Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

  • Knowledge Base

Methodology

  • What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

  • Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
  • Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
  • Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
  • Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

  • Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
  • Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
  • Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

  • Academic style
  • Vague sentences
  • Style consistency

See an example

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Normal distribution
  • Degrees of freedom
  • Null hypothesis
  • Discourse analysis
  • Control groups
  • Mixed methods research
  • Non-probability sampling
  • Quantitative research
  • Ecological validity

Research bias

  • Rosenthal effect
  • Implicit bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Selection bias
  • Negativity bias
  • Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved February 14, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

  • Privacy Policy
  • SignUp/Login

Research Method

Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Case Study Research

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

  • Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
  • Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
  • Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
  • Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
  • Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
  • Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
  • Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

  • The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
  • The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
  • The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
  • The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
  • The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

  • Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
  • Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
  • Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
  • Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

  • In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
  • Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
  • Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
  • Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
  • Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
  • Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

  • Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
  • Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
  • Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
  • Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
  • Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
  • Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

' src=

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types...

Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and...

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods

Basic Research

Basic Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Exploratory Research

Exploratory Research – Types, Methods and...

One-to-One Interview in Research

One-to-One Interview – Methods and Guide

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

  • Annotated Bibliography
  • Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
  • Group Presentations
  • Dealing with Nervousness
  • Using Visual Aids
  • Grading Someone Else's Paper
  • Types of Structured Group Activities
  • Group Project Survival Skills
  • Leading a Class Discussion
  • Multiple Book Review Essay
  • Reviewing Collected Works
  • Writing a Case Analysis Paper
  • Writing a Case Study
  • About Informed Consent
  • Writing Field Notes
  • Writing a Policy Memo
  • Writing a Reflective Paper
  • Writing a Research Proposal
  • Generative AI and Writing
  • Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

  • The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
  • The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
  • The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
  • The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
  • The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

  • What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
  • Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
  • What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
  • How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

  • Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
  • Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
  • Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
  • Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
  • Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
  • Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
  • Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

  • If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
  • If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
  • Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

  • << Previous: Writing a Case Analysis Paper
  • Next: Writing a Field Report >>
  • Last Updated: Feb 8, 2024 10:20 AM
  • URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/assignments

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

  • Introduction and overview
  • What is qualitative research?
  • What is qualitative data?
  • Examples of qualitative data
  • Qualitative vs. quantitative research
  • Mixed methods
  • Qualitative research preparation
  • Theoretical perspective
  • Theoretical framework
  • Literature reviews

Research question

  • Conceptual framework
  • Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

  • Qualitative research methods
  • Focus groups
  • Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

  • Ethnographical research
  • Ethical considerations
  • Confidentiality and privacy
  • Power dynamics
  • Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Whatever field you're in, ATLAS.ti puts your data to work for you

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to turn your data into insights.

Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

Ready to jumpstart your research with ATLAS.ti?

Conceptualize your research project with our intuitive data analysis interface. Download a free trial today.

Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

  • Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
  • Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
  • Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
  • Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

  • Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
  • Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
  • Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
  • Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Ready to analyze your data with ATLAS.ti?

See how our intuitive software can draw key insights from your data with a free trial today.

Cart

  • SUGGESTED TOPICS
  • The Magazine
  • Newsletters
  • Managing Yourself
  • Managing Teams
  • Work-life Balance
  • The Big Idea
  • Data & Visuals
  • Reading Lists
  • Case Selections
  • HBR Learning
  • Topic Feeds
  • Account Settings
  • Email Preferences

What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

  • Nitin Nohria

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

  • Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. Professor at Harvard Business School and the former dean of HBS.

Partner Center

  • Bipolar Disorder
  • Therapy Center
  • When To See a Therapist
  • Types of Therapy
  • Best Online Therapy
  • Best Couples Therapy
  • Best Family Therapy
  • Managing Stress
  • Sleep and Dreaming
  • Understanding Emotions
  • Self-Improvement
  • Healthy Relationships
  • Student Resources
  • Personality Types
  • Verywell Mind Insights
  • 2023 Verywell Mind 25
  • Mental Health in the Classroom
  • Editorial Process
  • Meet Our Review Board
  • Crisis Support

What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

  • Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

  • Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
  • Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
  • Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

  • It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
  • Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
  • It may not be scientifically rigorous
  • It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

  • Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
  • Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
  • Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

  • Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
  • Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
  • Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
  • Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
  • Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
  • Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

  • Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
  • Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
  • Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
  • Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
  • Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
  • Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

  • Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
  • Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
  • Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
  • Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

  • Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
  • Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
  • Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Educator, Researcher

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

case study

 Famous Case Studies

  • Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
  • Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
  • Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
  • Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
  • Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

  • Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
  • Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
  • Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

  • Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
  • Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
  • Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

  • Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
  • Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
  • Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
  • Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
  • Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
  • Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

  • Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
  • Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
  • Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

  • News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
  • Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
  • Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
  • Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

  • Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
  • Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
  • School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

  • Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
  • Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

  • Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
  • Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
  • Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
  • Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
  • Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
  • Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

  • Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
  • Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
  • For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

  • Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
  • Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
  • Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
  • Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

  • Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
  • References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
  • Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
  • Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
  • Provides insight for further research.
  • Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

  • Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
  • Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
  • Difficult to replicate.
  • Time-consuming and expensive.
  • The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

  • Case Study Approach
  • Case Study Method
  • Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
  • “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
  • Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

Print Friendly, PDF & Email

We use essential cookies to make Venngage work. By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

Manage Cookies

Cookies and similar technologies collect certain information about how you’re using our website. Some of them are essential, and without them you wouldn’t be able to use Venngage. But others are optional, and you get to choose whether we use them or not.

Strictly Necessary Cookies

These cookies are always on, as they’re essential for making Venngage work, and making it safe. Without these cookies, services you’ve asked for can’t be provided.

Show cookie providers

  • Google Login

Functionality Cookies

These cookies help us provide enhanced functionality and personalisation, and remember your settings. They may be set by us or by third party providers.

Performance Cookies

These cookies help us analyze how many people are using Venngage, where they come from and how they're using it. If you opt out of these cookies, we can’t get feedback to make Venngage better for you and all our users.

  • Google Analytics

Targeting Cookies

These cookies are set by our advertising partners to track your activity and show you relevant Venngage ads on other sites as you browse the internet.

  • Google Tag Manager
  • Infographics
  • Daily Infographics
  • Graphic Design
  • Graphs and Charts
  • Data Visualization
  • Human Resources
  • Training and Development
  • Beginner Guides

Blog Beginner Guides

What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

By Ronita Mohan , Sep 20, 2021

What is a Case Study Blog Header

Case studies have become powerful business tools. But what is a case study? What are the benefits of creating one? Are there limitations to the format?

If you’ve asked yourself these questions, our helpful guide will clear things up. Learn how to use a case study for business. Find out how cases analysis works in psychology and research.

We’ve also got examples of case studies to inspire you.

Haven’t made a case study before? You can easily  create a case study  with Venngage’s customizable templates.

CREATE A CASE STUDY

Click to jump ahead:

What is a case study, what is the case study method, benefits of case studies, limitations of case studies, types of case studies, faqs about case studies.

Case studies are research methodologies. They examine subjects, projects, or organizations to tell a story.

Case Study Definition LinkedIn Post

USE THIS TEMPLATE

Numerous sectors use case analyses. The social sciences, social work, and psychology create studies regularly.

Healthcare industries write reports on patients and diagnoses. Marketing case study examples , like the one below, highlight the benefits of a business product.

Bold Social Media Business Case Study Template

CREATE THIS REPORT TEMPLATE

Now that you know what a case study is, we explain how case reports are used in three different industries.

What is a business case study?

A business or marketing case study aims at showcasing a successful partnership. This can be between a brand and a client. Or the case study can examine a brand’s project.

There is a perception that case studies are used to advertise a brand. But effective reports, like the one below, can show clients how a brand can support them.

Light Simple Business Case Study Template

Hubspot created a case study on a customer that successfully scaled its business. The report outlines the various Hubspot tools used to achieve these results.

Hubspot case study

Hubspot also added a video with testimonials from the client company’s employees.

So, what is the purpose of a case study for businesses? There is a lot of competition in the corporate world. Companies are run by people. They can be on the fence about which brand to work with.

Business reports  stand out aesthetically, as well. They use  brand colors  and brand fonts . Usually, a combination of the client’s and the brand’s.

With the Venngage  My Brand Kit  feature, businesses can automatically apply their brand to designs.

A business case study, like the one below, acts as social proof. This helps customers decide between your brand and your competitors.

Modern lead Generation Business Case Study Template

Don’t know how to design a report? You can learn  how to write a case study  with Venngage’s guide. We also share design tips and examples that will help you convert.

Related: 55+ Annual Report Design Templates, Inspirational Examples & Tips [Updated]

What is a case study in psychology?

In the field of psychology, case studies focus on a particular subject. Psychology case histories also examine human behaviors.

Case reports search for commonalities between humans. They are also used to prescribe further research. Or these studies can elaborate on a solution for a behavioral ailment.

The American Psychology Association  has a number of case studies on real-life clients. Note how the reports are more text-heavy than a business case study.

What is a case study in psychology? Behavior therapy example

Famous psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Anna O popularised the use of case studies in the field. They did so by regularly interviewing subjects. Their detailed observations build the field of psychology.

It is important to note that psychological studies must be conducted by professionals. Psychologists, psychiatrists and therapists should be the researchers in these cases.

Related: What Netflix’s Top 50 Shows Can Teach Us About Font Psychology [Infographic]

What is a case study in research?

