school reform assignment

Educ 300: Education Reform, Past and Present

an undergraduate course with Professor Jack Dougherty at Trinity College, Hartford CT

Educ 300 Syllabus – Spring 2019

Course description: To what aims have education reformers aspired over time? When and how did schools become tools for divergent goals, such as reducing inequality, advancing capitalism, creating cultural uniformity, and liberating oppressed peoples?  Why have educational policies succeeded or failed to achieve these ends, and what were some of the unintended consequences? In this mid-level undergraduate course, we compare and contrast selected movements, both past and present, to reform elementary, secondary, and higher education in the United States from the nineteenth-century Common School era to contemporary debates over school choice, cultural differences, governance structures, and digital technology. Students will develop skills in reading and researching primary and secondary sources, interpreting divergent perspectives, and expository writing on the web. Cross-listed with American Studies and Public Policy & Law. Pre-requisite: Ed 200, or AMST or PBPL major, or permission of instructor.

Time & location: Mondays 6:30-9:10pm in Seabury S205 at Trinity College.  Students are encouraged to bring laptops for in-class notes and writing exercises.

Jump to: Week 1 : Jan 28 —  Week 2 : Feb 4 —  Week 3 : Feb 11 —  Week 4 : Feb 18 —  Week 5 : Feb 25 — Week 6 : March 4 — Week 7 : March 11 — Week 8 : March 25 — Week 9 : April 1 — Week 10 : April 8 — Week 11 : April 15 — Week 12 : April 22 — Week 13 : April 29

Learning Objectives:  In this mid-level required course for Ed Studies majors, students will:

a) Interpret historical sources from different periods and perspectives to better understand how education has varied from their current-day experiences.

b) Compare and contrast different explanations about the causes and consequences of educational change and continuity over time.

c) Propose a research question, identify appropriate sources, and write a substantive essay that supports their thesis with persuasive evidence.

About the instructor: Jack Dougherty, Professor of Educational Studies at Trinity College, specializes in the history and policy of education in the metropolitan United States. He received his Ph.D. in educational policy studies, with a minor in U.S. history, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. See his personal website to book an appointment: http://jackdougherty.org

Teaching Assistant:  Emily Schroeder ’20, Ed Studies and Neuroscience major.

Required books: Dana Goldstein, The Teacher Wars: A History of America’s Most Embattled Profession (New York: Anchor, 2015). ISBN 978-0-345-80362-7

Paul Tough, Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada’s Quest to Change Harlem and America (Boston: Mariner Books, 2009). ISBN 978-0-547-24796-0

If your last name is A-K : David S. Cecelski, Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina, and the Fate of Black Schools in the South (The University of North Carolina Press, 1994). ISBN 978-0-8078-4437-3

OR if last name is L-Z : Constance Curry, Silver Rights : The story of the Carter family’s brave decision to send their children to an all-white school and claim their civil rights. ( Harvest Books, 1996; or reissued edition by Algonquin Books, 2014). ISBN 978-1-61620-559-1

Additional digital readings are linked below, and I will discuss options for print copies.

(always check for instructor’s updates; important changes will appear  in red )

Week 1: Mon Jan 28 in class – Overview & Introduction to Common School Reform

• Before our first class, please fill out this quick survey
• Lecture: “Progressive Education Meets the Market” 12:15pm, McCook 201
• Student-led discussion: 3-3:45pm in Underground Cafe, Mather basement
• Introduction to the syllabus, assignments , and how to book an appointment
• Focus on broad US education reform, and what this course does NOT do
• In class: Interpretive reading quiz 1 about syllabus on Moodle
• Presentation: What textbooks reveal about the Common School Movement
• Study hint: See my presentations live on web or File > Download. Avoid becoming a robotic note-taker of what I say. Instead, write notes on your deeper insights and/or unanswered questions about the presentations.
• Preview next week’s readings, and decide if you prefer digital or print
• Assign Annotating Sources for specific Google Docs primary sources listed below (3 points)
• Move to the Library by 7:45pm for two back-to-back 40-minute labs:
• History Lab with Jack in Watkinson Library: Analyzing 19th-Century Common School textbooks with worksheet
• Practice how to write meaningful comments on Google Docs below for Annotating Sources assignment
• Create a practice WordPress post  to prepare for Ed Policy Journalism assignment

due Sun Feb 3rd by 9pm

• Use “Guiding questions” below to help organize your notes and to prepare for the Interpretive reading quiz 2 on Moodle  (due Sunday 9pm) and mid-term exam
• Guiding question on Goldstein: How did the goals of early common school activists change from Catharine Beecher to Horace Mann to Susan Anthony?
• Read: Dana Goldstein,  Teacher Wars , introduction and chapters 1-2.
• All read primary sources below, and also follow instructions for  Assignment: Annotating Sources if your name is listed below
• Guiding question: How did common-school advocate Horace Mann justify why citizens should financially support government-sponsored schooling?
• Read: Horace Mann, “Intellectual Education as a Means of Removing Poverty, and Securing Abundance,” excerpt from “Annual Report to the Board of Education of Massachusetts for 1848,” in Life and Works of Horace Mann , ed. Mary Tyler Peabody Mann, vol. 3 (Boston: Walker, Fuller and co., 1865), 663–670, http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001067112 . Read our annotated Google Doc version , with questions/comments by me and 3 students: Jaymie, Eleanor, Bryan.
• Guiding question: Although prevailing norms dictated that white Protestant women should remain in the “private sphere” as mothers and homemakers during the nineteenth century, common-school advocate Catherine Beecher bent this rule to persuade women to enter the “public sphere” as school teachers. How did she craft this argument?
• Read: Catherine Beecher, The Evils Suffered by American Women and American Children: The Causes and the Remedy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1846), excerpt. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003456542 . Read our annotated Google Doc version , with questions/comments by me and 3 students: Yeabsira, Manny, Renita.
• Guiding question: On what grounds did John Hughes, the Catholic archbishop of New York, criticize the common school movement, and what was his rhetorical strategy for communicating these views to the Protestant majority?
• Read: John Hughes and New York. Committee of Catholics, Address of the Roman Catholics to their fellow citizens, of the City and State of New York (New-York : H. Cassidy. 1840), https://repository.library.nd.edu/view/44/121448.pdf . Read our annotated GDoc version , with questions/comments by me and 3 students: Elizabeth, Gisselle, Ayanna.
• Guiding question: How did Thomas Nast and other members of the Protestant majority portray Catholic opponents of common schools?
• See cartoon and explanation: Robert C. Kennedy, “On This Day: May 8, 1875 [about Thomas Nast’s Political Cartoon, ‘The American River Ganges’],” The New York Times Learning Network , May 7, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/harp/0508.html .
• Guiding question: In some cases, how did Common School reformers accommodate non-English-speaking communities?
• See excerpt from  Sanders’ Pictorial Primer = Sanders’ Bilder Fibel  (1846), https//catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008376748 .
• Read: Rosio Baez and Ashley Ardinger, “ Are McGuffey Readers still used to educate children today? ,”  Educ 300: Education Reform, Past and Present , January 31, 2012.
• New post about our first class: Jack Dougherty, “Teaching Race in the Archives,” January 30, 2019, https://jackdougherty.org/2019/01/30/teaching-race-archives .

Week 2: Mon Feb 4th in class – Interpreting Common-School Reform

• Community-Centered Research for Youth of Color panel , Tues Feb 5th 12:15pm in Terrace B&C, Mather Hall
• Documentary video and panel on “Unlikely” college access , Wed Feb 6th, 7pm at Cinestudio
• Presentation: Thinking like a Historian about the Common School Movement
• Annotators: point out your questions or interpretations on key passages
• Role-play debate over common schools
• Discuss: What can we learn from America’s past anti-immigration history to address present-day events? What steps — big or small — can you take?
• Any questions about background reading? Dana Goldstein, Teacher Wars
• Prep and assign annotators for next week’s readings. Option for paper printouts.
• See how your public writing will appear online this semester
• Reflect on our class  Public writing and student privacy policy
• How many students display their full names? See my book chapter
• Hint: Go to Dashboard > Users > Profile > to automatically display name
• Assign:  Education policy journalism event  to attend, report on a newsworthy story, at least 500 words and photo of you at or outside event; due 24 hours after event, due online by Sat March 2nd

due Sunday February 10th by 9pm

• Interpretive reading quiz 3 on Moodle  on Goldstein,  Teacher Wars , ch 3-4.
• If you have been assigned to annotate, see: How to Annotate Sources
• Guiding question: On what points did Washington and DuBois agree and disagree on education for African Americans, and how were their views shaped by their contexts?
• Booker T. Washington, “Industrial Education for the Negro,” in The Negro Problem  (New York, J. Pott & Company, 1903), 7–30, http://archive.org/details/negroproblemseri00washrich . Read our Google Doc version , annotated by 3 students: Miley, Jess, Tina
• W.E.B. DuBois, “The Talented Tenth,” in The Negro Problem , ed. Booker T. Washington (New York, J. Pott & Company, 1903), 31–76, http://archive.org/details/negroproblemseri00washrich . Read our GoogleDoc version , annotated by 3 students: Julia, Sara, Stephanie B
• Guiding question: A century ago, John Dewey, Margaret Haley, Elwood Cubberley, and Robert Yerkes all were identified with the broader Progressive education movement, but had very different goals. How did their views overlap and differ from one another?
• John Dewey, “The School and Social Progress,” in The School and Society (University of Chicago Press, 1900), 19–44, http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001055834 . Read our GoogleDoc version , which we will annotate together in class.
• Margaret Haley, “Why Teachers Should Organize.” In  National Association of Education. Journal of Addresses and Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting (St. Louis) , 145–152. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1904.  http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uiug.30112039515827?urlappend=%3Bseq=161 . Read our GoogleDoc version , annotated by 3 students: Lilliana, India, Zedong
• Ellwood Patterson Cubberley, “The Organization of School Boards,” in Public School Administration (Boston, New York etc.: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 85–97, http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001283482 . Read our GoogleDoc version , annotated by 2 students: Aditi, Allie
• Robert M. Yerkes, “The Mental Rating of School Children,” National School Service  1, no. 12 (February 15, 1919): 6–7, http://archive.org/details/nationalschoolse01unituoft . Read our GoogleDoc version , annotated by 2 students: Stefanie C, Gisselle
• Read more about Army Alpha and Beta intelligence tests in Facing History and Ourselves, “Revising the Test,” in Race and Membership in American History: The Eugenics Movement (Brookline MA: Facing History, 2002), 156–59, https://www.facinghistory.org/for-educators/educator-resources/readings/revising-test .
• NEW: Advice on Organizing Notes from TA Emily Schroeder ’20

