environment science essay

Environmental Science - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Environmental Science encompasses a vast field of study aimed at understanding and addressing the complex interactions between humans and their natural surroundings. Essays could delve into the myriad sub-disciplines within environmental science, including but not limited to, ecology, atmospheric science, and environmental economics. They might also explore the pressing environmental challenges of our time, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution, examining the scientific principles, methodologies, and technologies employed to tackle these issues. Discussions might extend to the role of policy, education, and public engagement in advancing environmental sustainability, analyzing how multidisciplinary approaches are instrumental in fostering a more harmonious relationship between humanity and the environment. The discourse may also touch on the evolution of environmental science as a field, its growing significance in contemporary society, and its potential to drive transformative solutions for a sustainable future. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Environmental Science you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Environmental Science GMFS: our Savior or Destroyer

GMFs are genetically modified foods created by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen back in 1973. This technological advance led to more genetically modified foods and organisms being created and manufactured. GMFs are created either by direct genetic code modification or selective breeding. Direct genetic code modification occurs when a certain part of the genetic code is cut out, copied into bacteria, made into bullets, loaded into a gene gun, and shot into a cell where the genetic information incorporates itself […]

Ocean Pollution as a Major Problem

The Ocean is one of the major reasons why humans survive in this world. The Ocean provides us with water to drink and the fresh air we breathe. That's why the issue of ocean pollution is important and needs to be addressed as soon as possible. We depend on the ocean for so much in our life. Ocean pollution is becoming a major problem. Trash is piling up in our oceans but the question is, where is the trash coming […]

Water Scarcity and Pollution

Water is one of the most important natural resources for all living organisms. A normal person could stay alive without aliment for one whole week but not without water. However, in the areas where people experienced water shortage and pollution, safe drinking water was unable to be distributed to them. Water shortage or water scarcity is a condition where there is not enough supply of water to meet human needs. It is a situation that happened in many parts of […]

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Paired Debate Speech Water Pollution and Consumerism

Water is polluted many different ways, just to name a few are hypoxia, wastewater pollution, and marine debris. In this paper I will touch on many different ways waters become polluted, and you can see for yourself that human involvement is the root cause of it all. There are different types of pollution in the world. However, my argument is that water pollution is a more pressing matter in comparison to other forms of pollution. The EPA states in their […]

Impact of Climate Change on Life

Climate change is likely to be one of the greatest causes of species extinctions this century. It is affecting the natural environments of many animals around the world. Sea levels continue to rise, record breaking humidity and temperature levels, changes in wind, precipitation, the length of seasons as well as extreme weather events like droughts and floods. Our everyday lives are affected by this and if anything gets worse, our lives could change forever. What is the effect of climate […]

Global Warming: the Truth Behind the Matter

Approximately 4.543 billion years ago the earth that we call home was created. Since that time the atmosphere has gone through some drastic changes but, the most change seen in the atmosphere has been within the last 100 years. The reason behind this change has been human evolution and the changes we have had industrial wise. As technology has continued to grow so has our need for the thing that affect our environment badly and help power our new ideals. […]

Water Pollution – Major Problem in our World Today

Water pollution is the major problem in our world today and, is a major hazard that causes many problems to the people and environment. Water pollution needs to be stopped because pollution is going into lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans and its been killing land and water animals for years. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem. Many living things suffer from polluted water. Humans, animals, and […]

A Synthesis of Studies Related to Disturbance Regimes under Global Warming 

The words “disturbance” and “global warming” have become part of the wordlist and public discourse. Discussions on global warming often induce fervent responses and stern debate between adherents to different views of the threats or disturbances posed. However, there are many nuances concerning global warming and the threats they represent are not well understood by the society. The society’s understanding rely mostly on images within the popular culture that are often little more than exaggerations of the actual, essential scientific […]

The Author of the Passage “Fracking Contributes to Global Warming”

Louis believed that fracking has gone to the “extreme” nowadays since a great deal of the “conventional reservoirs have been exploited” to extract gas and oil. According to Allstadt conventional gas and oil is the process of penetrating down the top of the rock, “an impervious rock that has trapped oil and gas underneath it, until the gas pressure will surge up the oil and gas.” The author is bothered with the big oil companies exploiting the technique to find […]

Effects of Oil Spill

Oil spills have physical, mental, and social effects on living beings and environmental and economic effects. Although light oils such as gasoline and diesel evaporate quickly, they have toxic effects. Still, when heavy oils like bunker oils are spilled in an area, their chemical component stays attached to that area for an extended period affecting the life cycle of inhabitants. (4) Most seabirds have been affected due to the oil sticking to their feathers which destroys their waterproofing and insulation, […]

Problems which Affected on Climate Change

Centuries has past and everyone around the globe has been affected by a problem that's consuming the planet. Climate change is a real thing and it has been changing throughout history. “The last 650,000 years there has been several cycles of glacial advance and retreat, which has been attributing to very small variations in earth's orbit that change the amount of solar energy our planet receives”(“Climate Change Evidence: How Do We Know?”). It's all round us but others believe that […]

Ocean Life in the Condition of Climate Change

Introduction The Great Barrier reef is one of the seven natural wonders of the world. It is considered one of the most magnificent natural sights in the world. It is located off the northeast coast of Australia, off the coast of Queensland. The Great Barrier Reef spans about 1800 miles and it can be up to 65 km wide in some parts (“About The Reef”, 2018). Within this huge underwater ecosystem, there are over 400 kinds of coral, over 1500 […]

Endangered Species and Protected Areas

The world and our home we call Earth is a young beautiful place, breathtaking views, wonders of the oceans, various life forms, a sure beauty one would say. As each year goes by humans just take that beauty and make it ugly. Cutting down forest after forest, killing thousands upon thousands of animals per year, we humans have sure gone downhill since the industrial revolution particularly, vast amounts of technology allows us to be able to run the Earth dry […]

Mercury Pollution in our Ocean

Mercury pollution is everywhere, it's in the air that animals breath and we breath as well. It's also in our land and inside of our beautiful sea. Mercury is a metal that's heavy and is cycled throughout the earth. Mercy pollution is world wide and a global problem. The reason mercury pollution is an issue is because it hurts fish. The fish and shell fish breath in the water through there gills which is inside of the water that they […]

Wildfires: the Natural Disaster Outbreak no One Wanted to Expect

There is nothing scarier to imagine than having to flee your home due to a fire. Just imagine for a second having to escape the place you reside because it is burning to the ground with everything you cherish, and possibly the people you love inside. In recent years, this has happened more and more to an unacceptably large amount of people. Because of climate change, wildfires have increased rapidly in the Western United States. Some may argue that the […]

The Terrible Consequences of Climate Change

The Glaciers are melting; Oceans are rising, the world as we know it is in a state of decay. During the early 1900’s, climate change wasn’t in the forefront of anyone’s mind. People used to lived in a way that gave back to the environment around them. Today climate change is a major topic for debate. In the Artic scientists are studying the growing rate of temperature change. Every year glaciers are melting at a higher rate of speed than […]

Ocean Pollution and a “dead Zone”

There is a “dead zone” the size of New Jersey in the Gulf of Mexico in which aquatic life cannot survive . There is a garbage patch the size of Texas in the Pacific Ocean. Dead zones and garbage patches are just some examples of the horrific effects that water pollution has on the life of all sorts. Every day, millions of sea critters, as well as humans, are victims to a harder life at the hand of pollution. With […]

Organic Foods: a Better Option for Humans and the Environment 

Grocery shoppers can see organic food in every aisle of the grocery store: organic vegetables, organic fruits, organic flour, organic chicken, organic muffin mix. However, according to the Natural Marketing Institute, “only 33 percent of the general population recognizes and understands the [United States Department of Agriculture] Organic seal.” And according to the Natural Foods Merchandiser’s 2013 Market Overview, most consumers do not understand how organic foods can benefit them and are suspicious of the United States Department of Agriculture […]

Water Pollution in China

The challenge of rising water pollution in China poses a huge threat to existing water bodies that greatly benefit indigenous people, industries, and government. This water pollution was the result of effluents from large industrial areas, which drained the chemicals of rivers and other related streams. The escalating impasse of China's water pollution requires quick and practical measures aimed at protecting a few uncontaminated water bodies and stopping further pollution of those already polluted. These efforts will help protect aquatic […]

Climate Change: is it Threatening?  

The overuse of fossil fuels worldwide started in the 1950s and now the Earth is experiencing worldwide global warming which is endangering people and environments in all regions. Fossil fuels are being burnt every day, and most people refuse to believe that it is causing global warming especially big oil companies. These companies plagued the consumers into believing it was a natural phenomenon, so they could keep selling their product as multibillion dollar industries. The Earth has now drastically increased […]

Climate Change: why Government Failure to Act is the Problem

The rise in heat throws off the balance of everything across the earth. The rise of heat is currently killing billions of animals in Australia due to wildfires and extreme drought. Without prevention from nations everywhere are at risk of experiencing many weather-related disasters similar to the one in Australia. As a society, we all need to recognize that once a species goes extinct, it cannot come back. It is detrimental to the environment to interrupt the cycle due to […]

Saving an Endangered Epecies: the Question of Ethics

The amount of gene disorders in American has risen significantly over the past few years. According to Global Genes, “rare diseases affect one in [every] ten Americans.” From this statistic, it is fairly assumed that 30 million people have a rare disease in the United States alone (Global Genes). Food and Drug Administration processes are long and expensive. The waiting time to get a new medication or therapy approved is too long to keep up with the newly emerging health […]

Will we Change our Actions or Will we Die?

Anthropogenic climate change is the greatest issue facing our generation because it threatens our survival. Solving it will require a higher level of global coordination than human beings have ever had. Anthropogenic means to be caused by human activity. Anthropogenic climate change is the climate’s reaction to the increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere caused by industrialization starting in the 20th century. The lifestyle Americans are accustomed to may eventually cause the human species to become extinct. Yes, privacy within […]

Global Warming in a Nutshell

Global Warming An unnatural weather change is characterized as the relentless increment of the earth’s climate temperature this can be credited to the nursery impact. Although I don't live in Hollywood, Florida nor have I had the delight of visiting. During my exploration of this for the most part radiant spot, I have arrived at the resolution that the winters are short. Contrasted with Houston as of now and time in Florida the individuals are getting quite bright days. The […]

Effects of Environmental and Anthropogenic Stressors on Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus

Introduction: Ecosystem degradation has become more prominent as the effects of anthropogenic climate change are increasingly impacting the structure and function of environments. Climate change and human disturbances have created a cascade of issues in aquatic ecosystems. Disturbances in aquatic ecosystems are widespread due to the connectivity that exists along the ever-changing waters of streams, rivers, and creeks. Increasing temperatures due to climate change are decreasing dissolved oxygen, changing species distribution, and interfering with migration patterns. In addition, humans have […]

How Carbon and Carbohydrate Affect Global Warming

Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide. It is a proposed solution to slow down the amount of greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere. There are several ways to capture carbon dioxide including removing carbon dioxide from the air and putting it in a reservoir, removing carbon dioxide from power stations before it is released and storing it in reservoirs or naturally moving carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and reservoirs (Carbon). Chemical weathering is a […]

Personality Psychology

Nivia is a Taiwanese woman in her 20s. She grew up with traditional Taiwanese parents and an older sister who likes to explore. Her childhood was spent in Taiwan before moving Thailand where she studied in an international middle school. Upon graduation, she returned to Taiwan to study Foreign Languages in university. Nivia’s life revolves around routine. She keeps her living space organized and impeccably clean. She paces herself in tackling assignments and usually completes them before deadline. She is […]

Water Pollution: the Treatment and Management

A technology was developed to provide better treatment as science advanced our knowledge of aquatic life mechanisms and human health effects. The need for purer water was also identified. Heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and other pollutants can now be removed from domestic and industrial wastewater to an increasingly greater degree. Methods of advanced treatment include microfiltration, carbon adsorption, evaporation/distillation, and chemical precipitation. Sludge Management In sludge management, the greatest uncertainty about future trends lies in the prospects for recycling sewage […]

Metamorphosis: Birth to Maturity Transformations

Metamorphosis: The Intricate Journey from Birth to Maturation in Nature We all grow every moment; we grow mentally and physically. Also, there are a lot of changes that our body undergoes, like changes in skin color, hair color, growth in height, weight, etc. So we transform from kids to adults. The same phenomenon occurs in animals also, where a larva grows into an adult; this phenomenon is called Metamorphosis. In technical terms, Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an […]

Environmental Science Behind Perfect Lawns: Expert Strategies Revealed

In the domain of household care and preservation, the maintenance of a lawn transcends mere visual appeal; it encapsulates the finesse and scientific acumen required to nurture natural greenery. This discourse endeavors to unveil the sagacity and methodologies of a turf virtuoso, an individual who has attained mastery in orchestrating the delicate equilibrium necessary for fostering and sustaining vibrant, flourishing lawns. Through their perspective, we delve not only into the technical facets of lawn upkeep but also into the profound […]

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Chapter 1 ~ Introduction

Environmental hazards, biodiversity, biotic factors, abiotic factors, pollution, lithosphere, hydrosphere, population growth, nutrient cycles, global warming, climate change, sustainability, environmental justice, renewable energy, and non-renewable energy.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, students will be able to:

• Trace the history of environmental science at local and global levels, the role of environmental science as an interdisciplinary subject, and its interrelationships with other Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields.
• Define characteristics of all living beings (biota) based on the six kingdoms, their role in ecosystems, and their interaction with non-living (abiotic) factors, including the hydrologic cycle and the biogeochemical cycle of major elements: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S).
• Describe renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
• Identify environmental hazards and describe their toxic effects.
• Differentiate between biological, physical, and chemical stressors in the environment and their effects on biodiversity and natural resources.
• Explain the role of human beings in modifying ecosystems and human impacts on global warming, agriculture, food, nutrition, starvation, and environmental justice.

