research papers on outdoor education

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Effects of Regular Classes in Outdoor Education Settings: A Systematic Review on Students’ Learning, Social and Health Dimensions

Christoph becker.

1 Department of Sports and Health Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Arcisstr. 21, 80333 Munich, Germany; [email protected] (G.L.); [email protected] (S.S.); [email protected] (F.M.)

Gabriele Lauterbach

Sarah spengler, ulrich dettweiler.

2 Department of Cultural Studies and Languages, University of Stavanger, 4036 Stavanger, Norway; [email protected]

Associated Data

Background: Participants in Outdoor Education Programmes (OEPs) presumably benefit from these programmes in terms of their social and personal development, academic achievement and physical activity (PA). The aim of this systematic review was to identify studies about regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based OEPs, to categorise and evaluate reported outcomes, to assess the methodological quality, and to discuss possible benefits for students. Methods: We searched online databases to identify English- and German-language peer-reviewed journal articles that reported any outcomes on a student level. Two independent reviewers screened studies identified for eligibility and assessed the methodological quality. Results: Thirteen studies were included for analysis. Most studies used a case-study design, the average number of participants was moderate (mean valued (M) = 62.17; standard deviation (SD) = 64.12), and the methodological quality was moderate on average for qualitative studies (M = 0.52; SD = 0.11), and low on average for quantitative studies (M = 0.18; SD = 0.42). Eight studies described outcomes in terms of social dimensions, seven studies in learning dimensions and four studies were subsumed under additional outcomes, i.e., PA and health. Eleven studies reported positive, one study positive as well as negative, and one study reported negative effects. PA and mental health as outcomes were underrepresented. Conclusion: Tendencies were detected that regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based OEPs can promote students in respect of social, academic, physical and psychological dimensions. Very little is known concerning students’ PA or mental health. We recommend conducting more quasi-experimental design and longitudinal studies with a greater number of participants, and a high methodological quality to further investigate these tendencies.

1. Introduction

Within the past 20 years, Outdoor Education Programmes (OEPs) in general have been reported to show a number of positive effects on personal and social development, physical activity, academic achievement and leadership skills for a wide range of participants and age groups [ 1 , 2 , 3 ].

With a more specific focus on education within the school context, regular compulsory school-based and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes seem to have several positive effects on students’ physical activity levels [ 4 ], mental health status [ 5 ], social competences and relations [ 6 , 7 ], and academic achievement [ 8 ].

An all-encompassing definition of outdoor education is scarcely possible due to different meanings, understandings and practices within various research areas, countries and cultures [ 9 ]. Common terms include: learning outside the classroom, udeskole, friluftsliv, outdoor adventure education and forest school. In general, outdoor education can be described as teaching and/or learning and/or experiencing in an outdoor and/or out-of-school environment. The content of learning and teaching is therefore different and depends on the general aim of the programme, the target group and the outdoor setting, e.g., the gaining of knowledge in natural sciences; increased PA (physical activity), leadership skills, personal and social development; survival skills; and improved skills in relation to nature-oriented sports.

In contrast to these more general outdoor education programmes, we have concentrated on programmes that are embedded within the curriculum and are conducted regularly within the school schedule. These programmes focus on student-centred classes and interdisciplinary subjects, hands-on learning, possibilities to explore and experience oneself and the environment, and the use of natural and cultural places as a “classroom” [ 10 , 11 ]. Regular school-based and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes are still a rare phenomenon—with the exception of the grassroots movement of udeskole/uteskole in Scandinavia [ 12 ] which has increased during the last decade. It shows that, for example, 17.9% of all public schools and 19.4% of all private schools in Denmark participate in regular outdoor teaching [ 13 ]. However, research results regarding those programmes are often only based on case studies using an arsenal of different methodological approaches.

Nevertheless, recent educational school reforms can be observed in several countries. The Danish reform “Improving the Public School” explicitly aims to increase PA during the school day; a longer school day with a special focus on learning, motivation and well-being; and working more closely with local sports clubs and cultural centres [ 14 ]. Recommendations to teach several curriculum content areas outside the classroom can be found in the new regional curriculum in Bavaria, Germany [ 15 ]. Furthermore, a shift towards multi-disciplinary, phenomenon- and project-based teaching was projected within the “National Core Curriculum 2016” in Finland [ 16 , 17 ]. Well-structured and curriculum-integrated outdoor education programmes could therefore offer great opportunities in helping to achieve the above-mentioned objectives.

In the last decades, six important reviews and meta-analyses in the field of outdoor education have been published [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Rickinson et al. [ 2 ], for example, set a wide focus on outdoor learning by evaluating the impact of: (i) fieldwork and visits; (ii) outdoor adventure activities; and (iii) school grounds and community projects. The authors summarised diverse benefits for each category, e.g., an increase in PA and academic achievement, development of social skills and a favourable attitude towards the environment. The recent systematic review of Fiennes et al. [ 20 ] partially updated the work of Rickinson et al. [ 2 ] by analysing primary research studies on outdoor learning from the UK that have been published since 2003. Similar to the conclusion of Rickinson et al. [ 2 ], most of the studies showed positive effects on a wide range of outcomes. The main study topics were still adventurous and residential activities while only a few studies were strongly linked to core curriculum subjects.

Only one review took a close look at the context of regular outdoor education within the school curriculum. Waite, Bølling and Bentsen [ 1 ] compared studies on Danish udeskole and English forest schools with a focus on purposes, aims, pedagogy, content, outcomes and barriers. The authors especially highlighted that both concepts seem to support children in their social and academic achievement, as well as their physiological and psychological well-being.

The existing reviews and meta-analysis in the wider field of outdoor education give a valuable overview on outdoor education research and practise. However, the literature shows a wide range in the intervention length, target and age groups, programme approaches, and the methodologies used. Three publications analysed programmes in the context of Outdoor Adventure Education/Outdoor Adventure Programming [ 3 , 18 , 19 ]. Two reviews set a very wide [ 2 , 20 ], and one review a narrow [ 1 ], focus on different OEPs within the school context. In addition, in most of the reviews the included primary studies are limited to selected countries. Only one review [ 20 ] used a systematic approach with respect to approved guidelines, i.e., the Reporting of Primary Empirical Research Studies in Education (REPOSE) Guidelines [ 21 ], and two reviews were not published in peer-reviewed journals [ 2 , 20 ].

Our purpose was to summarise studies on regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes for participants aged 5–18 that had been published in peer-reviewed journals. We aimed at: (i) categorising and evaluating reported outcomes; (ii) assessing the methodological quality of the included studies; and (iii) discussing possible benefits on students’ development by such programmes.

