delimitations in qualitative research pdf

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A Thematic Analysis of the Structure of Delimitations in the Dissertation

Aim/Purpose The purpose of the research was to examine the function and application of delimitations—what the researcher includes and excludes in a study—in the dissertation process. The aim was to map the delimitations process to improve research, rigor and relevance of findings, and doctoral completion rates using a formalized and standardized approach applied flexibly.

Background All research is bounded whether formally defined or not. Unlike limitations, which are issues which the researcher addressed after the completion of a study and cannot control, delimitations are what a researcher includes and excludes to make a project manageable and focused on the research question. Yet, there was no research identified which specifically discussed delimitations. Researching the structure and utility of delimitations in educational administration dissertations provided a systematic analysis of the formation of the scope and boundary of research in doctoral studies.

Methodology The structure of delimitations in dissertations were examined using descriptive quantitative statistics and a qualitative thematic analysis from 28 universities. The first stage included delimitations from 30 dissertations. Triangulation was conducted using the findings with a training set of delimitations in 15 dissertations with a rubric generated from the primary sample.

Contribution The thematic analysis presented a description and interpretation of the nature of delimitations and a systematic framework to improve the research process in dissertations. Mapping the delimitations process gave a detailed portrait of internal and external characteristics which could aid doctoral students in completing the dissertation. Doctoral attrition rates, poorly completed dissertations, and lack of relevance or applicability of results need remedied. Furthermore, the delimitations rubric provided a systematic method to focus communities of learners around a common goal.

Findings Findings suggested doctoral students used delimitations haphazardly and lacked a systematic application to research. Three major themes emerged from the delimitations sections: rituals, equifinality, and pragmatism. Topics within delimitations sections centered around two axes: the internal topics of sampling procedures and factors/variables and external topics of research design and conceptual/theoretical framework.

Recommendations for Practitioners Poorly understood and developed delimitations negatively impacted findings in dissertations, completion rates, and future research skills of doctoral students. By applying delimitations to a design of research framework in a community of learners, doctoral students and dissertation chairs could improve the dissertation completion process and improve research results using a Delimitations Evaluation Rubric.

Recommendation for Researchers Developing a rules-based process with a formalized and standardized process could give researchers a way to evaluate and plan the dissertation process. Developing and applying rubrics to delimitations could serve as a conduit to effective mentoring, feedback, and empowerment.

Impact on Society Improving doctoral completion rates in a timely manner would be beneficial to students’ long-term and personal interests. A well-defined delimitations process could improve the dissertation, and strengthened dissertations could add to the research base.

Future Research Delimitations are listed in one section, but the scope and boundaries are often fragmented and disjointed throughout a dissertation. By examining complete dissertations for delimitations, there could be further insight. Expanding rubrics as a tool to build a community of learners could develop a holistic approach to doctoral education.

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Scope and Delimitations in Research

Delimitations are the boundaries that the researcher sets in a research study, deciding what to include and what to exclude. They help to narrow down the study and make it more manageable and relevant to the research goal.

Updated on October 19, 2022

All scientific research has boundaries, whether or not the authors clearly explain them. Your study's scope and delimitations are the sections where you define the broader parameters and boundaries of your research.

The scope details what your study will explore, such as the target population, extent, or study duration. Delimitations are factors and variables not included in the study.

Scope and delimitations are not methodological shortcomings; they're always under your control. Discussing these is essential because doing so shows that your project is manageable and scientifically sound.

This article covers:

• What's meant by “scope” and “delimitations”
• Why these are integral components of every study
• How and where to actually write about scope and delimitations in your manuscript
• Examples of scope and delimitations from published studies

What is the scope in a research paper?

Simply put, the scope is the domain of your research. It describes the extent to which the research question will be explored in your study.

Articulating your study's scope early on helps you make your research question focused and realistic.

It also helps decide what data you need to collect (and, therefore, what data collection tools you need to design). Getting this right is vital for both academic articles and funding applications.

What are delimitations in a research paper?

Delimitations are those factors or aspects of the research area that you'll exclude from your research. The scope and delimitations of the study are intimately linked.

Essentially, delimitations form a more detailed and narrowed-down formulation of the scope in terms of exclusion. The delimitations explain what was (intentionally) not considered within the given piece of research.

Scope and delimitations examples

Use the following examples provided by our expert PhD editors as a reference when coming up with your own scope and delimitations.

Scope example

Your research question is, “What is the impact of bullying on the mental health of adolescents?” This topic, on its own, doesn't say much about what's being investigated.

The scope, for example, could encompass:

• Variables: “bullying” (dependent variable), “mental health” (independent variable), and ways of defining or measuring them
• Bullying type: Both face-to-face and cyberbullying
• Target population: Adolescents aged 12–17
• Geographical coverage: France or only one specific town in France

Delimitations example

Look back at the previous example.

Exploring the adverse effects of bullying on adolescents' mental health is a preliminary delimitation. This one was chosen from among many possible research questions (e.g., the impact of bullying on suicide rates, or children or adults).

Delimiting factors could include:

• Research design : Mixed-methods research, including thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews and statistical analysis of a survey
• Timeframe : Data collection to run for 3 months
• Population size : 100 survey participants; 15 interviewees
• Recruitment of participants : Quota sampling (aiming for specific portions of men, women, ethnic minority students etc.)

We can see that every choice you make in planning and conducting your research inevitably excludes other possible options.

What's the difference between limitations and delimitations?

Delimitations and limitations are entirely different, although they often get mixed up. These are the main differences:

This chart explains the difference between delimitations and limitations. Delimitations are the boundaries of the study while the limitations are the characteristics of the research design or methodology.

Delimitations encompass the elements outside of the boundaries you've set and depends on your decision of what yo include and exclude. On the flip side, limitations are the elements outside of your control, such as:

• limited financial resources
• unplanned work or expenses
• unexpected events (for example, the COVID-19 pandemic)
• time constraints
• lack of technology/instruments
• unavailable evidence or previous research on the topic

Delimitations involve narrowing your study to make it more manageable and relevant to what you're trying to prove. Limitations influence the validity and reliability of your research findings. Limitations are seen as potential weaknesses in your research.

Example of the differences

To clarify these differences, go back to the limitations of the earlier example.

Limitations could comprise:

• Sample size : Not large enough to provide generalizable conclusions.
• Sampling approach : Non-probability sampling has increased bias risk. For instance, the researchers might not manage to capture the experiences of ethnic minority students.
• Methodological pitfalls : Research participants from an urban area (Paris) are likely to be more advantaged than students in rural areas. A study exploring the latter's experiences will probably yield very different findings.

Where do you write the scope and delimitations, and why?

It can be surprisingly empowering to realize you're restricted when conducting scholarly research. But this realization also makes writing up your research easier to grasp and makes it easier to see its limits and the expectations placed on it. Properly revealing this information serves your field and the greater scientific community.

Openly (but briefly) acknowledge the scope and delimitations of your study early on. The Abstract and Introduction sections are good places to set the parameters of your paper.

Next, discuss the scope and delimitations in greater detail in the Methods section. You'll need to do this to justify your methodological approach and data collection instruments, as well as analyses

At this point, spell out why these delimitations were set. What alternative options did you consider? Why did you reject alternatives? What could your study not address?

Let's say you're gathering data that can be derived from different but related experiments. You must convince the reader that the one you selected best suits your research question.

Finally, a solid paper will return to the scope and delimitations in the Findings or Discussion section. Doing so helps readers contextualize and interpret findings because the study's scope and methods influence the results.

For instance, agricultural field experiments carried out under irrigated conditions yield different results from experiments carried out without irrigation.

Being transparent about the scope and any outstanding issues increases your research's credibility and objectivity. It helps other researchers replicate your study and advance scientific understanding of the same topic (e.g., by adopting a different approach).

How do you write the scope and delimitations?

Define the scope and delimitations of your study before collecting data. This is critical. This step should be part of your research project planning.

Answering the following questions will help you address your scope and delimitations clearly and convincingly.

• What are your study's aims and objectives?
• Why did you carry out the study?
• What was the exact topic under investigation?
• Which factors and variables were included? And state why specific variables were omitted from the research scope.
• Who or what did the study explore? What was the target population?
• What was the study's location (geographical area) or setting (e.g., laboratory)?
• What was the timeframe within which you collected your data ?
• Consider a study exploring the differences between identical twins who were raised together versus identical twins who weren't. The data collection might span 5, 10, or more years.
• A study exploring a new immigration policy will cover the period since the policy came into effect and the present moment.
• How was the research conducted (research design)?
• Experimental research, qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods research, literature review, etc.
• What data collection tools and analysis techniques were used? e.g., If you chose quantitative methods, which statistical analysis techniques and software did you use?
• What did you find?
• What did you conclude?