Chapter Overview

Introduction, the history of environmental science, interdisciplinary nature of environmental science.

Biosphere: Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, and Atmosphere

Preserving Biodiversity and the Six Kingdoms of Life

Demographics, non-renewable and renewable energy sources, nutrient cycles, environmental hazards, global warming, environmental agriculture, environmental ethics, quality, and justice, chapter summary.

Environmental science is a broad, important subject that encompasses all life forms (from microbial organisms to elephants and blue whales), as well as inanimate objects (water, air, soil, rocks, volcanoes) and their interactions. This chapter introduces basic environmental science concepts and perspectives that will be expanded in the remaining ten chapters. This chapter begins with a brief history of environmental science followed by the interdisciplinary nature of environmental science, the biosphere, biodiversity, demographics, environmental hazards, energy sources, nutrient cycling, global warming, environmental impact on agriculture, environmental ethics, quality, and justice and ends with a chapter summary.

The history of environmental science can be traced back to ancient civilizations where people had to develop techniques for adapting to their environment to survive. However, the modern field of environmental science emerged in the mid-twentieth century, as concerns over pollution and environmental degradation became more prominent. One of the key milestones in the history of environmental science was the publication of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring in 1962. This book highlighted the negative effects of pesticides and other chemicals on the environment and helped to spur the environmental movement in the United States and around the world.

During the 1970s, there was a growing recognition of the need for environmental regulation, and many countries passed laws to protect their air, water, and land resources. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established on December 2, 1970. In 1970, the United States passed the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act of 1972, which set standards for air and water quality and established regulatory agencies to enforce these standards.

In the 1980s and 1990s, there was a growing focus on global environmental issues, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The United Nations (UN) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to study the causes and impacts of climate change, and in 1992, the UN held the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, where countries pledged to take action to address environmental problems.

Today, environmental science is a multidisciplinary field focused on understanding the interactions between humans and the natural environment and developing solutions to environmental problems.

Dive Deeper into the History of Environmental Science

The Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act were foundational pieces of legislation. Follow the links to read a summary of these laws.

The field has been shaped by many scientists. Read about famous environmental scientists in Top 18 Famous Environmental Scientists You Should Know (2023) .

This documentary, 50 Years of Earth Day , describes the impact of Carson’s work in launching the environmental movement in the US.

As an interdisciplinary field, environmental science involves the study of interactions between humans and the natural environment. It draws upon knowledge and techniques from a variety of scientific disciplines, including biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and ecology, among others. For example, environmental scientists may use their knowledge of biology to study the effects of pollution on plant and animal populations, or they may use chemistry to analyze the composition of air, water, and soil samples. Geology is also important in understanding how natural processes like erosion and volcanic activity impact the environment, and physics is used to study climate change and its effects on the environment.

In addition to the natural sciences, environmental science also incorporates knowledge from social sciences such as economics, politics, and sociology. Environmental economists, for example, study the costs and benefits of different environmental policies, while environmental sociologists may investigate how social factors influence people’s attitudes toward the environment.

This interdisciplinary approach is necessary because environmental problems are often complex and interconnected and require a holistic understanding of the underlying causes and potential solutions. By bringing together knowledge from multiple disciplines, environmental scientists are better able to identify and address these complex problems. Figure 1.2 displays a broader list of academic disciplines that can contribute to environmental studies, a field like environmental science that looks at human interactions and the natural environment.

The biosphere is the region of the earth that encompasses all living organisms: plants, animals, and bacteria. It is a feature that distinguishes the Earth from the other planets in the solar system. “Bio” means life, and the term biosphere was first coined by a Russian scientist (Vladimir Vernadsky) in the 1920s. Another term sometimes used is ecosphere (“eco” meaning home). The biosphere includes the outer region of the earth (the lithosphere) and the lower region of the atmosphere (the troposphere). It also includes the hydrosphere, the region of lakes, oceans, streams, ice, and clouds comprising the earth’s water resources.

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is the outer crust of the Earth, which is composed of the upper mantle and crust and arranged in concentric layers like an onion. Below the lithosphere are three layers: the lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The massive core has a diameter of about 3,500 km and is composed of hot, molten metals, particularly iron and nickel. The internal heat of Earth is thought to be generated by the slow, radioactive decay of unstable isotopes of certain elements, such as uranium.

The mantle is a less dense region that encloses the core. It is about 2,800 kilometers thick and composed of minerals in a plastic, semi-liquid state known as magma. The mantle contains relatively light elements, notably silicon, oxygen, and magnesium, occurring as various mineral compounds. Magma from the upper mantle sometimes erupts to the surface at mountainous vents known as volcanoes and is usually spewed to the surface as lava, which cools to form basaltic rock.

The lithosphere is only about 80 kilometers thick. It is composed of rigid, relatively light rocks, especially basaltic, granitic, and sedimentary ones. These rocks contain elements found in the mantle as well as enriched quantities of aluminum, carbon, calcium, potassium, sodium, sulfur, and other lighter elements, because of weathering and other forces. Living organisms change the lithosphere slowly by using non-biodegradable substances.

The outermost layer is known as the crust. The oceanic crust is relatively thin, averaging 10–15 kilometers, while the continental crust is 20–60 kilometers thick.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the portion of Earth that contains water (H 2 O), including in the oceans, atmosphere, land surface, and underground. The hydrologic cycle (or water cycle) refers to the rates of movement (fluxes) of water among these various reservoirs (compartments). The hydrologic cycle functions at all scales, ranging from local to global. The major elements of the global hydrologic cycle are illustrated in Figure 1.4.

The atmosphere is an envelope of gasses that surrounds the Earth and is held in place by the attractive forces of gravity. The density of the atmospheric mass is much greater close to the surface and decreases rapidly with increasing altitude. The atmosphere consists of four layers, whose boundaries are inexact because they may vary over time and space:

• The troposphere (or lower atmosphere) contains 85–90% of the atmospheric mass and extends from the surface to an altitude of 8–20 kilometers. It is thinner at high latitudes, and thicker at equatorial latitudes, but also varies seasonally, at any place being thicker during the summer than in the winter. It is typical for air temperature to decrease with increasing altitude within the troposphere, and convective air currents (winds) are common. Consequently, the troposphere is sometimes referred to as the “weather layer.”
• The stratosphere extends from the troposphere to as high as about 50 kilometers above the earth, depending on the season and latitude. Air temperature varies little with altitude within the stratosphere, and there are few convective air currents.
• The mesosphere extends beyond the stratosphere to about 75 kilometers.
• The thermosphere extends to 450 kilometers or more.

Preserving the b iodiversity of life forms within each of the six kingdoms of life is essential to maintaining the health and ecological balance of our planet and its inhabitants.

The six kingdoms of life are separated into two groups: prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Prokaryotic organisms lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles and include Domains Archaea and Bacteria. Archaea includes one kingdom, archaebacteria. Archaea is a group of single-celled microorganisms that are distinct from both bacteria and eukaryotes. Archaea are found in a wide range of environments, including extreme environments such as hot springs, deep-sea hydrothermal vents, and highly saline lakes.

Kingdom Bacteria is also known as Eubacteria, which means “true bacteria.” This kingdom includes a diverse group of prokaryotic organisms that are found in virtually every habitat on Earth. They are characterized by their generally small size (usually ranging from 0.2 to 5 micrometers). Eubacteria are responsible for many important processes, such as nitrogen fixation (the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants), decomposition, and fermentation.

Eukaryotic organisms have a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles and include the Domain Eukarya. Domain Eukarya includes four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals. Protista is a biological kingdom that includes a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms. The classification of Protista is somewhat outdated and is no longer recognized as a formal taxonomic group in many modern classifications. Protista are typically unicellular or simple multicellular organisms, and they exhibit a wide range of characteristics and lifestyles.

Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.  Fungi play important roles in nutrient cycling and the decomposition of organic matter. To preserve biodiversity in this kingdom, we can protect forests and other habitats where fungi are abundant, limit the use of fungicides, and promote pollution able farming practices that incorporate the use of mycorrhizal fungi to enhance soil health.

Plants are critical to the survival of many animal species and play a key role in maintaining the health of ecosystems. To preserve biodiversity in this kingdom, we can work to protect and restore natural habitats, reduce deforestation and habitat destruction, and promote the use of sustainable agricultural practices.

Animals play vital roles in maintaining ecological balance and are also important sources of food and medicine for humans. To preserve biodiversity in this kingdom, we can work to protect and restore natural habitats, reduce overfishing and hunting, and promote sustainable tourism practices that do not harm wildlife.

Human Demography

Demography applies the principles of population ecology to the human population. Demographers study how human populations grow, shrink, and change in terms of age and gender composition using vital statistics about people such as births, deaths, population size, and where people live. Demographers also compare populations in different countries or regions. Currently, there are two disparate demographic worlds. On one end is an old, rich, and relatively stable world often referred to as an “ industrialized ” or “ developed ” world and includes many European nations, the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia among others. On the other end is a young, poor, and rapidly growing world often referred to as “ less-industrialized ,” “ less-developed ,” or “ developing ” and includes many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In between these two extremes are countries such as China, India, Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, Russia, and many others that have not quite attained the developed status but have outpaced the so-called developing countries. These nations are sometimes referred to as “ newly industrialized ” or “ emerging market economies .”

Geographical Distribution of Habitats

The geographical distribution of habitats is determined by the global habitable environment. This distribution affects the natural habitats and their biota. The major population growth remains constant in the areas based on habitable environments from which human populations can acquire food.

Human Population and Interference

Humans can alter their environment to increase their carrying capacity sometimes to the detriment of other species (e.g., via artificial selection for crops that have a higher yield). Earth’s human population is growing rapidly, to the extent that some worry about the ability of the earth’s environment to sustain this population, as long-term exponential growth carries the potential risks of famine, disease, and large-scale death. Although humans have increased the carrying capacity of their environment, the technologies used to achieve this transformation have caused unprecedented changes to Earth’s environment, altering ecosystems to the point where some may be in danger of collapse. The depletion of the ozone layer, erosion due to acid rain, and damage from global climate change are caused by human activities. The ultimate effect of these changes on our carrying capacity is unknown. As some point out, it is likely that the negative effects of increasing carrying capacity will outweigh the positive ones—the carrying capacity of the world for human beings might decrease. The world’s human population is currently experiencing exponential growth even though human reproduction is far below its biotic potential. To reach its biotic potential, all females would have to become pregnant every nine months or so during their reproductive years. Also, resources would have to be such that the environment would support such growth. Neither of these two conditions exists. Despite this fact, the human population is still growing exponentially.

Non-renewable Energy Sources

Non-renewable energy resources are those that cannot be easily replenished in a short time, making them finite and unsustainable in the long run. Fossil fuels are generally the remains of plants and animals that died millions of years ago and are found deep underground. These fuels may include coal, oil, and natural gas. Tar sands and shale gas are also considered non-renewable energy resources.

Nuclear energy produced by splitting atoms of uranium or plutonium is a process called nuclear fission. From such an exothermic process, the liberated heat is used to generate electricity. Figure 1.9 shows examples of non-renewable energy sources.