To identify and analyse the existing literature on regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes, we chose to endorse a systematic review approach. Systematic reviews in the context of education were, however, criticised by several authors [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. It is concluded that one has be aware of the respective possibilities as well as limitations a systematic review can offer. Therefore, we see our work in relation to the model of education research developed by Andrews [ 22 ]. According to this model, we tried to summarise what is published and what methodological approaches were used, to identify the gaps and methodological shortcomings in the reviewed studies [ 22 ]. We conducted the systematic review in accordance with the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines [ 22 ]. The PRISMA guidelines are a well-accepted tool for systematic reviews and meta-analyses, they provide a valuable overview on how to structure the research process and help authors to account for transparency, validity and reproducibility.

2.1. Search Strategy

On 8 April 2016, we searched through the electronic PubMed, Scopus, Education Source, ERIC, Green File, PsycARTICLES, SPORTDiscus and SocINDEX databases for English and German language peer-reviewed journal articles. The search string included two components: “objective” and “setting”. Whereas “objective” represented relevant terms in respect of the synonyms for outdoor education programmes, “setting” described the defined educational environment. We used the following search terms for “objective” and “setting”:

Objective: “outdoor education”, “outdoor learning”, “outdoor teaching”, “learning outside the classroom”, “out-of-classroom”, “experiential learning”, “expeditionary learning”, “udeskole”, “uteskole”, “friluftsliv”, “forest school”, “nature school”, “environmental education”, “place-based education”, “Draußenschule”, and “Draussenschule”.

Setting: “school” and “curriculum”.

We used Boolean search operators, parentheses, search fields and asterisk according to the database specifications. Furthermore, we screened reference lists and citations of included articles to identify additional relevant studies.

For a detailed protocol and search strategy, please refer to our registered and published protocol under the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) Number: CRD42016033002. These documents are also available under Supplementary Materials .

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

We only included studies meeting the following eligibility criteria:

• All types of study designs (e.g., control group design, quasi-experimental design, and case studies);
• Any type of formal school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programme involving children and adolescents (5–18 years);
• Regular weekly or bi-weekly classes in a natural or cultural environment outside the classroom with at least four hours of compulsory educational activities per week over a period of at least two months; and
• At least one reported outcome on a student level.

No restrictions on publication periods were given.

2.3. Selection Process

Two independent reviewers (CB and GL) gradually screened all the titles and abstracts of studies identified for eligibility according to the criteria. Based on given information within the titles and abstracts, we made decisions about inclusion or exclusion. For studies that looked as if they would fulfil the inclusion criteria, we screened the full texts. If insufficient information was given in the abstract in order to make a clear exclusion decision, the full text was also screened. Any disagreements between reviewers were resolved by discussion. Both reviewers carefully documented their results after each step. We contacted the corresponding authors of 30 studies and requested additional information about the intervention and analyses procedures.

Both reviewers screened the reference lists and citations of included studies listed in Scopus using the same procedure to identify additional relevant studies.

2.4. Data Extraction

For each included study, we extracted data using a piloting form in respect to the required items. When essential information was not available from the full texts, we asked the corresponding authors to provide more information. Extracted data included:

• Study characteristics: Citation, author, date of publication, journal, study-design, and country;
• Population: Age, gender, sample size, and type of school;
• Intervention characteristics: intervention and data acquisition period, and amount of intervention;
• Methodology and analytic process.
• Reported outcomes and main results.
• Barriers and limitations.
• Information for assessment of the risk of bias; and
• Source(s) of research/project funding and potential conflicts of interest.

2.5. Analysis and Synthesis

Options for statistical quantitative analyses, including, risk ratios and standardised mean differences, were limited due to the heterogeneity of study designs, the range of measured outcomes and the overall small number of included studies. We therefore firstly provide a flow chart on the search and selection process and three tables presenting the main descriptive characteristics as well as the reported main outcomes of the included studies. Secondly, we qualitatively describe the most important outcomes of the studies in a narrative synthesis. Thirdly, we present results of the methodological quality assessment of included studies both in tables and narrative text.

2.6. Methodological Quality Assessment

Two reviewers (CB and GL) assessed the methodological quality of included studies. Additionally, one more independent reviewer (FM) had to specifically evaluate one article [ 23 ] which had been included in the review, due to the authorship of GL and UD who are part of the review team. Any disagreements between the reviewers were resolved through discussion and by referring to a third reviewer (UD). The quality of quantitative studies was appraised using the Child Care and Early Education Research Connections (CCEERC) Quantitative Research Assessment Tool [ 24 ]. The quality of qualitative studies was appraised using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Checklist for Qualitative Research [ 25 ]. Both tools were used for studies using quantitative, as well as qualitative, methods. For each tool, an overall rating was conducted based on the given assessment criteria. Quantitative studies were rated on 12 questions using a scale: 1, 0, −1, and n/a (not applicable); to account for completeness one question on research ethics was adapted by the JBI Checklist for Qualitative Research. Qualitative studies were rated on 9 questions using a scale: y (yes), n (no), u (unclear), and n/a (not applicable). One item was excluded due to inappropriateness within the research field. For further analyses, we adjusted the qualitative scale similar to the quantitative scale to the level of 1 (y), 0 (u), −1 (n), and n/a. For both quantitative and qualitative studies, an overall rating is presented in Appendix A Table A1 and Table A2 with mean values and standard deviations. Based on the mean values, we provide an overall rating regarding the categories low, moderate and high methodological quality. The cut-off values are defined as follows: low = M < 0.30; moderate = 0.30 ≤ M ≤ 0.60; and high = M > 0.60. They are based on theoretical assumptions in relation to methodological quality. Our approach, including the cut-off values based on the mean values, should be seen as a relative rating in relation to our data to provide a comparison of methodological quality. To our knowledge, no other rating system is available in relation to the applied tools. No studies were excluded from the review based on their methodological quality assessment results to ensure that all the potential valuable results are presented [ 26 ].

Figure 1 shows the selection process in general, numbers for each stage of the selection process and reasons for exclusion after screening the full papers. After the exclusion of direct duplicates, the literature search in the various databases yielded 7830 potentially relevant publications. After we screened titles and abstracts, we retrieved 193 studies in full-text. Thirteen studies met all the eligibility criteria. We looked at reference lists and citations of included studies listed in Scopus. Both the reference list search and the cited-by-search yielded no additional studies that met all the eligibility criteria. Finally, we included 13 studies in this systematic review.

Flow chart of study search and selection process.