Research is a necessary part of every case study. But specific research fields are required to create studies. These fields include user research, healthcare, education, or social work.

For example, this UX Design  report examined the public perception of a client. The brand researched and implemented new visuals to improve it. The study breaks down this research through lessons learned.

What is a case study in research? UX Design case study example

Clinical reports are a necessity in the medical field. These documents are used to share knowledge with other professionals. They also help examine new or unusual diseases or symptoms.

The pandemic has led to a significant increase in research. For example,  Spectrum Health  studied the value of health systems in the pandemic. They created the study by examining community outreach.

What is a case study in research? Spectrum healthcare example

The pandemic has significantly impacted the field of education. This has led to numerous examinations on remote studying. There have also been studies on how students react to decreased peer communication.

Social work case reports often have a community focus. They can also examine public health responses. In certain regions, social workers study disaster responses.

You now know what case studies in various fields are. In the next step of our guide, we explain the case study method.

Return to Table of Contents

A case analysis is a deep dive into a subject. To facilitate this case studies are built on interviews and observations. The below example would have been created after numerous interviews.

Case studies are largely qualitative. They analyze and describe phenomena. While some data is included, a case analysis is not quantitative.

There are a few steps in the case method. You have to start by identifying the subject of your study. Then determine what kind of research is required.

In natural sciences, case studies can take years to complete. Business reports, like this one, don’t take that long. A few weeks of interviews should be enough.

Blue Simple Business Case Study Template

The case method will vary depending on the industry. Reports will also look different once produced.

As you will have seen, business reports are more colorful. The design is also more accessible . Healthcare and psychology reports are more text-heavy.

Designing case reports takes time and energy. So, is it worth taking the time to write them? Here are the benefits of creating case studies.

  • Collects large amounts of information
  • Helps formulate hypotheses
  • Builds the case for further research
  • Discovers new insights into a subject
  • Builds brand trust and loyalty
  • Engages customers through stories

For example, the business study below creates a story around a brand partnership. It makes for engaging reading. The study also shows evidence backing up the information.

Blue Content Marketing Case Study Template

We’ve shared the benefits of why studies are needed. We will also look at the limitations of creating them.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

There are a few disadvantages to conducting a case analysis. The limitations will vary according to the industry.

  • Responses from interviews are subjective
  • Subjects may tailor responses to the researcher
  • Studies can’t always be replicated
  • In certain industries, analyses can take time and be expensive
  • Risk of generalizing the results among a larger population

These are some of the common weaknesses of creating case reports. If you’re on the fence, look at the competition in your industry.

Other brands or professionals are building reports, like this example. In that case, you may want to do the same.

Coral content marketing case study template

There are six common types of case reports. Depending on your industry, you might use one of these types.

Descriptive case studies

Explanatory case studies, exploratory case reports, intrinsic case studies, instrumental case studies, collective case reports.

6 Types Of Case Studies List

USE THIS TEMPLATE

We go into more detail about each type of study in the guide below.

Related:  15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

When you have an existing hypothesis, you can design a descriptive study. This type of report starts with a description. The aim is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory.

Once these connections are found, the study can conclude. The results of this type of study will usually suggest how to develop a theory further.

A study like the one below has concrete results. A descriptive report would use the quantitative data as a suggestion for researching the subject deeply.

Lead generation business case study template

When an incident occurs in a field, an explanation is required. An explanatory report investigates the cause of the event. It will include explanations for that cause.

The study will also share details about the impact of the event. In most cases, this report will use evidence to predict future occurrences. The results of explanatory reports are definitive.

Note that there is no room for interpretation here. The results are absolute.

The study below is a good example. It explains how one brand used the services of another. It concludes by showing definitive proof that the collaboration was successful.

Bold Content Marketing Case Study Template

Another example of this study would be in the automotive industry. If a vehicle fails a test, an explanatory study will examine why. The results could show that the failure was because of a particular part.

Related: How to Write a Case Study [+ Design Tips]

An explanatory report is a self-contained document. An exploratory one is only the beginning of an investigation.

Exploratory cases act as the starting point of studies. This is usually conducted as a precursor to large-scale investigations. The research is used to suggest why further investigations are needed.

An exploratory study can also be used to suggest methods for further examination.

For example, the below analysis could have found inconclusive results. In that situation, it would be the basis for an in-depth study.

Teal Social Media Business Case Study Template

Intrinsic studies are more common in the field of psychology. These reports can also be conducted in healthcare or social work.

These types of studies focus on a unique subject, such as a patient. They can sometimes study groups close to the researcher.

The aim of such studies is to understand the subject better. This requires learning their history. The researcher will also examine how they interact with their environment.

For instance, if the case study below was about a unique brand, it could be an intrinsic study.

Vibrant Content Marketing Case Study Template

Once the study is complete, the researcher will have developed a better understanding of a phenomenon. This phenomenon will likely not have been studied or theorized about before.

Examples of intrinsic case analysis can be found across psychology. For example, Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive development. He established the theory from intrinsic studies into his own children.

Related: What Disney Villains Can Tell Us About Color Psychology [Infographic]

This is another type of study seen in medical and psychology fields. Instrumental reports are created to examine more than just the primary subject.

When research is conducted for an instrumental study, it is to provide the basis for a larger phenomenon. The subject matter is usually the best example of the phenomenon. This is why it is being studied.

Purple SAAS Business Case Study Template

Assume it’s examining lead generation strategies. It may want to show that visual marketing is the definitive lead generation tool. The brand can conduct an instrumental case study to examine this phenomenon.

Collective studies are based on instrumental case reports. These types of studies examine multiple reports.

There are a number of reasons why collective reports are created:

  • To provide evidence for starting a new study
  • To find pattens between multiple instrumental reports
  • To find differences in similar types of cases
  • Gain a deeper understanding of a complex phenomenon
  • Understand a phenomenon from diverse contexts

A researcher could use multiple reports, like the one below, to build a collective case report.

Social Media Business Case Study template

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

What makes a case study a case study?

A case study has a very particular research methodology. They are an in-depth study of a person or a group of individuals. They can also study a community or an organization. Case reports examine real-world phenomena within a set context.

How long should a case study be?

The length of studies depends on the industry. It also depends on the story you’re telling. Most case studies should be at least 500-1500 words long. But you can increase the length if you have more details to share.

What should you ask in a case study?

The one thing you shouldn’t ask is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions. Case studies are qualitative. These questions won’t give you the information you need.

Ask your client about the problems they faced. Ask them about solutions they found. Or what they think is the ideal solution. Leave room to ask them follow-up questions. This will help build out the study.

How to present a case study?

When you’re ready to present a case study, begin by providing a summary of the problem or challenge you were addressing. Follow this with an outline of the solution you implemented, and support this with the results you achieved, backed by relevant data. Incorporate visual aids like slides, graphs, and images to make your case study presentation more engaging and impactful.

Now you know what a case study means, you can begin creating one. These reports are a great tool for analyzing brands. They are also useful in a variety of other fields.

Use a visual communication platform like Venngage to design case studies. With Venngage’s templates, you can design easily. Create branded, engaging reports, all without design experience.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

  • Knowledge Base
  • Methodology
  • Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

  • Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
  • Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
  • Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
  • Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

  • Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
  • Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
  • Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 12 February 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, correlational research | guide, design & examples, a quick guide to experimental design | 5 steps & examples, descriptive research design | definition, methods & examples.

  • Business Essentials
  • Leadership & Management
  • Credential of Leadership, Impact, and Management in Business (CLIMB)
  • Entrepreneurship & Innovation
  • *New* Digital Transformation
  • Finance & Accounting
  • Business in Society
  • For Organizations
  • Support Portal
  • Media Coverage
  • Founding Donors
  • Leadership Team

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

  • Harvard Business School →
  • HBS Online →
  • Business Insights →

Business Insights

Harvard Business School Online's Business Insights Blog provides the career insights you need to achieve your goals and gain confidence in your business skills.

  • Career Development
  • Communication
  • Decision-Making
  • Earning Your MBA
  • Negotiation
  • News & Events
  • Productivity
  • Staff Spotlight
  • Student Profiles
  • Work-Life Balance
  • Alternative Investments
  • Business Analytics
  • Business Strategy
  • Business and Climate Change
  • Design Thinking and Innovation
  • Digital Marketing Strategy
  • Disruptive Strategy
  • Economics for Managers
  • Entrepreneurship Essentials
  • Financial Accounting
  • Global Business
  • Launching Tech Ventures
  • Leadership Principles
  • Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability
  • Leading with Finance
  • Management Essentials
  • Negotiation Mastery
  • Organizational Leadership
  • Power and Influence for Positive Impact
  • Strategy Execution
  • Sustainable Business Strategy
  • Sustainable Investing
  • Winning with Digital Platforms

5 Benefits of Learning Through the Case Study Method

Harvard Business School MBA students learning through the case study method

  • 28 Nov 2023

While several factors make HBS Online unique —including a global Community and real-world outcomes —active learning through the case study method rises to the top.

In a 2023 City Square Associates survey, 74 percent of HBS Online learners who also took a course from another provider said HBS Online’s case method and real-world examples were better by comparison.

Here’s a primer on the case method, five benefits you could gain, and how to experience it for yourself.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is the Harvard Business School Case Study Method?

The case study method , or case method , is a learning technique in which you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it. After working through it yourself and with peers, you’re told how the scenario played out.

