but the government persists in viewing it simply as a preparation for school. The demand of the educators and researchers is that the government stop such inappropriate intervention and leave early years education in the hands of those who truly understand the developmental needs of early years. They also advocate applying the principles of early education to Key Stage 1.  In 2008, Foundation Phase was introduced for children aged 3 to 7 in Wales. It aims to apply the principles and practice of early years education to Key Stage 1. It is the flagship policy of the Welsh government, but inspection reports evaluate that while generally the benefits are verified in children’s motivation and enjoyment of learning, it is not sufficient, particularly in the teaching of reading and writing skills.  Education reform comes downward from primary education to preschool education in England, while it comes upward from preschool education to primary education in Wales. So the vectors of reform seem contrary, but the two countries have the same issue to address: that is, the difficulty of the realization of principles of early years education within the primary school framework. View full abstract Download PDF (671K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 496-498 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_496 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (510K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 498-500 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_498 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (487K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 500-502 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_500 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (487K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 502-504 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_502 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (486K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 504-506 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_504 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (478K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 507-508 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_507 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (433K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 508-509 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_508 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (414K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 509-510 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_509 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (413K)
• [title in Japanese] [in Japanese] 2014 Volume 81 Issue 4 Pages 511-512 Published: 2014 Released on J-STAGE: June 25, 2015 DOI https://doi.org/10.11555/kyoiku.81.4_511 JOURNAL FREE ACCESS Download PDF (1751K)

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School evaluation at Japanese schools: policy intentions and practical appropriation

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Searching Japanese Databases and Catalogs: Articles

• Starting Points
• Newspapers and News Online

Introduction

Searching for articles published in Japan can be challenging, and involve the use of multiple databases. Moreover, it is difficult to find journals with electronic access. However, more and more university and research group publications are coming online as open access resources, and it's possible to obtain more research that is freely available online. Other databases can direct you to where to find articles in print, both historical sources and contemporary research.

Full-text Open Access Articles

These databases do not provide full text for every article citation, but do so for the majority. Articles are provided through institutional repositories as well as other databases.

To limit your search to only downloadable articles, check the option 本文あり near the search bar.

• CiNii Articles CiNii Articles covers modern and contemporary articles in academic journals published in Japan, based on several databases and indices. Increasingly, as more publications bring their research papers online, it provides links to articles available for download freely or purchase. You can limit your search to only articles with links to full text, downloads for purchase, or freely available downloads by checking "full text" (本文). For the humanities, it is unlikely that articles will be available in full text, but many science journals make their publications available for download. Note that some of these articles may be purchased via online systems (varying depending on the journal and organization). You can create and subscribe to an RSS feed giving you updates based on keywords of your choice.
• IRDB (formerly JAIRO) IRDB searches across all participating institutional repositories in Japan, and provides full text of many materials. This includes dissertations and theses (although many only include abstracts), and also research and conference papers, working and white papers, software, and more.

Getting Print Articles

If Penn owns the journal or book you need a PDF from, there's no need to photocopy it yourself. From the item's Franklin page, log in to your account and click "Scan & Deliver." Fill out the form in roman characters with no diacritics and be sure to supply as much information as you can (especially journal title and year/issue/page numbers) so library staff who do not read Japanese can find your article. It will be delivered to you as a PDF.

You can get articles in print journals held by other libraries in North America and NDL using Inter Library Loan (ILL). To order articles through ILL, go to Penn Libraries' Document Delivery homepage. They will be scanned and delivered to you as a PDF. Simply request Japanese articles using the ILL form, entering it in roman characters with no diacritics in the form, and note in the comment box "National Diet Library of Japan" if it's only held by NDL. (You can check in WorldCat to see whether the journal is available in North America or only in Japan.)