3.1. Characteristics of Included Studies

Table 1 shows the main descriptive characteristics of the 13 included studies. Table 2 shows specific information concerning the interventions and data collections. Four studies were conducted in Denmark [ 4 , 6 , 7 , 27 ], three in the USA [ 28 , 29 , 30 ], and one each in Germany [ 23 ], New Zealand [ 31 ], Sweden [ 5 ], the UK [ 32 ], and Norway [ 33 ]. One study included data from the UK, India and Kenya [ 34 ]. The sample sizes varied considerably across the studies, from five [ 6 ] to 230 [ 5 ] children/adolescents being involved. Nine studies are defined as case studies [ 4 , 6 , 7 , 27 , 29 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ], three studies used a quasi-experimental design [ 5 , 28 , 30 ], and one study used a cross-sectional design [ 23 ]. Three publications [ 4 , 6 , 7 ] are based on the same intervention, while all other publications are based on individual interventions. Six studies collected and analysed data on a solely student level [ 4 , 23 , 27 , 29 , 34 , 35 ], five studies also included data from teachers, staff and parents [ 6 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ] and one study [ 5 ] only included data from parents. Eight studies used interviews [ 6 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ], six studies used questionnaires [ 5 , 7 , 28 , 30 , 31 ], three studies used learning assessments [ 29 , 30 , 31 ], two studies used observations [ 32 , 34 ] and, in each case, one study used a postal survey [ 23 ], written documents [ 29 ], drawings and concept maps [ 34 ], and accelerometry [ 4 ]. The quantity of compulsory educational activities in a natural or cultural environment outside the classroom varied from one school day bi-weekly to a duration of eight weeks [ 27 ], and a six-month full week programme [ 23 ]. The chosen environments also differ between the studies: gardening projects on school grounds or nearby community properties [ 27 , 32 , 34 ], classes in a local forest [ 4 , 6 , 7 , 31 , 33 ], prairie [ 30 ] and farmland areas [ 29 ], the use of nearby school environments [ 5 , 28 ], and an overseas sailing expedition [ 23 ].

Descriptive characteristics of studies on regular school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes.

Note: adol: adolescents; chn: children; p: parents; t: teacher; s: staff; IG: intervention group; CG: control group; n/a: not available.

Characteristics of intervention and data collection of studies on regular school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes.

Note: IG: intervention group; CG: control group; IP: intervention period; DA: data acquisition.

The included studies are very heterogeneous in respect of their study design, used methods and instruments, learning environments and measured outcomes. We categorised measured outcomes and presented the results of each study according to the study design. Seven studies reported outcomes on learning dimensions [ 7 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 34 ] and eight studies on social dimensions [ 6 , 7 , 23 , 27 , 28 , 30 , 31 , 34 ]. Two studies reported on students’ physical activity [ 4 , 7 ], one study [ 5 ] on students’ mental health, one study [ 33 ] on students’ action regulation behaviour and one study [ 31 ] on students’ environmental attitude and behaviour.

3.2. Methodological Quality Assessment of Included Studies

The methodological quality for most of the quantitative studies [ 4 , 7 , 28 , 30 , 31 ] can be classified as low (M = −0.14, SD = 0.31) to moderate (M = 0.50; SD = 0), with mean values ranged from −0.45 to 0.45; one study was rated as high, with a mean value of 0.67 (M = 0.67; SD = 0) [ 5 ]. Main reasons for the low or moderate ratings result from a poor description of the population of interest, the non-random selection of participants, insufficient presentation of means and standard variations/standard errors for numeric variables, the handling of missing data, the inappropriateness of statistical techniques and handling of alternative explanations, insufficient information according to current ethical criteria, and missing model coefficients and standard errors for main effect variables.

The methodological quality for most of the qualitative studies [ 6 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ] can be classified as moderate (M = 0.41, SD = 0.12), with mean values ranged from 0.33 to 0.56. Two studies were rated as high (M = 0.78, SD = 0) [ 23 , 34 ], with mean values of 0.78 each. Main reasons for the low ratings result from insufficient information about the influence of the researcher on the observed or interviewed participants, and vice-versa; insufficient information according to current ethical criteria; and an inappropriate connection between the conclusions and the analyses.

A detailed description of the methodological quality assessment is presented in Appendix A Table A1 and Table A2 .

3.3. Categorised Outcomes

We categorised the reported outcomes of studies on regular school and curriculum OEP. Table 3 shows the main outcomes in order to categorise students’ learning dimensions, social dimensions and additional outcomes.

Reported outcomes of studies on regular school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes.

Note: IG: intervention group; CG: control group, PA: physical activity; sig: significant; PE: physical education.

3.3.1. Outcomes on Learning Dimensions

Six case studies [ 7 , 27 , 29 , 31 , 32 , 34 ] analysed datasets concerning learning dimension. Mygind [ 4 ] conducted a study with primary school children attending a three-year outdoor education project. Students were asked about their perceptions on teaching and learning during indoor and outdoor classes by means of a questionnaire. Significant differences were found in three out of 14 statements: students liked the outdoor setting more than the indoor setting ( p < 0.05), they were more careless about homework in the indoor setting ( p < 0.01) and more disturbances in group work activities occurred during the indoor setting ( p < 0.05). No significant differences were found for the other 11 statements.

Santelmann et al. [ 29 ] conducted a study with sixth- to eighth-grade students participating in a one-year place-based curriculum. The authors analysed documents written by students, and interviews conducted by students using a semi-quantitative content analysis. It is concluded that, through direct interaction with landowners, students developed a better understanding of decision-making in farm and forest enterprises, and received insights into the global interconnectedness of agricultural markets. The students’ learning benefit during outdoor lessons was especially mediated through hands-on learning and active participation. In a self-evaluation learning assessment, 75% of the students reported having gained new knowledge about farms, forests and wildlife refuges, and 25% developed better communication skills towards adults.

Moeed et al. [ 31 ] conducted a study with ninth and tenth-grade students in a school-led and community-supported environmental education project. A subgroup of tenth-grade students was pre- and post-tested on horticulture skills using a learning assessment. Eighty-five per cent of the students improved their grade skills for all four skill sets (preparing seeds for germination, pricking out, transplanting seedlings, planting) by 13%. The students were also able to transfer the gained skills into a different context.

Bowker et al. [ 34 ] carried out a study with primary and secondary school children participating in a one-year school gardening project. The authors used a qualitative content analysis to analyse concept maps, drawings, interview transcripts, and contextual observations. Based on these analyses, the authors stated that the gardening experiences can have a positive impact on students’ curriculum learning.

Sharpe [ 32 ] evaluated how a one-year community gardening programme can be beneficial for fifth-grade students in building confidence and being prepared for academic success. Sharpe used a qualitative content analysis to analyse semi-structured interviews, contextual observations and drawings. It is reported that the students had strong contextualised learning opportunities in mathematics, English and science, which allowed them to apply learned content to real-life situations.

Wistoft [ 27 ] carried out a study with primary school children attending a half-year community-led garden project. The author applied a qualitative content analysis to analyse interview transcripts and questionnaires. A summary of students’ learning dimensions yielded in three main categories: (i) learning through enjoyment and experiences; (ii) the ability to use knowledge, understanding and the skills acquired; and (iii) learning through the outdoor life. Students’ learning opportunities were made possible by the teachers’ passion and love for teaching. As a main conclusion, the students developed a desire to learn through participation in the programme, which can be seen as an indicator of positive learning motivation.