HBS pioneered the case method in 1922. Shortly before, in 1921, the first case was written.

“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it?” says HBS Professor Jan Rivkin, former senior associate dean and chair of HBS's master of business administration (MBA) program, in a video about the case method . “That skill—the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry to choose a course of action—that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”

Originally developed for the in-person MBA classroom, HBS Online adapted the case method into an engaging, interactive online learning experience in 2014.

In HBS Online courses , you learn about each case from the business professional who experienced it. After reviewing their videos, you’re prompted to take their perspective and explain how you’d handle their situation.

You then get to read peers’ responses, “star” them, and comment to further the discussion. Afterward, you learn how the professional handled it and their key takeaways.

HBS Online’s adaptation of the case method incorporates the famed HBS “cold call,” in which you’re called on at random to make a decision without time to prepare.

“Learning came to life!” said Sheneka Balogun , chief administration officer and chief of staff at LeMoyne-Owen College, of her experience taking the Credential of Readiness (CORe) program . “The videos from the professors, the interactive cold calls where you were randomly selected to participate, and the case studies that enhanced and often captured the essence of objectives and learning goals were all embedded in each module. This made learning fun, engaging, and student-friendly.”

If you’re considering taking a course that leverages the case study method, here are five benefits you could experience.

5 Benefits of Learning Through Case Studies

1. take new perspectives.

The case method prompts you to consider a scenario from another person’s perspective. To work through the situation and come up with a solution, you must consider their circumstances, limitations, risk tolerance, stakeholders, resources, and potential consequences to assess how to respond.

Taking on new perspectives not only can help you navigate your own challenges but also others’. Putting yourself in someone else’s situation to understand their motivations and needs can go a long way when collaborating with stakeholders.

2. Hone Your Decision-Making Skills

Another skill you can build is the ability to make decisions effectively . The case study method forces you to use limited information to decide how to handle a problem—just like in the real world.

Throughout your career, you’ll need to make difficult decisions with incomplete or imperfect information—and sometimes, you won’t feel qualified to do so. Learning through the case method allows you to practice this skill in a low-stakes environment. When facing a real challenge, you’ll be better prepared to think quickly, collaborate with others, and present and defend your solution.

3. Become More Open-Minded

As you collaborate with peers on responses, it becomes clear that not everyone solves problems the same way. Exposing yourself to various approaches and perspectives can help you become a more open-minded professional.

When you’re part of a diverse group of learners from around the world, your experiences, cultures, and backgrounds contribute to a range of opinions on each case.

On the HBS Online course platform, you’re prompted to view and comment on others’ responses, and discussion is encouraged. This practice of considering others’ perspectives can make you more receptive in your career.

“You’d be surprised at how much you can learn from your peers,” said Ratnaditya Jonnalagadda , a software engineer who took CORe.

In addition to interacting with peers in the course platform, Jonnalagadda was part of the HBS Online Community , where he networked with other professionals and continued discussions sparked by course content.

“You get to understand your peers better, and students share examples of businesses implementing a concept from a module you just learned,” Jonnalagadda said. “It’s a very good way to cement the concepts in one's mind.”

4. Enhance Your Curiosity

One byproduct of taking on different perspectives is that it enables you to picture yourself in various roles, industries, and business functions.

“Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers,” says former HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in the Harvard Business Review . “Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

Through the case method, you can “try on” roles you may not have considered and feel more prepared to change or advance your career .

5. Build Your Self-Confidence

Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader’s perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career.

According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey , 84 percent of HBS Online learners report feeling more confident making business decisions after taking a course.

“Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people,” Nohria says in the Harvard Business Review . “There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching.”

Your Guide to Online Learning Success | Download Your Free E-Book

How to Experience the Case Study Method

If the case method seems like a good fit for your learning style, experience it for yourself by taking an HBS Online course. Offerings span seven subject areas, including:

  • Business essentials
  • Leadership and management
  • Entrepreneurship and innovation
  • Finance and accounting
  • Business in society

No matter which course or credential program you choose, you’ll examine case studies from real business professionals, work through their challenges alongside peers, and gain valuable insights to apply to your career.

Are you interested in discovering how HBS Online can help advance your career? Explore our course catalog and download our free guide —complete with interactive workbook sections—to determine if online learning is right for you and which course to take.

case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

About the Author

Log in using your username and password

  • Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
  • Latest content
  • Current issue
  • BMJ Journals More You are viewing from: Google Indexer

You are here

  • Online First
  • What can Safety Cases offer for patient safety? A multisite case study
  • Article Text
  • Article info
  • Citation Tools
  • Rapid Responses
  • Article metrics

Download PDF

  • http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4981-1210 Elisa Giulia Liberati 1 ,
  • http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1979-7577 Graham P Martin 1 ,
  • http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9514-1890 Guillaume Lamé 1 , 2 ,
  • Justin Waring 3 ,
  • http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7356-5342 Carolyn Tarrant 4 ,
  • http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7886-3223 Janet Willars 4 ,
  • Mary Dixon-Woods 1
  • 1 THIS Institute (The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute), Department of Public Health and Primary Care , University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
  • 2 Laboratoire Genie Industriel , CentraleSupélec, Paris Saclay University , Gif-sur-Yvette , France
  • 3 Health Services Management Centre , University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
  • 4 Department of Population Health Sciences , University of Leicester , Leicester , UK
  • Correspondence to Dr Elisa Giulia Liberati, THIS Institute (Public Health and Primary Care), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; elisa.liberati{at}thisinstitute.cam.ac.uk

Background The Safety Case is a regulatory technique that requires organisations to demonstrate to regulators that they have systematically identified hazards in their systems and reduced risks to being as low as reasonably practicable. It is used in several high-risk sectors, but only in a very limited way in healthcare. We examined the first documented attempt to apply the Safety Case methodology to clinical pathways.

Methods Data are drawn from a mixed-methods evaluation of the Safer Clinical Systems programme. The development of a Safety Case for a defined clinical pathway was a centrepiece of the programme. We base our analysis on 143 interviews covering all aspects of the programme and on analysis of 13 Safety Cases produced by clinical teams.

Results The principles behind a proactive, systematic approach to identifying and controlling risk that could be curated in a single document were broadly welcomed by participants, but was not straightforward to deliver. Compiling Safety Cases helped teams to identify safety hazards in clinical pathways, some of which had been previously occluded. However, the work of compiling Safety Cases was demanding of scarce skill and resource. Not all problems identified through proactive methods were tractable to the efforts of front-line staff. Some persistent hazards, originating from institutional and organisational vulnerabilities, appeared also to be out of the scope of control of even the board level of organisations. A particular dilemma for organisational senior leadership was whether to prioritise fixing the risks proactively identified in Safety Cases over other pressing issues, including those that had already resulted in harm.

Conclusions The Safety Case approach was recognised by those involved in the Safer Clinical Systems programme as having potential value. However, it is also fraught with challenge, highlighting the limitations of efforts to transfer safety management practices to healthcare from other sectors.

  • Patient safety
  • Qualitative research
  • Risk management

Data availability statement

No data are available.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2023-016042

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

Safety Cases are a well-established regulatory technique in some areas, requiring organisations to make the case to the relevant regulator that they have put in place adequate measures to reduce risks in their systems to a level ‘as low as reasonably practicable’ (ALARP).

Importing of safety practices from other sectors has a long track record in healthcare, but little is known about the potential of the Safety Case approach when applied to clinical pathways.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

It was difficult for clinical teams to use the Safety Case as intended (to show that risks had been reduced to ALARP), not least because they often identified issues that front-line staff could not address.

Safety Cases were sometimes used instead to attract senior leaders’ attention and to make the case for better support and resourcing, but some issues were beyond the control even of organisational leadership.

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE OR POLICY

Safety Cases may have some potential in healthcare, but their optimal use in this sector may require modifications, particularly if they are considered for regulatory purposes.

Introduction

Patient safety remains a major challenge for healthcare, despite more than two decades of sustained policy, practice and research attention. 1 2 The initial enthusiasm for borrowing practices and methods from other safety-critical industries (such as aviation) at the outset of the patient safety movement 3–5 has been tempered by experience. 6–12 It is now widely recognised that attempts to transfer approaches between contexts require care and caution, and should be supported by theory and empirical evaluation. 13–15 This paper seeks to contribute to addressing this need through examination of an attempt to introduce into healthcare a specific safety approach—the Safety Case—that is already used in other industries (including oil, transport and mining) both as a regulatory technique, 16 and, more rarely, as a quality management approach without regulatory mandate (eg, in the automotive industry). 17 18

The specifics of the Safety Case approach vary between sectors and regulators, 19 but the general principles are listed in box 1 . In brief, a claim to operational safety is justified through a series of linked arguments that explain how safety has been secured, with supporting evidence , including the processes in place to control risk. Where used as a regulatory technique, Safety Cases are produced by organisations to ‘make the case’ to the relevant regulator that they have put in place adequate measures to reduce risks in a product or system to a level ‘as low as reasonably practicable’ (often abbreviated as ALARP). The regulator then reviews the Safety Case and either grants the organisation licence to operate, or may require further risk assessments, justification of the measures proposed or additional risk mitigations. 20