Useful vocabulary for scope and delimitations

When explaining both the scope and delimitations, it's important to use the proper language to clearly state each.

For the scope , use the following language:

• This study focuses on/considers/investigates/covers the following:
• This study aims to . . . / Here, we aim to show . . . / In this study, we . . .
• The overall objective of the research is . . . / Our objective is to . . .

When stating the delimitations, use the following language:

• This [ . . . ] will not be the focus, for it has been frequently and exhaustively discusses in earlier studies.
• To review the [ . . . ] is a task that lies outside the scope of this study.
• The following [ . . . ] has been excluded from this study . . .
• This study does not provide a complete literature review of [ . . . ]. Instead, it draws on selected pertinent studies [ . . . ]

Analysis of a published scope

In one example, Simione and Gnagnarella (2020) compared the psychological and behavioral impact of COVID-19 on Italy's health workers and general population.

Here's a breakdown of the study's scope into smaller chunks and discussion of what works and why.

Also notable is that this study's delimitations include references to:

• Recruitment of participants: Convenience sampling
• Demographic characteristics of study participants: Age, sex, etc.
• Measurements methods: E.g., the death anxiety scale of the Existential Concerns Questionnaire (ECQ; van Bruggen et al., 2017) etc.
• Data analysis tool: The statistical software R

Analysis of published scope and delimitations

Scope of the study : Johnsson et al. (2019) explored the effect of in-hospital physiotherapy on postoperative physical capacity, physical activity, and lung function in patients who underwent lung cancer surgery.

The delimitations narrowed down the scope as follows:

Refine your scope, delimitations, and scientific English

English ability shouldn't limit how clear and impactful your research can be. Expert AJE editors are available to assess your science and polish your academic writing. See AJE services here .

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Research Limitations & Delimitations

What they are and how they’re different (with examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: David Phair (PhD) | September 2022

If you’re new to the world of research, you’ve probably heard the terms “ research limitations ” and “ research delimitations ” being thrown around, often quite loosely. In this post, we’ll unpack what both of these mean, how they’re similar and how they’re different – so that you can write up these sections the right way.

Overview: Limitations vs Delimitations

• Are they the same?
• What are research limitations
• What are research delimitations
• Limitations vs delimitations

First things first…

Let’s start with the most important takeaway point of this post – research limitations and research delimitations are not the same – but they are related to each other (we’ll unpack that a little later). So, if you hear someone using these two words interchangeably, be sure to share this post with them!

Research Limitations

Research limitations are, at the simplest level, the weaknesses of the study, based on factors that are often outside of your control as the researcher. These factors could include things like time , access to funding, equipment , data or participants . For example, if you weren’t able to access a random sample of participants for your study and had to adopt a convenience sampling strategy instead, that would impact the generalizability of your findings and therefore reflect a limitation of your study.

Research limitations can also emerge from the research design itself . For example, if you were undertaking a correlational study, you wouldn’t be able to infer causality (since correlation doesn’t mean certain causation). Similarly, if you utilised online surveys to collect data from your participants, you naturally wouldn’t be able to get the same degree of rich data that you would from in-person interviews .

Simply put, research limitations reflect the shortcomings of a study , based on practical (or theoretical) constraints that the researcher faced. These shortcomings limit what you can conclude from a study, but at the same time, present a foundation for future research . Importantly, all research has limitations , so there’s no need to hide anything here – as long as you discuss how the limitations might affect your findings, it’s all good.

Research Delimitations

Alright, now that we’ve unpacked the limitations, let’s move on to the delimitations .

Research delimitations are similar to limitations in that they also “ limit ” the study, but their focus is entirely different. Specifically, the delimitations of a study refer to the scope of the research aims and research questions . In other words, delimitations reflect the choices you, as the researcher, intentionally make in terms of what you will and won’t try to achieve with your study. In other words, what your research aims and research questions will and won’t include.

As we’ve spoken about many times before, it’s important to have a tight, narrow focus for your research, so that you can dive deeply into your topic, apply your energy to one specific area and develop meaningful insights. If you have an overly broad scope or unfocused topic, your research will often pull in multiple, even opposing directions, and you’ll just land up with a muddy mess of findings .

So, the delimitations section is where you’ll clearly state what your research aims and research questions will focus on – and just as importantly, what they will exclude . For example, you might investigate a widespread phenomenon, but choose to focus your study on a specific age group, ethnicity or gender. Similarly, your study may focus exclusively on one country, city or even organization. As long as the scope is well justified (in other words, it represents a novel, valuable research topic), this is perfectly acceptable – in fact, it’s essential. Remember, focus is your friend.

Need a helping hand?

Conclusion: Limitations vs Delimitations

Ok, so let’s recap.

Research limitations and research delimitations are related in that they both refer to “limits” within a study. But, they are distinctly different. Limitations reflect the shortcomings of your study, based on practical or theoretical constraints that you faced.

Contrasted to that, delimitations reflect the choices that you made in terms of the focus and scope of your research aims and research questions. If you want to learn more about research aims and questions, you can check out this video post , where we unpack those concepts in detail.

Psst… there’s more (for free)

This post is part of our dissertation mini-course, which covers everything you need to get started with your dissertation, thesis or research project. 

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17 Comments

Good clarification of ideas on how a researcher ought to do during Process of choice

Thank you so much for this very simple but explicit explanation on limitation and delimitation. It has so helped me to develop my masters proposal. hope to recieve more from your site as time progresses

Thank you for this explanation – very clear.

Thanks for the explanation, really got it well.

This website is really helpful for my masters proposal

Thank you very much for helping to explain these two terms

I spent almost the whole day trying to figure out the differences

when I came across your notes everything became very clear

thanks for the clearly outlined explanation on the two terms, limitation and delimitation.

Very helpful Many thanks 🙏

Excellent it resolved my conflict .

I would like you to assist me please. If in my Research, I interviewed some participants and I submitted Questionnaires to other participants to answered to the questions, in the same organization, Is this a Qualitative methodology , a Quantitative Methodology or is it a Mixture Methodology I have used in my research? Please help me

How do I cite this article in APA format

Really so great ,finally have understood it’s difference now

Getting more clear regarding Limitations and Delimitation and concepts

I really appreciate your apt and precise explanation of the two concepts namely ; Limitations and Delimitations.

thank you for this, very helpful to researchers

Very good explained

Great and clear explanation, after a long confusion period on the two words, i can now explain to someone with ease.

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Home » Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Delimitations

Definition:

Delimitations refer to the specific boundaries or limitations that are set in a research study in order to narrow its scope and focus. Delimitations may be related to a variety of factors, including the population being studied, the geographical location, the time period, the research design , and the methods or tools being used to collect data .

The Importance of Delimitations in Research Studies

Here are some reasons why delimitations are important in research studies:

• Provide focus : Delimitations help researchers focus on a specific area of interest and avoid getting sidetracked by tangential topics. By setting clear boundaries, researchers can concentrate their efforts on the most relevant and significant aspects of the research question.
• Increase validity : Delimitations ensure that the research is more valid by defining the boundaries of the study. When researchers establish clear criteria for inclusion and exclusion, they can better control for extraneous variables that might otherwise confound the results.
• Improve generalizability : Delimitations help researchers determine the extent to which their findings can be generalized to other populations or contexts. By specifying the sample size, geographic region, time frame, or other relevant factors, researchers can provide more accurate estimates of the generalizability of their results.
• Enhance feasibility : Delimitations help researchers identify the resources and time required to complete the study. By setting realistic parameters, researchers can ensure that the study is feasible and can be completed within the available time and resources.
• Clarify scope: Delimitations help readers understand the scope of the research project. By explicitly stating what is included and excluded, researchers can avoid confusion and ensure that readers understand the boundaries of the study.

Types of Delimitations in Research

Here are some types of delimitations in research and their significance:

Time Delimitations

This type of delimitation refers to the time frame in which the research will be conducted. Time delimitations are important because they help to narrow down the scope of the study and ensure that the research is feasible within the given time constraints.

Geographical Delimitations

Geographical delimitations refer to the geographic boundaries within which the research will be conducted. These delimitations are significant because they help to ensure that the research is relevant to the intended population or location.

Population Delimitations

Population delimitations refer to the specific group of people that the research will focus on. These delimitations are important because they help to ensure that the research is targeted to a specific group, which can improve the accuracy of the results.

Data Delimitations

Data delimitations refer to the specific types of data that will be used in the research. These delimitations are important because they help to ensure that the data is relevant to the research question and that the research is conducted using reliable and valid data sources.