Ernst et al. [ 30 ] evaluated learning dimensions of a one-year out-of-school science programme for fifth-grade students. The authors used standardised assessment tests to compare students’ learning achievements in reading, writing and mathematics, and found significantly higher reading and writing scores for students within the intervention group (IG), compared to students within the control group (CG) ( p = 0.03). No results were given for scores in mathematics. Based on the self-report questionnaire analysis, a positive and significant increase in the science process, problem-solving, technology skills, skills in working, and communication for students within IG compared to students within CG ( p < 0.01) was found. Ninety-eight per cent of the parents from students within IG stated in a questionnaire that their children learned science, maths and writing better than they would have done in a normal school setting. Parents mentioned hands-on learning practise, interdisciplinary instructional strategy and real-world applications within outdoor teaching as the main conditions for this positive learning environment. Students within IG stated in interviews that they became more interested in school and learning through the outdoor teaching.

3.3.2. Outcomes on Social Dimensions

Six case studies [ 6 , 7 , 27 , 30 , 32 , 34 ] analysed datasets concerning social dimensions. Mygind [ 7 ] used a questionnaire to ask students about their social relations during teaching and during the breaks, comparing indoor and outdoor classes. Significant differences were found in two out of 10 statements: students liked the outdoor setting more than the indoor setting ( p < 0.05) and it was noisier during the indoor setting ( p < 0.05). No significant differences were found for the other eight statements, i.e., “I tease my classmates in the...” or “I try to assist my classmates in the…” Hartmeyer et al. [ 6 ] conducted a study with students and teachers seven years after the students had participated in a three-year primary school outdoor education project. In a qualitative content analysis, semi-structured interviews with students and teachers were analysed. In conclusion, six conditions influenced students’ social relations during their school years. In detail, the students improved their social relations and four conditions seem to have been important for that: “play”, “interaction”, “participation” and “pupil-centred tasks”. Furthermore, this improvement in social relations, enabled through the four conditions, positively influenced the pupils’ ability to “co-operate” and to “engage” in subsequent school years. Bowker et al. [ 34 ] concluded that students who had taken part in a one-year gardening project developed an overall sense of pride, excitement and high self-esteem. The gardening experience had a positive impact on students’ general school experience, which was interpreted as an association between gardening activities and self-esteem. Sharpe [ 32 ] reported that students developed trusting relationships and educationally-focused symbiotic relationships during the one-year project. Furthermore, the project fostered students’ growth in self-confidence and experiences leading to them taking active responsibility for the environment. Wistoft [ 27 ] reported that students developed social competencies through active participation in the gardening project: improved team-working and communication skills, improved social relatedness, and an understanding of the importance of taking responsibility and having respect for others’ work and property.

One quasi-experimental study [ 28 ] analysed datasets concerning social dimensions.

Martin et al. [ 28 ] conducted a study to research the effects of a 10-week expeditionary learning programme on seventh and eighth-grade students’ environmental virtue. Students completed questionnaires and the environmental virtue score decreased significantly for students’ in intervention group (IG) in four out of five domains of environmental virtue: courage ( p = 0.006); temperance ( p = 0.084); acceptance ( p = 0.014); and humility ( p = 0.009). For students in the control group (CG), the changes in environmental virtue score were not significant.

One cross-sectional study [ 23 ] analysed datasets on social dimensions. Dettweiler et al. [ 23 ] conducted a study with students who had participated in one of overall four six-month overseas learning expeditions. To evaluate the students’ social readjustment strategies, they were asked to write letters about their experiences after they returned from the expedition. In a mixed-method approach, the authors analysed students’ readjustment strategies. The time intervals between the return and the data collection were different for every expedition. The statements on readjustment strategies from the students being at home for eight months were most negative compared to the students having less or more time to readjust. Therefore, students can experience symptoms of a reverse culture shock after a long-term overseas expedition. However, the longer the students had time to readjust, the more positive they report on perceived programme effects. No gender differences were found.

One quasi-experimental study [ 30 ] analysed datasets on social dimensions. Ernst et al. [ 30 ] compared students’ attitudes towards a specific local natural environment. The attitudes towards the environment of students in the IG changed significantly compared to that of students in the CG ( p = 0.02). One hundred per cent of the parents of students in the IG stated in a questionnaire that their children expressed a positive attitude towards outdoor teaching and 98% stated that the outdoor teaching fostered students’ excitement about school in general. Students in the IG stated in interviews that their social behaviour had improved and that the outdoor lessons had advanced their social relatedness.

3.3.3. Additional Outcomes

In addition to the aforementioned two categories of Outcomes on Learning and Social Dimensions, we clustered five studies [ 4 , 5 , 7 , 31 , 33 ] with specific outcomes under additional outcomes as they do not fit precisely into any other category.

Two case studies [ 4 , 7 ] analysed datasets on students’ physical activity. Mygind [ 4 , 7 ] conducted the studies with students participating in a three-year outdoor education project and measured their PA during outdoor and indoor learning. Objectively-measured PA was significantly higher during one outdoor learning day, compared to one traditional indoor school day, in 2000 and 2001 (both p < 0.001), while no significant differences in PA was found for one outdoor learning day, compared to one normal school day including two physical education lessons, in 2002 ( p = 0.52) [ 4 ]. Students were asked, by means of a questionnaire, about their perceived physical activity. Students reported to have used their body significantly more often during classes in the outdoor teaching setting ( p < 0.01) compared to the indoor setting and also to have been more active during the breaks in the outdoor setting ( p < 0.01) compared to the indoor setting [ 7 ].

One case study [ 31 ] analysed datasets regarding students’ environmental attitude and behaviour. Moeed et al. [ 31 ] applied a qualitative content analysis to analyse interview transcripts. The authors conducted the interviews six or eight years respectively, after the students participated in an environmental project. The students showed a strong awareness of environmental issues and were actively involved in environmental community projects. The students traced both aspects back to their participation and experiences in outdoor classes.

One case study [ 33 ] analysed datasets with respect to students’ action-regulation behaviour. Fiskum et al. [ 33 ] conducted a study with fifth-grade primary school students who participated in outdoor classes over the period of five years. In a qualitative content analysis group interviews were analysed with a special focus on interaction between affordances, action-regulation, and learning. The authors reported that outdoor learning environments can offer a great variability in children’s choices of activity during classes. The main results relate to gender differences. Boys mainly grasped affordances specific to the outdoor environment and used their own creativity, whereas girls mainly grasped affordances not specific to the outdoor environment and used attached objects especially designed for them. Girls more often regulated their action in the outdoor setting compared to boys. Both girls and boys reported on several learning contents related to grasped affordances. It has been concluded that outdoor education compared to teacher-directed learning in the classroom, may provide better opportunities to reach the third level of cognitive process dimension—apply—by enabling conscious relationships concerning content and objects.