Typical features of safety cases

Safety Cases are developed to ‘make the case’ that risk has been reduced to a level ‘as low as reasonably practicable’ (ALARP). To do so, Safety Cases integrate various forms of prospective risk management analysis, based on the idea that operators are better placed than external regulators to assess risks in their own systems. The core of the Safety Case is typically a risk-based argument and corresponding evidence to demonstrate that all risks associated with a particular system have been identified, that appropriate risk controls have been put in place, and that there are appropriate processes in place to monitor the effectiveness of the risk controls and the safety performance of the system on an ongoing basis. 23

Safety cases typically contain:

A description of the system and its operational context;

How safe the system is claimed to be and the criteria by which safety is assessed;

How hazards have been identified and how the risks they pose have been assessed;

What kind of risk control measures have been put into place and why they are effective; and

Why the residual level of risk is acceptable. 23

Safety Cases are typically reviewed and assessed by an external regulator, for example, in the nuclear or petrochemical industries in the UK. However, some industrial sectors have also deployed the approach outside of a regulatory requirement. For example, the automotive industry uses Safety Cases that are part of the ISO26262 standard, but this is not mandated by regulators. 17 18

As an approach requiring organisations to proactively describe what procedures and actions they are putting in place to control risk, Safety Cases can be contrasted with prescriptive, compliance-oriented approaches, where organisations are required to show that they have met externally imposed safety standards. 21 Because they are written for a specific system and its context of use, they are intended to be more adaptable to specific situations than generic safety standards, and also more responsive to rapid change in technologies or practices. 22

On the face of it, the Safety Case would appear to have value as an approach to safety management in healthcare, particularly in its potential for prospective identification and control of risk. However, the Safety Case approach has only rarely been used in healthcare, and only in a very limited number of applications (eg, development of information systems and medical devices). 23 24 In this article, we develop an analysis of the application the Safety Case approach within the UK National Health Service (NHS) using a case study of the first documented attempt to apply the principles of the methodology to clinical pathways. As the approach was deployed outside a regulatory context, our analysis focuses on the transferability of an approach to risk management that is proactive, structured, and tailored in nature and that presents evidence about the safety of specific clinical systems and existing mitigations in a single ‘case’ document.

Case study: the Safer Clinical Systems programme

Our analysis draws on an evaluation we conducted of a programme known as Safer Clinical Systems, which is designed to improve the safety and reliability of clinical pathways based on learning adapted from a range of hazardous industries. It seeks to enable organisations to make improvements to local clinical systems and pathways through a structured methodology for identifying risks and re-engineering systems to control risk and enhance resilience. 25 26 Use of the principles of the Safety Case approach is a centrepiece of the Safer Clinical Systems programme, although outside a regulatory context.

Funded by the Health Foundation, the Safer Clinical Systems programme was developed by a team at Warwick University and tested over a number of phases. Following initial development, a ‘testing phase’ involving eight NHS hospital sites (seven in England, one in Scotland) ran from 2011 to 2014. An ‘extension phase’ (2014 to 2016) involved further work by five of these sites and one new site.

Each participating hospital site ( table 1 ) was required to establish a multidisciplinary clinical team. Sites in the testing phase were advised by a support team of clinicians and experts, received inperson training, had access to other resources (such as a reference manual and telephone support) and were required to report their progress regularly. Sites in the extension phase had less bespoke support and were expected instead to build on their previous learning.

  • View inline

Sites involved in the programme

A requirement of participating teams was that they use the Safer Clinical Systems approach to proactively assess risks and hazards in their clinical pathways and that they produce Safety Cases at the end of their projects describing the risks and how they were being mitigated. The Safety Cases were expected to be similar in format to those used in other sectors, 27 comprising a description of the clinical pathway covered, the key hazards identified through structured analysis using prescribed tools, the risk controls implemented, and, critically, a ‘safety claim’ and associated ‘confidence argument’—a pronouncement on the current safety of the system concerned, and a statement explaining how risks had been made ALARP. Rather than being presented to an external regulator, as would be the case if the Safety Case were being used as a regulatory technique, the principal intended audience in this programme was the senior leadership (executive and board level) within organisations.

Evaluation methods

To study the testing and extension phases of the Safer Clinical Systems programme, we used a mixed-methods, longitudinal design, involving interviews, ethnographic observations, and documentary analysis across the nine participating sites. The analysis we report here is based primarily on interviews and documentary analysis. Ethnographic observations (over 850 hours) provided valuable data on how clinical teams carried out their Safer Clinical Systems projects in practice in the context of existing and competing demands, but are not reported in detail here.

Across the nine sites, we conducted 89 semistructured interviews in the testing phase and 39 in the extension phase with participating clinical team members and programme leaders. Sampling at the sites sought to purposefully include a range of different roles in the programme, including the clinical leaders of each project and others. We also conducted 5 semistructured interviews in the testing phase, followed by 10 in the extension phase, with organisational senior leadership, comprising executive team/board members. Interviews explored general experiences of the programme as well as specific exploration of using the Safety Case approach. Participants were informed of the aims and commissioners of the evaluation. All interviews were conducted by experienced social scientists using topic guides ( online supplemental material 1 ). Interviews were conducted either in person or by telephone, between November 2012 and June 2016, and were digitally audio recorded and then transcribed for analysis.

Supplemental material

Analysis, conducted by EL and guided by the wider team, was based on the constant comparative method 28 combining inductive and deductive approaches. We coded interviews and observations using an inductive approach, deriving codes directly from each interview and then progressively clustering codes in higher order categories and themes. To strengthen explanatory power, this inductive strategy was complemented by theoretical concepts drawn from the wider literature.

GL and EL conducted a documentary analysis of the Safety Cases prepared by the clinical teams ( table 2 ). We used recommendations and guidelines for writing and maintaining safety cases in other sectors, 29–31 to organise the Safety Cases’ content thematically, and identified their main strengths and weaknesses in terms of completeness, presence of appropriate evidence and analyses to support the claims, consistency with the site’s safety improvement objectives, readability, and presence of a safety claim and confidence argument.

Format and content of 13 Safety Cases reviewed

Finally, we organised our higher order themes and overall reflections using concepts and themes proposed by recent works on the topic. 19 32 Regular team meetings and correspondence provided oversight of the analytical approach, consistency and adequacy of codes, and reporting. Given the nature of the programme, we did not undertake a formal test for theoretical saturation for the interviews or the Safety Cases.

Across the testing and extension phases of Safer Clinical Systems, we undertook 143 interviews with participants across programme leadership, clinical teams and organisational leadership. We analysed 13 submitted Safety Cases; although 14 should have been developed, one site from the extension phase struggled to implement the programme in full and did not produce a Safety Case.

In presenting our analysis below, we consider, first, participants’ views on the Safety Case as a novel approach to understanding and managing safety risk in healthcare, and second, the work that went into developing Safety Cases. We then turn to the analysis of Safety Cases themselves.

Views on the value of safety cases

By the end of the programme, members of the project teams and senior leadership in the participating organisations had largely come to see the Safety Case as a valuable approach, with the potential to make hazards visible in an accountable, systematic and scientific way. The analytical steps required to compile a Safety Case, such as process mapping the patient pathway, were seen to be particularly useful in proactively identifying threats to safety, rather than reactively managing incidents once they had happened. The role of Safety Cases in enabling an overarching, system-wide view of the hazards, rather than focusing on what happens in particular segments of the pathway, was also welcomed. Broadly, teams valued the possibilities of new ways of thinking about risk.

I like the idea that you just have one document that you can hand to somebody and say how safe is your system. I like the concept that you can say ‘Well this is what our system is like just now’. (Project participant)

Some organisational senior leaders agreed, at least in principle, that Safety Cases could offer value, and recognised the importance of a prospective approach to safety.

We have immensely complex systems which could be simplified and therefore made a bit more reliable. […] So something which looks at that could certainly be a useful thing, because it’s saying ‘Well actually here is a little nest of complexity which you can reduce, but it’s also a significant risk to the patient, because you’re missing information or you’re hurrying things through.’ […] (Senior leader)

Other senior leaders, however, were not always clear on the practicalities of the approach, and some found it difficult to identify the added value of Safety Cases. They suggested, for example, that existing risk management tools performed very similar functions.

If you look at our risk register, mitigation is the last box, we spend a good amount of time on the other things, but if we were to spend any time on a particular risk it would be on mitigation […]. And so that sounds like a very similar process, and so I’m back to what the delineation is between Safety Case and risk register. (Senior leader)

Some project teams saw the Safety Case as useful for a secondary reason: that of securing the attention and interest of senior leaders in their organisations. Their hope was that, by providing new evidence and analysis of the riskiness of clinical systems, senior management attention, support, and resources might be solicited.

So they’ve [senior management] actually kind of bought into it, so I think they will feel pressure to deliver. (Project participant)

However, as we explain below, the exact fit of Safety Cases into the existing ecology of tools and documents in healthcare was not clear to all participants.

Preparing safety cases

Project teams were required to learn new techniques to prepare the Safety Cases, including use of systematic methods to identify and assess risks in their clinical pathways, to propose risk controls and to identify metrics that could be used to monitor systems. Production and communication of Safety Cases also required skills in making persuasive claims, structuring arguments and presenting evidence compellingly. The participating teams were, understandably, unfamiliar with many of these skills, and expressed uncertainties about the expected structure, content and style of the Safety Case itself, especially in terms of what issues to emphasise and how to evidence them. Participants described compiling and drafting the Safety Case as labour-intensive and difficult.