Today, non-renewable energy sources are still widely used despite the environmental, climate change and social impacts associated with their extraction, production, refining, and final use and applications. As we move toward a more sustainable and environmentally viable and preserving energy future, there is a growing need by energy consumers to shift toward cleaner, renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric power.

Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources are those that can be refilled naturally and in a relatively short time or at continuous bases (solar, wind). These energy resources are sustainable and reusable, environmentally friendly, and carbon footprint-reducing agents. They may be used as alternatives to non-renewable energy sources.

Solar energy is generated by capturing solar radiation from the sun using solar panels. This can be used to generate electricity, water heating, or provide energy for various other applications. Wind turbines generate electricity by harnessing the power of the wind. This is a widely used form of renewable energy that is growing rapidly around the world. Hydroelectric power is generated by capturing the energy of falling water to turn turbines and generate electricity. This can be done using large-scale dams or smaller-scale run-of-the-river systems. Geothermal energy is generated by capturing the heat of the Earth’s interior to generate electricity or heat buildings. This can be done by using geothermal power plants or ground-source heat pumps. Biomass energy is generated by burning organic materials such as wood, agricultural waste, and other plant-based substances. This technology can be used to generate heat or electricity or to produce biofuels for transportation.

Renewable energy sources are becoming increasingly important to humanity, as we seek to transition to a more sustainable, replenishable energy future wit h fewer emissions. I n addition to being less harmful to the environment than non-renewable energy sources, renewable energy also offers a range of economic and social benefits, including job creation, energy independence, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Chapter 4 concentrates more on the effects of energy and sustainability across the nation and the state of Louisiana. The chapter will also address best practices of energy preservation within our environment.

The existence of organisms in the environment depends on recycling valuable nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, and carbon, which are all necessary for life. Nutrients are vital for the metabolism of living things and the survival of ecosystems.

Yet, these nutrients can travel from the Hawaiian Islands to Louisiana’s Gulf of Mexico. This happens as nutrients cyclically move through the environment and travel through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

The movement of nutrients through the environment is known as nutrient cycles or biogeochemical cycles as seen in Figure 1.12. Carbon is recycled and moves through the environment when animals release CO 2 into the atmosphere to be absorbed by plant leaves. This occurrence is seen in aquatic and terrestrial plants that capture CO 2 from the atmosphere to use in the production of food through photosynthesis. The atmosphere contains 78% of gaseous nitrogen (N 2 ). However, nitrogen changes into various forms when it enters the soil from the atmosphere. Soil bacteria must convert N 2 to usable forms for plant uptake. This process is known as nitrogen fixation. After this process, N 2 is released from the soil into the atmosphere, and the nitrogen cycle starts again.

A limited amount of phosphorus can be found in the atmosphere as aerosol particles from the ocean and wind-blown dust particulates. However, the majority of the phosphorus in the environment is bonded to subterranean rocks and is only released during weathering processes. Plants can absorb phosphorus through their root systems when phosphate is dissolved in water. Organisms referred to as decomposers recycle phosphorus back into the soil. Decomposers also recycle nutrients in the ecosystem by dissolving decayed organic materials.

The existence of water dates back millions of years. Water is constantly being recycled through the hydrologic cycle, also known as the water cycle. The recycling of water involves four major processes: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration. Evaporation occurs when water is heated by the ambient temperature (temperature in the environment) and turns into a gaseous vapor. When the warm water vapor rises and meets the cold air in the atmosphere, condensation occurs, and clouds are formed. Clouds are composed of water droplets from the condensation. The cycle is repeated when the water droplets get too heavy and fall out of the cloud back to the Earth as precipitation. Precipitation may exist in the form of ice, rain, sleet, and snow.

A wide range of environmental hazards come across in almost all habitats and public and private properties including, but not limited to, the workplace, construction areas, parks and recreational areas, industries, and living beings.

• Biological hazards are caused by a variety of organisms belonging to the six kingdoms of life. The effect of biological hazards such as physiological changes, responses to stimuli, reproductive behavior, and diseases, could cause short (acute) and or long-term (chronic) damage to life forms. Their environmental abiotic factors are also affected depending on the causative agent, dose, length of interaction or exposure, and geographical distribution of the hazard.
• Chemical hazards are mainly two kinds—inorganic such as toxic metals (Lead, Pb; Copper, Cu; Iron, Fe; Mercury, Hg; Aluminum, Al; Cadmium, Cd, etc.) and organic chemicals such as Methyl Mercury (CH 3 Hg); Polychlorinated biphenyls; Benzene; Poly aromatic hydrocarbons, etc. The chemical hazards are toxic, which affects the living organisms and their habitats, including the water, air, and soil quality. They will have long-term consequences for living beings. Radiation will have devastating long-term and generational consequences in life forms due to its mutagenic and carcinogenic properties.
• Physical hazards ranging from a wet floor in buildings, foul odor in the air, depth in water bodies, and extreme temperatures cause thermal pollution. War zones, heavy machinery use in construction areas, and ball games in indoor stadiums cause noise pollution. Excessive rainfall and flooding cause loss of property and life especially in low-lying areas and flood-prone zones. Forest fires cause loss of life, biomass of ecosystems, and toxic gas release.
• Natural disasters, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, and volcano eruptions, cause loss of life and biodiversity, disrupt the harmony in ecosystems, reduce the productivity of food chains and food webs, and damage the environmental quality.

The details of various hazards and their impact on humans and biodiversity will be presented in chapters 5 and 6.

In general, the types of hazards and levels of their toxic intensity and interaction with species in diversified habitats could cause the following changes in life forms (biota):

• Anthropogenic : Toxins and their distribution in the environment and among the biota are due to human activities, which eventually damage the natural resources and human health. Most commonly, anthropogenic (man-made) toxins are associated with numerous activities. One example is the accidental emissions of chemicals into the environment. Another example is the release of substances that react in the environment to synthesize chemicals of greater toxicity. The release of excessive heat from factories and industrial sites into the nearby water bodies increases the water temperature. The discharges of nutrient-rich sewage or fertilizer into water bodies cause eutrophication.

Environmental hazards and toxins may have serious effects:

• Human illness, diseases, and death due to the excessive release of toxic gases such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ).
• Loss of habitats, life forms, and biodiversity.
• Chronic respiratory and heart diseases.
• Auto exhaust fumes, smoking, secondhand smoke, laboratory solvents, and particulate matter released into the air from the mining industry will cause health severe and chronic problems to humans.
• Indoor pollution and toxins released from space heaters, furnaces, fireplaces burning wood, kerosene, nitric oxide, and organic vapors cause health problems and loss of man-hours and productivity.
• Smog causes a significant number of problems and toxicity to vegetation, erodes building surfaces and metal sculptures due to acid rain, and causes heart and lung problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema, in vulnerable populations.

An increase in the Earth’s surface temperature is referred to as global warming , also known as climate change . To be more precise, global warming is the cause of the Earth’s climate change. Natural occurrences on the Earth and anthropogenic activities are responsible for increased surface temperatures. Rising sea levels, sporadic flooding, melting glaciers, wildfires, storms, and the loss of wildlife habitats are just a few of the damaging effects of heightened warming trends. The culprit for extreme weather and climate events can be traced to greenhouse gas emissions in the environment. Greenhouse gases are a product of man-made activities such as agricultural activities, combustion of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial manufacturing of products.

Major greenhouse gasses include carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and water vapor as shown in Figure 1.13. The greenhouse effect occurs when a layer of greenhouse gasses from man-made activities hovers in the Earth’s atmosphere. Because of this, solar radiation strikes the surface of the Earth and bounces back into the atmosphere. The rays from the sunlight are blocked by the layer of greenhouse gasses. The surface temperature of the Earth increases as a result of this activity. It is important to note that without greenhouses, the Earth would be too cold for life to exist. Nonetheless, the amount of emissions caused by human activity is excessive and has become globally problematic. Once in the atmosphere, greenhouse gasses can linger there for a few years to thousands of years.

The persistent altering of Earth’s climate and weather patterns is evidence of the unsettling impacts of global warming. About 2% of global warming is caused by natural events such as variations in solar radiation levels, tectonic shifts, and the suspension of volcanic ash in the atmosphere. However, on a larger scale, global warming is caused by the human usage of petroleum-based fuels, coal, electricity, fertilizers, and industrial manufactured products. The intensity of storms, the rise in sea levels, and the expansion of the ocean are all signs of climate change.

All around the world, but notably at the Earth’s poles, ice is melting. This global imbalance has affected various wildlife species and their habitats. In some cases, the melting ice has led to the collapse of sections of the landscape because rising sea levels often flood coastal regions. Unusual warm temperatures in the ocean can damage aquatic species, fuel tropical cyclones and hurricanes, and cause the ocean to expand.

Most of the extra heat from global warming is absorbed in the upper crust of the ocean, which is about 700 meters down. Unfortunately, this area of the ocean is home to a diverse population of aquatic species such as fish, plankton, and whales. Scientists believe that increased temperatures cause stress in marine environments. Due to their extreme sensitivity, corals will expel their internal algae in the presence of heated temperatures. This event is known as bleaching in which corals frequently fail to recover as shown in Figure 1.15.

To support healthy ecosystems, we must engage in sustainable practices, as these actions can reduce the effects of global warming. Using renewable energy sources, consuming less water, walking instead of driving, and recycling plastic and aluminum products, among other things, are some practical ways to lessen the impact of global warming and climate change. Advocates for local initiatives addressing global warming have grown in popularity, and many of the environmental projects they support have an impactful transformation on the environment and our planet. On a larger scale, some environmental groups support projects that protect our forest landscape. This is a notable effort because CO 2 is a key greenhouse gas. Protecting our forest ecosystems will sequester significant amounts of CO 2 .

Agriculture can be defined as the science, and art, of cultivating the soil, producing crops, and raising livestock. Even relatively simple agricultural practices can greatly increase food production compared with the hunting and gathering of wild animals and plants. Before the development of agriculture, which first appeared around 10,500 years ago, perhaps 5–10 million people were able to subsist through a hunter-and-gatherer lifestyle.

Today, the world supports an enormous population (more than 7.3 billion in 2015 and 7.9 billion in 2023), and almost all depend on the agricultural production of food (fishing and hunting also provide some food). The development of agricultural practices and technologies, and their improvements over time, are among the most crucial of the “revolutions” that have marked the socio-cultural evolution of Homo sapiens .

In any event, beginning with the cultivation and then domestication of a few useful plants and animals, agricultural technology has advanced to the point where it can support enormous populations of humans and our mutualist species.

Modern agriculture involves several distinct management practices that impact crop plants, production of crops, cultivation practices, and livestock, to name a few. In the case of crop plants, they include selective breeding, tillage, the use of fertilizer and pesticides, irrigation, and reaping. Each practice helps to increase the yield of biomass that can be harvested for food or other uses. The practices are typically used in various combinations, which are undertaken as an integrated system of the ecosystem and species management to achieve a large production of crops. However, the management practices also cause important environmental damage.

Chapter 10 will investigate environmental damages associated with agriculture, with particular attention to effects that occur in the United States.

Environmental impacts on agriculture include declining site capability, nutrient loss, organic matter, soil erosion, compaction, salinization, and desertification.

Agricultural site capability (or site quality) refers to the ability of an ecosystem to sustain the productivity of crops. As plants grow, they take up nutrients from the soil. When a crop is harvested, the nutrients contained in its biomass are removed from the site, resulting in nutrient loss. Soil organic matter is a crucial factor that affects fertility and site capability, since the organic matter has a strong influence on the capacity of soil to hold water and nutrients and on its aeration, drainage, and tilth. Soil is eroded by wind and by the runoff of rain and melted snow. Although erosion is a natural process, its rate can be greatly increased by agricultural practices, and this may be a serious environmental problem. Compaction occurs when the air spaces in the soil are compressed, resulting in waterlogging, oxygen-poor conditions, impaired nutrient cycling, poor root growth, and decreased crop productivity. Salinization is a buildup of soluble minerals in the surface soil that can be a major problem in drier regions. Desertification, the increasing aridity of drylands, is a complex problem, caused by both climate change and other anthropogenic influences. Ultimately, these aforementioned environmental factors interweave and can negatively impact agricultural outcomes.

Pollution caused by agriculture includes groundwater and surface waters, which can become polluted by runoff containing fertilizer, pesticides, and livestock sewage. Inputs of nutrients and organic matter from fertilizer and sewage can cause severe ecological damage to surface waters through eutrophication and oxygen depletion. These changes, coupled with the presence of pathogenic and parasitic organisms, can result in waters becoming unsuitable for drinking by people, perhaps even by livestock, or for use in irrigation. Chapter 10 will explore these impacts on human behaviors.