One quasi-experimental study [ 5 ] analysed datasets on students’ mental health status. Gustafsson et al. [ 5 ] conducted a study with primary school children who had attended an outdoor education project over a period of one school year. In a questionnaire, the parents stated their observations regarding their children’s psychiatric symptoms. When adjusted for demographics, no significant overall effect on mental health was found for students in the IG, compared to students in the CG with respect to total difficulties, as well as all the subscales (all ps > 0.1). However, a gender effect of the intervention was found. Mental problems significantly decreased for boys compared to girls, with respect to total difficulties ( p < 0.001), as well as the subscales of “emotional symptoms” ( p = 0.044), “conduct problems” ( p < 0.003), and “hyperactivity” ( p = 0.005). Effects were not significant for peer problems and pro-social behaviour.

4. Discussion

We aimed at systematically reviewing the current state of research on regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes. Specifically, we categorised and evaluated reported outcomes of 13 included studies and rated their methodological quality.

4.1. General Aspects

The current state of research is relatively small with only 13 identified and evaluated studies. This can partly be explained by the fact that outdoor education research is quite a young field of research, although, with a rising number of publications within the last years. The small number of included studies can also be attributed to the fact that efforts to conduct regular curriculum-based outdoor teaching face many barriers. Waite, Bølling and Bentsen [ 1 ] summarised the cost of transportation and extra teachers, travel-time, a crowded curriculum and teacher qualifications as main obstacles for more outdoor learning projects in schools in the UK and in Denmark.

We also applied certain inclusion criteria, such as a minimum intervention length of eight weeks. By further opening-up these criteria, more studies could naturally have been evaluated, but this would have simultaneously led to a renunciation of the comparability of the assessed studies and outcomes. Waite, Bølling and Bentsen [ 1 ], for example, therefore chose different inclusion criteria—less strict concerning, e.g., age group, intervention duration, publication type—and thus compared 39 similar studies concerning school-based outdoor education programmes. Compared to the related field of Outdoor Adventure Education/Outdoor Adventure Programming, the aforementioned literature reviews and meta-analyses reviewed several studies, e.g., 96 studies regarding the overall effects of adventure programmes [ 3 ], and 43 studies concerning outdoor adventure programmes for adolescents [ 19 ]. This can also be seen as an indication that more studies on regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes are needed, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the possible benefits.

4.2. Methodological Quality Assessment

The methodological quality assessment for most of the studies yielded moderate results.

Particularly, those results of studies with moderate or low methodological quality have to therefore be considered with caution. Apart from that, some important specific circumstances regarding the included studies have to be considered. Due to the nature of educational interventions, not all requirements for preventing possible methodological bias (e.g., randomisation, a high number of participants) can be fulfilled in practice and we applied two relatively strict assessment tools. In contrast to most natural science domains, formal ethical approvals are still not obligatory in some educational and sociological domains. Furthermore, official ethic committees still have to be established to a certain extent. Another explanation could be that researchers are incidentally unaware of the importance of such formal ethical issues. Furthermore, the aim of most (case) studies included in this systematic review was rather to explore the field and to describe specific (rare) cases, instead of giving the opportunity to generalise the results gained to a wider population. As mentioned above, several studies do show a lack of methodological quality. Although the methodological quality of research studies is not the main focus of this review—and one should not overestimate it when considering the possibilities of conducting studies in educational settings—these ratings can be seen as indicators for detecting shortcomings in this particular scientific field, and this is in concordance with results of the review by Scrutton et al. [ 18 ]. The authors examined studies in the related field of Outdoor Adventure Education, focusing on personal and social development. They stated that, frequently, the sample sizes used were too small, and went on to discuss the questionable usage and handling of questionnaires, as well as the statistical management of variables. Scrutton and colleagues [ 18 ] requested that future research should be carefully designed with regard to methodological rigour if the researchers’ aim is to actually inform and change educational policy.

Certain results must therefore be interpreted with respect to the study design used and its corresponding possibilities and weaknesses as regarding generalisability, validity and reliability.

4.3. Learning Dimensions

The presented results in the category of learning dimension, reported by seven studies [ 7 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 34 ], illustrate one main focus of the current research in the field of regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes.

According to the results on learning dimensions, students particularly seem to benefit in terms of an improved academic performance in several subjects, improved skills in transferring the knowledge gained to real life situations. In addition, two studies [ 27 , 34 ] mentioned possible benefits on aspects of students’ learning motivation, i.e., learning as fun and a desire to learn. Considering that learning motivation can be an important factor for academic success [ 35 ], and some studies in outdoor education settings [ 36 , 37 , 38 ] have already analysed motivational aspects of short-term interventions, this could possibly be a promising approach for future research.

The methodological quality for studies reporting on learning dimensions, however, is rated as moderate [ 7 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 32 ] except for one study which is rated as low [ 31 ]. Due to the methodological weaknesses, the reported results have to be considered with caution. However, they are in concordance with different literature reviews and meta-analyses concerning general outdoor education. Waite, Bølling and Bentsen [ 1 ] mentioned that regular udeskole enhances learning outcomes. Rickinson et al. [ 2 ] highlighted the benefits of school grounds/community projects on students’ science process skills as well as the impact of fieldwork and visits on students’ long-term memory and higher order learning. Furthermore, Cason and Gillis [ 19 ] found an average effect size of 0.61 ( n = 10; SD = 1.527) of outdoor adventure programmes on adolescents’ grades and Hattie et al. [ 3 ] mentioned that “adventure programs enhance general problem solving competencies”, understood as a subcategory of academic performance (ES = 0.45; n = 23; CI = 0.23 to 0.67).

Taking into account these indications and respective methodological shortcomings, more high quality-studies are needed to further examine possible effects of regular outdoor classes on students learning dimensions.

4.4. Social Dimensions

The presented results in the category of social dimension, reported by nine studies [ 6 , 7 , 23 , 28 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 34 ], illustrates another main focus of the current research regarding regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes.

According to the results in social dimensions, students seem to benefit in terms of their development of social competencies and social relations such as self-esteem, self-confidence, trusting relationships, and the sense of belonging [ 6 , 7 , 27 , 30 , 32 , 34 ]. One study [ 23 ] also reported that students mentioned perceived positive programmes effects, however, with a temporal shift of approximately eight months. Furthermore, three studies reported positive effects on students’ attitudes and behaviour patterns towards the environment [ 30 , 31 , 32 ]. One study [ 28 ] mentioned negative effects on students’ environmental attitudes. The methodological quality for studies reporting on social dimension is rated as moderate [ 6 , 7 , 27 , 30 , 31 , 32 ] except for two studies rated as high [ 23 , 34 ]. Despite the methodological weaknesses, the reported results are in concordance with conclusions by Waite, Bølling and Bentsen [ 1 ]: Forest schools, as well as udeskole programmes, can promote students’ social relations, interpersonal skills, and social competencies. Furthermore, Rickinson et al. [ 2 , 5 ] summarised that fieldwork and visits “can lead to individual growth and improvements in social skills (…) and improve attitudes towards the environment” while school grounds and community projects can foster students’ sense of belonging, relationships and community involvement.