I think the other bit that we have been challenged by is the actual writing of the Safety Case and again it is because it is fairly new to healthcare in general. I think we are going to go through a few reiterations before we fully understand what it is and how to use it. (Project participant)

Notwithstanding the training and support received in the ‘testing’ phase, teams continued to report difficulties with preparing and drafting Safety Cases well into the extension phase. A recurrent source of ambiguity related to the size and scope of the clinical system that the Safety Cases should target. The first, diagnostic, step in the Safer Clinical Systems process involved defining the clinical pathway of focus. However, determining the boundaries of the pathway was far from straightforward. Furthermore, clinical pathways typically involved dozens of technological systems (eg, infusion pumps, IT systems) and sociotechnical processes (eg, guidelines, multidisciplinary meetings). Each might be amenable to risk assessment and management individually, but making sense of their connections, aggregate risks and potential interactions was a much more complex task.

It’s not a linear process and you do go back trying to understand another bit of the process that you thought you understood, but actually didn't as (…) you had hoped. (Project participant)

Once the pathways and their components had been determined (or at least approximated), project teams used a range of methods recommended by the Safer Clinical Systems programme, mostly derived from similar activities in other industries, to assess hazards and risks. The teams found the processes often challenging and time-consuming, with much discussion about the relative merits of different sources of data and evidence. Despite the challenges, teams generally concluded that conducting a systematic risk assessment using structured tools offered important new insights about clinical pathways.

What I’ve loved doing is, is talking to the staff and actually understanding what goes on, because it’s only when you understand what goes on that you can put it right… You’ve worked in the hospital for years and there’s still things you didn’t realise actually went on and things that people did that you didn't realise that they actually did. That was quite an eye-opener. (Project participant)

This new understanding through structured risk assessment enabled teams to identify multiple shortcomings that had potential to harm patients. The hazards they unearthed varied greatly in scale, level of risk posed and tractability to intervention. Some problems identified were amenable to resolution by the project teams, typically those with their roots in suboptimal service planning and pathway design, failures in communication among staff, or unclear distribution of responsibility or ownership of key processes. In response to these, most, but not all, sites designed or implemented some risk controls and documented them in their Safety Cases.

[Staff are] given the freedom and the autonomy to go ahead and do whatever things they think might be necessary to make things better. And that’s what people do, there is very much a culture of promoting change there, so they talked about small cycles of change, doing PDSA [Plan Dp Study Act] cycles, and there’s a number of different projects that are running (Observation notes)

The extent to which these risk control interventions were consistent with the principles of the Safer Clinical Systems programme varied by site. Some project teams were able to draw on extensive experience, while others foundered at this stage. Common to all sites, however, was the identification of issues that were well beyond the scope of control of the front-line teams themselves. These vulnerabilities tended to originate from deep-rooted institutional and organisational pathologies or constraints. The importance of these problems, including, for example, staffing levels, was beyond doubt. Exactly what to do about them was less clear. Some project teams made valiant attempts to at least mitigate the risks through local work, but others appeared to accept that standard quality improvement efforts would not solve the issues. Some teams described the ongoing failure to mitigate the risks in their Safety Cases, in part, as noted above, in the hope that action from senior level might be provoked.

There were other things that were discussed at the [meeting] that they thought would be good as a team to change… but with some of them, they just knew it would be impossible to do so, so actually they didn't even bother to write them down. (Observation notes) And the team very bravely went to the board and said, you know, our Safety Case is showing and we're telling you that our processes are unsafe, so it alerted people to the issues. […] So that was the strength of it. (Project participant)

However, as we now describe, for senior organisational leaders, both the imperative offered by the Safety Case and their own ability to act were less clear.

Content of, and responses to, safety cases

Our documentary review showed that submitted Safety Cases were highly variable in format and length ( table 2 ). Some were highly structured, clearly written and precise in the use of evidence; others were harder to follow, lacking in clarity and less well organised. Our review also found that the descriptive elements (analysis of risk and hazards) were much better achieved than the assurance components (the safety claim and the confidence argument). Indicative, perhaps, of the intractability to local-level intervention of some of the hazards uncovered, or the lack of expert safety science input in the project teams, most Safety Cases focused more on what had been done to determine the risk than on the level of safety that had been achieved in mitigating it. The documents also varied in the extent to which they reported the residual risks—those that remained despite the implementation of risk controls—in a clear and transparent way. For instance, one Safety Case noted that the diagnostic process had found 99 ways in which the pathway could fail, that the level of reliability in the microsystem remained lower than acceptable, and that radical re-design was needed. Others were more circumspect. Accordingly, while they documented sometimes-extensive mitigations, none of the Safety Cases could make an unambiguous safety claim supported by a powerful confidence argument. Some teams were not clear about how the evidence gathered and analyses conducted would contribute to the safety claim. Some sites listed project activities in lieu of offering an actual safety claim, reporting what they had done rather than the level of safety they had reached.

It was a useful, […] a really good repository for all the stuff we've done in the project, which I find really good. And has been good when people ask ‘What did you do?’ then you can say that this is what we did, so that’s useful. I'm not sure about whether people use it for what it is meant to be, which is to prove the pathway is now safe, I’m not sure whether it is used for that really. (Project participant)

Sometimes, safety claims were reported for each identified hazard (comparing levels of risk before and after the interventions they had implemented) rather than at the level of the clinical system. No site explicitly discussed whether risks had been reduced ‘as low as reasonably practical’. Some sites claimed improvements as a result of the interventions they had implemented, but these did not always stand up to statistical scrutiny. 33

The response of senior leadership to the Safety Cases submitted by teams varied. Some focused on the potential of the Safety Case for supporting organisational-level decision making in relation to risk reduction, resource allocation and strategic prioritisation.

I think it would be easier to respond to a Safety Case rather than more so the [other quality and safety] data I get. Because it’s back to first principles, what are we actually here to do… Then if we have an unsafe system everything else needs to fall in behind that, no matter cost pressures, no matter personal opinion, no matter all the other complexities in a big system. If an element is at risk, then that will always be made a priority. (Senior leader)

Not all senior leaders, however, were so confident that the insight offered by Safety Cases would or should inevitably lead to action. Some of the issues identified in the Safety Cases were beyond the ability not only of front-line teams to solve, but also of organisational leaders. Issues such as staffing levels, IT interoperability, and securing timely discharge required at least interorganisational coordination, resourcing, coordination, and support across the whole healthcare system. Additionally, the prevailing approach to risk management, and the perceived unavoidability of risks in the complex systems of healthcare, meant that the insights offered by a Safety Case might be unwelcome or not necessarily candidates for priority attention. In a system that relied primarily on retrospective risk management approaches, such as incident reporting and investigations, the need to tackle risks of recurrence (where problems had already manifested as serious incidents or ‘near misses’, and might do again) could easily take precedence over addressing seemingly ‘theoretical’ risks (problems identified through a detailed prospective analysis but yet to occur).

Because you’re saying actually ‘That was a potential harm on our risk management system, and we knew about it, and we were accepting that we don’t have enough money to address all of these issues at one time’. So there is, if you like, a prioritisation and rationing of where we put money according to the level of risk. […] It’s a bit like county councils putting crossings on roads, or a zebra crossing. You’re waiting for the fatality to occur before actually that will get the funding. (Senior leader)

Some feared that, given the legal obligation of boards to take action in response to safety risks that were revealed to them, an unintended consequence of the Safety Case approach might be to distract organisational focus from areas that were at least as worthy of attention but lacked the spotlight offered by the Safety Case. There was a perception that to have a Safety Case for every pathway or area of practice would likely be impossible, and that too many Safety Cases would be overwhelming.

The complexity of health care is such that there are hundreds of complex connected pathways that patients are on and so… You in theory could write hundreds [of Safety Cases] and that would then become meaningless because if you write hundreds no one would ever read them. So, I think it might be helpful in some specific examples… Rather than being something that could cover everything that we do to patients. (Senior leader)

Consequently, Safety Cases might serve not to assure about control of risks, but to unnerve—and unnerve leaders who were not always well placed to act, given the scope of their control and the other priorities they faced. In a system where Safety Cases were new, without an established function in safety management, and covering only a small proportion of safety-critical activity, the information they provided was not always readily actionable from a managerial perspective and, moreover, had potential to create uncontrolled reputational risk.