Article Citations

• Kōseisha Zasshi kiji sakuin shūsei dētabēsu 皓星社雑誌記事索引集成データベース The Kōseisha Zasshi kiji sakuin shūsei dētabēsu, or Zassaku Plus ざっさくプラス, is an index of Japanese journal and magazine articles from the Meiji period to the present, with a focus on academic materials. It is especially useful for finding historical sources from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Zassaku Plus has an option to integrate a CiNii search and the NDL digital collections, so that the results displayed will contain items indexed by Kōseisha as well as CiNii and NDL - vastly expanding the search. It also displays a graph showing the number of articles published throughout history based on the search criteria. Because this is based on Kōseisha's index, it does not include every article published from Meiji to the present without CiNii integration.
• Magazineplus MagazinePlus covers journals and magazines, including many popular sources, from the modern and contemporary periods. It indexes 14,000 periodicals published in Japan after World War II and 6000 volumes of collected works. Periodicals include scholarly titles from the National Diet Library's Zasshi kiji sakuin, 1975- ; popular magazines indexed in Jānaru indekkesu, 1981- ; 1300 Japanese economic and business magazines, 1981-1995; and 60 overseas business magazines, 1984- . Areas covered include the humanities, social sciences, and science and technology. The Gakkai nenpō ronbunshū file indexes articles in university annuals in the social sciences and humanities, essays in commemorative works, conference papers, and books published by research organizations, 1945-1992; and annuals, research reports and books published by scholarly associations, 1945-1995. This is a subscription database that requires a PennKey login.
• Kokubungaku ronbun mokuroku 国文学論文目録 The National Institute of Japanese Literature (国文学研究資料館) administers the Kokubungaku ronbun mokuroku (国文学論文目録) database, which provides citations for most papers published on Japanese literature in Japan. It contains over 248,000 citations from the Taisho period through the present, and includes departmental and academic society publications (紀要 and 会誌, for example) as well as established academic journals. This database does not provide full text.
• Bibliography of Asian Studies While not a Japanese article database, the Bibliography of Asian Studies (BAS) contains citations for research on Japan (as well as other Asian countries) from 1971 to the present. It contains the full data of all printed editions of the BAS from 1971-1991, plus thousands of entries compiled since then. Since 1992, newly published individual monographs are no longer being added to the database.

Downloading Bulk Citation Results

MagazinePlus has the ability to browse journals, look at the most recent article citations posted, and also aggregate the detailed views of your search results into one window that can be exported into a file. To export your citations in TSV, CSV, or BibTex format (the former two being good for Excel, and the latter for citation managers), click on the citations from your results that you want to include in your list. Then click "チェックした文献を詳細表示". This will bring up a new window, where you can click on your preferred file type at the top of the page and export to a file from there. The file will automatically download.

CiNii also lets you bulk download your results in a variety of file formats. From the search result page, check the results you want to export, then next to that you can choose file type from the dropdown. Finally, click 実行 and download the file.

To view the CSV (*.csv) or TSV (*.txt) files in Excel, you must import them with their proper encoding. Open a file (such as a new workbook), then use the "import" function in Excel, under the "file" menu. Click on "import," choose the file type and file, and then make sure to choose "Unicode UTF-8" as the language. If this doesn't work (it will display the text in a preview window) keep checking different types of encodings until you see the Japanese text displayed properly.

Tips for Searching Kōseisha's Database

Kōseisha Zasshi kiji sakuin shūsei database 皓星社雑誌記事索引集成データベース provides a fairly simple interface for searching, but has some more advanced options as well.

First, go to the advanced search 詳細検索 link. Note that if you enter a space in your keyword string, it will function as a boolean AND (so all words will have to be included in the results - it won't search keyword1 OR keyword 2). To use a thesaurus to broaden your search, check 利用する next to 類語辞典. To integrate a search of CiNii Articles or NDL Digital Collections as well as Kōseisha, check 利用する next to CiNii and/or NDL.

Be aware the Kōseisha database will convert 旧漢字 to modern characters in its search, and also has a list of pseudonyms associated with a person; if a person wrote an article under a lesser-known pseudonym, a search for his or her standard name will still bring up that article. So you can search with confidence knowing that the database will resolve your modern kanji with 旧漢字 and standard names to pseudonyms, without having to specifically enter those versions yourself. However, if you search for a pseudonym, it won't resolve that pseudonym back to the standard name, and entering 当て字 instead of katakana for foreign names will likewise not resolve back to the standard name. (So, enter the standard modern name.)