Similar to our demands regarding learning dimensions, there is also a strong need for more high quality-studies to further examine possible effects of regular outdoor classes on students’ social dimensions.

4.5. Additional Dimensions

The research on students’ physical activity, mental health and action regulation behaviour is underrepresented in comparison to results on students’ learning and social dimensions. Only two case studies [ 4 , 7 ] with moderate to low methodological quality, reported positive effects on students’ PA. Only one case study [ 33 ] with moderate methodological quality mentioned gender differences with respect to action regulation behaviour. Furthermore, only one quasi-experimental study [ 5 ], with a high methodological quality reported positive effects of regular outdoor classes on boys’ mental health. Therefore, the presented results of PA, mental health and action regulation behaviour can at most be interpreted as first indications. However, taking results from related publications into account, these indications can be partly supported. In detail, Rickinson et al. [ 2 ] showed in their review that school grounds and community projects can be beneficial for children’s exercise. Additionally, Waite, Bølling and Bentsen [ 1 ] mentioned that forest school and udeskole projects increased students’ PA and motor-skills. Regarding students’ mental health, Cason and Gillis [ 19 ] found an average effect size of 1.047 ( n = 12; SD = 0.459) for adolescents’ clinical scales (e.g., depression and anxiety) regarding outdoor adventure programming.

More high quality-studies are therefore needed to further examine these first indications of the effects of regular outdoor classes on students’ PA, mental health and action regulation behaviour, especially when considering an increasing inactivity [ 39 ], as well as a rising number of diagnosed mental health disorders in school children [ 40 ].

4.6. Strengths and Limitations

There are four main strengths in this systematic review. First, we strictly referred to a search protocol and design according to the PRISMA Guidelines and applied several online databases for literature research. Secondly, the chosen inclusion criteria allowed for the consideration of a wide range of studies concerning study design, country, target group and reported outcomes. Thirdly, two reviewers independently screened the literature and assessed the methodological quality of the included studies and, fourthly, we applied the CCEERC Quantitative Research Assessment Tool as well as the JBI Checklist for Qualitative Research to rate the studies’ methodological quality.

However, we only evaluated studies published in English and German in peer-reviewed journals and listed in the used online databases, but no grey literature or reports. We therefore cannot rule out the existence of relevant studies in other languages or studies published elsewhere. Furthermore, we observed that several included, as well as excluded, articles were weak in respect of the internal structure and given information. Hypothesising that this is a wide spread practice, this could also mean that other valuable research results had not been properly published in peer-reviewed journals, and were therefore not eligible for inclusion in this systematic review.

These limitations are in concordance with the critique on systematic reviews in education, as described in the methods chapter. Therefore, we cannot claim to have delivered an all-embracing solution to the questions we have asked. We have not “eliminate(ed) bias” nor have we “present(ed) an ‘objective’ version of the truth, but” we have “attempt(ed) to minimise bias” in the field [ 41 ].

5. Conclusions

To conclude, the number of identified studies on regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes is relatively low. In addition, these 13 evaluated studies show wide heterogeneity in respect of the aims, participant groups, learning environments, methods used and reported effects, and the methodological quality is, on average, moderate. However, tendencies were found which indicate that regular compulsory school- and curriculum-based outdoor education programmes can advance students in the physical, psychological, learning and social dimensions.

To further evaluate these indications, more research studies are needed. Thereby, a strong focus on aspects of study design and methodological quality has to be set. Especially randomised-controlled trials, longitudinal studies and studies that are more quasi-experimental with a higher number of participants are desirable for future research. Additionally, the intervention duration should be as long as possible, as it has been shown that longer programmes lead to better effects [ 2 ]. Future research should particularly focus on aspects of students’ PA and mental health, as we have shown that those are underrepresented in the reviewed literature.

However, these study designs are often difficult to conduct in educational settings, especially as practical “Outdoor Education’ strongly depends on the respective teachers” motivation and beliefs, their pedagogical concepts and ideas, and a certain financial support from headmasters/headmistresses and school authorities [ 1 , 12 ]. If practitioners, researchers and policymakers work more closely together in a dialogic relationship and with a strong focus on what is needed, as demanded by Fiennes et al. [ 20 ] and Andrews [ 41 ], positive changes in school practise can hopefully be realised for students’ benefits. This can partly be seen in relationship to a recent OECD report on learning environments in the 21st century. According to the report, innovative learning environments are needed. Specifically, a combination of pedagogical approaches on “guided learning”, “action learning” and “experiential learning” that enables self-regulated learning [ 42 ]. Although not being the focus in our review, the underlying pedagogical concepts in outdoor education do set focus at least partially on these learning environments [ 1 ].

One promising example is the Danish TEACHOUT research project which used a quasi-experimental and longitudinal design to analyse the impacts of regular outdoor teaching on 834 students’ PA, well-being, social interaction and learning [ 43 ]. First results are to be expected in 2017. In the future, more such high-quality studies should be realised by referring to a rich theoretical background and methodology, as well as informing and including policy and school administration.

Acknowledgments

The study was partly funded by the Dietmar Hopp Foundation by Grant # 23016007 and by the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the Technical University of Munich within the funding program Open Access Publishing.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/14/5/485/s1 , PROSPERO Protocol and Search Strategy, Reference Number CRD42016033002.; adapted versions of the CCEERC Quantitative Research Assessment Tool; and the JBI Checklist for Qualitative Research.

Methodological quality assessment for quantitative studies.

SD: standard deviation.

Methodological quality assessment for qualitative studies.

Author Contributions

Christoph Becker, Sarah Spengler and Filip Mess conceived and designed the study; Christoph Becker and Gabriele Lauterbach performed the literature search and selection process; Christoph Becker, Gabriele Lauterbach, Ulrich Dettweiler and Filip Mess performed the methodological quality assessment; Christoph Becker analysed the data; and Christoph Becker wrote most of the paper with substantial contributions from all the others.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsor had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Outdoor Play and Learning in Early Childhood Education

Introduction, outdoor pedagogy.