The danger is that what you have is a legal requirement to spend money on a Safety Case that actually is of low, relative risk to harms that are occurring in the absence of Safety Cases. So what you get is a spurious diversion of money to a wheel that has been made very squeaky, but actually isn’t causing harm… There’s the risk of diversion to get a perfect patch in one part of the system while everything else is actually terrible. (Senior leader) (A danger) is, you know, if it does get into the wrong hands, particularly with the media, because there’s not the openness and the ability to manage some of this data, which needs explanation. But we do pride ourselves on being a very open and transparent board. (Senior leader)

Our examination of an attempt to introduce the principles and methodologies of the Safety Case approach into healthcare suggests that the approach was broadly welcomed by participants in our study, but was fraught with challenge. In other sectors, the Safety Case rests on the ALARP principle. While the Safety Cases produced by participating teams in the Safer Clinical Systems programme did present proactive analyses of risks, they did not show that the risks in clinical pathways on which they focused had been reduced as far as reasonably possible. Instead, teams identified multiple residual risks that had resisted efforts at control and mitigation by the teams themselves. These findings emphasise the importance of careful consideration of context and implementation when transferring safety management approaches from one setting to another. 12 34–36 The evidence underlying other industrial risk management techniques (eg, Failure Modes and Effects Analysis, 37 ‘5 Whys’ 10 or Root Case Analysis 11 ) is also weak, but the regulatory function of Safety Cases warrants specific caution. Sujan et al ’s review of various sectors nonetheless concluded that even with the differences in regulatory context, healthcare organisations could benefit from using the Safety Case approach to develop understanding and exposition of their current levels of risk. 19 Our study does suggest that Safety Cases show some promise as a way of structuring more responsive, adaptable and specific proactive safety management practices in healthcare settings, but further careful development and evaluation are needed, particularly if consideration is given to using them for regulatory purposes. 19

An important feature of the programme we examined—essentially a feasibility study—was that the Safety Case approach was being used outside the regulatory frameworks and infrastructures characteristic of use of the technique in most other sectors. Without an external regulatory requirement to satisfy, participating organisations in the Safer Clinical Systems programme may not have felt a strong imperative to make the responses that might otherwise be expected; absent the spectre of regulatory action, senior leadership may not have felt compelled to reduce the risks ALARP. However, even when Safety Cases are part of a regulatory framework, they are not always rigorous or successful in controlling risk 38 or showing they have been reduced ALARP. 39 While our study does not allow conclusions to be drawn about what might happen if Safety Cases were included in a regulatory regime in healthcare, it does allow insights into the nature of the challenges that might be anticipated should regulators consider introducing the approach in healthcare settings.

Some of the challenges we identified arose from the mismatch between the complexity and interdependencies of clinical pathways, with their often unbounded character, and the more tightly defined (and often more mechanical or technical) applications of the approach in other industries. 22 40 Future research might usefully clarify whether and how the scope of a Safety Case could best be defined for healthcare settings, noting that the highly dynamic and interdependent nature of multiple subsystems of care may defy attempts to impose clear boundaries. These kinds of questions are becoming increasingly prominent in safety science as recognition grows that the development of networked complex systems (eg, unmanned aircraft systems) requires a shift from relatively static prelaunch assessment to a dynamic approach that can accommodate changes in the system’s properties and behaviour during its life-cycle. 41 42

Other challenges arose in the demanding nature of the expertise, skill and time commitment required to engage in the tasks of conducting safety analyses, identifying and testing risk controls, and compiling a Safety Case. The variable quality of the Safety Cases submitted by clinical teams in this programme is likely to be linked to variable competencies and available capacity. In contrast, in safety-critical industries where these risk assessment techniques originated, the design of effective risk controls is the responsibility of safety/reliability engineers with extensive training and expertise. For healthcare, use of the Safety Case approach will require additional resource and new dedicated roles with specific expertise, rather than relying on making further demands of existing clinical teams. 40 43 The resourcing implications of a wholesale effort to shift the regulatory system and culture of an entire sector could, however, be enormous, especially given the volume and complexity of activity in healthcare and the number of diverse clinical pathways.

An additional set of challenges was more cultural in character, and related to the revelatory potential of the Safety Case. On one hand, participants—especially clinical teams—appreciated the value of the Safety Case in offering a proactive, prospective and rigorous approach to identifying safety risks. Some also saw it as a means of attracting managerial attention and obtaining resources. 44 But leaders in organisations were not always convinced that the approach offered much that was new, suggesting that more evidence would be needed to demonstrate the added value of Safety Cases—especially in moving beyond description to solution, 45 and adding value over current approaches such as risk registers. A further concern at the leadership level was that it was unclear whether areas that did have a Safety Case should be considered to have a stronger warrant for action than those that did not. A framework for supporting prioritisation of risks is likely to be helpful in any future use of Safety Cases. However, current tools, such as risk matrices, may be flawed, 46 47 so better tools should be investigated.

Even less tractable was what to do about some of the problems reported in the Safety Cases. Clinical teams had done their best to implement risk controls where they could, but they did not have sufficient power and access to resources to address those that were institutional or structural in character. They therefore often fell back on weaker administrative measures, like training or procedures. 8 Yet organisational leaders were often similarly challenged, given their limited capacity and resources for radical systems re-design, improved staffing, IT infrastructure, or other major re-engineering or influencing of activities outside the organisation itself. These findings are indicative of broader problems with the selection of risk controls in health services 44 48 that may need to be addressed before Safety Cases could achieve their potential.

Our study has a number of strengths, including its in-depth, mixed-methods, longitudinal design with engagement both with the project teams and senior leaders in organisations. It was limited in its ability to assess the impact of the Safety Case approach in improving safety, not least because of issues with data on processes and outcomes. 33

Conclusions

The Safety Case approach offers promise in principle as a safety management approach in healthcare, but substantial challenges need to be addressed before further deployment, particularly in regulation. Further experimentation with the use of Safety Cases in healthcare might therefore more profitably focus on how to make the most of their assets—including the new insights offered by prospective, system-wide risk analysis—while managing their potential unintended consequences.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

This study involves human participants and was approved by the East Midlands – Leicester Research Ethics Committee (12/EM/0228). Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before taking part.

Acknowledgments

We thank the people from the nine sites who participated in the Safer Clinical Systems programme and the support team. We also thank colleagues on the evaluation team, including Sarah Chew, Liz Shaw, Liz Sutton, and Lisa Hallam.

  • Illingworth J ,
  • Fernandez Crespo R , et al
  • Panagioti M ,
  • Keers RN , et al
  • Dixon-Woods M ,
  • Goeschel CA , et al
  • Catchpole K ,
  • Liberati EG ,
  • Peerally MF ,
  • Dixon-Woods M
  • Waring J , et al
  • Radnor ZJ ,
  • Marshall M ,
  • Pronovost P ,
  • Auerbach AD ,
  • Landefeld CS ,
  • Shojania KG
  • Portela MC ,
  • Pronovost PJ ,
  • Woodcock T , et al
  • Cleland G ,
  • Kelly TP , et al
  • Cleland GM ,
  • Sujan M , et al
  • Spurgeon P ,
  • Flanagan H ,
  • Cooke M , et al
  • Hawkins R , et al
  • UK Ministry of Defence
  • Haddon-Cave C
  • Woodcock T ,
  • Soukup T , et al
  • Lincoln J , et al
  • Franklin BD ,
  • Rivera AJ , et al
  • Borg J , et al
  • Fairbanks RJ
  • Braithwaite J
  • Naghavi M ,
  • Foreman K , et al
  • Clarkson PJ

Supplementary materials

Supplementary data.

This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content.

  • Data supplement 1

Twitter @graham_p_martin, @carolynctarrant

Contributors EL and GL produced the first draft of the article, subsequently revised by GM, JWa, and MD-W. EL and JWi collected the data, analysed by EL and GL. All authors contributed to data interpretation, manuscript writing and reviewing, and approved the final version. MD-W was the study Chief Investigator and study guarantor.

Funding This study was funded by the Health Foundation, charity number 286967. The Healthcare Improvement Studies (THIS) Institute is supported by the Health Foundation – an independent charity committed to bringing about better health and health care for people in the UK. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Health Foundation.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

Linked Articles

  • Editorial Changing the patient safety mindset: can safety cases help? Mark Sujan Ibrahim Habli BMJ Quality & Safety 2023; - Published Online First: 24 Nov 2023. doi: 10.1136/bmjqs-2023-016652
  • Editorial Changing the patient safety mindset: can safety cases help? Mark Sujan Ibrahim Habli BMJ Quality & Safety 2023; 33 145-148 Published Online First: 24 Nov 2023. doi: 10.1136/bmjqs-2023-016652

Read the full text or download the PDF:

PenMyPaper

If you can’t write your essay, then the best solution is to hire an essay helper. Since you need a 100% original paper to hand in without a hitch, then a copy-pasted stuff from the internet won’t cut it. To get a top score and avoid trouble, it’s necessary to submit a fully authentic essay. Can you do it on your own? No, I don’t have time and intention to write my essay now! In such a case, step on a straight road of becoming a customer of our academic helping platform where every student can count on efficient, timely, and cheap assistance with your research papers, namely the essays.

Write My Essay Service - Working to Help You

Do you want to have more free time for personal development and fun? Or are you confused with your professor's directions? Whatever your reason for coming to us is, you are welcome! We are a legitimate professional writing service with student-friendly prices and with an aim to help you achieve academic excellence. To get an A on your next assignment simply place an order or contact our 24/7 support team.

U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

  • Publications
  • Account settings
  • Advanced Search
  • Journal List
  • Indian J Dermatol
  • v.61(2); Mar-Apr 2016

Methodology Series Module 2: Case-control Studies

Maninder singh setia.

Epidemiologist, MGM Institute of Health Sciences, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Case-Control study design is a type of observational study. In this design, participants are selected for the study based on their outcome status. Thus, some participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the exposure in both these groups. The investigator should define the cases as specifically as possible. Sometimes, definition of a disease may be based on multiple criteria; thus, all these points should be explicitly stated in case definition. An important aspect of selecting a control is that they should be from the same ‘study base’ as that of the cases. We can select controls from a variety of groups. Some of them are: General population; relatives or friends; and hospital patients. Matching is often used in case-control control studies to ensure that the cases and controls are similar in certain characteristics, and it is a useful technique to increase the efficiency of the study. Case-Control studies can usually be conducted relatively faster and are inexpensive – particularly when compared with cohort studies (prospective). It is useful to study rare outcomes and outcomes with long latent periods. This design is not very useful to study rare exposures. Furthermore, they may also be prone to certain biases – selection bias and recall bias.