Week 3: Mon Feb 11th in class – Contrasting Black and White “Progressive” Reform

• Apply for Public Humanities Collaborative paid summer internships – read listings and contact professors well before Feb 19th application deadline
• Thursday Feb. 14th, Coeducation in Context: 1969–1970, Common Hour at Cinestudio. This event is a panel discussion on the transition to coeducation, with Judy Dworin ’70, professor of theater and dance, emerita; Dori Katz, professor of modern languages and literature, emerita; Randy Lee ’66, associate professor of psychology and director of the Counseling and Wellness Center; and Ron Spencer ’64, former associate academic dean and lecturer in history, emeritus. This signature event is part of  Women at the Summit: 50 Years of Coeducation at Trinity College .
• Advice on Organizing Notes from TA Emily Schroeder ’20
• Presentation: What Direction for African-American Education: Washington and DuBois?
• Annotators: What are key lines/connections/questions in primary sources?
• Open 1940 US Census in Ancestry.com ( https://search.ancestry.com/search/db.aspx?dbid=2442 ) since National Archives site is not cooperating
• In right side, see “Browse this collection”
• Choose any area, or CT > Hartford > Hartford > any enumeration district
• View free records with free account (insert any email)
• Here’s a sample 1940 census manuscript page
• High School (H1-4)
• College (C1-5)
• For each team, open this Google Spreadsheet, insert codes for up to 40 residents on your page
• Overall, how many residents on your 1940 page completed grade 8? How many completed high school?
• How could you improve this study with better data collection and analysis?
• Presentation:  Contrasting Theories of “Progressive” Education Reform  

due Sun Feb 17th by 9pm

• Guiding questions for Goldstein, Teacher Wars , ch 5-6: How did anti-communism, school desegregation, and the Great Society programs influence teachers from the 1930s to 1960s?
• Interpretive reading quiz 4 on Moodle  on Teacher Wars , ch 5-6
• 1) Read: Lawrence Cremin, The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876-1957 (New York: Vintage, 1961), excerpt pp. vii-ix, 135-142 .
• 2) Read: David Tyack, The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), excerpt pp. 126-129, 182-191 .
• 3) Read: Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (New York: Basic Books, 1976), excerpt pp. 180-181, 191-195 .
• 4) Read: Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945-1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1983), excerpt pp. 43-48 .
• Guiding question: We all know (or should know) that the US Supreme Court ruled against legally segregated schooling in Southern and border states in 1954. But on what grounds did the court base its ruling? What do the words reveal about this decision?
• Read:  Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , 347 U.S. 483 (Supreme Court 1954), http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12120372216939101759 , read our GoogleDoc version for 2018-19

Week 4: Mon Feb 18th in class – Historiography of Progressive Era; Civil Rights Strategizing

• If co-authoring, write in Google Doc, paste into WordPress and use “custom byline” field below editor to display both names
• Did everyone complete their practice post? If yes, you may delete it.
• Inform our TA about which event you plan to attend for your  Ed Policy Journalism assignment (with partner, if desired).
• Jigsaw exercise on Historiography: Progressive-era reform through different historians’ eyes
• Assign: Historiography reading quiz (after completing jigsaw exercise) on Moodle  due by Sun Feb 24th 9pm (or sooner so you don’t forget!)
• Presentation: Evolution of School Desegregation Law Part 1, from Plessy to Brown to Massive Resistance  and Students’ Collaborative Notes for 2019
• Search strategies: Find and summarize court cases in http://scholar.google.com
• View excerpt from historical dramatization:  Separate But Equal  [about early 1950s legal strategy] (1991), on Moodle .
• Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka , 347 U.S. 483 (Supreme Court 1954), http://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12120372216939101759 , or see  GoogleDoc annotated version for 2018-19
• Assign:  Avoid Plagiarism Exercise due Sunday Feb 24th by 9pm
• Recommended: Use a citation tool, such as  How to capture and cite sources with Zotero 
• Handout: Curry/Cecelski comparative reading guide

due Sun Feb 24 by 9pm

• There is NO Sunday night Moodle quiz this week, because we will do the quiz in class on Monday, after discussion
•  Historiography reading quiz (after jigsaw exercise) on Moodle  due by Sun Feb 24th 9pm
•   Avoid Plagiarism Exercise due Sunday Feb 24th by 9pm
• Guiding question: According to Goldstein, why did the early 1960s alliance between city teachers and civil rights activists break apart in the late 1960s?Read: Goldstein,  Teacher Wars , ch 7
• See Curry/Cecelski comparative reading guide
• If your last name is A-K , read: David S. Cecelski, Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina, and the Fate of Black Schools in the South (The University of North Carolina Press, 1994).
• OR if last name is L-Z : Constance Curry, Silver Rights : The story of the Carter family’s brave decision to send their children to an all-white school and claim their civil rights. ( Harvest Books, 1996; or reissued edition by Algonquin Books, 2014).
• Read: Jack Dougherty, “Conclusion: Rethinking History and Policy in the Post-Brown Era” in More Than One Struggle: The Evolution of Black School Reform in Milwaukee . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. Read and comment on Google Doc version annotated for 2017-19 .

Week 5: Mon Feb 25th in class – Integration: From Idea to Implementation

• How to declare a major in Ed Studies  – Do it before Spring Break!
• Ed Studies Junior Plan : Mandatory meeting for rising seniors, Tues March 5th common hour in McCook 201 conference room (with pizza)
• Ed Policy Journalism assignment   deadline extended to Saturday March 16th (but only a fool waits until the last minute); see new  posts by classmates
• Presentation: Evolution of School Desegregation Law, part 2
• View excerpt from historical documentary: “Fighting Back” (1957-62 segment begins at 6:00),  Eyes on the Prize video documentary (Blackside Inc., PBS, 1986/2006),  https://youtu.be/Bi_WX0rOwzM?t=55m20s
• Jigsaw-pair learning exercise on Curry/Cecelski readings – see reading guide
• In class: Interpretive reading quiz on Moodle  on Curry/Cecelski
• Recommended: Work solo to organize your notes AND create a study group to anticipate possible exam questions (What Would Jack Ask?)
• Collaborative exercise:  How to Write About Historians and the Past
• Feedback on Avoiding Plagiarism assignments
• Prep for next week
• Assign:  mid-semester course feedback anonymous form

due Sun March 3 by 9pm

• Guiding questions on Goldstein, Teacher Wars, chapter 8: How does Goldstein explain the rise of the school accountability movement in the 1980s, and how is it similar or different to prior reform movements?
• No Moodle quiz this weekend; use your time to prepare for exam 1
• Complete your  mid-semester course feedback anonymous form 2019

Week 6: Mon March 4th in class – Accountability in Recent Ed Reform

• Dr. Elise Castillo named Ann Plato Fellow in Educ & PBPL, 2019-20
• Prof. Daisy Reyes on “Learning to be Latino” Thur March 7th, 12:15pm, Mather Hall, Terrace ABC
• Pathways to Teaching and Youth Work: Advice from Trinity Alumni , Tues March 12th, 6:30-7:30pm, McCook 201 conference room
• Ed Policy Journalism assignment and  posts by classmates
• Review together: mid-semester course evaluation feedback 2019
• Prep for next class: See guiding questions below, read all of Paul Tough,  Whatever It Takes , and complete Moodle quiz by Sunday 9pm
• Presentation: Crises in Education: 1958 – 1983 – today
• In class: Exam 1
• After you complete the exam, save in MS Word format, insert your TrinityID number into the filename (example: 1234567exam.docx), and  upload your responses for blind review . Do NOT include your name anywhere in the file, so that I may evaluate your work anonymously.

due Sun March 10th by 9pm

• Read all of Paul Tough,  Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canada’s Quest to Change Harlem and America . Boston: Mariner Books, 2009.
• Guiding questions on Whatever It Takes : What is the theory of change behind the Harlem Children’s Zone? According to Geoffrey Canada, what is the underlying cause of poverty, and how does it compare with other theories of poverty? Does the Harlem Children’s Zone strategy for reducing poverty lean more toward system-building or decentralization? Why do political leaders from sharply divided parties both praise his reform efforts?
• Interpretive reading quiz 6 on Moodle  on Paul Tough, Whatever It Takes

Week 7: Mon March 11th in class – Theories of Poverty & Theories of Change

• Tonight will be a 30-minute abbreviated class due to my illness
• Apply to Liberal Arts Action Lab by Sunday March 31st
• Apply to Community Learning Research Fellows by Sunday March 31st
• Ed Policy Journalism assignment  due Sat March 16th;  posts by classmates
• Presentation:  Theories of Poverty & Change around the Harlem Children’s Zone
• Presentation/activity:  Theories of Change and Policy Chains
• Prep for next week’s readings; no Moodle quiz during break
• Assign History Lab: Compare Trinity archival sources on 1960s-70s social change , and complete your assigned paragraph on the Google Doc.  Plan ahead: the Watkinson Library is open from Monday-Friday from 8:30am-4:30pm.
• Hand back and review exam #1 with selected student essay responses

Mon March 18th – No Class (Spring break)

Due by mon march 25th at 4:30pm (extended from sunday).