• Children’s Development and Learning through Outdoor Play
• Play-Space Design
• Forest Preschool and Nature Connections
• Outdoor Play and Sustainability

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• Outdoor Play and Learning
• Risky Play in Early Childhood Education

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Outdoor Play and Learning in Early Childhood Education by Eva Ärlemalm-Hagsér , Sue Elliott LAST MODIFIED: 24 March 2021 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0273

Play in early childhood education is foundational, and outdoor play in particular offers unique learning and development opportunities. Outdoor play in early childhood education has significant historical legacies that have been somewhat eroded in the 20th century with the advent of manufactured play equipment, indoor screen-based technologies, and “top down” curriculum priorities. More recently, a reinvigoration of outdoor play has been inspired by the widely perceived Western need to connect children with nature: perhaps, nature as the “cure all” for the 21st-century lifestyles of many children. Outdoor play also aligns with the United Nations Convention on Rights of the Child to play, to experience nature, and, in the longer term, to mitigate global sustainability concerns. In early childhood education, indoor and outdoor play spaces must be considered as equally valid learning environments. Outdoor play may occur in center-based play spaces or beyond in local natural environments such as forests or beaches. Yet, too often, outdoor environments are limited or lacking in increasingly urbanized cities. Outdoor play and learning in early childhood education is a multifaceted topic spanning children’s well-being and physical skills, risk management, and play-space design to immersion in natural outdoor settings and teachers’ outdoor pedagogies and dispositions. As a consequence the literature is diverse, but also now expanding as advocacy for children’s outdoor play in natural settings gains momentum. This article outlines research on outdoor play and learning in early childhood education across six key themes. The first theme is Outdoor Pedagogy , and here the focus lies on the history, rationale, and knowledge about outdoor play, as well as the pedagogical role of the teacher. The second theme, Children’s Development and Learning through Outdoor Play , presents studies that reinforce the fundamental importance of outdoor play for children’s development and learning across varied domains. In the third theme, Play-Space Design , the historical beginnings of design are mapped to current design priorities around participatory approaches and natural elements. The fourth theme, Forest Preschool and Nature Connections , captures the rapid international emergence of these varied outdoor programs, the multiple benefits they offer children, and the emergent research. The fifth theme, Risky Play , presents scientific evidence about play, incorporating the risk of physical injury and the benefits of risk as children manage their risky encounters. The final theme, Outdoor Play and Sustainability , outlines possible shifts from anthropocentric being in nature as a play resource only, to a more ethically informed way of being with nature that challenges dominant global paradigms. Over the last century, the field has moved from a dominant romantic ideal of good nature and normative understandings of the child-in-nature to recognizing and examining understandings of power, gender, and dominant Western early childhood pedagogies and ideologies—as well as the anthropocentric relationships of human-nature and the interconnections between the human and nonhuman.

This section traces the historical positioning of outdoor play pedagogy from early pioneers to contemporary research and discourses, and then considers the pedagogical role of the teacher outdoors. Outdoor play has been integral to the history of early childhood education, and Friedrich Froebel emphasized the value of children’s outdoor play and believed outdoor play to be essential for physical, intellectual, and moral development ( Froebel 1995 ). His pedagogical ideas suggested outdoor learning through exploration and play, nature studies, and gardening would instill a sense of responsibility toward living things, based on the earlier work by Rousseau and Pestalozzi. The tradition of outdoor play has had a strong impact on the organization of outdoor pedagogics internationally, as seen in Sandseter Hansen and Hagen 2016 . Since 2000, the normative understandings of outdoor play have prevailed, with romantic views of children, nature, culture, outdoor play, and learning as foundational to a good healthy childhood. Concerns about equality in children’s play and learning have emerged and been challenged as studies have explored power, gender, and culturally specific discourses ( Wattchow and Brown 2011 ) embedded in everyday pedagogy, outdoor play, and learning, ( Änggård 2016 , Taylor 2017 ). As for indoor play and learning, teachers have a critical role interacting with children to scaffold children’s outdoor play and learning, as shown in Wishart and Rouse 2018 . It is essential for teachers to have clear understandings about the affordances and provocations within the outdoor play environment, as described by Waters 2017 . Essentially, children can engage in child-initiated and self-directed play whenever they find themselves outdoors, in playgrounds, woods, parks, or urban walkways. Children’s outdoor play environments are places where they can experience and be exposed to seasonality and all the dynamics and spontaneity of the natural world ( Waller 2007 ). Center outdoor play and learning environments need to be carefully designed, as discussed in Carr and Luken 2014 and Jickling, et al. 2018 (see also Play-Space Design ), and built for child-initiated play scenarios as well as teacher-planned structured play experiences. Research about the pedagogics of outdoor play and learning emphasize the teacher’s role, the organization of the learning environment (playgrounds and natural settings), and the outcomes for children’s development—physical, social, emotional, cognitive, creative, imaginative, and their interconnections with the nonhuman world.

Änggård, Eva. 2016. How matter comes to matter in children’s nature play: Posthumanist approaches and children’s geographies. Children’s Geographies 14.1: 77–90.

DOI: 10.1080/14733285.2015.1004523

In this article, the author employed a posthumanist approach and considered how matter acts in an analysis of children’s play activities in natural environments. The findings demonstrated that in sensorimotor play, matter seems to talk more directly to children’s hands and bodies. In play activities with symbolic content, matter works both directly and through discourses; when objects are given symbolic meaning and in both kinds of play, discursive practices in peer groups are influential.

Carr, Victoria, and Eleanor Luken. 2014. Playscapes: A pedagogical paradigm for play and learning. International Journal of Play 3.1: 69–83.

DOI: 10.1080/21594937.2013.871965

This article discusses outdoor play in the United States, and specifically the play possibilities in a designed playscape with a focus on nature as an alternative to traditional playgrounds. This research indicated that children learn academic concepts, engage in physical activities, investigate scientific principles, and enhance their development in all domains through nature play. Early science and sustainability learning were also promoted.

Froebel, Fredrich. 1995. Människans fostran . Lund: Studentlitteratur.

In this classic book ( The Education of Man ), first published in 1826, Froebel discusses childhood education. He also identifies the fundamental principles upon which he based his kindergarten system. Specifically, the benefits of nature as part of children’s development and learning are discussed.

Jickling, Bob, Sean Blenkinsop, Marcus Morse, and Aage Jensen. 2018. Wild pedagogies: Six initial touchstones for early childhood environmental educators. Australian Journal of Environmental Education 34.2: 159–171.

DOI: 10.1017/aee.2018.19

This article explores six main principles related to early childhood education, with a focus on environmental teaching: (1) agency and the role of nature as co-teacher; (2) wildness and challenging ideas of control; (3) complexity, the unknown, and spontaneity; (4) locating the wild; (5) time and practice; and (6) cultural change.

Sandseter Hansen, Ellen Beate, and Trond L. Hagen. 2016. Scandinavian early childhood education: Spending time in the outdoors. In Routledge International Handbook of Outdoor Studies . Edited by Barbara Humberstone, Heather Prince and Karla A Henderson, 95–102. London and New York: Routledge.

This chapter presents an overview of outdoor play in early childhood education in Scandinavia (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway). Outdoor play is valued in all three countries as integral to children’s lives and childhood. This is founded in the beliefs of politicians, practitioners, and parents about the benefits of playing and learning in the physical world.

