Physical Education Research Paper Topics

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In this guide on physical education research paper topics , we explore a wide range of subjects that delve into the field of physical education. Whether you’re a student studying education or a researcher in the field, this comprehensive list of topics is designed to inspire and guide you in your research endeavors. From examining the impact of physical activity on academic performance to analyzing the effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education, these research paper topics offer a diverse range of areas to explore.

100 Physical Education Research Paper Topics

Exploring the diverse facets of physical education through research papers offers a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the field and contribute to the growing body of knowledge. To assist you in this endeavor, we have compiled a comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics. These topics span various areas of interest, from the impact of physical education on mental health to the integration of technology in physical education curricula. Each category contains 10 stimulating and thought-provoking physical education research paper topics, providing you with a wide range of options to explore and develop your research.

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Physical Education Curriculum and Instruction

  • The integration of technology in physical education curricula.
  • The impact of standardized testing on physical education programs.
  • Strategies for promoting inclusivity and diversity in physical education classes.
  • The role of assessment and feedback in enhancing student learning in physical education.
  • The effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education.
  • Examining the relationship between physical education and academic performance.
  • Addressing gender disparities in physical education participation and achievement.
  • Incorporating cultural competency in physical education curricula.
  • The influence of teacher-student relationships on student engagement in physical education.
  • Exploring the role of outdoor education in physical education programs.

Physical Activity and Health

  • Investigating the effects of physical activity on mental health and well-being.
  • The relationship between physical activity and obesity rates among children and adolescents.
  • Analyzing the impact of physical activity on cardiovascular health.
  • Exploring the role of physical activity in reducing the risk of chronic diseases.
  • Investigating the psychological benefits of regular physical activity.
  • The impact of physical activity interventions on sedentary behavior.
  • Examining the relationship between physical activity and cognitive function.
  • Analyzing the influence of physical activity on sleep patterns.
  • Exploring the role of physical activity in promoting healthy aging.
  • Investigating the socio-economic factors influencing physical activity participation.

Sports Psychology and Performance

  • Understanding the psychological factors influencing sports performance.
  • Examining the role of motivation in sports participation and performance.
  • Analyzing the impact of imagery and visualization techniques on athletic performance.
  • Investigating the effects of stress and anxiety on sports performance.
  • Exploring the psychological benefits of team sports participation.
  • The influence of leadership styles on team cohesion and performance.
  • Analyzing the role of self-confidence in sports performance.
  • Understanding the psychological challenges faced by athletes with disabilities.
  • Investigating the relationship between personality traits and sports performance.
  • Exploring the effects of psychological interventions on sports performance enhancement.

Exercise Physiology and Biomechanics

  • Investigating the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise.
  • Analyzing the biomechanics of specific movements in sports and exercise.
  • Exploring the effects of different training modalities on muscle strength and endurance.
  • The role of nutrition in exercise performance and recovery.
  • Investigating the effects of high-intensity interval training on cardiovascular fitness.
  • Analyzing the biomechanical factors influencing running gait and performance.
  • Exploring the physiological responses to altitude training.
  • Investigating the effects of aging on exercise capacity and performance.
  • Analyzing the impact of environmental factors on exercise performance.
  • Understanding the role of genetics in exercise physiology and performance.

Adapted Physical Education

  • Examining the benefits and challenges of inclusive physical education programs.
  • The role of assistive technology in facilitating physical education for individuals with disabilities.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of adapted physical education interventions.
  • Exploring strategies for promoting social inclusion in adapted physical education.
  • Analyzing the impact of inclusive physical education on self-esteem and self-efficacy.
  • Understanding the experiences and perceptions of individuals with disabilities in physical education.
  • Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting adapted physical education.
  • Examining the professional development needs of physical education teachers in inclusive settings.
  • Analyzing the influence of policy and legislation on the provision of adapted physical education.
  • Exploring the role of peer support in enhancing the participation of individuals with disabilities in physical education.

Physical Education Pedagogy and Teacher Training

  • Investigating the impact of professional development programs on physical education teacher effectiveness.
  • Exploring the use of technology in enhancing physical education pedagogy.
  • Analyzing the role of reflection and self-assessment in physical education teacher development.
  • Investigating the factors influencing physical education teacher job satisfaction.
  • Understanding the challenges faced by physical education teachers in multicultural classrooms.
  • Examining the relationship between teacher-student interaction and student engagement in physical education.
  • Exploring effective strategies for managing behavior in physical education classes.
  • Analyzing the impact of mentoring and coaching on physical education teacher development.
  • Investigating the influence of school climate on physical education teacher motivation and performance.
  • Exploring the integration of social-emotional learning in physical education curricula.