• History Lab: Compare Trinity archival sources on 1960s-70s social change , and complete your assigned paragraph on the Google Doc.  Plan ahead: the Watkinson Library is open from Monday-Friday from 8:30am-4:30pm
• No reading quiz this week, but be prepared to discuss & analyze in class:
• Guiding Question: How did students featured in the readings below experience schooling and social change, in similar or different ways?
• Read: David Adams, Education for Extinction : American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 . Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995, chapter 4, on Moodle
• Read: Leonard Covello. The Heart Is the Teacher . New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958, pp. 28-31, on Moodle .
• Read: Esmeralda Santiago, When I Was Puerto Rican . New York: Vintage Books, 1994, excerpt on Moodle

Week 8: Mon March 25th in class: Student Experiences of Education Reform

• Presentation: Student Experiences of School Reform and Social Change
• In class results of History Lab: What did Trinity 1960-70s archival sources tell you about past?
• Explore more sources on Trinity student protests since 2007
• Discuss: How has student activism changed — or remained continuous — from 1968 to 2018?
• Intro to  Research Essay Process
• In class: Create your proposal Google Doc
• Set Share> Advanced> Anyone with link > can Comment
• Copy and paste link into our GDoc Organizer
• In class: Read LAST YEAR’s research proposals (see asterisks*), with my comments.
• In class: Brainstorm Topics and Transform into Research Questions exercise
• In class: Finding Sources and Search Strategies for Educ 300  with Jack’s hints
• Assign:  Schedule a 20-minute meeting with me  for face-to-face feedback on your proposal, either before OR after the April 7th deadline.
• Recommended: Schedule a meeting with a librarian to discuss finding sources about your research question
• Reading for next week

due by Sunday March 31st at 9pm

• Interpretive reading quiz 7 on Moodle  on Goldstein,  Teacher Wars , ch 9-10 and Harris,  Value-Added Measures
• Guiding questions: How does researcher Doug Harris explain the benefits and limits of measuring student growth and value-added assessment? How does Goldstein explain criticisms of this approach?
• Read: Harris, Douglas N.  Value-Added Measures in Education: What Every Educator Needs to Know . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2011, introduction and chapters 1-3 (excerpted), on Moodle .
• Read: Goldstein, Teacher Wars, chapters 9-10

Week 9: Mon April 1st in class – Value-Added Assessment and Finding Sources

• Emily will notify you during class if your draft GDoc is not correctly shared
• Next week: our class meets in McCook Auditorium at 6:30pm for public showing of “Backpack Full of Cash” video documentary on school privatization
• Advising Week: Updated Educ and Cross-Referenced Courses
• RSVP by Mon April 15th to [email protected]  for Ed Studies Dinner for all declared majors, Thurs April 18th 6-7pm in Alumni Lounge, Mather Hall
• PS: Did you remember to book an appointment on my calendar ?
• Presentation: Testing Data and Value-Added Assessment
• Data exercise:  Which schools are best? Three ways to measure
• Google Ngram and other full-text databases — concept used by Kate McEachern, “ Teaching to the Test ,” Educ 300 essay, Trinity College, CT, Spring 2005.
• Internet Archive and the Way Back Machine — used by Taylor Godfrey, “ Change in Evaluation of Teach for America ,” Educ 300 web essay, Trinity College, CT, May 3, 2012.
• Reminder: Capture and Cite Sources with ZoteroBib or  Zotero  or other bibliographic management tool that produces results in either Chicago-style endnotes or MLA or APA in-line citations

due Sun April 7th by 9pm

• Assign: Research proposal due on Google Doc Organizer by Sun April 7th at 9pm
• Guiding Questions: How did charter schools originate, how did their mission shift over time, and what do Kahlenberg and Potter recommend to bring them back? And what doubts does Welner raise about charter schools? Could these doubts apply to other public school choice programs?
• Read: Richard Kahlenberg and Halley Potter, “Restoring Shanker’s Vision for Charter Schools,” American Educator , Winter 2014, https://www.aft.org/ae/winter2014-2015/kahlenberg_potter  or (compact PDF version)  https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/kahlenberg.pdf
• Read: Kevin Welner, “The Dirty Dozen: How Charter Schools Influence Student Enrollment,” Teachers College Record , April 22, 2013, http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=17104 , and publicly available at  http://nepc.colorado.edu/files/welner-charter-enrollment-teachers-college-record.pdf

Week 10: Mon April 8th in class – School Integration and Innovation

• Meet in McCook Auditorium at 6:30pm for public showing of “Backpack Full of Cash” video documentary
• Sarah Mondale,  Backpack Full of Cash video documentary (2017),  https://www.backpackfullofcash.com/ 
• Davis Guggenheim,  Waiting For “Superman,”  video documentary (2010), viewable at  https://vimeo.com/69353438 .
• Submit as a WordPress post (category=2019-video-analysis), and your post should appear on the Student Writing page .
• In class: Presentation/exercise:  School Choice Conceptual Map
• Discuss Kahlenberg and Potter’s article, and Welner’s “Dirty Dozen”
• Read definition in Kahlenberg and Potter,  A Smarter Charter book, 2014
• Draw picture of “self-selection bias” in school choice process, for people unfamiliar with this concept.
• Where is self-selection bias in this news article about CT study of school choice outcomes? Jacqueline Rabe Thomas, “State Report: Students in Desegregated Schools Test Higher,” CT Mirror , September 12, 2013, http://ctmirror.org/state-report-students-in-desegregated-schools-test-higher/ .
• Coming this week: comments on your research essay proposals
• Assign  Working Thesis and Evidence drafts  on  GDoc Organizer  due Friday April 19th by 6pm

due Sun April 14th by 9pm

• Video documentary comparative analysis*
• Moodle reading quiz  on Haynes and Thomas
• Reading guide: How has the US Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Free Exercise and Non-Establishment clauses of the First Amendment regarding public schools changed from the 1960s to the present?
• Charles Haynes and Oliver Thomas, Finding Common Ground: A First Amendment Guide to Religion and Public Schools (Nashville, TN: First Amendment Center, 2007), read chapter 4 (The Supreme Court, Religious Liberty, and Public Education) and chapter 16 (Frequently Asked Questions about Religious Liberty in Public Schools). See  PDF excerpt on Moodle
• Read: Ashley Ardinger, “ Sex Education: Defining Gender Roles During the Sexual Revolution and Today ,” Educ 300 web-essay, Trinity College, May 2012.

Week 11: Mon April 15th in class –  Sex and Religion in School Reform

• Congratulations on video documentary posts; still commenting on research proposals
• RSVP to [email protected] for Ed Studies majors dinner, Thur April 18th 6-7pm in Alumni Lounge, Mather Hall
• Presentation: Religion, Sex Education, and School Reform
• In-class video excerpt: Calvin Skaggs and David Van Taylor, With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America , Documentary, 1996, in Moodle .
• Anaheim Union High School District, “ Family Life and Sex Education Course Outline: Grades Seven Through Twelve, Fourth Revision ,” June 1967.
• Recommended reading on related debate over student hair: Gael Graham, “Flaunting the Freak Flag: Karr v. Schmidt and the Great Hair Debate in American High Schools, 1965–1975,” Journal of American History 91, no. 2 (September 1, 2004): 522–43, https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3660710 .
• 1) Ashley Ardinger, “ Sex Education: Defining Gender Roles During the Sexual Revolution and Today ,” Educ 300 web essay, Trinity College, May 2012.
• 2) Brigit, “ Kindergarten: The Changes from Play to Work ,” Educ 300 web essay, Trinity College, May 2012.
• 3) Lydia Kay, “ Charter School Growth and its Effect on Catholic Schools ,” Educ 300 web essay, Trinity College, May 2013.
• Presentation:  Structural and Stylistic Advice on Writing Ed 300 Web Essays
• Creat a draft document
• Set to Share > Advanced > Anyone with link > Can Comment
• Paste these questions at the TOP of your draft for reviewers
• 1) Does the essay pose a thought-provoking research question that addresses change and/or continuity over time in education?
• 2) Does the essay present a clear and insightful thesis that addresses the research question?
• 3) Does the essay identify the most appropriate source materials and methods for researching this question?
• 4) Is the essay’s thesis persuasive? Is it supported with convincing evidence and analysis?
• 5) Is the essay organized, clearly written, and does it include sufficient background for audiences unfamiliar with the topic?
• Assign: By Saturday morning, each student will be assigned to comment on two peer drafts on GDoc Organizer by Monday 6pm.
• Trinity Writing Center: schedule an appointment , and see  online resources (such as developing a thesis statement)
• Book an appointment with me if you would like to talk about your draft

due Fri April 19th at 6pm

Working Thesis and Evidence drafts  due on  GDoc Organizer  on Friday April 19th by 6pm (Avoid the late penalty!)