Additionally, note that searching for a personal name using the basic search will bring up results both by and about that person; to retrieve only results for one or the other, use the advanced search.

Kōseisha graphs your results for you too so that you can see trends over time in publishing about your keywords. It differentiates CiNii and NDL data from Kōseisha index results.

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Rebasing the Services Producer Price Index to the Base Year 2020 -- Main features of the rebasing and price developments in the 2020 base index --

June 18, 2024 Research and Statistics Department Bank of Japan

• Full Text [PDF 1,452KB]

The Bank of Japan has conducted the rebasing of the Services Producer Price Index (SPPI) in accordance with the Final Draft (available only in Japanese) published in February 2024. The Bank plans to begin monthly releases of the 2020 base SPPI from June 25, when preliminary figures for May 2024 are to be published. This paper explains, with respect to the SPPI with the new base, an overview of the number of items and weights, developments of the indexes for newly added and revised items, an analysis of changes in the index for "All items", and initiatives for improving the usability of the SPPI.

The following 2020 base indexes are available on BOJ Time-Series Data Search *1*2 .

• *1 Since preliminary figures are subject to revision in each of the subsequent three months as additional information becomes available, the Monthly index for February 2024 through April 2024 may be revised when the release of the preliminary figures for May (June 25, 2024). The Quarterly index for Q1 2024 may be revised when the release of the preliminary figures for Q2 (August 27, 2024).
• *2 For the coverage of linked indexes, please refer to the research paper.

Please contact below in advance to request permission when reproducing or copying the content of this paper for commercial purposes. Please credit the source when reproducing or copying the content of this paper.

Price Statistics Division, Research and Statistics Department

E-mail : [email protected]

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Selected by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology for the "Program for Forming Japan's Peak Research Universities (J-PEAKS)."

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On December 25, 2023, a press conference was held to announce that our proposal for a "university that co-creates one-step-ahead solutions centered on research capabilities in the field of aqua regeneration" was selected by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology for the "Program for Forming Japan’s Peak Research Universities (J-PEAKS)".

This project is the centerpiece of the "Comprehensive Promotion Package for Japan’s Peak Research Universities," which selects a group of research universities that will serve as a counterpart to the Universities for International Research Excellence.

This proposal is to integrate and to promote excellence in research, innovation, and regional contribution, centered on world-class, cutting-edge materials research related to water purification and water-derived hydrogen energy, in which we have an exceptional track record. Specifically, we aim to support people's lives, lifestyles, and industry through the sustainable supply of water and water-derived hydrogen energy, which are necessary for human activities, in a recycling and "local production for local consumption" manner, thereby realizing both economic growth and regeneration of the Earth.

In order to fulfill our mission as a core university in the region, Shinshu University has set forth our "Vision for Greater Shinshu University" (VGSU: Vision for Greater Shinshu University: to be the center of wide-area collaboration that transcends prefectural borders). The University's research strengths will be further accelerated through this project and the recently launched facility development project (*) to drive social development by means of research and development that contribute to solving global issues, such as water and water-derived hydrogen energy, social implementation, and the creation of new industries through innovation.

(*) In April of 2023, the construction of the "Aqua Regeneration Co-Creation Research Center" (tentative name), the core center of this project, was approved as part of the "Project for Establishment of Facilities for Industry-Academia-Government Collaboration and Joint Research through Collaboration of Japan’s Peak Research Universities," one of the package projects for FY2023.

President Soichiro Nakamura

Chisato Mukai, Trustee (Research and Industry-Academia-Government Collaboration), Vice President

Nobuhiro Sugihara, Administrative Head Quarters Chief Strategy Officer (CSO)

Katsuya Teshima, Director of the Research Initiative for Supra-Materials

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