Scope Delimitations

Scope delimitations refer to the specific aspects or dimensions of the research that will be examined. These delimitations are important because they help to ensure that the research is focused and that the findings are relevant to the research question.

How to Write Delimitations

In order to write delimitations in research, you can follow these steps:

• Identify the scope of your study : Determine the extent of your research by defining its boundaries. This will help you to identify the areas that are within the scope of your research and those that are outside of it.
• Determine the time frame : Decide on the time period that your research will cover. This could be a specific period, such as a year, or it could be a general time frame, such as the last decade.
• I dentify the population : Determine the group of people or objects that your study will focus on. This could be a specific age group, gender, profession, or geographic location.
• Establish the sample size : Determine the number of participants that your study will involve. This will help you to establish the number of people you need to recruit for your study.
• Determine the variables: Identify the variables that will be measured in your study. This could include demographic information, attitudes, behaviors, or other factors.
• Explain the limitations : Clearly state the limitations of your study. This could include limitations related to time, resources, sample size, or other factors that may impact the validity of your research.
• Justify the limitations : Explain why these limitations are necessary for your research. This will help readers understand why certain factors were excluded from the study.

When to Write Delimitations in Research

Here are some situations when you may need to write delimitations in research:

• When defining the scope of the study: Delimitations help to define the boundaries of your research by specifying what is and what is not included in your study. For instance, you may delimit your study by focusing on a specific population, geographic region, time period, or research methodology.
• When addressing limitations: Delimitations can also be used to address the limitations of your research. For example, if your data is limited to a certain timeframe or geographic area, you can include this information in your delimitations to help readers understand the limitations of your findings.
• When justifying the relevance of the study : Delimitations can also help you to justify the relevance of your research. For instance, if you are conducting a study on a specific population or region, you can explain why this group or area is important and how your research will contribute to the understanding of this topic.
• When clarifying the research question or hypothesis : Delimitations can also be used to clarify your research question or hypothesis. By specifying the boundaries of your study, you can ensure that your research question or hypothesis is focused and specific.
• When establishing the context of the study : Finally, delimitations can help you to establish the context of your research. By providing information about the scope and limitations of your study, you can help readers to understand the context in which your research was conducted and the implications of your findings.

Examples of Delimitations in Research

Examples of Delimitations in Research are as follows:

Research Title : “Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Cybersecurity Threat Detection”

Delimitations :

• The study will focus solely on the use of artificial intelligence in detecting and mitigating cybersecurity threats.
• The study will only consider the impact of AI on threat detection and not on other aspects of cybersecurity such as prevention, response, or recovery.
• The research will be limited to a specific type of cybersecurity threats, such as malware or phishing attacks, rather than all types of cyber threats.
• The study will only consider the use of AI in a specific industry, such as finance or healthcare, rather than examining its impact across all industries.
• The research will only consider AI-based threat detection tools that are currently available and widely used, rather than including experimental or theoretical AI models.

Research Title: “The Effects of Social Media on Academic Performance: A Case Study of College Students”

Delimitations:

• The study will focus only on college students enrolled in a particular university.
• The study will only consider social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
• The study will only analyze the academic performance of students based on their GPA and course grades.
• The study will not consider the impact of other factors such as student demographics, socioeconomic status, or other factors that may affect academic performance.
• The study will only use self-reported data from students, rather than objective measures of their social media usage or academic performance.

Purpose of Delimitations

Some Purposes of Delimitations are as follows:

• Focusing the research : By defining the scope of the study, delimitations help researchers to narrow down their research questions and focus on specific aspects of the topic. This allows for a more targeted and meaningful study.
• Clarifying the research scope : Delimitations help to clarify the boundaries of the research, which helps readers to understand what is and is not included in the study.
• Avoiding scope creep : Delimitations help researchers to stay focused on their research objectives and avoid being sidetracked by tangential issues or data.
• Enhancing the validity of the study : By setting clear boundaries, delimitations help to ensure that the study is valid and reliable.
• Improving the feasibility of the study : Delimitations help researchers to ensure that their study is feasible and can be conducted within the time and resources available.

Applications of Delimitations

Here are some common applications of delimitations:

• Geographic delimitations : Researchers may limit their study to a specific geographic area, such as a particular city, state, or country. This helps to narrow the focus of the study and makes it more manageable.
• Time delimitations : Researchers may limit their study to a specific time period, such as a decade, a year, or a specific date range. This can be useful for studying trends over time or for comparing data from different time periods.
• Population delimitations : Researchers may limit their study to a specific population, such as a particular age group, gender, or ethnic group. This can help to ensure that the study is relevant to the population being studied.
• Data delimitations : Researchers may limit their study to specific types of data, such as survey responses, interviews, or archival records. This can help to ensure that the study is based on reliable and relevant data.
• Conceptual delimitations : Researchers may limit their study to specific concepts or variables, such as only studying the effects of a particular treatment on a specific outcome. This can help to ensure that the study is focused and clear.

Advantages of Delimitations

Some Advantages of Delimitations are as follows:

• Helps to focus the study: Delimitations help to narrow down the scope of the research and identify specific areas that need to be investigated. This helps to focus the study and ensures that the research is not too broad or too narrow.
• Defines the study population: Delimitations can help to define the population that will be studied. This can include age range, gender, geographical location, or any other factors that are relevant to the research. This helps to ensure that the study is more specific and targeted.
• Provides clarity: Delimitations help to provide clarity about the research study. By identifying the boundaries and limitations of the research, it helps to avoid confusion and ensures that the research is more understandable.
• Improves validity: Delimitations can help to improve the validity of the research by ensuring that the study is more focused and specific. This can help to ensure that the research is more accurate and reliable.
• Reduces bias: Delimitations can help to reduce bias by limiting the scope of the research. This can help to ensure that the research is more objective and unbiased.

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Muhammad Hassan

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The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or influenced the interpretation of the findings from your research. Study limitations are the constraints placed on the ability to generalize from the results, to further describe applications to practice, and/or related to the utility of findings that are the result of the ways in which you initially chose to design the study or the method used to establish internal and external validity or the result of unanticipated challenges that emerged during the study.

Price, James H. and Judy Murnan. “Research Limitations and the Necessity of Reporting Them.” American Journal of Health Education 35 (2004): 66-67; Theofanidis, Dimitrios and Antigoni Fountouki. "Limitations and Delimitations in the Research Process." Perioperative Nursing 7 (September-December 2018): 155-163. .

Importance of...

Always acknowledge a study's limitations. It is far better that you identify and acknowledge your study’s limitations than to have them pointed out by your professor and have your grade lowered because you appeared to have ignored them or didn't realize they existed.

Keep in mind that acknowledgment of a study's limitations is an opportunity to make suggestions for further research. If you do connect your study's limitations to suggestions for further research, be sure to explain the ways in which these unanswered questions may become more focused because of your study.

Acknowledgment of a study's limitations also provides you with opportunities to demonstrate that you have thought critically about the research problem, understood the relevant literature published about it, and correctly assessed the methods chosen for studying the problem. A key objective of the research process is not only discovering new knowledge but also to confront assumptions and explore what we don't know.

Claiming limitations is a subjective process because you must evaluate the impact of those limitations . Don't just list key weaknesses and the magnitude of a study's limitations. To do so diminishes the validity of your research because it leaves the reader wondering whether, or in what ways, limitation(s) in your study may have impacted the results and conclusions. Limitations require a critical, overall appraisal and interpretation of their impact. You should answer the question: do these problems with errors, methods, validity, etc. eventually matter and, if so, to what extent?

Price, James H. and Judy Murnan. “Research Limitations and the Necessity of Reporting Them.” American Journal of Health Education 35 (2004): 66-67; Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation. Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com.

Descriptions of Possible Limitations

All studies have limitations . However, it is important that you restrict your discussion to limitations related to the research problem under investigation. For example, if a meta-analysis of existing literature is not a stated purpose of your research, it should not be discussed as a limitation. Do not apologize for not addressing issues that you did not promise to investigate in the introduction of your paper.

Here are examples of limitations related to methodology and the research process you may need to describe and discuss how they possibly impacted your results. Note that descriptions of limitations should be stated in the past tense because they were discovered after you completed your research.