Environmental Impact of Human Behavior

Human behaviors can positively or negatively impact environmental outcomes. For instance, food supply and nutrition, malnutrition, and starvation. In 2014, more than 7.3 billion people were alive, and almost all were reliant on crops as their prime source of food. There are also relatively minor amounts of food that are harvested from the wild, such as by fisheries, but agricultural production is responsible for the great bulk of the modern human diet. Staple food crops are the main source of dietary energy in the human diet and include rice, wheat, sweet potatoes, maize, and cassava.

However, food security plagues one in nine individuals in the world with more individuals living in poverty, which is defined as living on less than $1.25 per day. Poverty is the major driver of food insecurity. The lack of social and physical economic access to food at national and household levels and inadequate nutrition (or hidden hunger) are major issues for impoverished communities. Food security is built on four pillars: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Individuals lacking food stability may suffer from a lack of essential nutrients or malnutrition.

As a means to counteract crop loss, which could further impact food security, plant physiologists have genetically engineered crops through agricultural biotechnology. The field of agricultural biotechnology uses a range of tools that include both traditional breeding and modernized lab-based methods, which include genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and transgenic crops. Creating GMOs introduces new traits to crops that can allow protection from pests, enhanced nutrition to humans and animals, reduced costs to farmers, and more manageable production. However, there are factors to consider with the cultivation of GMOs such as hybridization with native species, ecological impacts on the pollinating organisms, and human health.

Another recent innovation in agriculture is the use of transgenic crops, which have been genetically modified by the introduction of genetic material (DNA or RNA) from another species. This bioengineering intends to confer some advantage to the crop that cannot be developed through selective breeding, which relies only on the intrinsic genetic information (the genome) that is naturally present in the species. Chapter 10 will further investigate the impacts of the four pillars of food security along with the impacts of agricultural biotechnology on human health.

Environmental Ethics

The choices that people make can influence environmental quality in many ways—by affecting the availability of resources, causing pollution, and causing species and natural ecosystems to become endangered. Decisions influencing environmental quality are influenced by two types of considerations: knowledge and ethics.

In this context, knowledge refers to information and understanding about the natural world, and ethics refers to the perception of right and wrong and the appropriate behavior of people toward each other, other species, and nature. Ethical behaviors are typically associated with social interactions with other members of society. Environmental ethics centers around the responsibility of our society to make ethical and moral decisions in response to the world around us. Of course, people may choose to interact with the environment and ecosystems in various ways. On the one hand, knowledge guides the consequences of choices, including damage that might be caused and actions that could be taken to avoid that effect. On the other hand, ethics provides guidance about which alternative actions should be favored or even allowed to occur.

Because modern humans have enormous power to utilize and damage the environment, the influence of knowledge and ethics on choices is a vital consideration. And we can choose among various alternatives. For example, individual people can decide whether to have children, purchase an automobile, or eat meat, while society can choose whether to allow the hunting of whales, clear-cutting of forests, or construction of nuclear power plants. All of these options have implications for environmental quality.

Perceptions of value (of merit or importance) also profoundly influence how the consequences of human actions are interpreted. Environmental values can be divided into two broad classes: utilitarian and intrinsic.

Utilitarian value (also known as instrumental value) is based on the known importance of something to the welfare of people (see also the discussion of the anthropocentric world view, below).

Intrinsic value is based on the belief that components of the natural environment (such as species and natural ecosystems) have inherent value and a right to exist, regardless of any positive, negative, or neutral relationships with humans.

The environmental values described above underlie this system of ethics. Applying environmental ethics often means analyzing and balancing standards that may conflict, because aesthetic, ecological, intrinsic, and utilitarian values rarely coincide.

Values and ethics, in turn, support larger systems known as worldviews. A worldview is a comprehensive philosophy of human life and the universe and of the relationship between people and the natural world. World views include traditional religions, philosophies, and science, as well as other belief systems. In an environmental context, generally important worldviews are known as anthropocentric, biocentric, and ecocentric, while the frontier and sustainability worldviews are more related to the use of resources. These worldviews will be further explored in chapter 11.

Environmental Quality

Environmental quality deals with anthropogenic pollution and disturbances and their effects on people, their economies, other species, and natural ecosystems. Pollution may be caused by gases emitted by power plants and vehicles, pesticides, or heated water discharged into lakes. Examples of disturbance include clear-cutting, fishing, and forest fires. The consequences of pollution and disturbance for biodiversity, climate change, resource availability, risks to human health, and other aspects of environmental quality are examined in chapters 3, 8, 9, 10, and 11.

In a general sense, the cumulative impact of humans on the biosphere is a function of two major factors: (1) the size of the population and (2) the per capita (per-person) environmental impact. The human population varies greatly among and within countries, as does the per capita impact, which depends on the kind and degree of economic development that has occurred. Sustainable economic development requires meeting and sustaining the needs of the current generation without inhibiting future generations from meeting and sustaining their needs. Meeting goals for environmental quality, specifically sustainable economic development, can be measured by applying the IPAT Equation.

Calculations based on this simple IPAT formula show that affluent, technological societies have a much larger per capita environmental impact than poorer ones. This requires a look at ethical decision-making about the environment and principles, such as the Tragedy of the Commons and environmental justice.

The Tragedy of the Commons is an economic principle that focuses on individuals intentionally or unintentionally using resources in excess. This principle stems from the 1968 essay, “The Tragedy of the Commons” written by Garrett Hardin. The essay presents the following scenario:

Imagine a pasture open to all (the ‘commons’). It is to be expected that each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons. As rational beings, each herdsman seeks to maximize their gain. Adding more cattle increases their profit, and they do not suffer any immediate negative consequence because the commons are shared by all. The rational herdsman concludes that the only sensible course is to add another animal to their herd, and then another, and so forth. However, this same conclusion is reached by each and every rational herdsman sharing the commons. Therein lies the tragedy: each person is locked into a system that compels them to increase their herd, without limit, in a world that is limited. Eventually this leads to the ruination of the commons. In a society that believes in the freedom of the commons, freedom brings ruin to all because each person acts selfishly (Fisher, 23).

Hardin went on to apply the situation to modern commons: overgrazing of public lands, overuse of public forests and parks, depletion of fish populations in the ocean, use of rivers as a common dumping ground for sewage, and fouling the air with pollution.

Dive Deeper into Environmental Quality in Louisiana

Environmental Justice

Environmental justice is the fair treatment and inclusion of all individuals independent of their demographic characteristics (race, ethnicity, national origin, and socioeconomic status) in the “development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.” Therefore, environmental injustice stems from an imbalance in resource access and systemic issues plaguing society. Chapter 11 will further explore historical and modern instances of environmental injustices exhibited within the United States of America.

Environmental science crosses several academic disciplines including atmospheric science, biology, chemistry, ecology, geology, oceanography, physics, and many others. Each discipline can become more specialized and integrated with other disciplines to explain the science of “what is happening in the environment.” Historically, environmental science has been traced to ancient civilizations where people had to learn how to adapt to their environment for survival. Today, the survival of the human population depends on the sustainability and stewardship of natural resources. Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field of study because it allows for the integration of many perspectives on each issue into in-depth analyses of the topic. Anthropology, business, chemistry, law, medical sciences, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and other disciplines can all make contributions to environmental science.

The biosphere is characterized by a substratum of layers that support all living things on the Earth. These layers include the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The lithosphere is the outer crust of the Earth and exists as one of the concentric layers (crust, core, and mantle) that is stacked in an onion-like pattern. The area of Earth that is covered by water (H2O), including the seas, atmosphere, the surface of the land, and subterranean, is known as the hydrosphere. The atmosphere consists of a layer of gasses that envelops the planet and is kept in place by the gravitational pull of the Earth.

The biosphere sustains six kingdoms, which greatly enhances the diversity of life on Earth. These kingdoms include Eubacteria, Archaea, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The aquatic and terrestrial environments of the biosphere are home to a wide variety of organisms from the six kingdoms. Our understanding of the biosphere’s limitations has been saturated by the effects of human activity. The manufacturing of global products, agriculture, and new technologies have caused unprecedented changes to the Earth’s ecosystems to the point where some may be in danger of collapsing. However, it is unclear how these persistent changes will ultimately affect the carrying capacity of the planet.

A biological or non-biological substance that poses a risk to human life or health is referred to as a hazard. Human activities or natural processes cause hazards in the environment that exist as a combination of biological, chemical, or physical hazards. Bacteria, mold, fungi, viruses, and natural toxins are organic sources of biological hazards that can adversely affect animal and human health. There are two types of chemical hazards: inorganic and organic. Inorganic substances that contain no carbon are sources of chemical hazards. Organic substances come from chemicals that contain carbon and are sources of chemical hazards as well.

Energy plays a significant and impacting role in the preservation of the environment. Humanity should effectively, responsibly, and efficiently use these energy resources to support current global energy consumption needs. There are two types of energy sources for human consumption: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable energy sources can be replenished. Examples of typical renewable energy sources include wind, solar, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy. Non-renewable energy sources are limited and unsustainable over the long term, since they are difficult to quickly replace. Fossil fuels are found deep down in the Earth and are typically the skeletal remnants of plants and animals that perished millions of years ago. Coal, oil, and natural gas are just a few examples of fossil fuels.

Nutrient cycling is the movement of nutrients through a repeated pathway that occurs in the environment. The recycling of nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, and carbon is essential for life and allows organisms to exist in the environment. Carbon is recycled when animals release CO 2 into the atmosphere to be absorbed by plant leaves. When nitrogen is moved to the soil from the atmosphere, nitrogen fixation allows soil microorganisms to change N 2 into forms that plants can use. Weathering activities liberate most of the phosphorus that is bound to underground rocks so that plants can absorb it through their root systems. The availability of water for all organisms in the environment depends on the movement of water molecules from lakes, oceans, rivers, and streams to the atmosphere and back to the Earth.

Global warming, often known as climate change, is the term used to describe an increase in the Earth’s surface temperature. Evidence of the unsettling effects of global warming is the continual alteration of Earth’s climate and weather patterns. Greenhouse gas emissions are to blame for extreme weather and climatic occurrences. Major greenhouse gasses include carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, nitrous oxide ozone, and water vapor. Human activities including deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, agriculture, and industrial product manufacturing all produce greenhouse gases. Once in the atmosphere, greenhouse gasses can linger there for a few years to thousands of years, trapping radiation from the sun. The rise in the Earth’s surface temperature can be seen in the intensity of storms, the rise in sea levels, and the expansion of the ocean.

Agricultural production is responsible for dietary energy in the modern human diet that comes from staple food crops, such as rice, wheat, sweet potatoes, maize, and cassava. Numerous management techniques are used in modern agriculture practices to influence animal and plant crop productivity, cultivation methods, and livestock production. Environmental issues that are associated with agricultural practices are reduced site capacity, nutrient loss, organic matter loss, soil erosion, compaction, salinization, and desertification. Food security is important and is built on four pillars: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Conversely, poor nutrition (or hidden hunger) and lack of social and economic access to food at the national and household levels are significant problems for impoverished communities. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and transgenic plants are two examples of modern lab-based techniques that are used in the field of agricultural biotechnology. Transgenic crops can resist diseases because of their genetic modification. This results in significant reductions in the application of chemical pesticides, which in turn reduces harmful effects on the environment.

The core idea of environmental ethics is that society must act morally and ethically concerning the environment. Although the perceptions of value are influenced by the consequences of human actions, environmental values are divided into two categories: utilitarian and intrinsic. The foundation of utilitarian value is based on the importance of something that is connected with the welfare of people. Intrinsic value is associated with the belief that components of the natural environment have inherent value and a right to exist independently of human perspectives.

The term “environmental quality” refers to the state of the environment, including anthropogenic pollution, disruptions, and their impact on people, their economies, other species, and natural ecosystems. An economic principle known as “The Tragedy of the Commons” focuses on people consuming resources excessively, whether on purpose or accidentally. This rule is applicable in cases when overgrazing, resource overuse, food supply depletion, water, air, and land pollution, as well as other factors that contribute to climate change, are present. Environmental justice is the equitable treatment and participation of all people, regardless of their racial, ethnic, national, and socioeconomic backgrounds, in the “development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.” Therefore, unequal access to resources and societal systemic problems are the root causes of environmental injustice.