due Sunday April 21st by 9pm

• Guiding questions: How has the Trinity curriculum changed or remained continuous in recent decades? What factors are motivating current reform proposals?
• Brief Recent History of General Education at Trinity College
• Curricular Realignment – Why?
• Experiential Learning proposal
• General Education Requirements proposa l
• 32 Credits proposal
• Curricular Realignment Frequently Asked Questions
• Please explore other documents (pro and con) on this site, since all of these address your education at Trinity.
• No Moodle quiz this week

Week 12: Mon April 22nd in class – Competing Reforms for Higher Education

• Announcements:
• Prof. Elise Castillo , Ann Plato Diversity Post-Doctoral Fellow 2019-20
• AMST 406 student research projects
• Wed April 24th at 4:30pm, Hallden Hall (next to McCook)

• Presentation:  Curricular Reform at Trinity Over Time
• Vote with your feet and advocate for your preferred policy
• In your assigned groups on the GDoc Organizer , discuss peer comments on working thesis & evidence drafts. Draw on the  research essay evaluation criteria  to review what works and what needs to improve.
• Create a To Do list of next paragraphs to write or rewrite, and next sources to read.
• a) Continue writing in your current GoogleDoc draft and resolve comments
• b) File > Make a Copy and start a new version in Google Doc format
• c) File > Download As… MS Word and start a new version in Word format
• If you revise your research question to better match your sources, ask me to review it via email (or point me to your current GDoc).

• Turn off distractions: computer notifications, phone, and/or WiFi
• Review my  Structural and Stylistic Advice  to organize your writing
• Focus your energy on writing insightful arguments, persuasive evidence, and meaningful interpretation, as described in the research essay criteria
• Use any tool (such as ZoteroBib or  Zotero ) to cite sources, in any acceptable format, such as Chicago-style endnotes or MLA/APA in-line citations.
• Ask for feedback by scheduling an appointment with me , or The Writing Center , or a friend.
• Do all of your writing and revising in your preferred word processor, then copy and paste into WordPress, and add links and images if desired. See my WordPress tutorial .
• Assign: Final essay  on WordPress (category = 2019-research-essay) due Fri May 3rd by 6pm, which will publicly display your work on the current  Student Writing page . Plan ahead and avoid the late penalty.
• Public writing and student privacy policy, and what past students have decided
• Engaging essay title
• Thoughtful research question
• Insightful working thesis (bullet points are acceptable for presentations)
• Rich interpretation of at least one key source (which you may describe, quote, display as image, link, etc.)
• Confirm that your Share settings allow anyone with the link to view
• See examples of slides from last year’s students in 2018
• Most insightful thesis (majority vote by students)
• Richest source interpretation (majority vote by students)
• Most improved since proposal (selected by instructor)

Week 13: Mon April 29th in class – Brief Research Presentations & Making Sense of Reform

• Read before class: Stan Karp and Linda Christensen, “Why Is School Reform So Hard?,”  Education Week , October 8, 2003,  http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2003/10/08/06karp.h23.html OR download 3-page PDF .
• Vote for bonus points: Most insightful thesis; Richest source interpretation
• Bonus point for most improved since proposal (selected by instructor)
• Focus your writing on the key research criteria : RQ — Thesis — Evidence
• Use tools to help you  cite sources  and improve your grammar
• Write and revise in your preferred word processor, then copy and paste into WordPress. ( To paste cleanly, consider the hidden “paste as text” button, which will be demonstrated in class ). Add supplemental links and images if desired. See WordPress tutorial .
• Check the category (2019 research essay), which will publicly display your work on the Student Writing page.
• Prepare for open-book interpretive exam #2 on Wednesday (not Monday) May 8th at 6:30pm in our classroom. Will be same number of questions and format as exam #1, but a longer time period (up to 3 hours if needed; most will finish sooner). The exam may address any topic on the syllabus, but items from the second half of the course are more likely to appear.
• Presentation: What I Believe: Making Sense of Education Reform
• Available for essay discussions by appointment

due Fri May 3rd by 6pm

• Final web essay due by 6pm. Plan ahead and avoid the late penalty.

Wed (not Mon) May 8th from 6:30pm to 9:30pm in our regular classroom

• Exam #2, open-book, interpretive questions.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section School Reform

Introduction, general overviews.

• Sputnik and Civil Rights, 1950–1970
• Response to A Nation at Risk , 1980s
• Standards Movement and Goals 2000 and Whole-School Reform, 1990s
• Policy Reponses, 2000s
• Approaches to Reform
• School-Level Reform
• District-Level Reform
• Organizations

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School Reform by Heather Zavadsky LAST REVIEWED: 28 April 2017 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0035

School reform refers to the process of making changes in educational policy or practice, often in response to concern over student academic achievement. The term school reform is often interchanged with education reform or school improvement , but the most commonly used term is school reform. Most school reform falls into one of two categories: (a) teaching and learning or, in other words, what happens within classrooms, or (b) administrative reform, whereby either structures, governance, or decision-making strategies are addressed, either within or outside of the school. A third emergent approach combines both categories and typically refers to reform across entire districts and their schools, commonly known as comprehensive school reform, systemic reform, or district-wide reform. School reform has been a topic of urgent concern for decades and remains at the forefront of policy and practice, often prompted by particular historical events or major policies, including the launching of Sputnik, the civil rights movement, pivotal reports such as A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Education Reform , as citied in Response to A Nation at Risk, 1980s , and policy movements such as the Comprehensive School Reform Program, Goals 2000: Educate America Act, and No Child Left Behind Act. The topic of school reform is quite broad, and thus this bibliography focuses primarily on major reform movements at the school and district levels rather than on specific instructional reform movements. While there have been countless studies of the various approaches to school reform, many of those studies have conflicting findings and often are politically charged. For example, while there are many studies arguing that class size significantly impacts student achievement, there are almost as many studies illustrating that it has little impact on student achievement. These conflicts are often a result of disagreements over the methodology used in the studies, in implementation of the reforms themselves, or both. Class size provides a salient example of the stakes involved in many reform efforts. Because human resources comprise at least 65 percent of any district budget, and some of those resources are often scarce, an issue like class size is extremely important to both practitioners and policymakers. This bibliography is organized by decade and events and then details different reform approaches, current movements, and noteworthy case studies. A list of prominent education reform organizations is also provided. To the extent possible, multiple views on the utility and success of each reform are included as well as a list of researchers and authors that are important to each area.

Improving schools has been one of the longest surviving pursuits of both policymakers and practitioners, beginning in the 1960s. The recent anniversaries of the Coleman report and A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Education Reform , as citied in Response to A Nation at Risk, 1980s , brought heightened concern that little has changed in education despite numerous reform efforts. Several prominent education-thought leaders, historians, and researchers have detailed school reform in the decades since the 1960s, with the purpose of improving current practices through lessons from the past. Cross 2004 provides an insider’s view on federal influences on education reform on topics such as child poverty, children with disabilities, literacy instruction, education funding, and testing and accountability. The author also connects to his personal experience in education and policymaking in Finn 2008 , which highlights the innovative programs that have increased school choice options since 1960. Written by well-known education historians, Tyack and Cuban 1995 and Ravich 2000 point out how expectations for schools have moved well beyond academic learning to address social problems, leading to frenzied and unfocused approaches to school improvement. In contrast, Payne 2008 shows how the history of social issues such as poverty and race are important to understand to improve schools.

Cross, Christopher T. 2004. Political education: National policy comes of age . New York: Teachers College Press.

Presents a thorough review of US education policy from World War II to 2004, enriched by Cross’s own experiences in Washington, D.C., and interviews with key education decision makers.

Finn, Chester E. 2008. Troublemaker: A personal history of school reform since Sputnik . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Provides an informative history of school reform from 1950 to the mid-2000s by the renowned president of the Fordham Foundation. The book details education reform in the typical “tongue-in-cheek” style of Finn.

Payne, Charles M. 2008. So much reform, so little change: The persistence of failure in urban schools . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Discusses thirty years of school reform in the Chicago Public School District. Payne discusses the realities of urban school reform through complex social obstacles such as race and poverty.

Ravich, Diane. 2000. Left back: A century of failed school reforms . New York: Simon & Schuster.

An opinionated overview of the history of reform from the turn of the last century to 2000 by political analyst Diane Ravich. Her central thesis is that progressive education has thrown education reform into an unfocused frenzy and that the standards movement is an attempt to reclaim rigor and educational equality for all student groups.

Tyack, David, and Cuban, Larry. 1995. Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Gives a comprehensive overview of education reform history over the period of a century by well-known historians Tyack and Cuban. The authors connect education reform history to social and political realities and offer lessons learned from past successes and mistakes.

Webb, L. Dean. 2006. The history of American education: A great American experiment . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Typically used as a textbook in education foundation programs. Provides an overview of the history of education, incorporating up-to-date information to show the changes in US education over time.

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Larry Cuban on School Reform and Classroom Practice: Why Do School Reforms Occur Again and Again?