Possible Methodological Limitations

• Sample size -- the number of the units of analysis you use in your study is dictated by the type of research problem you are investigating. Note that, if your sample size is too small, it will be difficult to find significant relationships from the data, as statistical tests normally require a larger sample size to ensure a representative distribution of the population and to be considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. Note that sample size is generally less relevant in qualitative research if explained in the context of the research problem.
• Lack of available and/or reliable data -- a lack of data or of reliable data will likely require you to limit the scope of your analysis, the size of your sample, or it can be a significant obstacle in finding a trend and a meaningful relationship. You need to not only describe these limitations but provide cogent reasons why you believe data is missing or is unreliable. However, don’t just throw up your hands in frustration; use this as an opportunity to describe a need for future research based on designing a different method for gathering data.
• Lack of prior research studies on the topic -- citing prior research studies forms the basis of your literature review and helps lay a foundation for understanding the research problem you are investigating. Depending on the currency or scope of your research topic, there may be little, if any, prior research on your topic. Before assuming this to be true, though, consult with a librarian! In cases when a librarian has confirmed that there is little or no prior research, you may be required to develop an entirely new research typology [for example, using an exploratory rather than an explanatory research design ]. Note again that discovering a limitation can serve as an important opportunity to identify new gaps in the literature and to describe the need for further research.
• Measure used to collect the data -- sometimes it is the case that, after completing your interpretation of the findings, you discover that the way in which you gathered data inhibited your ability to conduct a thorough analysis of the results. For example, you regret not including a specific question in a survey that, in retrospect, could have helped address a particular issue that emerged later in the study. Acknowledge the deficiency by stating a need for future researchers to revise the specific method for gathering data.
• Self-reported data -- whether you are relying on pre-existing data or you are conducting a qualitative research study and gathering the data yourself, self-reported data is limited by the fact that it rarely can be independently verified. In other words, you have to the accuracy of what people say, whether in interviews, focus groups, or on questionnaires, at face value. However, self-reported data can contain several potential sources of bias that you should be alert to and note as limitations. These biases become apparent if they are incongruent with data from other sources. These are: (1) selective memory [remembering or not remembering experiences or events that occurred at some point in the past]; (2) telescoping [recalling events that occurred at one time as if they occurred at another time]; (3) attribution [the act of attributing positive events and outcomes to one's own agency, but attributing negative events and outcomes to external forces]; and, (4) exaggeration [the act of representing outcomes or embellishing events as more significant than is actually suggested from other data].

Possible Limitations of the Researcher

• Access -- if your study depends on having access to people, organizations, data, or documents and, for whatever reason, access is denied or limited in some way, the reasons for this needs to be described. Also, include an explanation why being denied or limited access did not prevent you from following through on your study.
• Longitudinal effects -- unlike your professor, who can literally devote years [even a lifetime] to studying a single topic, the time available to investigate a research problem and to measure change or stability over time is constrained by the due date of your assignment. Be sure to choose a research problem that does not require an excessive amount of time to complete the literature review, apply the methodology, and gather and interpret the results. If you're unsure whether you can complete your research within the confines of the assignment's due date, talk to your professor.
• Cultural and other type of bias -- we all have biases, whether we are conscience of them or not. Bias is when a person, place, event, or thing is viewed or shown in a consistently inaccurate way. Bias is usually negative, though one can have a positive bias as well, especially if that bias reflects your reliance on research that only support your hypothesis. When proof-reading your paper, be especially critical in reviewing how you have stated a problem, selected the data to be studied, what may have been omitted, the manner in which you have ordered events, people, or places, how you have chosen to represent a person, place, or thing, to name a phenomenon, or to use possible words with a positive or negative connotation. NOTE :   If you detect bias in prior research, it must be acknowledged and you should explain what measures were taken to avoid perpetuating that bias. For example, if a previous study only used boys to examine how music education supports effective math skills, describe how your research expands the study to include girls.
• Fluency in a language -- if your research focuses , for example, on measuring the perceived value of after-school tutoring among Mexican-American ESL [English as a Second Language] students and you are not fluent in Spanish, you are limited in being able to read and interpret Spanish language research studies on the topic or to speak with these students in their primary language. This deficiency should be acknowledged.

Aguinis, Hermam and Jeffrey R. Edwards. “Methodological Wishes for the Next Decade and How to Make Wishes Come True.” Journal of Management Studies 51 (January 2014): 143-174; Brutus, Stéphane et al. "Self-Reported Limitations and Future Directions in Scholarly Reports: Analysis and Recommendations." Journal of Management 39 (January 2013): 48-75; Senunyeme, Emmanuel K. Business Research Methods. Powerpoint Presentation. Regent University of Science and Technology; ter Riet, Gerben et al. “All That Glitters Isn't Gold: A Survey on Acknowledgment of Limitations in Biomedical Studies.” PLOS One 8 (November 2013): 1-6.

Structure and Writing Style

Information about the limitations of your study are generally placed either at the beginning of the discussion section of your paper so the reader knows and understands the limitations before reading the rest of your analysis of the findings, or, the limitations are outlined at the conclusion of the discussion section as an acknowledgement of the need for further study. Statements about a study's limitations should not be buried in the body [middle] of the discussion section unless a limitation is specific to something covered in that part of the paper. If this is the case, though, the limitation should be reiterated at the conclusion of the section.

If you determine that your study is seriously flawed due to important limitations , such as, an inability to acquire critical data, consider reframing it as an exploratory study intended to lay the groundwork for a more complete research study in the future. Be sure, though, to specifically explain the ways that these flaws can be successfully overcome in a new study.

But, do not use this as an excuse for not developing a thorough research paper! Review the tab in this guide for developing a research topic . If serious limitations exist, it generally indicates a likelihood that your research problem is too narrowly defined or that the issue or event under study is too recent and, thus, very little research has been written about it. If serious limitations do emerge, consult with your professor about possible ways to overcome them or how to revise your study.

When discussing the limitations of your research, be sure to:

• Describe each limitation in detailed but concise terms;
• Explain why each limitation exists;
• Provide the reasons why each limitation could not be overcome using the method(s) chosen to acquire or gather the data [cite to other studies that had similar problems when possible];
• Assess the impact of each limitation in relation to the overall findings and conclusions of your study; and,
• If appropriate, describe how these limitations could point to the need for further research.

Remember that the method you chose may be the source of a significant limitation that has emerged during your interpretation of the results [for example, you didn't interview a group of people that you later wish you had]. If this is the case, don't panic. Acknowledge it, and explain how applying a different or more robust methodology might address the research problem more effectively in a future study. A underlying goal of scholarly research is not only to show what works, but to demonstrate what doesn't work or what needs further clarification.

Aguinis, Hermam and Jeffrey R. Edwards. “Methodological Wishes for the Next Decade and How to Make Wishes Come True.” Journal of Management Studies 51 (January 2014): 143-174; Brutus, Stéphane et al. "Self-Reported Limitations and Future Directions in Scholarly Reports: Analysis and Recommendations." Journal of Management 39 (January 2013): 48-75; Ioannidis, John P.A. "Limitations are not Properly Acknowledged in the Scientific Literature." Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 60 (2007): 324-329; Pasek, Josh. Writing the Empirical Social Science Research Paper: A Guide for the Perplexed. January 24, 2012. Academia.edu; Structure: How to Structure the Research Limitations Section of Your Dissertation. Dissertations and Theses: An Online Textbook. Laerd.com; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Writing Tip

Don't Inflate the Importance of Your Findings!

After all the hard work and long hours devoted to writing your research paper, it is easy to get carried away with attributing unwarranted importance to what you’ve done. We all want our academic work to be viewed as excellent and worthy of a good grade, but it is important that you understand and openly acknowledge the limitations of your study. Inflating the importance of your study's findings could be perceived by your readers as an attempt hide its flaws or encourage a biased interpretation of the results. A small measure of humility goes a long way!

Another Writing Tip

Negative Results are Not a Limitation!

Negative evidence refers to findings that unexpectedly challenge rather than support your hypothesis. If you didn't get the results you anticipated, it may mean your hypothesis was incorrect and needs to be reformulated. Or, perhaps you have stumbled onto something unexpected that warrants further study. Moreover, the absence of an effect may be very telling in many situations, particularly in experimental research designs. In any case, your results may very well be of importance to others even though they did not support your hypothesis. Do not fall into the trap of thinking that results contrary to what you expected is a limitation to your study. If you carried out the research well, they are simply your results and only require additional interpretation.

Lewis, George H. and Jonathan F. Lewis. “The Dog in the Night-Time: Negative Evidence in Social Research.” The British Journal of Sociology 31 (December 1980): 544-558.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Sample Size Limitations in Qualitative Research

Sample sizes are typically smaller in qualitative research because, as the study goes on, acquiring more data does not necessarily lead to more information. This is because one occurrence of a piece of data, or a code, is all that is necessary to ensure that it becomes part of the analysis framework. However, it remains true that sample sizes that are too small cannot adequately support claims of having achieved valid conclusions and sample sizes that are too large do not permit the deep, naturalistic, and inductive analysis that defines qualitative inquiry. Determining adequate sample size in qualitative research is ultimately a matter of judgment and experience in evaluating the quality of the information collected against the uses to which it will be applied and the particular research method and purposeful sampling strategy employed. If the sample size is found to be a limitation, it may reflect your judgment about the methodological technique chosen [e.g., single life history study versus focus group interviews] rather than the number of respondents used.