Links to Discovery

• Measuring Progress: Water-Related Ecosystems and the SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)
• Restore a River Back to Life 
• Solar Panels on Farms Make Sheep Happier and Healthier

Critical Thinking

• How do water, air, and soil quality affect agriculture?
• Explain the relationship between air quality and circular economy.
• Explain the generation of electrical energy using wind turbines.
• How does biodiversity impact energy resources?
• Abiotic factors – Non-living factors present in or impacting the environment.
• Biodiversity – The richness of biological variation, including genetic variability as well as species and community richness.
• Biotic factors – living factors present in or impacting the environment.
• Climate change – Long-term changes in air, soil, or water temperature; precipitation regimes; wind speed; or other climate-related factors.
• Environmental hazard – A potential risk factor that negatively impacts the environment.
• Environmental justice – The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income concerning the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.
• Global warming – The heating of the earth’s surface is believed to be caused by human behaviors that emit fossil fuels and trap gas in the atmosphere.
• Hydrosphere – The parts of the planet that contain water, including the oceans, atmosphere, land, surface water bodies, underground, and organisms.
• Lithosphere – An approximately 80-km thick region of rigid, relatively light rocks that surround Earth’s plastic mantle.
• Non-renewable energy – Energy sources that are present on Earth in finite quantities, so as it is used, its future stocks are diminished.
• Nutrient cycles – The transfers, chemical transformations, and recycling of nutrients.
• Pollution – The exposure of organisms to chemicals or energy in quantities that exceed their tolerance, causing toxicity or other ecological damages.
• Population growth – When the birth rate plus immigration exceeds the death rate plus emigration.
• Renewable energy – Energy sources that can regenerate after harvesting and potentially can be exploited forever.
• Sustainability – Maintaining the current resources without diminishing the availability of resources for future generations.

González-González, R. B., Sharma, P., Pratap Singh, S., Pinê Américo-Pinheiro, J. H., Parra-Saldívar, R., Bilal, M., and H. Iqbal. (2022). Persistence, environmental hazards, and mitigation of pharmaceutically active residual contaminants from water matrices. Science of the Total Environment, 821 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153329

Theis, T., and J. Tomkins (Eds.)  Environmental Science.  OpenStax. Available via Internet Archive.

Zehnder, C., Manoylov, K., Mutiti, S., Mutiti, C., VandeVoort, A., and D. Bennett. (2018). Introduction to Environmental Science (2nd ed.). University System of Georgia. Available via the Open Textbook Library .

Recommended Reading

Biodiversity Heritage Library

Diversity and Biological Balance

Energy and the Environment

Media Attributions

• EPA in Stream © Eric Vance, EPA is licensed under a Public Domain license
• 5637745193_718b4940e3_o
• Environmental Studies Flower © Bill Freedman is licensed under a CC BY-NC (Attribution NonCommercial) license
• 1200px-Earth-crust-cutaway-english.svg
• Coal © Jeffrey Beall is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
• Honda Fit EV at a public charging station in front of San Franci © Mario Duran-Ortiz is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
• Animal_agriculture_is_the_leading_cause_of_global_warming._(23126879740) © Alisdare Hickson is licensed under a CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike) license
• Burgeoning corn crop, East Carroll Parish, LA © Billy Hathorn is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license
• Louisiana cattle © Jeremiah Wells is licensed under a CC BY (Attribution) license

Encompassing a wide diversity of kinds of knowledge.

An approximately 80-km thick region of rigid, relatively light rocks that surround Earth's plastic mantle.

The parts of the planet that contain water, including the oceans, atmosphere, land, surface waterbodies, underground, and organisms.

The exposure of organisms to chemicals or energy in quantities that exceed their tolerance, causing toxicity or other ecological damages.

When the birth rate plus immigration exceeds the death rate plus emigration.

Energy sources that are present on Earth in finite quantities, so as it is used, its future stocks are diminished.

Energy sources that can regenerate after harvesting, and potentially can be exploited forever.

Maintaining the current resources without diminishing the availability of resources for future generations.

Refers to the transfers, chemical transformations, and recycling of nutrients.

Pollution caused by chemical, physical, or biological agents in water, soil, and air causes acute or chronic diseases or harm to human health or even death of living beings including humans.

are nonliving factors present in or impacting the environment.

Occurring as a result of a human influence.

The heating of the earth's surface is believed to be caused by human behaviors that emit fossil fuels and trap gas in the atmosphere.

Long-term changes in air, soil, or water temperature; precipitation regimes; wind speed; or other climate-related factors.

Environmental Science Copyright © 2024 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Essay on Environmental Science

Students are often asked to write an essay on Environmental Science in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Environmental Science

What is environmental science.

Environmental science is the study of how nature works and how we, humans, interact with it. This field looks at air, water, plants, and animals, and tries to find ways to keep them healthy. Scientists in this area work to understand how our actions affect the environment and how we can fix any harm.

Why It Matters

Caring for the environment is important because it’s where we live, get food, and find water. If we don’t look after it, our planet can become dirty and unhealthy. This can make people and animals sick and can make it hard to find clean water and air.

What We Can Do

We can help the environment by recycling, saving water, and not littering. Using less electricity by turning off lights when we leave a room also helps. Planting trees and cleaning up rivers and parks are great ways to keep the environment healthy. Everyone can do something to help.

250 Words Essay on Environmental Science

Environmental science is the study of the natural world and how living and non-living things interact. It is a mix of many subjects like biology, chemistry, geology, and physics. This science tells us how the Earth works and how we can take care of it. It is important because it helps us understand the problems our planet faces.

Why Study the Environment?

We study the environment to learn how to live without harming it. For example, we need clean air to breathe and clean water to drink. Environmental science shows us how pollution affects these resources and what we can do to stop it. It also teaches us how to use the Earth’s resources, like trees and water, without using them all up.

Animals, Plants, and Habitats

Animals and plants live in places called habitats. A habitat can be a forest, a desert, or even a pond. Environmental science helps us understand how these living things depend on their habitats. It also shows us how our actions, like cutting down trees or building cities, can change or destroy these habitats.

Protecting Our Planet

Finally, environmental science gives us ways to protect our planet. It tells us how to reduce waste, save energy, and protect animals and plants that are in danger. By learning environmental science, we can make choices that are good for the Earth. This means we can help make sure the planet is a healthy home for all living things, now and in the future.

500 Words Essay on Environmental Science

Environmental science is the study of the environment and how living things interact with it. It looks at everything from the air we breathe to the soil under our feet. Scientists in this field try to understand how the Earth works and how humans and other creatures live with their surroundings. They also look at the problems we face, like pollution and climate change, and try to find ways to solve them.

The Earth’s Layers and Resources

Our planet is made up of different layers, including the atmosphere, which is the air around us; the hydrosphere, which is all the water on Earth; the lithosphere, which is the ground and rocks; and the biosphere, which is where all living things are. Each layer is important and works together to make Earth a good place for us to live.

The Earth also gives us resources like water, air, and soil, which we need to survive. But we have to use these resources wisely. If we use too much or make them dirty, we can create problems for ourselves and other living things.

Plants and Animals in the Environment

Plants and animals are a big part of the environment. They live in different places like forests, oceans, and deserts. Each plant and animal has a special role in its home, which is called its habitat. They depend on each other and the non-living parts of their habitat to stay alive.

For example, bees need flowers for food, and flowers need bees to spread their pollen so they can make seeds. This is called interdependence, and it shows how everything in the environment is connected.

Environmental Problems

Sadly, there are many problems in our environment. Pollution is when harmful things get into the air, water, or soil. It can make people, plants, and animals sick. Another big problem is cutting down too many trees, which is called deforestation. Trees are important because they give us oxygen and take in carbon dioxide, which is a gas that can make the Earth too warm.

Climate change is a change in the Earth’s weather over a long time. It is making some places too hot, too cold, or too wet. This can be bad for people, plants, and animals. Scientists believe that humans are causing a lot of these changes by using too many resources and making too much pollution.

Protecting Our Environment

We can all help protect the environment. One way is to reduce, reuse, and recycle. This means using less, using things again, and making new things out of old things. Saving energy by turning off lights and electronics when we’re not using them is another way to help.

People can also plant trees and clean up trash to make the environment healthier. And we can learn more about the environment and teach others how to take care of it. If we all work together, we can solve environmental problems and make the Earth a better place for everyone.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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• The Environmental Studies Student

Two scenes stand out in my mind from my visit to Brazil’s Wetland: Forests burning before seed planting and trees as hedgerows. Before the planting season, I could see the leafless remnants of burnt trees still standing. The burning of pristine forests destroys both the habitats and countless species which depend on and thrive in these habitats. The few remaining bare, scarred trees silently convey the cost to our natural resources of pursuing our economic interests. Some forests are preserved by government edict issued in response to international pressure. But most of this preservation occurs alongside major roads — not to protect the ecosystem, but to prevent disturbance to ranches and farms along the highways. The clash between economic and environmental concerns that I witnessed in Brazil fascinates me and attracts me to the Environmental Studies Program.

Two courses in my geography department increased my interest in the connection between the environment and economics: Conservation of Underdeveloped Countries and Environmental Impact Analysis. In the former, we studied the problems of natural resource management in developing countries. The balance is always tilted toward economic growth at the expense of environmental preservation. For example, because the Pantanal Wetland could become a highly productive agricultural system once it’s drained, it is drained regardless of the destruction that drainage causes to the ecosystem. Only portions of the wetland are preserved for tourist purposes.

The other course that piqued my interest is an interdisciplinary course called Environmental Impact Analysis in which we, as a group, created matrix and flow diagrams discussing the economic and environmental impact of logging and preservation of old growth forests. I was able to use tools that I acquired in my economics and environmental studies classes. In general, logging creates economic benefits at the local level. It increases employment in the timber industry and subsequently in related non-timber industries; it also benefits local government. Yet, it has great deleterious environmental effects: soil erosion, watershed destruction, and a decrease in species diversity due to loss of habitat. The logging industry represents the classic clash between economic and environmental interests.

I also took two sequential classes in the economics department that are related to Resource Management — Theories of Growth & Development and Policies for Economic Development. Because the courses were taught by a professor who is concerned chiefly with economic growth, I learned the standard economic rationalizations for development unrestrained by environmental concerns.

In addition to my interest in resource management policies, I have a specific interest in Geographical Information System (GIS), a powerful tool for natural resource management. After taking several related classes in GIS, I began interning for the National Park Service (NPS). After I learn how to use ARC/INFO, a leading GIS package, I will assist the NPS in constructing projects. Some of my duties include spatial and non-spatial data analysis, digitizing themes such as fire locations, vegetation, wildlife habitats, etc., and tabular and graphical presentation of results. I hope to use the tools I acquire during this internship in my continuing study of our environment.

I would like to study the social and economic factors that influence environmental policy formation. For example, because people worry more about pollution than endangered species, laws and regulations concerning environmental pollution are more numerous and stricter than for bio-diversity. Within the School of Environmental Studies, I have a particular interest in the emphasis: Economics, Policy, and Management. This emphasis deals with how economic factors can create negative externalities, such as pollution, and need to be regulated. This emphasis also tries to consider non-economic values, such as aesthetic pleasure and species diversity. It also discusses tools like GIS and system analysis that apply to environmental management. Because of my interest in GIS, economics, and environmental studies, this emphasis suits me perfectly. Furthermore, the interdisciplinary approach of the School of Environmental Studies attracts me since it combines social science’s strengths with a knowledge of the natural sciences necessary to protect and preserve the environment.

After completing my masters program, I would like to continue my education and obtain a Ph.D. in natural resource management. This degree would enable me to combine a teaching career with advising business and government on natural resource management issues. Teaching college students is more than a one-way channel; I would also learn from their questions like my professors have from mine. In advising business and government, I can help them strike a balance between economic and environmental concerns. GIS will be a useful tool in helping me give them crucial information.

I have enjoyed an interdisciplinary approach in my environmental studies major and become fascinated by the clash between social interests, especially economics, and environmental needs. I pursued an additional major in economics to better understand this conflict. Furthermore, my work for the NPS will train me in the latest techniques in natural resource management. I would like to continue exploring this clash and resource management in the School of Environmental Studies. Ultimately, I would like to teach and work in natural resource management. Ideally, I would like to find ways for allowing development while preventing the burning of beautiful and valuable eco-systems like the Pantanal Wetland.

Other Sample Essays

Environmental Issues Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on environmental issues.

The environment plays a significant role to support life on earth. But there are some issues that are causing damages to life and the ecosystem of the earth. It is related to the not only environment but with everyone that lives on the planet. Besides, its main source is pollution , global warming, greenhouse gas , and many others. The everyday activities of human are constantly degrading the quality of the environment which ultimately results in the loss of survival condition from the earth.