• School Reform and Restructuring
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School reforms unfold less like an auto engine piston pumping up and down within a cylinder and more like a large weather front of uncertain origin moving across a region. Reforms, like weather fronts varying by seasons but similar across years, go through phases that become familiar if observers note historical patterns and, in our speeded-up, multi-tasking culture, record what occurs. And most important, school reforms, like weather fronts, recur.

As a historian of schooling, I have noted phases of school reform in the U.S. over the past century that policymakers and practitioners have experienced. While I offer these stages in sequential order, keep in mind that the pace of each phase varies according to the nature of the proposed reform, when it occurs, how much reform talk permeates popular and professional media, which political coalitions push the reforms, and, of crucial importance, widespread acceptance of the reforms by those charged to implement them.

Keep in mind, however, that pandemics, wars, political upheavals, and social movements disrupt the sequence. Moreover, there are over 13,000 school districts in the nation (California has about 1,000). Finally, unlike France, Italy, Spain, China, and Russia, there is no national ministry of education that funds these districts or issues mandates for educators to follow. The point is that in such a decentralized system of schooling, these phases do not mechanically unfold in step-wise progression across the country. Rather they occur in the quasi-random fashion akin to a children’s game of tag.

Given these cautions, here is what I have observed about the origin and spread of school reforms that recur time and again over the past century.

* Social, political, economic, and demographic changes create situations that opinion-elites define as problems . By the 1890s through World War II, the U.S.’s economy grew dramatically and demands for skilled (not unskilled workers) grew. Employers wanted high school graduates who were literate and had skills that could be applied to surging new industries. Or consider that in the the 1970s, Japanese and German products seized large sectors of domestic markets requiring American industry and businesses to restructure their operations to compete internationally.

After World War II, waves of immigrants from Europe, Asia, and Latin America have made the U.S. a culturally diverse nation. The Immigration and Nationality Act (1965) shifted policy from a quota system on different nationalities favoring western Europe to a focus on reuniting families and welcoming skilled immigrants. By the 2020 census, the U.S. had become no longer a largely  white  nation but a multi-racial democracy.

* Policymakers, academics, and opinion-makers such as corporate officials, civic leaders, and foundation presidents talk to one another and the media about these problems . Over time, these demographic and socio-economic changes fueled political opinion elites to find ways that American institutions might politically remedy these emerging problems. National commissions issue reports and a consensus–what  David Tyack  and I have called “policy talk”–begins to grow about what the  real  problems are and which solutions are politically feasible.

Here is where elites frame the problem and very often point to improving schools as a solution (e.g.,  The Nation at Risk , 1983). This process historically is what David Labaree has called “ educationalizing ” national problems (e.g., childhood obesity, racial segregation, poverty).

* Groups and individuals (elite entrepreneurs, political officials, foundation leaders, special interest groups, community organizations, unions, etc.) develop policy proposals and school programs to solve the problem (e.g.,common curriculum standards, more tests and accountability regulations) . Through various mechanisms (e.g., state and federal legislation, district school board decisions, foundation-funded programs), groups and individuals such as corporate leaders, philanthropists, governors, and mayors come to be known as school reformers. State and local school officials, spurred often by media attention, push particular policies that become known as “reforms” (e.g., new reading and math programs, charter schools, small high schools, 1:1 laptops).

* Some of these policies get adopted.  Laws (e.g., the federal No Child Left Behind Act), district school board decisions (e.g., four-day school week, performance pay and anti-obesity programs), foundation-funded projects (e.g., technology integration across academic subjects) become the new wallpaper of reform. Superintendents, principals, and teachers attempt to incorporate these new policies, programs and innovations into routine practice in districts, schools, and classrooms.

* Growing criticism of educators’ seemingly slow, halfhearted efforts or resistance to put reforms into practice appears.  Unexpected outcomes occur (e.g., testing and accountability rules produce narrowed curriculum and teaching to the test; funding for new programs lags and budgets shrink). Reform promoters’ enthusiasm gives way to disappointment, annoyance, and even anger toward educators (e.g., uptick in overt hostility to teachers and their unions, higher turnover among superintendents and principals). Schools and teachers come under attack.

* And then different social, political, economic, and demographic changes create situations that opinion-elites define as problems….  And it is here that another cycle begins.

For readers over the age of 50 who have worked in schools for at least two decades or observed them as students and later as parents may find these phases familiar. If they do, they may also note that these cycles have within them certain commonalities:

*Policy elites mobilize individuals and groups to take action by framing problems, picking solutions, and getting policies adopted;

*Putting policy into practice is utterly dependent upon superintendents, principals, and teachers who played little to no role in framing problems or selecting solutions;

*Most policies, particularly those targeting changes in how teachers teach, are implemented partially and occasionally produce unanticipated consequences in classrooms.

In my opinion, we remain within another cycle of standards-based reforms dating back to  A Nation at Risk  report (1983). Since then a cascade of reform-driven policies slowly rolled out in familiar phases over the nation’s public schools including a Common Core curriculum, expanded parental choice of schools through charter schools, increased testing and accountability protocols. Even after the Covid-19 school closures, the slow growth of remote instruction has become another tool in maintaining standards-based reforms of the past four decades.

Perhaps readers may see these phases of school reform and commonalities differently. Let me know, if you do.

This blog post has been shared by permission from the author. Readers wishing to comment on the content are encouraged to do so via the link to the original post. Find the original post here:

The views expressed by the blogger are not necessarily those of NEPC.

Larry Cuban

Rick Hess Straight Up

Education policy maven Rick Hess of the American Enterprise Institute think tank offers straight talk on matters of policy, politics, research, and reform. Read more from this blog.

What the Last Two Decades Have Taught Us About School Reform

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At the end of last year, my colleague Ilana Ovental and I took a deep look into the media coverage of education during the pandemic. Part of that analysis asked whether—and how—coverage changed over time. So, we used Lexis Nexis to track the attention devoted to leading K-12 topics over the past couple decades. If you want to see the results for yourself, check it out here .

I was struck by how neatly the past two decades can be broken out into three (or perhaps three and a half) eras of school reform—a framing that can help us understand where we are and how we got here. Especially in a time when pandemic, political strife, hyperactive news cycles, and culture war can make six months seem like a lifetime, it’s worth taking a moment to step back in search of context.

If you’ll eyeball the peaks in the above graph, you’ll note that the 21 st century seems to order itself pretty neatly into a series of successive eras. The first of these, spanning roughly the length of the Bush administration, was the decade long rise and fall of No Child Left Behind. It took a couple years for NCLB to settle into the public consciousness, but, before long, it was the ubiquitous framing for all matters K-12. “Achievement gaps” became the lingua franca of advocates and funders; “AYP” (adequate yearly progress) became the measure of success.

By the dawn of the Obama years, amid concerns about excessive testing, high-stakes accountability, and a “race to the bottom,” NCLB had started to collapse under its own weight. In response, there was bursting interest in Obama’s Race to the Top, though attention to that was dwarfed by the rapid ascendance of its most controversial element: the Common Core State Standards.

The emphasis on testing and accountability shifted to academic standards. There was heated debate about new math, the status of fiction, and whether standards were a stealth mechanism for increasing federal control. Talk of “international benchmarking” and “systems interoperability” became the mantra for would-be reformers and enthusiastic funders.

So, we’d gone from federally driven testing and accountability to federally encouraged/subsidized/mandated (choose your verb) efforts to standardize reading and math standards. And then—as Checker Finn and I observed last year in “The End of School Reform?”—these efforts ran afoul of the populist wave that swept the nation in the 2010s. From the Tea Party to Occupy Wall Street to Black Lives Matter to the Trump/MAGA phenomenon, there was a multipronged attack on established institutions.

Thus, it’s not all that surprising that no new program rose to prominence as the Common Core lost altitude. Instead, there emerged a half-peak for school choice—perhaps the single education reform most aligned with a populist skepticism of institutional power. At the same time, this was less a case of choice exploding to prominence and more a case of steady growth amid something of a vacuum. Even with the determined, controversial efforts of Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos, school choice got barely half the media attention that NCLB and Common Core did at their peaks.

And more recently, we’ve seen the explosive, culture clash-fueled rise in attention to race-based curriculum and pedagogy (all playing out under the banner of critical race theory). Whether this third, culture war-driven wave will have the staying power of the wonkier previous waves remains to be seen.

Looking over two decades, I see the larger shift from slow-building policy debate to the rapid emergence of cultural conflict being noteworthy, even if I’m not sure what to make of it. For starters, I’ve no idea whether it’s a cyclical thing or something more permanent, or whether it tells us more about shifts in the schooling, media, public debate—or something of each.

One final thought: After doing this work for several decades, I can’t help but notice how seamlessly advocacy groups, associations, and other activists will pivot to reflect the zeitgeist of the day. So, in 2007, mission statements were all about “closing achievement gaps.” Five years later, they’d morphed into celebrating the importance of common standards. Today, the language has morphed again.

Some of this, I’m sure, is inevitable and even healthy. But chasing currents can also make organizations look unprincipled, feed cynicism, and leave them chasing every spin of the wheel. Keeping in mind that these tides ebb and flow might just give educators, leaders, and advocates more confidence to hold tight to the things they really value and more pause when they feel that pressure to chase the crowd.

The opinions expressed in Rick Hess Straight Up are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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Organizing Schools to Improve Student Achievement: Start Times, Grade Configurations, and Teacher Assignments

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Brian a. jacob and brian a. jacob walter h. annenberg professor of education policy; professor of economics, and professor of education - university of michigan, former brookings expert jonah e. rockoff jer jonah e. rockoff.