Physical Education Policy and Advocacy

  • Analyzing the impact of policy on the provision of physical education in schools.
  • Investigating the role of advocacy organizations in promoting quality physical education programs.
  • Understanding the factors influencing physical education policy adoption and implementation.
  • Examining the relationship between physical education policies and student health outcomes.
  • Analyzing the impact of budgetary constraints on the quality of physical education programs.
  • Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting physical education initiatives.
  • Exploring strategies for promoting physical education policy reform.
  • Understanding the influence of parental involvement on physical education policy and practice.
  • Analyzing the effects of policy changes on physical education teacher preparation programs.
  • Investigating the perceptions and attitudes of stakeholders towards physical education policies.

Assessment and Evaluation in Physical Education

  • Analyzing the effectiveness of different assessment methods in physical education.
  • Investigating the use of technology in assessing physical education outcomes.
  • Exploring the role of self-assessment and peer assessment in physical education.
  • Understanding the challenges and opportunities of authentic assessment in physical education.
  • Analyzing the impact of assessment practices on student motivation and engagement in physical education.
  • Investigating the alignment between physical education curriculum, instruction, and assessment.
  • Exploring the role of formative assessment in enhancing student learning in physical education.
  • Understanding the influence of standardized testing on physical education assessment practices.
  • Investigating the relationship between assessment practices and equity in physical education.
  • Analyzing the use of data-driven decision-making in improving physical education programs.

Physical Education and Technology

  • Investigating the use of wearable devices in monitoring physical activity and fitness levels.
  • Exploring the impact of virtual reality and augmented reality in physical education.
  • Analyzing the role of mobile applications in promoting physical activity and health.
  • Understanding the benefits and challenges of online physical education courses.
  • Investigating the use of gamification in enhancing student engagement in physical education.
  • Exploring the influence of exergaming on physical activity participation.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of technology-mediated feedback in physical education.
  • Investigating the role of social media in promoting physical activity and healthy lifestyles.
  • Understanding the integration of technology in physical education teacher preparation programs.
  • Exploring the ethical considerations of using technology in physical education.

Physical Education and Social Justice

  • Analyzing the relationship between physical education and social inequality.
  • Investigating the experiences and perceptions of marginalized groups in physical education.
  • Exploring strategies for promoting social justice in physical education curricula.
  • Understanding the role of physical education in fostering cultural competence and inclusion.
  • Investigating the impact of gender norms on physical education experiences.
  • Analyzing the influence of socioeconomic status on access to quality physical education.
  • Exploring the intersectionality of race, gender, and physical education experiences.
  • Investigating the role of physical education in promoting social-emotional well-being and resilience.
  • Analyzing the impact of inclusive policies and practices on social justice in physical education.
  • Understanding the challenges and opportunities of integrating social justice in physical education pedagogy.

research proposal for physical education

The comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics presented here is just the beginning of your research journey. Delve into the categories, choose a topic that resonates with your interests, and embark on a fascinating exploration of the subject matter. Remember to consider the relevance, significance, and feasibility of your chosen topic, and conduct thorough research to develop a well-informed and insightful research paper. Whether you seek to uncover the benefits of physical activity or analyze the effectiveness of different teaching methods, these topics will inspire you to expand your understanding of physical education and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

Physical Education Research Guide

Welcome to the world of physical education research! This page serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers in the field of education who are eager to explore the realm of physical education through the lens of research papers. Physical education plays a vital role in promoting health, wellness, and overall development among individuals of all ages. It encompasses a wide range of physical education research paper topics, from the impact of physical activity on academic performance to the effectiveness of various teaching approaches in physical education.

The primary objective of this page is to provide you with a comprehensive overview of physical education research paper topics. By delving into these topics, you will gain a deeper understanding of the key issues, theories, and practices within the field. The list of topics is categorized into 10 distinct categories, each offering 10 diverse and thought-provoking research paper ideas. Whether you’re interested in exploring the role of technology in physical education or investigating the social and cultural aspects of sports, you’ll find a wealth of ideas to spark your curiosity and fuel your research journey.