Source of Environment Issue

There are hundreds of issue that causing damage to the environment. But in this, we are going to discuss the main causes of environmental issues because they are very dangerous to life and the ecosystem.

Pollution – It is one of the main causes of an environmental issue because it poisons the air , water , soil , and noise. As we know that in the past few decades the numbers of industries have rapidly increased. Moreover, these industries discharge their untreated waste into the water bodies, on soil, and in air. Most of these wastes contain harmful and poisonous materials that spread very easily because of the movement of water bodies and wind.

Greenhouse Gases – These are the gases which are responsible for the increase in the temperature of the earth surface. This gases directly relates to air pollution because of the pollution produced by the vehicle and factories which contains a toxic chemical that harms the life and environment of earth.

Climate Changes – Due to environmental issue the climate is changing rapidly and things like smog, acid rains are getting common. Also, the number of natural calamities is also increasing and almost every year there is flood, famine, drought , landslides, earthquakes, and many more calamities are increasing.

Above all, human being and their greed for more is the ultimate cause of all the environmental issue.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

How to Minimize Environment Issue?

Now we know the major issues which are causing damage to the environment. So, now we can discuss the ways by which we can save our environment. For doing so we have to take some measures that will help us in fighting environmental issues .

Moreover, these issues will not only save the environment but also save the life and ecosystem of the planet. Some of the ways of minimizing environmental threat are discussed below:

Reforestation – It will not only help in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem but also help in restoring the natural cycles that work with it. Also, it will help in recharge of groundwater, maintaining the monsoon cycle , decreasing the number of carbons from the air, and many more.

The 3 R’s principle – For contributing to the environment one should have to use the 3 R’s principle that is Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Moreover, it helps the environment in a lot of ways.

To conclude, we can say that humans are a major source of environmental issues. Likewise, our activities are the major reason that the level of harmful gases and pollutants have increased in the environment. But now the humans have taken this problem seriously and now working to eradicate it. Above all, if all humans contribute equally to the environment then this issue can be fight backed. The natural balance can once again be restored.

FAQs about Environmental Issue

Q.1 Name the major environmental issues. A.1 The major environmental issues are pollution, environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate change. Besides, there are several other environmental issues that also need attention.

Q.2 What is the cause of environmental change? A.2 Human activities are the main cause of environmental change. Moreover, due to our activities, the amount of greenhouse gases has rapidly increased over the past few decades.

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Science, Technology, and the Environment Essay

Environmental challenges promote the development of science and technology.

The environmental challenges largely determine the development of technology and science as a way of adjusting to new conditions. Diamond shows that the uneven development of different human societies worldwide is not an accident but a pattern caused by climate, the availability of animals suitable for domestication, and many other factors (“Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies,” 1997).

For example, the Spaniards who colonized America succeed primarily due to the European diseases brought with them: the natives did not have immunity from them, while Spanish science was advanced enough to combat with them. As noted by McNeil (2001), the Europeans who significantly increased food production as a result of sedentary lifestyles wanted to expand their control over other countries, which pushed them to the improvement of technology based on steel and guns.

The example of New Guinea, which only recently adopted innovations, shows that their living habits, namely, gathering and hunting, required no critical advancement in technology. The Europeans who arrived at the mentioned country found that they still live in primitive communities and practice traditional ways of production (Frum, 1998). In this connection, the culture may either promote or impede technology and science development. When the Spaniards and Portuguese came to America, it was a collapse for the Native population that was not equipped with guns, thus having little chances to survive ( Conquest , 2004; Into the tropics 2004; Out of Eden 2004 ).

At the same time, the situation with New Guinea demonstrates that peaceful relationships are also possible between less and more advanced societies (“Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies,” 1997). This occurs because every nation has its own cultural peculiarities that identify its attitudes, behaviors, and principles with regard to others and potential change.

Military Success: Technology, Motivation, and Leadership

Technology offers a great variety of weapons and other military innovations that allow conquering other nations and controlling them. While the Europeans were making their colonies, their military success largely depended on technology. In addition, ideological motivation and leadership should also be noted among factors that led emperors and kings to victories. For instance, the effectiveness of maritime China in the 1400s was also caused by the intention to promote commerce with many countries, thus increasing production (Andrade, 2010).

One of the central places in military ideology belongs to a set of criteria for evaluating phenomena in terms of justice or injustice, support or protest, which compose a moral compass in the military sphere. Adas (2015) states that the ideal images of global and national life follow from the identified rationale. In other words, the very idea of a state that aimed at the expansion should be substantial to compete with technology in terms of future success.

The opposing viewpoint is that leadership may even overcome technology if it is supported by such essential factors as devotion and potential benefits. As an example, one may focus on Lockard (2015), who describes the shift from the Chinese domination in the Middle Centuries that reduced steadily due to a lack of effective leaders (“Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies,” 1997). At the same time, the conquests of Mecca and Medina turned out to be shaded by the European ascent in terms of military affairs.

A range of factors may decrease the impact of a leader, including excessive murder, violence, and inconsistent actions (Taylor, 2018). On the contrary, a strong idea, as well as proper appeal to the public, is likely to help a leader in integrating people and heading them on the way to success.

Adas, M. (2015). Machines as the measure of men: Science, technology, and ideologies of Western dominance . New York, NY: Cornell University Press.

Andrade, T. (2010). Beyond guns, germs, and steel: European expansion and maritime Asia, 1400-1750. Journal of Early Modern History, 14 (1/2), 165-186.

Conquest . (2004). Web.

Frum, D. (1998). How the West won: History that feels good usually isn’t. Foreign Affairs, 77 (5), 132-135.

Guns, germs, and steel: The fates of human societies . (1997). Web.

Lockard, C. (2015). Societies, networks, and transitions: A global history (3rd ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

McNeil, J. R. (2001). The world, according to Jared Diamond. History Teacher, 34 (2), 165-175.

Out of Eden . (2004). Web.

Taylor, R. L. (2018). Military leadership: In pursuit of excellence . New York, NY: Routledge.

Into the tropics . (2004). Web.

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IvyPanda. (2023, November 30). Science, Technology, and the Environment. https://ivypanda.com/essays/science-technology-and-the-environment/

"Science, Technology, and the Environment." IvyPanda , 30 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/science-technology-and-the-environment/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Science, Technology, and the Environment'. 30 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Science, Technology, and the Environment." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/science-technology-and-the-environment/.

1. IvyPanda . "Science, Technology, and the Environment." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/science-technology-and-the-environment/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Science, Technology, and the Environment." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/science-technology-and-the-environment/.

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US IB Environmental Systems and Societies: ESS Extended Essay

• ESS Extended Essay
• Criterion Overview
• Criterion A: Focus and method
• Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding
• Criterion C: Critical thinking
• Criterion D: Presentation
• Criterion E: Engagement

B: Knowledge and understanding

This criterion assesses the extent to which the research relates to the subject area/discipline used to explore the research question; or in the case of the world studies extended essay, the issue addressed and the two disciplinary perspectives applied; and additionally, the way in which this knowledge and understanding is demonstrated through the use of appropriate terminology and concepts.

• Have you explained how your research question relates to a specific subject you selected for the extended essay?
• Have you used relevant terminology and concepts throughout your essay as they relate to your particular area of research?
• Is it clear that the sources you are using are relevant and appropriate to your research question?
• Do you have a range of sources, or have you only relied on one particular type, for example internet sources?
• Is there a reason why you might not have a range? Is this justified?

C: Critical thinking

This criterion assesses the extent to which critical thinking skills have been used to analyze and evaluate the research undertaken.

• Have you made links between your results and data collected and your research question?
• If you included data or information that is not directly related to your research question have you explained its importance?
• Are your conclusions supported by your data?
• If you found unexpected information or data have you discussed its importance?
• Have you provided a critical evaluation of the methods you selected?
• Have you considered the reliability of your sources (peer-reviewed journals, internet, and so on)?
• Have you mentioned and evaluated the significance of possible errors that may have occurred in your research?
• Are all your suggestions of errors or improvements relevant?
• Have you evaluated your research question?
• Have you compared your results or findings with any other sources?
• Is there an argument that is clear and easy to follow and directly linked to answering your research question, and which is supported by evidence?

D: Presentation

This criterion assesses the extent to which the presentation follows the standard format expected for academic writing and the extent to which this aids effective communication.

• Have you read and understood the presentation requirements of the extended essay?
• Have you chosen a font that will be easy for examiners to read on-screen?
• Is your essay double-spaced and size 12 font?
• Are the title and research question mentioned on the cover page?
• Are all pages numbered?
• Have you prepared a correct table of contents?
• Do the page numbers in the table of contents match the page numbers in the text?
• Is your essay subdivided into correct sub-sections, if this is applicable to the subject?
• Are all figures and tables properly numbered and labelled?
• Does your bibliography contain only the sources cited in the text?
• Did you use the same reference system throughout the essay?
• Does the essay have less than 4,000 words?
• Is all the material presented in the appendices relevant and necessary?
• Have you proofread the text for spelling or grammar errors?

E. Engagement

This criterion assesses the student’s engagement with their research focus and the research process. It will be applied by the examiner at the end of the assessment of the essay, after considering the students RPPF.

• Have you demonstrated your engagement with your research topic and the research process?
• Have you highlighted challenges you faced and how you overcame them?
• Will the examiner get a sense of your intellectual and skills development?
• Will the examiner get a sense of your creativity and intellectual initiative?
• Will the examiner get a sense of how you responded to actions and ideas in the research process?
• IB ESS Extended Essay Guide
• World Studies Extended Essay Guide
• World Studies
• Example A: Turtle Conservation
• Example A: Marks
• Example B: Economics of Wolves
• Example B Marks
• Example A: Wildlife Trafficking in China

Using the systems approach

The systems approach is a central theme in ESS. The essay should include an attempt to model, at least partially, the system or systems in question.

The term “model” in this context includes, for example:

• mathematical formulas
• graphical representations
• flow diagrams

Students should use  ESS terminology , where appropriate.

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• Perspective
• Published: 26 June 2023

GREENER principles for environmentally sustainable computational science

• Loïc Lannelongue   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9135-1345 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Hans-Erik G. Aronson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1702-1671 5 ,
• Alex Bateman 6 ,
• Ewan Birney 6 ,
• Talia Caplan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8990-1435 7 ,
• Martin Juckes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1770-2132 8 ,
• Johanna McEntyre 6 ,
• Andrew D. Morris 5 ,
• Gerry Reilly 5 &
• Michael Inouye 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 9 , 10 , 11  

Nature Computational Science volume  3 ,  pages 514–521 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Computational science
• Environmental impact
• Scientific community

The carbon footprint of scientific computing is substantial, but environmentally sustainable computational science (ESCS) is a nascent field with many opportunities to thrive. To realize the immense green opportunities and continued, yet sustainable, growth of computer science, we must take a coordinated approach to our current challenges, including greater awareness and transparency, improved estimation and wider reporting of environmental impacts. Here, we present a snapshot of where ESCS stands today and introduce the GREENER set of principles, as well as guidance for best practices moving forward.

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Scientific research and development have transformed and immeasurably improved the human condition, whether by building instruments to unveil the mysteries of the universe, developing treatments to fight cancer or improving our understanding of the human genome. Yet, science can, and frequently does, impact the environment, and the magnitude of these impacts is not always well understood. Given the connection between climate change and human health, it is becoming increasingly apparent to biomedical researchers in particular, as well as their funders, that the environmental effects of research should be taken into account 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 .

Recent studies have begun to elucidate the environmental impacts of scientific research, with an initial focus on scientific conferences and experimental laboratories 6 . The 2019 Fall Meeting of the American Geophysical Union was estimated to emit 80,000 metric tonnes of CO 2 equivalent (tCO 2 e), equivalent to the average weekly emissions of the city of Edinburgh, UK 7 (CO 2 e, or CO 2 -equivalent, summarizes the global warming impacts of a range of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and is the standard metric for carbon footprints, although its accuracy is sometimes debated 8 ) The annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience was estimated to emit 22,000 tCO 2 e, approximately the annual carbon footprint of 1,000 medium-sized laboratories 9 . The life-cycle impact (including construction and usage) of university buildings has been estimated at ~0.125 tCO 2 e m −2  yr −1 (ref. 10 ), and the yearly carbon footprint of a typical life-science laboratory at ~20 tCO 2 e (ref. 9 ). The Laboratory Efficiency Assessment Framework (LEAF) is a widely adopted standard to monitor and reduce the carbon footprint of laboratory-based research 11 . Other recent frameworks can help to raise awareness: GES 1point5 12 provides an open-source tool to estimate the carbon footprint of research laboratories and covers buildings, procurement, commuting and travel, and the Environmental Responsibility 5-R Framework provides guidelines for ecologically conscious research 13 .