Boddy, Clive Roland. "Sample Size for Qualitative Research." Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 19 (2016): 426-432; Huberman, A. Michael and Matthew B. Miles. "Data Management and Analysis Methods." In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 428-444; Blaikie, Norman. "Confounding Issues Related to Determining Sample Size in Qualitative Research." International Journal of Social Research Methodology 21 (2018): 635-641; Oppong, Steward Harrison. "The Problem of Sampling in qualitative Research." Asian Journal of Management Sciences and Education 2 (2013): 202-210.

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SCOPE, LIMITATIONS, and DELIMITATIONS

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This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master the Scope and Delimitation and Benefits and Beneficiaries of Research. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using. The module is divided into Two (2) lessons, namely: Lesson 1- Scope and Delimitation of research Lesson 2- Benefits and Beneficiaries of research After going through this module, you are expected to: a. define scope and delimitation of research; b. appreciate the scope, limitation and delimitation; and, c. write the benefits and beneficiaries of research.

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Scope and Delimitations – Explained & Example

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

What Is Scope and Delimitation in Research?

The scope and delimitations of a thesis, dissertation or research paper define the topic and boundaries of the research problem to be investigated.

The scope details how in-depth your study is to explore the research question and the parameters in which it will operate in relation to the population and timeframe.

The delimitations of a study are the factors and variables not to be included in the investigation. In other words, they are the boundaries the researcher sets in terms of study duration, population size and type of participants, etc.

Difference Between Delimitations and Limitations

Delimitations refer to the boundaries of the research study, based on the researcher’s decision of what to include and what to exclude. They narrow your study to make it more manageable and relevant to what you are trying to prove.

Limitations relate to the validity and reliability of the study. They are characteristics of the research design or methodology that are out of your control but influence your research findings. Because of this, they determine the internal and external validity of your study and are considered potential weaknesses.

In other words, limitations are what the researcher cannot do (elements outside of their control) and delimitations are what the researcher will not do (elements outside of the boundaries they have set). Both are important because they help to put the research findings into context, and although they explain how the study is limited, they increase the credibility and validity of a research project.

Guidelines on How to Write a Scope

A good scope statement will answer the following six questions:

• Why – the general aims and objectives (purpose) of the research.
• What – the subject to be investigated, and the included variables.
• Where – the location or setting of the study, i.e. where the data will be gathered and to which entity the data will belong.
• When – the timeframe within which the data is to be collected.
• Who – the subject matter of the study and the population from which they will be selected. This population needs to be large enough to be able to make generalisations.
• How – how the research is to be conducted, including a description of the research design (e.g. whether it is experimental research, qualitative research or a case study), methodology, research tools and analysis techniques.

To make things as clear as possible, you should also state why specific variables were omitted from the research scope, and whether this was because it was a delimitation or a limitation. You should also explain why they could not be overcome with standard research methods backed up by scientific evidence.

How to Start Writing Your Study Scope

Use the below prompts as an effective way to start writing your scope:

• This study is to focus on…
• This study covers the…
• This study aims to…

Guidelines on How to Write Delimitations

Since the delimitation parameters are within the researcher’s control, readers need to know why they were set, what alternative options were available, and why these alternatives were rejected. For example, if you are collecting data that can be derived from three different but similar experiments, the reader needs to understand how and why you decided to select the one you have.

Your reasons should always be linked back to your research question, as all delimitations should result from trying to make your study more relevant to your scope. Therefore, the scope and delimitations are usually considered together when writing a paper.

How to Start Writing Your Study Delimitations

Use the below prompts as an effective way to start writing your study delimitations:

• This study does not cover…
• This study is limited to…
• The following has been excluded from this study…

Examples of Delimitation in Research

Examples of delimitations include:

• research objectives,
• research questions,
• research variables,
• target populations,
• statistical analysis techniques .

Examples of Limitations in Research

Examples of limitations include:

• Issues with sample and selection,
• Insufficient sample size, population traits or specific participants for statistical significance,
• Lack of previous research studies on the topic which has allowed for further analysis,
• Limitations in the technology/instruments used to collect your data,
• Limited financial resources and/or funding constraints.

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Principles, Scope, and Limitations of the Methodological Triangulation *

Principios, alcances y limitaciones de la triangulación metodológica, princípios, alcances e limitações da triangulação metodológica, maría mercedes arias valencia.

1 Nurse, Ph.D. Professor at Facultad de Enfermería, Universidad de Antioquia. Medellín (Colombia). Email: [email protected], Universidad de Antioquia, Facultad de Enfermería, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín , Colombia, [email protected]

This article sought to collect basic and relevant information about methodological triangulation and make a first approach to the principles underlying its use, potentiality and scope, advances and limitations, and some alternative proposals to surpass them. In that sense, it is an attempt to operationalize concepts and present the procedures to conduct it rigorously. In the first place, conceptual aspects and types of triangulation are presented, and in the second place, the principles, uses and difficulties. But, beyond what must be done, an approach is made to how to do it. The assumption underlying through the article is the complementarity among methods. It is emphasized in the principle through which the nature of objects must guide the selection of the methods and of the most effective techniques to approach and account for phenomena that are socially pertinent of being studied.

El presente artículo pretende levantar información básica y relevante sobre la triangulación metodológica y hacer una primera aproximación a los principios que subyacen en su uso, su potencialidad y alcance, sus avances y limitaciones, y algunas propuestas alternativas para superarlas. En ese sentido, es un intento de operacionalizar los conceptos y presentar los procedimientos para llevarla a cabo en forma rigurosa. En primer lugar, se presentan los aspectos conceptuales y los tipos de triangulación, y en segundo lugar los principios, los usos y las dificultades. Pero, más allá del qué hacer, se hace una aproximación al cómo hacerlo. El supuesto que subyace a través del artículo es la complementariedad entre los métodos. Se enfatiza en el principio mediante el cual, la naturaleza de los objetos debe guiar la escogencia de los métodos y de las técnicas más eficaces para aproximarse y dar cuenta de los fenómenos que son pertinentes socialmente, de ser estudiados.

Este artigo tem como objetivo coletar informações básicas e relevantes sobre triangulação metodológica e fazer uma primeira aproximação aos princípios que fundamentam sua utilização, seu potencial e alcance, sua avanços e limitações, e algumas propostas alternativas para superá-los. Nesse sentido, é uma tentativa de operacionalizar os conceitos e apresentar os procedimentos para realizá-lo com rigor. Em primeiro lugar, são apresentados os aspectos conceituais e os tipos de triangulação e, em segundo lugar, os princípios, usos e dificuldades. Mas, além do que fazer, é feita uma abordagem de como fazer. A hipótese subjacente ao longo do artigo é a complementaridade entre os métodos. A ênfase é colocada no princípio pelo qual a natureza dos objetos deve orientar a escolha dos métodos e técnicas mais eficazes para abordar e dar conta dos fenômenos socialmente relevantes, se estudados.

Introduction

According to Boudon, 1 for authors, like Dilthey, Rickert, Jaspers, and Max Weber, research in social sciences follows the path of understanding and the natural sciences through explanation, although for some, especially for Weber, both procedures, although distinct, are not exclusive. The same author found false opposition between the methods of the sciences, given our condition of social beings and the specificities of the human, through the diversity of objects and limitations of the methods, to account for complex phenomena of the social reality. For this author, it is naive to evaluate the methods of the social sciences with the unified parameters of the natural sciences, given that it would not be imaginable, for example, that History could be similar to Physics.

Quantitative research is supported on a set of established logical principles and should not be imposed from the outside for the researcher. Qualitative research also obeys an implicit but less unifiable logic. 1 The nature of the object and effectiveness of the methods will guide the researcher’s reflection to approach and account for phenomena that are pertinent, socially, of being studied. It must be highlighted that the methods are not the truth, they only constitute tools, procedures, instruments and modes of putting together the theory to investigate a problem and that when used facilitate its understanding; in that sense, the methodological triangulation will be treated as research procedure.

The term triangulation comes from navigation, where, from various angles, an object is situated; in this case, a ship. Thus, triangulation constructs several appendages, namely theoretical or methodological perspectives, several views or several readings, diverse points of view to address the same research problem. As explained by Morse, the discussion among authors has dealt on the appropriations, advantages, and disadvantages of methodological triangulation. 2 The issue that has gained greater interest is the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods within the same project. Some authors have published examples of how this is carried out within a specific project, identifying the issues involved in said strategies; others have identified unsolved issues or highlight the guidelines they consider successful and the less developed in the use of methodological triangulation.