September 27, 2011

Education reform proposals are often based on high-profile or dramatic policy changes, many of which are expensive, politically controversial, or both. In this paper, we argue that the debates over these “flashy” policies have obscured a potentially important direction for raising student performance—namely, reforms to the management or organization of schools. By making sure the “trains run on time” and focusing on the day-to-day decisions involved in managing the instructional process, school and district administrators may be able to substantially increase student learning at modest cost.

In this paper, we describe three organizational reforms that recent evidence suggests have the potential to increase K–12 student performance at modest costs: (1) Starting school later in the day for middle and high school students; (2) Shifting from a system with separate elementary and middle schools to one with schools that serve students in kindergarten through grade eight; (3) Managing teacher assignments with an eye toward maximizing student achievement (e.g. allowing teachers to gain experience by teaching the same grade level for multiple years or having teachers specializing in the subject where they appear most effective).

We conservatively estimate that the ratio of benefits to costs is 9 to 1 for later school start times and 40 to 1 for middle school reform. A precise benefit-cost calculation is not feasible for the set of teacher assignment reforms we describe, but we argue that the cost of such proposals is likely to be quite small relative to the benefits for students. While we recognize that these specific reforms may not be appropriate or feasible for every district, we encourage school, district, and state education leaders to make the management, organization, and operation of schools a more prominent part of the conversation on how to raise student achievement

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Hannah C. Kistler, Shaun M. Dougherty

April 9, 2024

Katharine Meyer, Rachel M. Perera, Michael Hansen

Dominique J. Baker

Implementing school-based assessment reforms to enhance student learning: a systematic review

• Published: 18 October 2023
• Volume 36 , pages 7–30, ( 2024 )

Cite this article

• Cherry Zin Oo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3227-8010 1 ,
• Dennis Alonzo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8900-497X 2 ,
• Ria Asih   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9144-3357 3 ,
• Giovanni Pelobillo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8725-258X 4 ,
• Rex Lim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2980-5342 5 ,
• Nang Mo Hline San   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1396-9147 6 &
• Sue O’Neill   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2616-4404 2  

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Viewpoints on different assessment systems used in many educational bureaucracies are diverse and continually evolving. Schools are tasked with translating those reforms’ philosophies and principles into school-based assessment practices. However, it is unclear from research evidence what approach and factors best support the implementation of assessment reforms. To guide school leaders to design and implement school-based assessment reforms, there is a need to develop coherent knowledge of how school-based assessment reforms are implemented. We reviewed the literature on school-based assessment reforms using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. From a synthesis of the 28 articles included, we reported what approaches are used to implement assessment reforms and what factors influenced their implementation. Furthermore, we have proposed a framework that defines the political, cultural, structural, chronological, paradigmatic, and technological perspectives that need careful attention when implementing assessment reforms in schools.

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Oo, C.Z., Alonzo, D., Asih, R. et al. Implementing school-based assessment reforms to enhance student learning: a systematic review. Educ Asse Eval Acc 36 , 7–30 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-023-09420-7

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College Minor: Everything You Need to Know

14 fascinating teacher interview questions for principals, tips for success if you have a master’s degree and can’t find a job, 14 ways young teachers can get that professional look, which teacher supplies are worth the splurge, 8 business books every teacher should read, conditional admission: everything you need to know, college majors: everything you need to know, 7 things principals can do to make a teacher observation valuable, 3 easy teacher outfits to tackle parent-teacher conferences, ask an expert: using data to guide school reform efforts.

Question: I am a new principal who is being asked to lead a major school reform using data as a guide. I have participated in this type of reform effort before as teacher, but I played a very small part. Any thoughts on how I can use data to lead this major reform effort? Antonio J.

Answer: Antonio, something tells me that you will be ok. Here is my advice. Student performance depends on the existence of an modern, well organized system at district level. Any model focused on increasing the academic performance of students must involve every segment of the district, from the custodians to the school board. Most districts know exactly what their students need, and their district-wide curriculum and reform should reflect those needs. The district needs to make sure the developed curriculum aligns with the standards set by national and state entities.

Districts that show continuous positive results often base their decisions on data alone, as opposed to relying on observations and data together. Schools should regularly evaluate the pros and cons of instructional programs and realize that standardized tests should make up only a piece of the assessment puzzle, not the entirety. Continuously monitoring the progress of the school’s student body will allow the task force to alter the reform plan as needed.

Successful schools also take measures to institute checks and balances, to ensure the decision-making process is fairly distributed among a variety of reform participants. Superintendents are charged with the duty of ensuring that improvement efforts are carried out in a positive manner and meet the needs of the students.

The team leader’s job is to ensure teachers have all of the tools needed to foster the academic performance of students. Districts all over the country recognize accountability as the key to the school’s improvement process. Everyone is expected to give their best effort, or face the consequences. To ensure that staff and faculty members are able to perform at optimal levels, the school district must provide them with high-quality professional development.

Successfully implementing and sustaining school reform is possible. It may not be easy, but with a big effort, the use of all resources, and the expertise of professionals, school reform can be successful. The level of success the school is able to achieve will be based on the school’s situation. Whatever the obstacles, the leaders’ decisions need to be resolute to foster academic achievement.

In order to complete the process of school reform, restructuring efforts must be monitored and measured. The process of evaluation can be completed in-house, or the leader can hire outside consultants to perform the task. If the task force is willing to evaluate the success of the school’s reform, they must first develop a plan for evaluation.

The team’s evaluation plan should have been created before the reform was started. Performance goals that were created at the beginning of the process should be used to guide the evaluation process. The team will need to decide who will collect, study, and interpret the data. In order to avoid biased results, it may be in the best interest of the school to hire an outside consultant to provide a more objective assessment of the reform efforts. The team will also use the results to determine whether or not the reform efforts were effective.

The results may indicate that the reform was not successful. In this case, the best solution is to build upon the small successes and learn from mistakes. Another reform could then be put in place, or the unsuccessful reform changed to better suit the needs of the school. School restructuring is a long-term process, occurring on a continuous cycle. Keep in mind that not every restructuring effort bears fruit. Even the best schools have to continue to work in the restructuring process.

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We should be talking more about dumbed-down grades in schools

The issue has been festering for decades. Studies, conferences and PTA gossip regularly reveal grades awarded by teachers on report cards that distort how much students are learning. We sometimes complain but do little about it.

Now researchers Meredith Coffey and Adam Tyner of the Thomas B. Fordham Institute have taken this exasperation to a new level, with a detailed report wondering why we demand so little of our students when their school hours are critical to their futures.

We journalists are as much at fault as anybody. We often report about political fights over sexual and racial references in classes and textbooks but mostly ignore easy grading designed to keep students and their families happy rather than motivated to make schools work.

In their report — “ Think Again: Does ‘equitable’ grading benefit students? ” — Coffey and Tyner bemoan policies such as those that forbid penalties for late work or ensure nothing that students do will be marked less than 50 percent despite evidence many kids don’t understand the lesson.

The researchers admit that some adjustments in traditional grading can be useful. “But top-down policies that make grading more lenient are not the answer, especially as schools grapple with the academic and behavioral challenges of the postpandemic era,” they write.

“No-zero mandates, homework grading bans and prohibitions on penalties for late work and cheating … tend to reduce expectations and accountability for students, hamstring teachers’ ability to manage their classrooms and motivate students, and confuse parents and other stakeholders,” the report states.

They note a 2004 study of more than 5,000 third-, fourth- and fifth-graders in Alachua County, Fla., by professors David Figlio and Maurice Lucas that found students assigned to teachers who graded more strictly “went on to experience greater test score growth in both reading and math.” A 2020 study by American University’s Seth Gershenson of eighth- and ninth-grade Algebra I students in North Carolina found the same thing happening, both in the tough teachers’ classes and subsequent math courses.

Standardized tests that measure what children actually know are exposing a tendency to cover up failure. Gershenson’s report on grading standards in North Carolina found that from 2006 to 2016 more than one-third of students awarded a B in algebra failed to score proficient on a state algebra exam. Nationally the average ACT composite score in 2021 was the worst of any year since 2010, while the average grade-point average of ACT test takers that year was the highest ever reported, 3.4 on a four-point scale.

By contrast, the average U.S. high school grade-point average increased from about 2.6 in 1990 to about 3.0 in 2021.

In the 2000s and increasingly in the 2010s, educators who felt tough grading was creating an unhealthy dislike of school pushed for eased requirements. Books by grade-reform gurus such as Ken O’Connor, Cornelius Minor and Joe Feldman sold well and led to many large districts banning zeros on assignments.

Many educators say that trend has gone too far. In his report on disappointing results in North Carolina, Gershenson quoted one teacher saying: “We just end up, as teachers, it’s easier — and this is awful to say — it’s easier just to pass the kid than to actually give valid feedback, if that makes sense.”

In some places, the equitable grading movement has weakened one of the most successful school reforms of the past 50 years — improving high school learning by getting more students into college-level courses such as Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate.

Noah Lipman teaches courses in AP U.S. history, African American studies, government and macroeconomics to juniors and seniors at Highlands High School in San Antonio. Almost all of the school’s students are from low-income Hispanic families.

Teachers in several parts of the country have reported that disadvantaged students benefit from having to struggle in AP courses. Because of their exertions, they argue, the students can emerge better prepared for college, even if they do not pass the AP final exams.