With the increasing scale of high-performance and cloud computing, the computational sciences are susceptible to having silent and unintended environmental impacts. The sector of information and communication technologies (ICT) was responsible for between 1.8% and 2.8% of global GHG emissions in 2020 14 —more than aviation (1.9% 15 )—and, if unchecked, the ICT carbon footprint could grow exponentially in coming years 14 . Although the environmental impact of experimental ‘wet’ laboratories is more immediately obvious, with their large pieces of equipment and high plastic and reagent usage, the impact of algorithms is less clear and often underestimated. The risks of seeking performance at any cost and the importance of considering energy usage and sustainability when developing new hardware for high-performance computing (HPC) was raised as early as 2007 16 . Since then, continuous improvements have been made by developing new hardware, building lower-energy data centers and implementing more efficient HPC systems 17 , 18 . However, it is only in the past five years that these concerns have reached HPC users, in particular researchers. Notably, the field of artificial intelligence (AI) has first taken note of its environmental impacts, in particular those of the very large language models developed 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 . It is unclear, however, to what extent this has led the field towards more sustainable research practices. A small number of studies have also been performed in other fields, including bioinformatics 24 , astronomy and astrophysics 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , particle physics 29 , neuroscience 30 and computational social sciences 31 . Health data science is starting to address the subject, but a recent systematic review found only 25 publications in the field over the past 12 years 32 . In addition to the environmental effects of electricity usage, manufacturing and disposal of hardware, there are also concerns around data centers’ water usage and land footprint 33 . Notably, computational science, in particular AI, has the potential to help fight climate change, for example, by improving the efficiency of wind farms, by facilitating low-carbon urban mobility and by better understanding and anticipating severe weather events 34 .

In this Perspective we highlight the nascent field of environmentally sustainable computational science (ESCS)—what we have learned from the research so far, and what scientists can do to mitigate their environmental impacts. In doing so, we present GREENER (Governance, Responsibility, Estimation, Energy and embodied impacts, New collaborations, Education and Research; Fig. 1 ), a set of principles for how the computational science community could lead the way in sustainable research practices, maximizing computational science’s benefit to both humanity and the environment.

The GREENER principles enable cultural change (blue arrows), which in turn facilitates their implementation (green arrows) and triggers a virtuous circle.

Environmental impacts of the computational sciences

The past three years have seen increased concerns regarding the carbon footprint of computations, and only recently have tools 21 , 35 , 36 , 37 and guidelines 38 been widely available to computational scientists to allow them to estimate their carbon footprint and be more environmentally sustainable.

Most calculators that estimate the carbon footprint of computations are targeted at machine learning tasks and so are primarily suited to Python pipelines, graphics processing units (GPUs) and/or cloud computing 36 , 37 , 39 , 40 . Python libraries have the benefit of integrating well into machine learning pipelines or online calculators for cloud GPUs 21 , 41 . Recently, a flexible online tool, the Green Algorithms calculator 35 , enabled the estimation of the carbon footprint for nearly any computational task, empowering sustainability metrics across fields, hardware, computing platforms and locations.

Some publications, such as ref. 38 , have listed simple actions that computational scientists can take regarding their environmental impact, including estimating the carbon footprint of running algorithms, both a posteriori to acknowledge the impact of a project and before starting as part of a cost–benefit analysis. A 2020 report from The Royal Society formalizes this with the notion of ‘energy proportionality’, meaning the environmental impacts of an innovation must be outweighed by its environmental or societal benefits 34 . It is also important to minimize electronic waste by keeping devices for longer and using second-hand hardware when possible. A 2021 report by the World Health Organization 42 warns of the dramatic effect of e-waste on population health, particularly children. The unregulated informal recycling industry, which handles more than 80% of the 53 million tonnes of e-waste, causes a high level of water, soil and air pollution, often in low- and middle-income countries 43 . The up to 56 million informal waste workers are also exposed to hazardous chemicals such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants 42 . Scientists can also choose energy-efficient hardware and computing facilities, while favoring those powered by green energy. Writing efficient code can substantially reduce the carbon footprint as well, and this can be done alongside making hardware requirements and carbon footprints clear when releasing new software. The Green Software Foundation ( https://greensoftware.foundation ) promotes carbon-aware coding to reduce the operational carbon footprint of the softwares used in all aspects of society. There is, however, a rebound effect to making algorithms and hardware more efficient: instead of reducing computing usage, increased efficiency encourages more analyses to be performed, which leads to a revaluation of the cost–benefit but often results in increased carbon footprints. The rebound effect is a key example of why research practice should adapt to technological advances so that they lead to carbon footprint reductions.

GREENER computational science

ESCS is an emerging field, but one that is of rapidly increasing importance given the climate crisis. In the following, our proposed set of principles (Fig. 1 ) outlines the main axes where progress is needed, where opportunities lie and where we believe efforts should be concentrated.

Governance and responsibility

Everyone involved in computational science has a role to play in making the field more sustainable, and many do already, from grassroots movements to large institutions. Individual and institutional responsibility is a necessary step to ensure transparency and reduction of GHG emission. Here we highlight key stakeholders alongside existing initiatives and future opportunities for involvement.

Grassroots initiatives led by graduate students, early career researchers and laboratory technicians have shown great success in tackling the carbon footprint of laboratory work, including Green Labs Netherlands 44 , the Nottingham Technical Sustainability Working Group or the Digital Humanities Climate Coalition 45 . International coalitions such as the Sustainable Research (SuRe) Symposium, initially set up for wet laboratories, have started to address the impact of computing as well. IT teams in HPC centers are naturally key, both in terms of training and ensuring that the appropriate information is logged so that scientists can follow the carbon footprints of their work. Principal investigators can encourage their teams to think about this issue and provide access to suitable training when needed.

Simultaneously, top–down approaches are needed, with funding bodies and journals occupying key positions in both incentivizing carbon-footprint reduction and in promoting transparency. Funding bodies can directly influence the researchers they fund and those applying for funding via their funding policies. They can require estimates of carbon footprints to be included in funding applications as part of ‘environmental impacts statements’. Many funding bodies include sustainability in their guidelines already; see, for example, the UK’s NIHR carbon reduction guidelines 1 , the brief mention of the environment in UKRI’s terms and conditions 46 , and the Wellcome Trust’s carbon-offsetting travel policy 47 .

Although these are important first steps, bolder action is needed to meet the urgency of climate change. For example, UKRI’s digital research infrastructure scoping project 48 , which seeks to provide a roadmap to net zero for its digital infrastructure, sends a clear message that sustainable research includes minimizing the GHG emissions from computation. The project not only raises awareness but will hopefully result in reductions in GHG emissions.

Large research institutes are key to managing and expanding centralized data infrastructures and trusted research environments (TREs). For example, EMBL’s European Bioinformatics Institute manages more than 40 data resources 49 , including AlphaFold DB 50 , which contains over 200,000,000 predicted protein structures that can be searched, browsed and retrieved according to the FAIR principles (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) 51 . As a consequence, researchers do not need to run the carbon-intensive AlphaFold algorithm for themselves and instead can just query the database. AlphaFold DB was queried programmatically over 700 million times and the web page was accessed 2.4 million times between August 2021 and October 2022. Institutions also have a role in making procurement decisions carefully, taking into account both the manufacturing and operational footprint of hardware purchases. This is critical, as the lifetime footprint of a computational facility is largely determined by the date it is purchased. Facilities could also better balance investment decisions, with a focus on attracting staff based on sustainable and efficient working environments, rather than high-powered hardware 52 .

However, increases in the efficiencies of digital technology alone are unlikely to prove sufficient in ensuring sustainable resource use 53 . Alongside these investments, funding bodies should support a shift towards more positive, inclusive and green research cultures, recognizing that more data or bigger models do not always translate into greater insights and that a ‘fit for purpose’ approach can ultimately be more efficient. Organizations such as Health Data Research UK and the UK Health Data Research Alliance have a key convening role in ensuring that awareness is raised around the climate impact of both infrastructure investment and computational methods.

Journals may incentivize authors to acknowledge and indeed estimate the carbon footprint of the work presented. Some authors already do this voluntarily (for example, refs. 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ), mostly in bioinformatics and machine learning so far, but there is potential to expand it to other areas of computational science. In some instances, showing that a new tool is greener can be an argument in support of a new method 60 .

International societies in charge of organizing annual conferences may help scientists reduce the carbon footprint of presenting their work by offering hybrid options. The COVID-19 pandemic boosted virtual and hybrid meetings, which have a lower carbon footprint while increasing access and diversity 7 , 61 . Burtscher and colleagues found that running the annual meeting of the European Astronomical Society online emitted >3,000-fold less CO 2 e than the in-person meeting (0.582 tCO 2 e compared to 1,855 tCO 2 e) 25 . Institutions are starting to tackle this; for example, the University of Cambridge has released new travel guidelines encouraging virtual meetings whenever feasible and restricting flights to essential travel, while also acknowledging that different career stages have different needs 62 .

Industry partners will also need to be part of the discussion. Acknowledging and reducing computing environmental impact comes with added challenges in industry, such as shareholder interests and/or public relations. While the EU has backed some initiatives helping ICT-reliant companies to address their carbon footprint, such as ICTfootprint.eu, other major stakeholders have expressed skepticism regarding the environmental issues of machine learning models 63 , 64 . Although challenging, tech industry engagement and inclusion is nevertheless essential for tackling GHG emissions.

Estimate and report the energy consumption of algorithms

Estimating and monitoring the carbon footprint of computations is an essential step towards sustainable research as it identifies inefficiencies and opportunities for improvement. User-level metrics are crucial to understanding environmental impacts and promoting personal responsibility. In some HPC situations, particularly in academia, the financial cost of running computations is negligible and scientists may have the impression of unlimited and inconsequential computing capacity. Quantifying the carbon footprint of individual projects helps raise awareness of the true costs of research.

Although progress has been made in estimating energy usage and carbon footprints over the past few years, there are still barriers that prevent the routine estimation of environmental impacts. From task-agnostic, general-purpose calculators 35 and task-specific packages 36 , 37 , 65 to server-side softwares 66 , 67 , each estimation tool is a trade-off between ease of use and accuracy. A recent primer 68 discusses these different options in more detail and provides recommendations as to which approach fits a particular need.

Regardless of the calculator used, for these tools to work effectively and for scientists to have an accurate representation of their energy consumption, it is important to understand the power management for different components. For example, the power usage of processing cores such as central processing units (CPUs) and GPUs is not a readily available metric; instead, thermal design power (meaning, how much heat the chip can be expected to dissipate in a normal setting) is used. Although an acceptable approximation, it has also been shown to substantially underestimate power usage in some situations 69 . The efficiency of data centers is measured by the power usage effectiveness (PUE), which quantifies how much energy is needed for non-computing tasks, mainly cooling (efficient data centers have PUEs close to 1). This metric is widely used, with large cloud providers reporting low PUEs (for example, 1.11 for Google 70 compared to a global average of 1.57 71 ), but discrepancies in how it is calculated can limit PUE interpretation and thus its impact 72 , 73 , 74 . A standard from the International Organization for Standardization is trying to address this 75 . Unfortunately, the PUE of a particular data center, whether cloud or institutional, is rarely publicly documented. Thus, an important step is the data science and infrastructure community making both hardware and data centers’ energy consumption metrics available to their users and the public. Ultimately, tackling unnecessary carbon footprints will require transparency 34 .

Tackling energy and embodied impacts through new collaborations

Minimizing carbon intensity (meaning the carbon footprint of producing electricity) is one of the most immediately impactful ways to reduce GHG emissions. Carbon intensities depend largely on geographical location, with up to three orders of magnitude between the top and bottom performing high-income countries in terms of low carbon energies (from 0.10 gCO 2 e kWh −1 in Iceland to 770 gCO 2 e kWh −1 in Australia 76 ). Changing the carbon intensity of a local state or national government is nearly always impractical as it would necessitate protracted campaigns to change energy policies. An alternative is to relocate computations to low-carbon settings and countries, but, depending on the type of facility or the sensitivity of the data, this may not always be possible. New inter-institutional cooperation may open up opportunities to enable access to low-carbon data centers in real time.

It is, however, essential to recognize and account for inequalities between countries in terms of access to green energy sources. International cooperation is key to providing scientists from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), who frequently only have high-carbon-intensity options available to them, access to low-carbon computing infrastructures for their work. In the longer term, international partnerships between organizations and nations can help build low-carbon computing capacity in LMICs.