This article sought to collect basic and relevant information about methodological triangulation and make a first approach over the principles underlying its use, potentiality and scope, its progress and limitations, as well as solution alternatives.

From triangulation of indicators and variables to theoretical and methodological triangulation: conceptual aspects

What is methodological triangulation? Triangulation is a term originally used in navigation circles by taking multiple reference points to locate an unknown position. Campbell and Fiske are credited in the literature as the first to apply triangulation in research in 1959. 3 It is assumed conventionally that triangulation is the use of multiple methods to study the same object. This is the generic definition, but it is only one form of the strategy. It is convenient to conceive triangulation including varieties of data, researchers and theories, as well as methodologies. 4

Kimchi et al ., 5 assume the definition by Denzin in 1970 on triangulation in research: it is the combination of two or more theories, sources of data, research methods, in the study of a singular phenomenon. Close scrutiny reveals that the combination can be interpreted in several manners; for such, the authors start from the classification by Denzin and provide explanations about the most adequate way of performing it.

For Cowman, 3 triangulation is defined as the combination of multiple methods in studying the same object or event to better address the phenomenon researched. In turn, Morse 2 defines methodological triangulation as the use of at least two methods, usually qualitative and quantitative, to guide the same research problem. When a singular research method is inadequate, triangulation can be used for a more comprehensive approach to solve the research problem.

Multiple triangulation strategies

Denzin 4 describes four basic types of triangulation: 1) data triangulation with three subtypes of time, space and person; the person analysis, in turn, has three levels: aggregate, interactive and collective; 2) researcher triangulation that consists in using multiple observers, more than single observers of the same object; 3) theoretical triangulation that consists in using multiple perspectives, more than single perspectives in relation with the same set of objects, and 4) methodological triangulation that can imply triangulation within methods and triangulations among methods.

Data triangulation 4

Denzin 4 illustrates this type of triangulation. For the author, observers can triangulate with data sources and researchers make explicit the search for the different sources. For example, analysts can employ, in efficient manner, the same methods for a maximum theoretical advantage. Thus, for example, in studying the social meaning of death in a modern hospital it may be possible to use a standard method (like participant observation, which, in strict manner would be technical) and deliberately follow this method in as many different areas as possible.

Researchers can observe different groups within the hospital and take the family members of the dead people. Death rituals can also be examined with the same process. Other examples are deaths on the road, deaths at home, deaths at work and even deaths at play. Each represents a different area of significance with which the same generic event (death) occurs. Basically, this could be used in a comparison of dissimilar groups as a sampling strategy, but more properly reflects a triangulation strategy. Selecting different collocations systematically, researchers can discover that its concepts (like assignment of reality units) share common issues. Similarly, the constituent unit of those concepts can be discovered in its contextual situation.

Furthermore, all sociological observations report activities of people situated socially -although they are in groups or organizations or distributed in groups in a social area -. Focusing time and space as observation units recognizes their relationship with the observations of people. Observers can make a sampling of activities according to time of day, week, month or year. Likewise, they can do it with space and treat it as an analysis unit (for example, ecological analysis), or as a component of external validity. The most-common analysis unit, the social organization of people can be sampled over time and space. Those three units -time, space and person- are interrelated. Studying one demands studying the others.

Levels of person analysis. Three levels of person analysis can be treated: 4

• Aggregate analysis. It is the first level; selecting individuals for the study, not groups, or relationships, or organizations. This level of analysis is called aggregate because it does not establish social relationships among that observed. Random samples of house workers, school students, and laborers are examples of aggregate analysis of persons.
• Interactive analysis. It is the second level and is related directly with the symbolic interaction. Regarding the term interactive, a unit exists among people interacting in the laboratory or in the natural field. For example, small groups, families or aviators. Sociologists commonly associate it with participant observation; experiments in small groups and non-obstructive measurements represent this form of analysis. The unit is the interaction more than person or group; for example, face-to-face studies by Goffman, who investigated in insurers, nurses and hospital social structure, only how they interact in the generation of series of interactive episodes.
• Collective analysis. The third level, more commonly associated with the structural-functional analysis, is the collectivity. Here, the observational unit is an organization, group, community or, even, an entire society. People and their interactions are treated only according with how they reflect pressures and demands of the total collectivity.

The three levels of analysis may be illustrated by returning to the example of death in hos pital. Research guided in aggregate manner can sample simply the attitudes of the hospital staff during the process. An interactional study can examine how those attitudes are generated by the encounters of the personnel. Lastly, the researcher aimed towards the collectivity can examine how the hospital’s structural units (for example, its organizational charter, job positions) dictate certain attitudes and practices by its members.

In synthesis, any research can combine the three levels and types of data; in effect, those studies commonly recall as classical events these combinations: time, space and person are alternatively analyzed in the aggregate, interactive, and collective levels.

Researcher triangulation 4

Researcher triangulation means multiple observers are used, rather than a single one. More researchers, in effect, conduct multiple observations, although not all play equally prominent roles in the process. Delegation at work can be established by placing well-prepared individuals in crucial positions. When using multiple observers, the most skilled should be placed near to the data. Upon triangulating observers, potential bias coming from single person is removed and considerable reliability is ensured in the observations.

There are various field workers subjected to the same data. If a colleague reports the same class of observation as another, without prior consultation, trust is increased. If later, listening to the report of an observation, a colleague contributes the same, unquestionably duplicates it; that indicates that our observation techniques have some degree of reliability.

Multiple observers may not agree on what they are observing, given that each observer has unique interactional experiences with the phenomenon observed. 4 Researcher triangulation is considered present when two or more trained researchers with divergent antecedents explore the same phenomenon. It is considered to take place when; 1) each researcher has a prominent role in the study, 2) the experience of each researcher is different, and 3) the disciplinary bias of each researcher is evident in the study. This definition, as the previous classifications, was elaborated and extended by Denzin in 1989, who stated that researcher triangulation occurs when two or more skilled researchers examine the data. The concern that stands out from researcher triangulation is that different disciplinary biases are compared or neutralized through the study. Overall, this is not discernible in a research publication. Researcher triangulation is difficult to distinguish, unless the authors describe explicitly how they achieved it.

Theoretical triangulation 4

Denzin defined theoretical triangulation as an evaluation of the usefulness and being able to test rival theories or hypotheses. This definition includes tests through research, rival theories, rival hypotheses or alternative explanations of the same phenomenon. Denzin placed as example the studies by Campbell of women’s responses toward abuse, which provide an example of theoretical triangulation. Two competitive models were tested in the same sample of women. Both were used previously to explain the women’s responses. The goal was to pit them against each other in a singular study to determine which one provides the best explanatory model of the phenomenon of abuse. The data collection approached was used to measure specific concepts and variables from each model. The report published placed the objective a priori, to the test of two opposing rival theories; this component is necessary to operationalize the theoretical triangulation.

Theoretical triangulation is an element few researchers manage and end up reaching. Overall, a small group of hypotheses guides the study and the data obtained emerge not only in those dimensions, rather they may appear with value, in empirical approach materials with multiple perspectives and interpretations in mind. Data could refute the central hypothesis and various theoretical points of view can take place to determine its power and usefulness. Each strategy can allow the contribution of criticism and controversy from several theoretical perspectives. Confronting theories in the same body of data means the presence of efficient criticism, more in line with the scientific method. This last issue can be qualified by understanding, for example, that sociologists never have the same body of data; this means that a body of data of empirical materials is always socially constructed and subject to multiple interpretations.

Methodological triangulation

Triangulation of methods using two or more research methods can be made in the design or in the data collection. Two types exist, triangulation within methods and among methods. 4

Triangulation within methods is the combination of two or more data collections to approach the study of the same object; using two or more quantitative measurements of the same phenomenon in a study is an example. Including two or more qualitative approaches, like the observation and open interview to assess the same phenomenon, is also considered triangulation within methods. Observational data and interview data are coded and analyzed separately, and then compared, as a way of validating the findings.

This form is used more frequently when the observational units are seen as multidimensional. Researchers take a method (from safety) and employ multiple strategies to examine the data. A safe questionnaire can be constructed with different measurement scales for the same empirical unit. For example, in the famous case of the alienation scales, several recent investigations have used five different indices. The obvious difficulty is that only one method is employed. Observers are mistaken if they believe that five different variations on the same method generate five triangulation varieties.