Knowing this, Lipman helped create a rule at Highlands High that no student would be allowed to drop any AP class in the first six weeks. Administrators, however, have ignored that restriction, he said. They often pull his students out of AP much sooner because of fear that low grades would discourage them, a central tenet of the equitable grading movement.

“Between 10 to 15 percent of my students are dropped from my roster in the first four weeks,” he said. “Often, I never even know the student is being dropped. I am never part of the conversation.”

San Antonio schools spokeswoman Laura R. Short said the district provides “access to AP courses for all of our students.” But she did not explain why district supervisors were pulling students out of AP courses despite the protests of teachers like Lipman other than to say parents initiated the requests. Lipman said he had not seen that in his classes.

Politicians find it easy to inspire anger in voters about sexual and racial topics in classrooms. But it is harder to get those same voters excited about too many students getting easy A’s.

The issue has become a part of American school culture as indelible as pop quizzes and parents night, although not much has been done about it. It goes at least as far back as 1913, when educational psychologist and elementary school textbook editor Guy Montrose Whipple attacked “the reliability of the marking system” as “an absolutely uncalibrated instrument.”

More emphasis on stretching young minds rather than padding their grade-point averages would help. Challenging tests such as AP and IB finals are graded by impartial experts. That motivates more effort than final exams in regular classes that are graded by students’ own teachers, who know those children and tend to be more lenient.

But so far school boards appear to have too many other topics on their agendas to make more demanding work for students a priority.

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Real 'Public School Grading Scale' Used in California?

The graphic appeared on an episode of "dr. phil," but without necessary context about how grades work., published april 11, 2024.

On April 4, 2024, posts began appearing online showing a graphic from an episode of the daytime talk show "Dr. Phil" that showed a "public school grading scale" far more lenient than what many Americans are used to seeing. The graphic, summarizing a "Facebook Post by [California] Parent," assigns an "A" grade to an 84% and up, while the next three grades covers 20 percentage points, making a "B" between 64% and 84%, a "C" between 44% and 64% and so on, with an "F" below 24%.

Users across the social media landscape left comments bemoaning the state of the American public-education system. Some users went further , implying that the scale was implemented statewide.

But a few things about the post felt a bit wrong: The graphic did not include a precise source, and the grading scale was so different that we wondered whether it was real.

Is the Facebook Post Real?

It is unclear whether the post referenced by the graphic was real and whether it was describing a legitimate grading system.

Although we were unable to find an exact clip from the episode, we feel relatively comfortable in saying that the graphic is a real screenshot from "Dr. Phil." Dr. Phil McGraw used the same example when discussing American public education on " The Joe Rogan Experience " podcast in October 2022.

"Dr. Phil" stopped taping new episodes in early 2023, which means the episode in question would have been a rerun in April 2024. That fact made it even harder to track down the post's origin. We reached out to people involved with the production of "Dr. Phil" to ask them for the graphic's source, but have not yet heard back. We could not find a Facebook post matching what appeared on the show.

Because the Facebook post supposedly came from California, we investigated the grading methodologies of a few large public school districts in the state and reached out to the California's Department of Education.

The Los Angeles and Long Beach Unified school districts did not publish a districtwide grading scale, but reporting from the Los Angeles Times combined with documents for graduation requirements confirmed that these schools use some sort of a letter grade system. In February 2024 , L.A. Unified updated its grading practices for the first time since 2005 and included a "heavy suggestion" that teachers move away from traditional grading. However, the episode of "Dr. Phil" with the graphic would have aired long before that change was made.

In addition, the  San Diego Unified and San Francisco Unified school districts had districtwide grading scales for middle- and high-schoolers that match the standard "A = 90-100%" grading scale most Americans are used to. Therefore, although the grading scale shown on "Dr. Phil" might exist in the state of California, it certainly is not statewide. We have not yet heard back from the Department of Education.

In our research, we came across mentions of a grading methodology called "mastery-based" or "standards-based" grading that might be able to explain the uncommon scale. In particular, we found that the percentages found in the graphic could have easily resulted from attempting to translate a mastery-based grading system into a more traditional percentage-based or letter grade system.

So with the caveat that Snopes could not definitively identify the particular scale featured on "Dr. Phil," let's explore standards-based grading.

Standards-Based Grading

Sharona Krinsky, an adjunct professor of mathematics at California State University, Los Angeles and executive director of The Grading Conference , knew exactly what was going on with that methodology.

"Grades don't communicate learning. They were designed to rank and score students against each other," she said. "We're recreating grading as a tool to help students learn and report what they learn."

In order to do that, Krinsky said, we need to think of grades as subjective evaluations rather than objective numbers. In a normal ABCDF grading scale, student assignments are given point values and scored based on a percentage of points. In standards-based grading, however, students are graded based on whether or not they've exceeded the instructor's learning goals. For instance, an elementary-school math instructor might set learning goals of understanding how parentheses work, or knowing how to add two-digit numbers. Then, each student is given a different mark (oftentimes, on a 0-4 or 0-5 scale) for how well they understand and can apply each objective.

Although a numerical scale is still applied in standards-based grading, Krinsky said that what really matters is whether the student understands the concept.

"Grades are labels, and we made the mistake of treating them as math," she said.

Under common ABCDF gradings, the passing threshold is a C, equivalent to 70%. But on standards-based learning scales, passing is often a 3, placing it much closer to the graphic that appeared on "Dr. Phil," where a C was between 44 and 64%. And when taken in a vacuum, such a grading scale makes it look like the expectations for students are more lenient.

"If that's the only thing you change, then of course standards are going to go down," Krinsky said.

But these grading systems do not exist in a vacuum. Under standards-based grading systems, educators change more than just the grading scale. This was the main problem Krinsky had with the graphic on "Dr. Phil." She said the lack of context removed any possible explanation for how the grades are given and what standards the students are being held to.

Translating a standards-based system into a familiar percentage or letter grade scale just doesn't make a lot of sense, because number grades are not objective. A 50% on one scale could genuinely equal the same effort from a student as a 70% on another scale. This is possibly how Dr. Phil's grading scale ended up the way it did: a different set of academic standards got lost in translation.

Krinsky said that people criticizing the public education system, grading scales included, don't often acknowledge that it fails because budget cuts and political pressure do not give it the chance to succeed. She wanted parents who criticize the education system to know that her goal is to get their kids to learn effectively.

"Parents should be willing to engage with an open mind, and not assume that their way is always the best way." she said. "They're such powerful advocates."

By Jack Izzo

Jack Izzo is a Chicago-based journalist and two-time "Jeopardy!" alumnus.

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40 facts about elektrostal.

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 02 Mar 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes, offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development.

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy, with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

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The White House 1600 Pennsylvania Ave NW Washington, DC 20500

President   Biden Announces Key   Nominees

WASHINGTON – Today, President Joe Biden announced his intent to nominate the following individuals to serve as key leaders in his Administration:

Amanda S. Jacobsen, Nominee to be Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Republic of Equatorial Guinea

Christophe Andre Tocco, Nominee to be Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Islamic Republic of Mauritania

Shirley Sagawa, Nominee to be a Member of the Board of Directors of the Corporation for National and Community Service

Heather M. Cahoon, Nominee to be a Member of the Board of Trustees of the Morris K. Udall and Stewart L. Udall Foundation

Ashley Jay Elizabeth Poling, Nominee to be a Commissioner of the Postal Regulatory Commission

Ann C. Fisher, Nominee to be a Commissioner of the Postal Regulatory Commission

Amanda S. Jacobsen is a career member of the Senior Foreign Service, Class of Counselor. She currently serves as Deputy Chief of Mission of the U.S. Embassy in Gaborone, Botswana, where she was also Chargé d’Affaires ad interim. Previously she served as the Public Affairs Officer at the U.S. Embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Earlier, Jacobsen was the Spokesperson for the Bureau of African Affairs at the State Department and, prior to that, the Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs. Jacobsen’s other diplomatic assignments include service at the U.S. Embassy in Kathmandu, Nepal: first as the Cultural Affairs Officer and subsequently as the Regional Refugee Coordinator. She previously served tours as the Public Affairs Officer in Gaborone, Botswana, and as a Consular Officer at the U.S. Embassy in Lomé, Togo. Jacobsen received her BA from the University of Puget Sound and her MA in International Relations from the Brussels School of International Studies, University of Kent. She speaks Spanish, French, and basic Nepali. She originally hails from Stevens Point, Wisconsin.

Christophe Andre Tocco, a career member of the Senior Foreign Service with the rank of Career Minister, is currently the Senior Deputy Assistant Administrator in the U.S. Agency for International Development’s (USAID) Bureau for Planning, Learning and Resource Management where he oversees the Office of Policy, and the Program Office. Previously, he served as Senior Development Counselor and U.S. Delegate to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s (OECD) Development Assistance Committee. Other assignments include USAID Mission Director, Democratic Republic of Congo; Deputy Mission Director, Democratic Republic of Congo; and Deputy Regional Mission Director, USAID Senegal. Earlier assignments include Supervisory Program Officer for USAID Senegal and for USAID Rwanda and Morocco Country Desk Officer. Before joining the Foreign Service, Tocco was a Peace Corps volunteer in Morocco. A native of California, Tocco holds a BA from the University of California at Los Angeles and a Master of Science from the School of Advanced Business Studies (HEC) in Paris, France. He speaks French, Spanish, German, Moroccan Arabic, and Modern Standard Arabic.