Taylor, Africa. 2017. Beyond stewardship: Common world pedagogies for the Anthropocene. Environmental Education Research 23.10: 1448–1461.

DOI: 10.1080/13504622.2017.1325452

The author discusses the implications of the Anthropocene and the need for a paradigm shift in thinking about what it means to be human and about our place and agency in the world. Also discussed is how a common worlds approach (e.g., stewardship pedagogies—learning “with” nonhuman others, rather than “about” them and “on their behalf”) offers an alternative more-than-human relational ontology, inextricably entangled with multiple life-worlds.

Waller, Tim. 2007. The trampoline tree and the swamp monster with 18 heads: Outdoor play in Foundation Stage and Foundation Phase. Education 3–13 35.4: 365–377.

This seminal research paper investigated pedagogy and outdoor play with children aged three to seven years who regularly engaged with natural wild environments. The development and opportunities for children’s play themes and how these impacted on pedagogy in these early years settings were explored in discussion.

Waters, Jane. 2017. Affordance theory in outdoor play. In The SAGE handbook of outdoor play and learning . Edited by Tim Waller, Eva Ärlemalm-Hagsér, Ellen Beate Hansen Sandseter, Libby Lee-Hammond, Kirsti Lekies, and Shirley Wyver. London: SAGE.

In this chapter, the author provides an understanding of “affordance” and how this theoretical concept has been embraced within the field of outdoor play and learning. In addition, it offers the reader a review of the origins and development of the “affordance” concept and consideration of its usefulness within the field. Also considered is how “affordance” as a concept within outdoor play and learning may be developed in the future.

Wattchow, Brian, and Mike Brown. 2011. A pedagogy of place: Outdoor education for a changing world . Clayton, Australia: Monash University Publishing.

The authors scrutinize the underlying assumptions about outdoor education and stress alternative thinking. They offer a broad range of examples of current practices, responding to both local conditions and cultural traditions. They alert to also dealing with substantial social and ecological changes and the need for alternative thinking about outdoor education in a quickly changing world.

Wishart, Llewellyn, and Elizabeth Rouse. 2018. Pedagogies of outdoor spaces: An early childhood educator professional learning journey. Early Child Development and Care 189.14: 1–15.

This article presents how teachers’ understandings and perceptions of natural play learning environments were transformed through a targeted professional learning (PL) project with a focus on the outdoor space. The authors share the story of three educators participating in targeted PL and show that the educators felt more confident in their understandings of the value and benefits of nature-rich outdoor environments to support young children’s active play outdoor.

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Perceptions of empowerment and leadership in the context of outdoor education: a qualitative study in women participants

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• Published: 27 September 2023

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• Colby J. C. Bryce   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8087-3036 1 ,
• Kara Dadswell 1 ,
• Clare Dallat 2 &
• Alexandra G. Parker 1 , 3  

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Gender inequality is a global challenge and leadership development and empowerment have the potential to effect change. Outdoor education programs provide platforms to develop leadership and empower participants while also developing positive relationships with the outdoor environment, other people, and the self, while providing a range of physical and mental health benefits. This study used a thematic analysis to explore participants’ experiences of an outdoor education program for secondary school women students. Twelve respondents participated in two separate semi-structured focus groups. Focus Group 1 explored the perceptions of women secondary students who completed a 10-day outdoor education expedition ( N  = 4), while Focus Group 2 explored completion of a 10-day expedition with involvement in subsequent two-year leadership opportunities (public speaking, fundraising, mentoring, and so on) ( N  = 8). The women participated in their outdoor education and leadership activities between 2008 and 2015 and were aged between 22 and 30 years ( M  = 26.3) at the time of data collection in 2020. Overall, the findings suggest an outdoor education experience seemed to be a useful activity in increasing perceptions of micro-level leadership and empowerment, which are important factors in addressing gender equality. Participants also reported a sense of community as a perceived outcome. Implications for future research are explored.

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Bryce, C.J.C., Dadswell, K., Dallat, C. et al. Perceptions of empowerment and leadership in the context of outdoor education: a qualitative study in women participants. Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42322-023-00136-2

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

How traditional norwegian outdoor activities are changing; a 10-year follow up in relation to sociodemographic factors provisionally accepted.

• 1 Faculty of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Agder, Norway

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

The study aims to evaluate the relationship between sociodemographic factors and changes in Norwegian outdoor activities between 2008 and 2018. Traditional outdoor activities, such as family trips in nature, the gathering of mushrooms and wild berries, and growing one's own plants to eat, are believed to have a positive impact on physical activity levels and health in general.This study includes repeated cross-sectional surveys conducted in 38 randomly selected schools across two Norwegian counties. In 2008, 1012 parents of 6th and 7th grade students from 27 schools completed a questionnaire. In 2018, 609 new parents from 25 schools participated. Variables were dichotomized. Descriptive analyses between groups were conducted using chi-square statistics. Binary logistic regression analyses were performed with the three outdoor activities as dependent variables, including year only (model 1), and then also gender, age (continuous), education (own and partners), and household income as independent variables (model 2).Results: Participation in weekly family trips in nature increased from 22% to 28% (p=0.002), the OR for year 2018 vs. year 2008 was 1.51. Adjusted for sociodemographic factors, the OR remained stable and significant. Education was the only significant sociodemographic factor (OR=1.60), indicating the odds of those with a higher education to be 60% higher to engage in weekly family trips in nature. Gathering of wild mushrooms and plants remained stable with time. Being female (OR=1.44), age (OR=1.049) and education (OR=1.49) was related to gathering. An increase in growing plants to eat was observed with an increase from 42% to 51% (p<0.001), OR=1.33. However, it did not remain significant in model 2. Education was, in general, positively related to growing food (OR=1.35).We observed a positive increase in family trips in nature over the period from 2008 to 2018. Furthermore, elder parents seem to be more involved in the long-rooted traditional Norwegian grow-and gather culture, and a social gradient is apparent as those with higher education do participate more often in traditional outdoor activities.

Keywords: Outdoor activities, Trends, gathering, Hiking, Growing, social inequality

Received: 15 Dec 2023; Accepted: 10 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Stenqvist and Bere. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Thomas B. Stenqvist, Faculty of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Agder, Kristiansand, 4604, Vest-Agder, Norway

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Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society

The Bulletin publishes expository articles on contemporary mathematical research, written in a way that gives insight to mathematicians who may not be experts in the particular topic. The Bulletin also publishes reviews of selected books in mathematics and short articles in the Mathematical Perspectives section, both by invitation only.

ISSN 1088-9485 (online) ISSN 0273-0979 (print)

The 2020 MCQ for Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society is 0.84 . What is MCQ? The Mathematical Citation Quotient (MCQ) measures journal impact by looking at citations over a five-year period. Subscribers to MathSciNet may click through for more detailed information.

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Contents of Volume 61, Number 2 HTML articles powered by AMS MathViewer View front and back matter from the print issue