Moreover, each class of data generated -interviews, questionnaires, observation and physical evidence- is potentially biased and its specificity may be threatened. Ideally, data should converge, i.e. , they should not contradict, although conserving their multiple variations.

Triangulation among methods is a more sophisticated way of combining triangulation of dissimilar methods to illuminate the same class of phenomena; it is called among methods or triangulation through methods. The rationale in this strategy is that the weaknesses of a method constitute the strengths of another; and with a combination of methods, observers reach the best of each, overcome its weakness. Triangulation among methods can take several forms, but its basic characteristic can be the combination of two or more research strategies in studying the same empirical unit or several.

With seven research methods on research design -that in a stricter sense, would be techniques, a variety of combinations can be constructed. 1 , 2 Completely triangulated research can combine them all. Besides, if the basic strategy was participant observation, researchers can employ safe interviews with field experiments, non-obtrusive methods, filming, and life stories. Most sociological research can be seen to emphasize a dominant method, with combinations of other additional dimensions.

Kimchi et al ., state in their article Denzin’s classification and add explanations about the most adequate way of conducting the triangulation. 5 In their opinion, the specificity and the step-by-step procedures to implement the triangulation should be addressed. The purpose of their work was to present operational definitions for the types of triangulation described by Denzin in an effort to clarify the triangulation and attract researchers. Based on the theoretical definitions by Denzin, these show a group of operational definitions of the types of triangulation. The definitions seek to clarify, specify, and provide indicators that research readers can use if they deem there has been triangulation. Operational definitions were made by Kimchi during a review of all the data on which 319 articles were based from six nursing research journals published during 1986 and 1987. The six journals were: Advances in Nursing Science, Image, Inter national Journal of Nursing Studies, Nursing research, Research in Nursing and Health, Wes tern Journal of Nursing Research. The following presents some operational definitions.

- Data triangulation. 5 Considered as the use of multiple data sources to obtain diverse visions about a topic for the purpose of validation. Temporal triangulation represents data collection of the same phenomenon during different points over time, as already exposed; in these studies, time is relevant. Longitudinal studies are not considered temporal triangulation because the aim of a longitudinal study is to document changes over time and the purpose of temporal triangulation is to validate the congruence of the same phenomenon through different points over time.

- Spatial triangulation. 5 It is data collection of the same phenomenon in different sites. Space must be the central variable. Studies in which data are collected in multiple sites, but do not cross, are not considered spatial triangulation. In spatial triangulation, data are collected in two or more scenarios and tests of consistency are analyzed by crossing the sites.

-Person triangulation. 5 It is data collection from, at least, two of the three levels of person: individuals, couples, families, groups or collectives (communities, organizations or societies). Researchers can collect data from individuals, couples and groups, or each of the three types. Data collection from a source is used to validate data from the other sources or a single one. Kimchi, Polivka and Stevenson set as example the work by Hutchinson who, in 1987, studied the process of dependency on recovery ward nurses on two levels. Data were collected weekly from meetings of groups of recovery nurses over one year (group level) and in selection interviews (individual level). The phenomenon of interest was the recovery process. Each data level was used to validate the findings of the other.

- Multiple triangulation. 5 This occurs when using more than one type of triangulation in analyzing the same event, contributing more comprehensive and satisfactory sense of the phenomenon 4 ; as mentioned, it is the combination of two or more types of triangulation in a study. Using triangulation within methods and researcher triangulation in a study or using triangulation within methods and among methods in a study are two examples of multiple triangulation. Kimchi et al ., give as an example the study by Wallson et al ., which combined researcher triangulation and triangulation within methods. The group represents a multidisciplinary mix of researchers and study goals reflected on distinct values from different disciplines. Triangulation within methods was evidenced by the use of three measures of stress, each used to validate the others, a psychological measure and two written tests.

Triangulation in the analysis, a more recent type of development, is the use of two or more approaches in the analysis of the same data group for validation purposes. It is conducted by comparing data analysis results, using different statistical tests or different techniques of qualitative analysis to evaluate similarly the results available. It serves to identify similar patterns and, thus, verify the findings. Use of divergent methods of data analysis for cross-validation purposes constitutes another triangulation potential. For Denzin, 4 “ the greatest goal of triangulation is to control the personal bias of researchers and cover the intrinsic deficiencies of a single researcher or a unique theory, or the same method of study and, thus, increase the validity of the results ”.

- Combination of results: Morse 2 agrees with Mitchell in that the problem of the weight of the results of each component is solved if the findings are interpreted within the context of present knowledge. Each component should fit as a piece in a puzzle. The essential is the process of informed thought, judgment, wisdom, creativity, and reflection, and includes the privilege of modifying the theory, this is the exciting part of each research project and when there is triangulation of different methods, this is particularly exciting. If contradictory results occur from the triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods, then a group of findings is invali d or the total result of the study is inadequate, incomplete or imprecise or both. If the study was guided deductively, the theoretical map may be incorrect.

Implementing the methodological triangulation

The methodological triangulation can be classified as simultaneous or sequential. 2 The first, when using qualitative and quantitative methods at the same time. In that case, the interaction between both data groups during the collection is limited, but the findings complement each other at the end of the study. Sequential triangulation is used if the results of a method are essential to plan another method. The qualitative method is completed before implementing the quantitative method or vice versa.

Thus, according to Morse, 2 in the methodological triangulation, the key issue is if the theory, which guides the research, is developed inductively or is used deductively, as in the quantitative inquiry. From this differentiation, various types of methodological triangulation result. If the research is directed by an inductive process and the theory is developed qualitatively and is complemented through quantitative methods, the QUAL + quan notation is used to indicate simultaneous triangulation. If the project is deductive, directed by a conceptual map a priori, the quantitative methods take precedence and can be complemented with qualitative methods. In that case, the QUAN + qual notation is used . The sequential triangulation is indicated by QUAL -› quan with an inductive project, that is, when the theoretical direction is inductive and uses a qualitative foundation. Using the QUAN -› qual notation indicates a deductive approach; that is, when we follow the complete quantitative steps and the qualitative method is used to examine or explore unexpected encounters.

The purpose of the article by Morse 2 was to explore the principles underlying the use of methodological triangulation when combining qualitative and quantitative methods. Those principles are related with the consistency among the research purpose, research problem, method used, sample selection, and interpretation of the results. The author coincides with Mitchell who highlights five areas of concern: 1) difficulty to combine text and numerical data; 2) interpretation of divergent results obtained from using qualitative and quantitative methods; 3) success or not in delineating and mixing the concepts; 4) weight of the information from different data sources, and 5) difficulty of guessing the contribution of each method when the results are similar.

The first step in the quantitative-qualitative triangulation is to determine the nature of the research problem, if it is “natural” or “social”, which aims towards a primarily quantitative or qualitative approach. Characteristics of a qualitative research problem: 1) the concept under study is immature due to weak success and conspicuous theory and prior research; 2) a notion that the available theory may be inappropriate, incorrect or biased; 3) a need exists to explore and describe the phenomenon and develop theory, or 4) the nature of the phenomenon is not appropriate for quantitative measurements.

If a research problem is quantitative, the characteristics described are not applicable. Researchers can locate substantial and relevant literature about the topic, create a conceptual map, and identify hypothesis to test. In this case, the research design is comparative or correlational, experimental or quasi-experimental.

The qualitative and quantitative aspects of a research project cannot be weighed equally: besides, a project must be guided theoretically by qualitative methods incorporating a complementary quantitative component, or guided theoretically by a quantitative method incorporating a complementary qualitative component. The important point is that each method must be complete in itself, that is, all the methods used must appropriate rigor criteria. If qualitative interviews are conducted, this must be done as if this method were alone. The interviews must continue while saturation is reached, and the content analysis has to be carried out inductively, more than forcing the data within a category preconceived for the study.

Further, triangulation may be used with different objectives, among them, the following:

• Triangulation is linked by many authors with rigor and quality; in that sense, one of the expectations is to increase research rigor, 6 thus, Flick 7 highlights triangulation as “a way to promote quality in research”.
• Triangulation as verification: for Patton, 8 studies using multiple methods that analyze different types of data “provide cross validation”. A les common use of triangulation is to ensure the validity of the instruments. However, this approach should be cautious, testing an instrument before its implementation or establishing its validity during the pilot test.
• Triangulation as completeness: for Patton 8 “(…) qualitative and quantitative data can be combined fruitfully when these elucidate complementary aspects of the same phenomenon”.
• Interdisciplinarity: Flick 9 proposes the possibility of conducting a “systematic triangulation of perspectives”, which may imply “researcher triangulation as collaborative strategy”; this opens the possibility addressing at least the multi- or interdisciplinarity; as proposed by Janesick: 10 I would wish to add a fifth type: “interdisciplinary triangulation”.