Shirley Sagawa is the former CEO of Service Year Alliance and an architect of AmeriCorps. Over the last three decades, she has developed innovative social and education policy, authored groundbreaking reports, and advised national organizations and foundations on strategy. As a partner with sagawa/jospin, she played strategic roles in the creation of America Forward, Cities of Service, Service Year Exchange, and the Presidio Institute Fellows Program.

She has served as a presidential appointee in both Democratic and Republican Administrations. She served as First Lady Hillary Clinton’s Policy Assistant and Deputy Chief of Staff, and helped lead the start-up of the Corporation for National and Community Service for President Bill Clinton. For President George H. W. Bush, she served as first Vice Chair of the Commission on National and Community Service, authorized under the National and Community Service Act of 1990, which she drafted and negotiated as a Chief Counsel for Youth Policy on the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee. A Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress, Sagawa is the author of three books, including The American Way to Change and The Charismatic Organization . She holds degrees from Harvard Law School, London School of Economics, and Smith College.

Heather M. Cahoon is a federal Indian policy scholar and Associate Professor of Native American Studies at the University of Montana. She is also the Founder and former Director of the American Indian Governance and Policy Institute, a Native-led research entity and independent think tank that provides tribal nations in Montana with in-depth research and analysis of tribal policies. Previously, Cahoon worked as the State-Tribal Policy Analyst for the Montana Budget and Policy Center where she led the center’s efforts to advance an array of state-level policies affecting American Indians including those priorities identified by tribal leaders in Montana. In 2015, Cahoon was named the University of Montana’s first Elouise Cobell Land and Culture Institute Scholar, a title reserved for faculty who are continuing Cobell’s legacy of working for justice and equity for American Indians and tribal communities. Cahoon has held Gubernatorial appointments to the Montana Ambassadors and the Montana Board of Crime Control’s Youth Justice Council. In addition to her policy research and teaching, Cahoon is also an award-winning poet and the author of  Horsefly Dress and Elk Thirst.  She is from the Flathead Reservation in western Montana where she is a member of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes.

Ashley Jay Elizabeth Poling joined the Postal Regulatory Commission in August of 2019 as a Commissioner. In this role, Poling is responsible for making regulatory decisions, including on rate and service issues that affect the United States Postal Service and postal customers across the country, while ensuring transparency and accountability of this vital public service.

Prior to joining the Commission, Poling served as the Director of Governmental Affairs and Senior Counsel to then-Ranking Member Gary Peters (D-MI) on the U.S. Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee where she advised Senator Peters on policy issues, negotiated with stakeholders to advance bipartisan legislation, and implemented strategies to advance the Senator’s governmental affairs priorities. Poling also served as Senior Policy Counsel to Senator Heidi Heitkamp (D-ND) and as Counsel to Senator Jon Tester (D-MT) on their respective U.S. Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Subcommittees, where she focused extensively on postal reform, rural access, and service issues.

Poling holds a JD from Elon University School of Law and an English degree from The College of William and Mary. She is a native of North Carolina.

Ann C. Fisher was sworn in as Commissioner of the Postal Regulatory Commission in August of 2019. Fisher is a proud 30-year federal employee. Prior to joining the Commission, Fisher spent 12 years working in the U.S. Senate, advising members on small business, health care, federal employee and Postal Service issues. She began her career serving as an economist for her home state senator, Larry Pressler (R-SD) on the Senate Small Business Committee. She later joined Senator Thad Cochran’s (R-MS) staff on the International Security, Proliferation and Federal Services Subcommittee, serving as the Senator’s advisor on federal employee and U.S. Postal Service issues. Her final four years in the Senate were as deputy staff director to then-Chairman Susan Collins (R-ME) on the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee.

Fisher was the primary Senate Republican aide overseeing passage of the Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act of 2006. Additionally, Fisher spent four years as government relations executive at the U.S. Postal Service Headquarters where she oversaw the resolution of congressional concerns throughout the country’s Midwest region. In 2006, Fisher joined Postal Regulatory Commission Chair Dan G. Blair as chief of staff at the newly renamed and empowered Postal Rate Commission. Prior to her appointment, Fisher served as the Commission’s director of public affairs and government relations. Fisher holds a BS in Mathematics from Minnesota State University, Mankato and an MA in economics from the University of South Dakota.

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For the first time Rosatom Fuel Division supplied fresh nuclear fuel to the world’s only floating nuclear cogeneration plant in the Arctic

The fuel was supplied to the northernmost town of Russia along the Northern Sea Route.

The first in the history of the power plant refueling, that is, the replacement of spent nuclear fuel with fresh one, is planned to begin before 2024. The manufacturer of nuclear fuel for all Russian nuclear icebreakers, as well as the Akademik Lomonosov FNPP, is Machinery Manufacturing Plant, Joint-Stock Company (MSZ JSC), a company of Rosatom Fuel Company TVEL that is based in Elektrostal, Moscow Region.

The FNPP includes two KLT-40S reactors of the icebreaking type. Unlike convenient ground-based large reactors (that require partial replacement of fuel rods once every 12-18 months), in the case of these reactors, the refueling takes place once every few years and includes unloading of the entire reactor core and loading of fresh fuel into the reactor.

The cores of KLT-40 reactors of the Akademik Lomonosov floating power unit have a number of advantages compared to the reference ones: a cassette core was used for the first time in the history of the unit, which made it possible to increase the fuel energy resource to 3-3.5 years between refuelings, and also reduce the fuel component of the electricity cost by one and a half times. The FNPP operating experience formed the basis for the designs of reactors for nuclear icebreakers of the newest series 22220. Three such icebreakers have been launched by now.

For the first time the power units of the Akademik Lomonosov floating nuclear power plant were connected to the grid in December 2019, and put into commercial operation in May 2020. The supply of nuclear fuel from Elektrostal to Pevek and its loading into the second reactor is planned for 2024. The total power of the Akademik Lomonosov FNPP, supplied to the coastal grid of Pevek without thermal energy consumption on shore, is about 76 MW, being about 44 MW in the maximum thermal power supply mode. The FNPP generated 194 million kWh according to the results of 2023. The population of Pevek is just a little more than 4 thousand, while the FNPP has a potential for supplying electricity to a city with a population of up to 100 thousand people. After the FNPP commissioning two goals were achieved. These include first of all the replacement of the retiring capacities of the Bilibino NPP, which has been operating since 1974, as well as the Chaunskaya TPP, which has already been operating for more than 70 years. Secondly, energy is supplied to the main mining companies in western Chukotka in the Chaun-Bilibino energy hub a large ore and metal cluster, including gold mining companies and projects related to the development of the Baimsk ore zone. In September 2023, a 110 kilovolt power transmission line with a length of 490 kilometers was put into operation, connecting the towns of Pevek and Bilibino. The line increased the reliability of energy supply from the FNPP to both Bilibino consumers and mining companies, the largest of which is the Baimsky GOK. The comprehensive development of the Russian Arctic is a national strategic priority. To increase the NSR traffic is of paramount importance for accomplishment of the tasks set in the field of cargo shipping. This logistics corridor is being developed due regular freight voyages, construction of new nuclear-powered icebreakers and modernization of the relevant infrastructure. Rosatom companies are actively involved in this work. Rosatom Fuel Company TVEL (Rosatom Fuel Division) includes companies fabricating nuclear fuel, converting and enriching uranium, manufacturing gas centrifuges, conducting researches and producing designs. As the only nuclear fuel supplier to Russian NPPs, TVEL supplies fuel for a total of 75 power reactors in 15 countries, for research reactors in nine countries, as well as for propulsion reactors of the Russian nuclear fleet. Every sixth power reactor in the world runs on TVEL fuel. Rosatom Fuel Division is the world’s largest producer of enriched uranium and the leader on the global stable isotope market. The Fuel Division is actively developing new businesses in chemistry, metallurgy, energy storage technologies, 3D printing, digital products, and decommissioning of nuclear facilities. TVEL also includes Rosatom integrators for additive technologies and electricity storage systems. Rosenergoatom, Joint-Stock Company is part of Rosatom Electric Power Division and one of the largest companies in the industry acting as an operator of nuclear power plants. It includes, as its branches, 11 operating NPPs, including the FNPP, the Scientific and Technical Center for Emergency Operations at NPPs, Design and Engineering as well as Technological companies. In total, 37 power units with a total installed capacity of over 29.5 GW are in operation at 11 nuclear power plants in Russia. Machinery Manufacturing Plant, Joint-Stock Company (MSZ JSC, Elektrostal) is one of the world’s largest manufacturers of fuel for nuclear power plants. The company produces fuel assemblies for VVER-440, VVER-1000, RBMK-1000, BN-600,800, VK-50, EGP-6; powders and fuel pellets intended for supply to foreign customers. It also produces nuclear fuel for research reactors. The plant belongs to the TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom.

Rosatom obtained a license for the first land-based SMR in Russia

On April 21, Rosenergoatom obtained a license issued by Rostekhnadzor to construct the Yakutsk land-based SMR in the Ust-Yansky District of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

ROSATOM and FEDC agree to cooperate in the construction of Russia's first onshore SNPP

ROSATOM and FEDC have signed a cooperation agreement to build Russia's first onshore SNPP in Yakutia.

Rosatom develops nuclear fuel for modernized floating power units

Rosatom has completed the development of nuclear fuel for the RITM-200S small modular reactor designed for the upgraded floating power units.