Furthermore, the footprint of user devices should not be forgotten. In one estimate, the energy footprint of streaming a video to a laptop is mainly on the laptop (72%), with 23% used in transmission and a mere 5% at the data center 77 . Zero clients (user devices with no compute or storage capacity) can be used in some research use cases and drastically reduce the client-side footprint 78 .

It can be tempting to reduce the environmental impacts of computing to electricity needs, as these are the easiest ones to estimate. However, water usage, ecological impacts and embodied carbon footprints from manufacturing should also be addressed. For example, for personal hardware, such as laptops, 70–80% of the life-cycle impact of these devices comes from manufacturing only 79 , as it involves mining raw materials and assembling the different components, which require water and energy. Moreover, manufacturing often takes place in countries that have a higher carbon intensity for power generation and a slower transition to zero-carbon power 80 . Currently, hardware renewal policies, either for work computers or servers in data centers, are often closely dependent on warranties and financial costs, with environmental costs rarely considered. For hardware used in data centers, regular updates may be both financially and environmentally friendly, as efficiency gains may offset manufacturing impacts. Estimating these environmental impacts will allow HPC teams to know for sure. Reconditioned and remanufactured laptops and servers are available, but growth of this sector is currently limited by negative consumer perception 81 . Major suppliers of hardware are making substantial commitments, such as 100% renewable energy supply by 2030 82 or net zero by 2050 83 .

Another key consideration is data storage. Scientific datasets are now measured in petabytes (PB). In genomics, the popular UK Biobank cohort 84 is expected to reach 15 PB by 2025 85 , and the first image of a black hole required the collection of 5 PB of data 86 . The carbon footprint of storing data depends on numerous factors, but based on some manufacturers’ estimations, the order of magnitude of the life-cycle footprint of storing 1 TB of data for a year is ~10 kg CO 2 e (refs. 87 , 88 ). This issue is exacerbated by the duplication of such datasets in order for each institution, and sometimes each research group, to have a copy. Centralized and collaborative computing resources (such as TREs) holding both data and computing hardware may help alleviate redundant resources. TRE efforts in the UK span both health (for example, NHS Digital 89 ) and administrative data (for example, the SAIL databank on the UK Secure Research Platform 90 and the Office for National Statistics Secure Research Service 91 ). Large (hyperscale) data centers are expected to be more energy-efficient 92 , but they may also encourage unnecessary increases in the scale of computing (rebound effect).

The importance of dedicated education and research efforts for ESCS

Education is essential to raise awareness with different stakeholders. In lieu of incorporating some aspects into more formal undergraduate programs, integrating sustainability into computational training courses is a tangible first step toward reducing carbon footprints. An example is the ‘Green Computing’ Workshop on Education at the 2022 conference on Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology.

Investing in research that will catalyze innovation in the field of ESCS is a crucial role for funders and institutions to play. Although global data centers’ workloads have increased more than sixfold between 2010 and 2018, their total electricity usage has been approximately stable due to the use of power-efficient hardware 93 , but environmentally sustainable investments will be needed to perpetuate this trend. Initiatives like Wellcome’s Research Sustainability project 94 , which look to highlight key gaps where investment could deliver the next generation of ESCS tools and technology, are key to ensuring that growth in energy demand beyond current efficiency trends can be managed in a sustainable way. Similarly, the UKRI Data and Analytics Research Environments UK program (DARE UK) needs to ensure that sustainability is a key evaluation criterion for funding and infrastructure investments for the next generation of TREs.

Recent studies found that the most widely used programming languages in research, such as R and Python 95 , tend to be the least energy-efficient ones 96 , 97 , and, although it is unlikely that forcing the community to switch to more efficient languages would benefit the environment in the short term (due to inefficient coding for example), this highlights the importance of having trained research software engineers within research groups to ensure that the algorithms used are efficiently implemented. There is also scope to use current tools more efficiently by better understanding and monitoring how coding choices impact carbon footprints. Algorithms also come with high memory requirements, sometimes using more energy than processors 98 . Unfortunately, memory power usage remains poorly optimized, as speed of access is almost always favored over energy efficiency 99 . Providing users and software engineers with the flexibility to opt for energy efficiency would present an opportunity for a reduction in GHG emissions 100 , 101 .

Cultural change

In parallel to the technological reductions in energy usage and carbon footprints, research practices will also need to change to avoid rebound effects 38 . Similar to the aviation industry, there is a tendency to count on technology to solve sustainability concerns without having to change usage 102 (that is, waiting on computing to become zero-carbon rather than acting on how we use it). Cultural change in the computing community to reconsider how we think about computing costs will be necessary. Research strategies at all levels will need to consider environmental impacts and corresponding approaches to carbon footprint minimization. The upcoming extension of the LEAF standard for computational laboratories will provide researchers with tangible tools to do so. Day to day, there is a need to solve trade-offs between the speed of computation, accuracy and GHG emissions, keeping in mind the goal of GHG reduction. These changes in scientific practices are challenging, but, importantly, there are synergies between open computational science and green computing 103 . For example, making code, data and models FAIR so that other scientists avoid unnecessary computations can increase the reach and impact of a project. FAIR practices can result in highly efficient code implementations, reduce the need to retrain models, and reduce unnecessary data generation/storage, thus reducing the overall carbon footprint. As a result, green computing and FAIR practices may both stimulate innovation and reduce financial costs.

Moreover, computational science has downstream effects on carbon footprints in other areas. In the biomedical sciences, developments in machine learning and computer vision impact the speed and scale of medical imaging processing. Discoveries in health data science make their way to clinicians and patients through, for example, connected devices. In each of these cases and many others, environmental impacts propagate through the whole digital health sector 32 . Yet, here too synergies exist. In many cases, such as telemedicine, there may be a net benefit in terms of both carbon and patient care, provided that all impacts have been carefully accounted for. These questions are beginning to be tackled in medicine, such as assessments of the environmental impact of telehealth 104 or studies into ways to sustainably handle large volumes of medical imaging data 105 . For the latter, NHS Digital (the UK’s national provider of information, data and IT systems for health and social care) has released guidelines to this effect 106 . Outside the biomedical field, there are immense but, so far, unrealized opportunities for similar efforts.

The computational sciences have an opportunity to lead the way in sustainability, which may be achieved through the GREENER principles for ESCS (Fig. 1 ): Governance, Responsibility, Estimation, Energy and embodied impacts, New collaborations, Education and Research. This will require more transparency on environmental impacts. Although some tools already exist to estimate carbon footprints, more specialized ones will be needed alongside a clearer understanding of the carbon footprint of hardware and facilities, as well as more systematic monitoring and acknowledgment of carbon footprints. Measurement is a first step, followed by a reduction in GHG emissions. This can be achieved with better training and sensible policies for renewing hardware and storing data. Cooperation, open science and equitable access to low-carbon computing facilities will also be crucial 107 . Computing practices will need to adapt to include carbon footprints in cost–benefit analyses, as well as consider the environmental impacts of downstream applications. The development of sustainable solutions will need particularly careful consideration, as they frequently have the least benefit for populations, often in LMICs, who suffer the most from climate change 22 , 108 . All stakeholders have a role to play, from funding bodies, journals and institutions to HPC teams and early career researchers. There is now a window of time and an immense opportunity to transform computational science into an exemplar of broad societal impact and sustainability.

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Acknowledgements

L.L. was supported by the University of Cambridge MRC DTP (MR/S502443/1) and the BHF program grant (RG/18/13/33946). M.I. was supported by the Munz Chair of Cardiovascular Prediction and Prevention and the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre (BRC-1215-20014; NIHR203312). M.I. was also supported by the UK Economic and Social Research 878 Council (ES/T013192/1). This work was supported by core funding from the British Heart Foundation (RG/13/13/30194; RG/18/13/33946) and the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre (BRC-1215-20014; NIHR203312). The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. This work was also supported by Health Data Research UK, which is funded by the UK Medical Research Council, Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Economic and Social Research Council, Department of Health and Social Care (England), Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government Health and Social Care Directorates, Health and Social Care Research and Development Division (Welsh Government), Public Health Agency (Northern Ireland) and the British Heart Foundation and Wellcome.

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Lannelongue, L., Aronson, HE.G., Bateman, A. et al. GREENER principles for environmentally sustainable computational science. Nat Comput Sci 3 , 514–521 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43588-023-00461-y

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Putting an Environmental Spin on Literary Analysis

Secondary students can consider the ecological context in which a text was written to gain new insights into their reading assignments.

Like many English teachers, I encourage my students to consider the historical context of a text, from political factions to pop culture. Unstable monarchies shaped the world of Macbeth , and The Bluest Eye was born of the Civil Rights Movement. Still, until recently, I rarely thought to consider a factor too often considered boring: How was the weather?

We know that weather affects our mood and can have lasting effects on our natural world, shaping society and culture. Macbeth was influenced not only by King James I’s reign but also by England’s Little Ice Age , a period beginning in the early 14th century that created longer winters and affected water sources and crops. This unexplainable shift in weather caused many in England to suspect that there were supernatural forces at work , influencing Macbeth ’s encounters with mystical beings beyond human control.

Analyzing Literature and its Connection to the Ecological World

One way to consider a text’s environmental context is to apply an ecocritical lens. Ecocriticism is a literary theory that considers how a piece explores and is impacted by the relationship between humans and their natural world. Applying ecocriticism to a text includes evaluating the impact that the environment might have had in society when the piece was written and how the text represents the ecological world. By considering both, we can see not just how nature impacted society but also how texts can affect a culture’s view of nature as well.

For example, Kate Chopin’s 1894 Story of an Hour can be seen as a reaction to the shifting relationship between people and nature in the industrial age while also encouraging the reader to rethink their views about nature. These influences shape culture and connect to modern-day discussions about the environment.

Providing students with an ecocritical framework gives them a different angle to approach a piece of literature and opens up critical cross-curricular discussions. When students make connections between the science of a natural event or the environment in a text they’re reading, they can engage with both subjects in ways they may not have previously. Stories can help us gain a richer understanding of how science affects humanity, and scientific knowledge helps students gain important context and understanding of the impact of the environment on a culture. 

Applying an ecocritical lens allows students to research how other cultures or communities view and engage with their natural world. This understanding can broaden students’ perspectives about nature. Cross-curricular connections also allow students to engage in more authentic learning and combine multiple literacies within a lesson or unit. These connections can be significant in discussions about climate change and human relationships with the environment. Students learning about climate change engage in deeper learning when they use not just science literacy skills but cultural and textual literacy skills as well, allowing them to view climate change information more holistically .

Building Lessons Around Ecocriticism

While applying ecocriticism to a text can be a large project or unit, it can manifest in smaller ways within a classroom. For larger units, teachers can choose texts that discuss climate change and engage students in a research project that allows them to share connections. Students can also research the climate and environment of a text and analyze its effects on a piece of literature. When my students read To Kill a Mockingbird , they can dig deeper into Scout’s initial description of Maycomb’s ecology and environment: How does the Dust Bowl era and environment affect the citizens of Maycomb, and how does Lee’s portrayal of Maycomb as “a tired old town” that was “somehow hotter then” affect readers in the 1960s and today? Just as we ask students to consider how events were processed historically in a text, we can also ask them to analyze how weather and the environment were viewed by either characters in a book or the author who wrote the text. 

Another option is to consider the natural elements of a text as any other character or symbol and discuss how it shapes the audience’s perspectives as they engage with the work. By treating the environment of a text this way, we open up possibilities to understanding nature from another culture or perspective within a text that students may not normally encounter. English teachers can also work with their science colleagues to incorporate science into more extensive summative assessments that allow students to use science skills to analyze a theme within the text they read. 

For shorter lessons, teachers can introduce the concept of ecocriticism and have students write a poem and reflect on it through an ecocritical lens . Students can also hear poetry and writing from communities affected by climate change and reflect and write on their responses. This idea allows students to apply an ecocritical lens to literary work and consider how that work could help enact change or engage others. Teachers can provide a short story or poem and ask students to find weather reports or historical documents about the natural world from that period, allowing them to incorporate history and research skills into the lesson. 

One of the beautiful things about stories is how they can create windows into new worlds. Showing students how to have an ecocritical view of literature provides them with a new perspective on literature that is especially timely with discussions on climate change and the environment. By asking students to consider the weather in the texts they read, we help them focus on something they may not normally consider and build their relationship with the natural world. Encouraging students to consider the ecology of a literary world helps them see themselves as active participants in their own ecology who can shape the environment around them for the better.

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Environmental Science: Nano

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