Introduction

Case-Control study design is a type of observational study design. In an observational study, the investigator does not alter the exposure status. The investigator measures the exposure and outcome in study participants, and studies their association.

In a case-control study, participants are selected for the study based on their outcome status. Thus, some participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the exposure in both these groups. Thus, by design, in a case-control study the outcome has to occur in some of the participants that have been included in the study.

As seen in Figure 1 , at the time of entry into the study (sampling of participants), some of the study participants have the outcome (cases) and others do not have the outcome (controls). During the study procedures, we will examine the exposure of interest in cases as well as controls. We will then study the association between the exposure and outcome in these study participants.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJD-61-146-g001.jpg

Example of a case-control study

Examples of Case-Control Studies

Smoking and lung cancer study.

In their landmark study, Doll and Hill (1950) evaluated the association between smoking and lung cancer. They included 709 patients of lung carcinoma (defined as cases). They also included 709 controls from general medical and surgical patients. The selected controls were similar to the cases with respect to age and sex. Thus, they included 649 males and 60 females in cases as well as controls.

They found that only 0.3% of males were non-smokers among cases. However, the proportion of non-smokers among controls was 4.2%; the different was statistically significant ( P = 0.00000064). Similarly they found that about 31.7% of the female were non-smokers in cases compared with 53.3% in controls; this difference was also statistically significant (0.01< p <0.02).

Melanoma and tanning (Lazovic et al ., 2010)

The authors conducted a case-control study to study the association between melanoma and tanning. The 1167 cases - individuals with invasive cutaneous melanoma – were selected from Minnesota Cancer Surveillance System. The 1101 controls were selected randomly from Minnesota State Driver's License list; they were matched for age (+/- 5 years) and sex.

The data were collected by self administered questionnaires and telephone interviews. The investigators assessed the use of tanning devices (using photographs), number of years, and frequency of use of these devices. They also collected information on other variables (such as sun exposure; presence of freckles and moles; and colour of skin, hair, among other exposures.

They found that melanoma was higher in individuals who used UVB enhances and primarily UVA-emitting devices. The risk of melanoma also increased with increase in years of use, hours of use, and sessions.

Risk factors for erysipelas (Pitché et al, 2015)

Pitché et al (2015) conducted a case-control study to assess the factors associated with leg erysipelas in sub-Saharan Africa. This was a multi-centre study; the cases and controls were recruited from eight countries in sub-Saharan Africa.

They recruited cases of acute leg cellulitis in these eight countries. They recruited two controls for each case; these were matched for age (+/- 5 years) and sex. Thus, the final study has 364 cases and 728 controls. They found that leg erysipelas was associated with obesity, lympoedema, neglected traumatic wound, toe-web intertrigo, and voluntary cosmetic depigmentation.

We have provided details of all the three studies in the bibliography. We strongly encourage the readers to read the papers to understand some practical aspects of case-control studies.

Selection of Cases and Controls

Selection of cases and controls is an important part of this design. Wacholder and colleagues (1992 a, b, and c) have published wonderful manuscripts on design and conduct of case-control of studies in the American Journal of Epidemiology. The discussion in the next few sections is based on these manuscripts.

Selection of case

The investigator should define the cases as specifically as possible. Sometimes, definition of a disease may be based on multiple criteria; thus, all these points should be explicitly stated in case definition.

For example, in the above mentioned Melanoma and Tanning study, the researchers defined their population as any histologic variety of invasive cutaneous melanoma. However, they added another important criterion – these individuals should have a driver's license or State identity card. This probably is not directly related to the clinic condition, so why did they add this criterion? We will discuss this in detail in the next few paragraphs.

Selection of a control

The next important point in designing a case-control study is the selection of control patients.

In fact, Wacholder and colleagues have extensively discussed aspects of design of case control studies and selection of controls in their article.

According to them, an important aspect of selecting a control is that they should be from the same ‘study base’ as that of the cases. Thus, the pool of population from which the cases and controls will be enrolled should be same. For instance, in the Tanning and Melanoma study, the researchers recruited cases from Minnesota Cancer Surveillance System; however, it was also required that these cases should either have a State identity card or Driver's license. This was important since controls were randomly selected from Minnesota State Driver's license list (this also included the list of individuals who have the State identity card).

Another important aspect of a case-control study is that we should measure the exposure similarly in cases and controls. For instance, if we design a research protocol to study the association between metabolic syndrome (exposure) and psoriasis (outcome), we should ensure that we use the same criteria (clinically and biochemically) for evaluating metabolic syndrome in cases and controls. If we use different criteria to measure the metabolic syndrome, then it may cause information bias.

Types of Controls

We can select controls from a variety of groups. Some of them are: General population; relatives or friends; or hospital patients.

Hospital controls

An important source of controls is patients attending the hospital for diseases other than the outcome of interest. These controls are easy to recruit and are more likely to have similar quality of medical records.

However, we have to be careful while recruiting these controls. In the above example of metabolic syndrome and psoriasis, we recruit psoriasis patients from the Dermatology department of the hospital as controls. We recruit patients who do not have psoriasis and present to the Dermatology as controls. Some of these individuals have presented to the Dermatology department with tinea pedis. Do we recruit these individuals as controls for the study? What is the problem if we recruit these patients? Some studies have suggested that diabetes mellitus and obesity are predisposing factors for tinea pedis. As we know, fasting plasma glucose of >100 mg/dl and raised trigylcerides (>=150 mg/dl) are criteria for diagnosis of metabolic syndrome. Thus, it is quite likely that if we recruit many of these tinea pedis patients, the exposure of interest may turn out to be similar in cases and controls; this exposure may not reflect the truth in the population.

Relative and friend controls

Relative controls are relatively easy to recruit. They can be particularly useful when we are interested in trying to ensure that some of the measurable and non-measurable confounders are relatively equally distributed in cases and controls (such as home environment, socio-economic status, or genetic factors).

Another source of controls is a list of friends referred by the cases. These controls are easy to recruit and they are also more likely to be similar to the cases in socio-economic status and other demographic factors. However, they are also more likely to have similar behaviours (alcohol use, smoking etc.); thus, it may not be prudent to use these as controls if we want to study the effect of these exposures on the outcome.

Population controls

These controls can be easily conducted the list of all individuals is available. For example, list from state identity cards, voter's registration list, etc., In the Tanning and melanoma study, the researchers used population controls. They were identified from Minnesota state driver's list.

We may have to use sampling methods (such as random digit dialing or multistage sampling methods) to recruit controls from the population. A main advantage is that these controls are likely to satisfy the ‘study-base’ principle (described above) as suggested by Wacholder and colleagues. However, they can be expensive and time consuming. Furthermore, many of these controls will not be inclined to participate in the study; thus, the response rate may be very low.

Matching in a Case-Control Study

Matching is often used in case-control control studies to ensure that the cases and controls are similar in certain characteristics. For example, in the smoking and lung cancer study, the authors selected controls that were similar in age and sex to carcinoma cases. Matching is a useful technique to increase the efficiency of study.

’Individual matching’ is one common technique used in case-control study. For example, in the above mentioned metabolic syndrome and psoriasis, we can decide that for each case enrolled in the study, we will enroll a control that is matched for sex and age (+/- 2 years). Thus, if 40 year male patient with psoriasis is enrolled for the study as a case, we will enroll a 38-42 year male patient without psoriasis (and who will not be excluded for other reason) as controls.

If the study has used ‘individual matching’ procedures, then the data should also reflect the same. For instance, if you have 45 males among cases, you should also have 45 males among controls. If you show 60 males among controls, you should explain the discrepancy.

Even though matching is used to increase the efficiency in case-control studies, it may have its own problems. It may be difficult to fine the exact matching control for the study; we may have to screen many potential enrollees before we are able to recruit one control for each case recruited. Thus, it may increase the time and cost of the study.

Nonetheless, matching may be useful to control for certain types of confounders. For instance, environment variables may be accounted for by matching controls for neighbourhood or area of residence. Household environment and genetic factors may be accounted for by enrolling siblings as controls.

If we use controls from the past (time period when cases did not occur), then the controls are sometimes referred to historic controls. Such controls may be recruited from past hospital records.

Strengths of a Case-Control Study

  • Case-Control studies can usually be conducted relatively faster and are inexpensive – particularly when compared with cohort studies (prospective)
  • It is useful to study rare outcomes and outcomes with long latent periods. For example, if we wish to study the factors associated with melanoma in India, it will be useful to conduct a case-control study. We will recruit cases of melanoma as cases in one study site or multiple study sites. If we were to conduct a cohort study for this research question, we may to have follow individuals (with the exposure under study) for many years before the occurrence of the outcome
  • It is also useful to study multiple exposures in the same outcome. For example, in the metabolic syndrome and psoriasis study, we can study other factors such as Vitamin D levels or genetic markers
  • Case-control studies are useful to study the association of risk factors and outcomes in outbreak investigations. For instance, Freeman and colleagues (2015) in a study published in 2015 conducted a case-control study to evaluate the role of proton pump inhibitors in an outbreak of non-typhoidal salmonellosis.