In synthesis, following Molina, 11 triangulation can “(…) expand the research process to contribute to deeper and broader comprehension of the phenomenon, given that it adds “(…) rigor, amplitude, complexity, richness, and depth to any research”.

Mixed methods in research -perspective under development and emerging since the 1990s- emphasize on integrating different data sets, as highlighted by Creswell. 12 The author starts from the labels and notations exposed by Morse who was the precursor of said nomenclature and Creswell proposes it to differentiate design categories or typologies possible to apply in said methods. 12 Said combined methods “have extended rapidly through social and behavioral sciences”, as stated by Timans, Wouters, and Heilbron 13 and “have developed linked to the triangulation concept”. 12 Some authors denominate the singularly as mixed method.

The complementarity of methods

Defining qualitative research as development of theories and generation of hypothesis, and quantitative research as modification of theories and tests of hypothesis, Field and Morse have identified the complementarity of both approaches.

For Morse, 2 the biggest threat to validity is the use of inadequate or inappropriate samples. Perhaps due to reasons of convenience, researchers have sought to use the same subjects for both methods, qualitative and quantitative, although it is clearly inappropriate to exchange those samples. For example, quantitative research is based on large representative samples of the population randomly selected; adjustment of the sample is determined statistically, as well as its representativity of the whole population. In qualitative research, appropriation is in relation to how well the sample can represent the phenomenon of interest (for example, how much have the participants experienced the phenomenon and can articulate their experiences); the sample will be adequate when data saturation is enriched. Still, in light of the overall purpose of research, no reason exists (different from convenience) to use the same subjects for both samples.

Clearly, when incorporating quantitative methods within a qualitative study, the qualitative sample may be inadequate for quantitative purposes. Lack of representativity of the qualitative sample selected in purpose is inappropriate and threatens the validity. Selection of the sample through the qualitative and quantitative components of a sequential ( QUAL -› quan ) or simultaneous ( QUAL + quan ) triangulation must be independent. Because the quantitative sample is inadequate and inappropriate for quantitative purposes, researchers must design a quantitative sample for the population. However, when the quantitative method is used to add more information about the qualitative sample ( QUAL + quan ), exceptions can be made if the norms so permit, or if a comparison is available of a normal group, to interpret the results. For example, if dealing with the anxiety of the relatives in the waiting room, the anxiety scales can be interpreted with the norms available for anxiety scales.

A subsample may be used from a large quantitative sample for the qualitative component of the QUAN + qual or QUAL -› quan triangulation , but those subjects included or the incidental observations in the qualitative part must be selected according with the criterion of good participants than through random selection. Thereby, the subjects selected for the quantitative sample must have greater experience and articulation, and the observations selected must consider the best examples of the situation.

Methodological triangulation is not a term applied to ethnography when the research method includes the use of semi-structured interviews, some levels of participant observation, use of recordings, and administration of questionnaires. It is the combination of said techniques that constitutes the ethnography and what makes ethnography, ethnography. It is not the case of blending or integrating guides from both texts, qualitative and quantitative, rather, it is using appropriate strategies to maintain the validity of each method. The QUAN + qual triangulation is not only the addition of linguistic and narrative data in an experimental design; at least, the interview data must be collected and analyzed according with the assumptions and principles of the qualitative method. Similarly, incorporating one or two open questions within the quantitative survey does not make study qualitative.

Additionally, using quantitative data in a qualitative study (like frequency data to improve the description), does not constitute a quantitative study. Methodological triangulation is not a technique to use due to rapidity and convenience in the research. Well done, it will likely lengthen the duration of the project, but the gains reached in the long term are immensurable.

Methodological triangulation is not a concurrent validation technique. Although the same strategies may be used, these are implemented in a study for different motives. The purpose of the concurrent validation is to find if the results of measuring the same concept through both methods are equivalent. The purpose of simultaneous triangulation is to obtain different but complementary data on the same topic, more than replicating the results.

According to Knafl, methodological triangulation is not merely to maximize the strength and minimize the weakness of each method. If a careful approach is not made, the end result may be to broaden the weakness of each method and invalidate completely the research project. It is more a method to obtain complementary findings and contribute to the theory and development of knowledge.

Some of the controversies of methodological triangulation have emphasized on the issue of qualitative research against quantitative. This controversy advocates for the combination of methods inasmuch as it is consistent with theoretical research. Some researchers forget that research methodologies are only tools, instruments that when used facilitate understanding. Researchers should be versatile and have a repertoire of methods available. To broaden the foregoing, a summary is presented of the discussion by Cowman about the paradigms and the author’s proposal regarding triangulation. 3

Quantitative approach was the dominant paradigm from 1950 until 1990; the research approach - in turn - has been increasingly localized on the qualitative paradigm. Within the literature there is general support to separate both paradigms. However, accepting the inherent differences between the two, researchers are concerned that no isolated method can provide understanding of human beings and of their complex needs. Triangulation, as research strategy, represents the integration of two research approaches. The literature that explores its merits in research is incomplete, however, it is reported that triangulation, by reconciling the paradigmatic assumptions of quantitative and qualitative methods, provides richness and productive data. Triangulation offers a bipolar alternative and approaches the quantitative and qualitative. The qualitative-quantitative debate is still in development. It should be noted that each research perspective has several inherent differences. The quantitative approach has been associated exclusively with the dominant empirical-analytical paradigm and sees the causes of human behavior through observations that seek to be objective and collects quantifiable data. More often, research methods are associated with experimental research designs, which examine the causal relations among variables, controlled or removed from their natural scenario and observations are quantified and analyzed through statistically determined probabilities.

Quantitative research holds the methodological assumption that the social world looks at itself through objective forms of measurement. Conversely, Leininger 1985 suggests that people are not reducible to measurable objects and that they do not exist independently of their historical, social, and cultural context. The qualitative paradigm emerges from a tradition in sociology and anthropology, techniques to obtain qualitative data permit observing the world from the perspective of the subject, not the researcher. The qualitative paradigm is concerned for the value of the meaning and for the social world from which this meaning derives; through a variety of theoretical perspectives and research traditions that include phenomenology and ethnography, natural and family data are valued and serve to gain understanding of people. Differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches can be seen, even at the most basic level. The qualitative approach develops theory inductively from the data; in quantitative research, it is done deductively and its methods are encouraged primarily as a theory subjected to statistical tests, that is, falsifiable in Popperian terms.

Knowing the natural difficulties of research quantitative and qualitative methods and having identified the need to integrate the research approaches, the triangulation strategy is proposed. Cowman 3 accepts four principles underscored by Mitchell, 14 which, applied carefully, point to maximizing the validity of a particular research, incorporating the methodological triangulation: 1) the research question must be clearly focused, 2) the strengths and weaknesses of each method chosen must complement the other, 3) methods must be selected according with their relevance for the nature of the phenomenon under study, and 4) a continuous evaluation must be performed of the method selected during the course of the research to monitor if the three previous principles are being followed. These consistency elements also apply in mixed methods.

Cowman 3 also warns of possible difficulties of triangulation: in first instance, a researcher, accepting the advantages of triangulation, can lose sight of differences between the methods chosen. Danger exists in collecting large volumes of data, which - subsequently - it will not be possible to analyze or are dealt with superficially. Fielding and Fielding emphasized on the danger of taking multiple methods without using simultaneously the bias control procedure.

Moreover, triangulation provides strengths, like animation, creativity, flexibility, and depth in data collection and analysis; as indicated by Cohen and Manion, methodologists often push methods as pets because those are the only methods with which they are familiar or because they believe that their method is superior to all the rest. Reichardt and Cook suggest that it is time to stop constructing walls between methods and start building bridges.

Given that the methods need independence within a single project, the real issue in triangulation can go beyond incompatibility between different assumptions of two paradigms, as argued by several researchers. It also assumes the possible incompatibility of contrasting philosophical issues, of static and dynamic realities, of objective and subjective perspectives, of inductive and deductive approaches or of integral and particular visions. It is not the elusive mix of numerical and text data or of simultaneous considerations of antagonistic approaches of causality and non-causality. Integration of data does not occur in the analysis process, but in the union of the results of each study within a cohesive and coherent product where the confirmation or revision of the existing theory takes place. This can be achieved through adhesion to the rules and assumptions of each method in selecting the sample, purpose, method, and the contribution of the results within the research plan as a whole.

* How to cite this article: Arias Valencia MM. Principles, Scope, and Limitations of the Methodological Triangula-tion. Invest. Educ. Enferm. 2022; 40(2):e03.

• Social Science
• Social Psychology

Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations, and Scope of the Study By

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