Limitations of a Case-control Study

  • The design, in general, is not useful to study rare exposures. It may be prudent to conduct a cohort study for rare exposures

Since the investigator chooses the number of cases and controls, the proportion of cases may not be representative of the proportion in the population. For instance if we choose 50 cases of psoriasis and 50 controls, the prevalence of proportion of psoriasis cases in our study will be 50%. This is not true prevalence. If we had chosen 50 cases of psoriasis and 100 controls, then the proportion of the cases will be 33%.

  • The design is not useful to study multiple outcomes. Since the cases are selected based on the outcome, we can only study the association between exposures and that particular outcome
  • Sometimes the temporality of the exposure and outcome may not be clearly established in case-control studies
  • The case-control studies are also prone to certain biases

If the cases and controls are not selected similarly from the study base, then it will lead to selection bias.

  • Odds Ratio: We are able to calculate the odds ratios (OR) from a case-control study. Since we are not able to measure incidence data in case-control study, an odds ratio is a reasonable measure of the relative risk (under some assumptions). Additional details about OR will be discussed in the biostatistics section.

The OR in the above study is 3.5. Since the OR is greater than 1, the outcome is more likely in those exposed (those who are diagnosed with metabolic syndrome) compared with those who are not exposed (those who do are not diagnosed with metabolic syndrome). However, we will require confidence intervals to comment on further interpretation of the OR (This will be discussed in detail in the biostatistics section).

  • Other analysis : We can use logistic regression models for multivariate analysis in case-control studies. It is important to note that conditional logistic regressions may be useful for matched case-control studies.

Calculating an Odds Ratio (OR)

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJD-61-146-g002.jpg

Hypothetical study of metabolic syndrome and psoriasis

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is IJD-61-146-g003.jpg

Additional Points in A Case-Control Study

How many controls can i have for each case.

The most optimum case-to-control ratio is 1:1. Jewell (2004) has suggested that for a fixed sample size, the chi square test for independence is most powerful if the number of cases is same as the number of controls. However, in many situations we may not be able recruit a large number of cases and it may be easier to recruit more controls for the study. It has been suggested that we can increase the number of controls to increase statistical power (if we have limited number of cases) of the study. If data are available at no extra cost, then we may recruit multiple controls for each case. However, if it is expensive to collect exposure and outcome information from cases and controls, then the optimal ratio is 4 controls: 1 case. It has been argued that the increase in statistical power may be limited with additional controls (greater than four) compared with the cost involved in recruiting them beyond this ratio.

I have conducted a randomised controlled trial. I have included a group which received the intervention and another group which did not receive the intervention. Can I call this a case-control study?

A randomised controlled trial is an experimental study. In contrast, case-control studies are observational studies. These are two different groups of studies. One should not use the word case-control study for a randomised controlled trial (even though you have a control group in the study). Every study with a control group is not a case-control study. For a study to be classified as a case-control study, the study should be an observational study and the participants should be recruited based on their outcome status (some have the disease and some do not).

Should I call case-control studies prospective or retrospective studies?

In ‘The Dictionary of Epidemiology’ by Porta (2014), the authors have suggested that even though the term ‘retrospective’ was used for case-control studies, the study participants are often recruited prospectively. In fact, the study on risk factors for erysipelas (Pitché et al ., 2015) was a prospective case case-control study. Thus, it is important to remember that the nature of the study (case-control or cohort) depends on the sampling method. If we sample the study participants based on exposure and move towards the outcome, it is a cohort study. However, if we sample the participants based on the outcome (some with outcome and some do not) and study the exposures in both these groups, it is a case-control study.

In case-control studies, participants are recruited on the basis of disease status. Thus, some of participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the exposure in both these groups. Case-control studies are less expensive and quicker to conduct (compared with prospective cohort studies at least). The measure of association in this type of study is an odds ratio. This type of design is useful for rare outcomes and those with long latent periods. However, they may also be prone to certain biases – selection bias and recall bias.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Bibliography

IMAGES

  1. Case Study

    case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

  2. What is a case study method

    case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

  3. Different Types Of Case Study Methods

    case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

  4. Case Study Method: What are the Advantages and Disadvantages?

    case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

  5. How to Create a Case Study + 14 Case Study Templates

    case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

  6. How to Create a Case Study + 14 Case Study Templates

    case study methods are often used to study ____ cases

VIDEO

  1. Case Study based Questions

  2. Case study practical

  3. CASE STUDY METHODS ll व्यक्तिगत अध्ययन विधि ll

  4. PowerFactory

  5. 4 Effective Study Methods.. 📚 #study #studymotivation #students #studytips #studywithme #student

  6. Case study Meaning

COMMENTS

  1. Case Study Methodology of Qualitative Research: Key Attributes and

    A case study is one of the most commonly used methodologies of social research. This article attempts to look into the various dimensions of a case study research strategy, the different epistemological strands which determine the particular case study type and approach adopted in the field, discusses the factors which can enhance the effectiveness of a case study research, and the debate ...

  2. What Is a Case Study?

    Home Knowledge Base Methodology What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023. A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon.

  3. The case study approach

    A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table 5 ), the ...

  4. Case Study

    Defnition: A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation. It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied.

  5. Writing a Case Study

    The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm. Case Studies. Writing@CSU. ... Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is ...

  6. Distinguishing case study as a research method from case reports as a

    As a qualitative methodology, case study research encompasses a great deal more complexity than a typical case report and often incorporates multiple streams of data combined in creative ways. The depth and richness of case study description helps readers understand the case and whether findings might be applicable beyond that setting.

  7. Continuing to enhance the quality of case study methodology in health

    Case study methodology is often used to develop an in-depth, holistic understanding of a specific phenomenon within a specified context. 11 It focuses on studying one or multiple cases over time and uses an in-depth analysis of multiple information sources. 16, 17 It is ideal for situations including, but not limited to, exploring under-research...

  8. Case Study Method: A Step-by-Step Guide for Business Researchers

    Case study method is the most widely used method in academia for researchers interested in qualitative research ( Baskarada, 2014 ). Research students select the case study as a method without understanding array of factors that can affect the outcome of their research.

  9. Case Study Methods and Examples

    The purpose of case study research is twofold: (1) to provide descriptive information and (2) to suggest theoretical relevance. Rich description enables an in-depth or sharpened understanding of the case. It is unique given one characteristic: case studies draw from more than one data source. Case studies are inherently multimodal or mixed ...

  10. Exploring the Power of Case Studies & Research Insights

    A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

  11. What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

    What the Case Study Method Really Teaches. Summary. It's been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study ...

  12. Case Study: Definition, Examples, Types, and How to Write

    The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

  13. Case Study Research Method in Psychology

    The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to or reconstructing 'the case history' of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e., the idiographic approach.

  14. What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

    A business or marketing case study aims at showcasing a successful partnership. This can be between a brand and a client. Or the case study can examine a brand's project. There is a perception that case studies are used to advertise a brand. But effective reports, like the one below, can show clients how a brand can support them.

  15. Methodology or method? A critical review of qualitative case study

    Findings were grouped into five themes outlining key methodological issues: case study methodology or method, case of something particular and case selection, contextually bound case study, researcher and case interactions and triangulation, and study design inconsistent with methodology reported.

  16. What is a Case Study? Definition & Examples

    A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event, or community. This research method involves intensively analyzing a subject to understand its complexity and context. The richness of a case study comes from its ability to capture detailed, qualitative data that can offer insights into a process or subject matter that ...

  17. Case Study

    Methodology Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023. A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon.

  18. PDF DEFINING THE CASE STUDY

    1. question: case studies most useful for answering how, why. 2. propositions, if any to help problematize your question (e.g., organizations collaborate because they derive mutual benefit). 3. units of analysis (a neighborhood or a small group; a new technology or an innovation process?)

  19. 5 Benefits of the Case Study Method

    5. Build Your Self-Confidence. Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader's perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career. According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey ...

  20. Case study methods are often used to study _______ cases. (a

    Question: Case study methods are often used to study _____ cases. (a) controversial (b) stratified (c) rare (d) random. Research Methods: Researchers have a wide variety of methods they can...

  21. Case study methods are often used to study \rule{1in}{.2mm} cases. A

    Question: Case study methods are often used to study cases. A. controversial B. stratified C. rare D. random Research Designs: When psychological research is conducted, the researcher will adopt...

  22. What can Safety Cases offer for patient safety? A multisite case study

    The development of a Safety Case for a defined clinical pathway was a centrepiece of the programme. We base our analysis on 143 interviews covering all aspects of the programme and on analysis of 13 Safety Cases produced by clinical teams. Results The principles behind a proactive, systematic approach to identifying and controlling risk that ...

  23. Case Study Methods Are Often Used To Study Cases

    About Us. Viola V. Madsen. - Agnes Malkovych, Canada. Case Study Methods Are Often Used To Study Cases, Research Paper In Journal, San Jose State University Creative Writing, Best Masters Essay Editing Website For School, Essay About Teaching As The Noblest Profession, Uh Hilo Creative Writing Certificate, Document Control Coordinator Resume.

  24. Methodology Series Module 2: Case-control Studies

    Abstract. Case-Control study design is a type of observational study. In this design, participants are selected for the study based on their outcome status. Thus, some participants have the outcome of interest (referred to as cases), whereas others do not have the outcome of interest (referred to as controls). The investigator then assesses the ...