In addition to the extensive list of research paper topics, this page also offers expert advice on how to choose the most appropriate topic for your research project. Selecting a compelling and relevant research topic is essential to ensure the success of your study. Our expert guidance will provide you with valuable insights and practical tips to help you navigate through the multitude of options and select a topic that aligns with your interests, research goals, and academic requirements.

Furthermore, we understand that crafting a research paper can be a challenging task. To support your academic journey, we offer custom writing services that allow you to order a personalized research paper on any physical education topic of your choice. Our team of expert degree-holding writers possesses the knowledge and expertise to deliver high-quality, well-researched papers that meet your specific needs. With our commitment to in-depth research, customized solutions, and adherence to formatting styles such as APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard, we strive to provide you with a seamless and professional writing experience.

So, whether you’re a student embarking on a research project or a researcher seeking new avenues of exploration, this page is designed to inspire, inform, and empower you in your quest for knowledge in the field of physical education. Let us embark on this exciting journey together as we delve into the fascinating world of physical education research paper topics.

Choosing a Physical Education Topic

When it comes to choosing a research paper topic in the field of physical education, it is crucial to select a subject that aligns with your interests, addresses a relevant issue, and allows for meaningful exploration. To help you make an informed decision, here are ten expert tips on selecting the right physical education research paper topic:

  • Identify your passion : Consider the aspects of physical education that you find most fascinating and meaningful. Are you interested in exploring the impact of technology on physical education, the role of physical education in promoting mental health, or the relationship between physical activity and academic performance? By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, you will be more motivated to dive deep into the research and produce an exceptional paper.
  • Stay updated with current literature : Regularly review the latest research articles, books, and journals in the field of physical education. This will help you identify emerging trends, controversial topics, and gaps in existing knowledge, enabling you to choose a research topic that is current and relevant.
  • Consider the target population : Physical education encompasses various age groups and populations, including children, adolescents, adults, and individuals with special needs. Reflect on which population interests you the most and tailor your research topic accordingly. For example, you may explore the effectiveness of physical education programs for children with disabilities or the impact of physical activity interventions on older adults’ well-being.
  • Delve into emerging areas : Explore emerging areas within physical education that are gaining attention, such as inclusive education, adaptive physical education, or the integration of technology in teaching and learning. By choosing a topic in these emerging areas, you can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
  • Address local or global issues : Consider researching topics that address local or global issues in physical education. For instance, you may examine the impact of socio-cultural factors on physical education participation rates in a specific community or analyze the effects of globalization on physical education curriculum development.
  • Consult with experts : Seek guidance from professors, academic advisors, or professionals in the field of physical education. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research topics, and help you narrow down your focus based on their expertise and experience.
  • Conduct a literature review : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a comprehensive literature review to identify existing studies, theories, and gaps in knowledge. This will help you refine your research question and ensure that your topic contributes to the existing body of literature.
  • Consider research feasibility : Assess the availability of data sources, research methods, and potential challenges associated with your chosen topic. Ensure that you have access to relevant data, research participants (if applicable), and the necessary resources to carry out your study successfully.
  • Balance novelty and significance : Strive to find a balance between selecting a novel and unique topic while ensuring its significance within the field of physical education. Aim to choose a topic that adds value to the existing knowledge and has the potential to influence practice or policy in a meaningful way.
  • Reflect on personal and professional goals : Consider how your chosen research topic aligns with your personal and professional goals. Will it contribute to your academic and career development? Does it align with your long-term aspirations within the field of physical education? Selecting a topic that resonates with your goals will enhance your motivation and dedication throughout the research process.

Remember, the process of choosing a research paper topic in physical education is iterative. Be open to exploring different ideas, seeking feedback from experts, and refining your topic based on the available resources and research feasibility. By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, addresses a relevant issue, and has the potential for significant impact, you will be well-equipped to embark on a successful research journey in the field of physical education.

How to Write a Physical Education Research Paper

Writing a research paper in the field of physical education requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective organization of ideas. Here are some essential steps to guide you through the process of writing a compelling and well-structured physical education research paper:

  • Understand the assignment : Familiarize yourself with the requirements and guidelines provided by your instructor or educational institution. Pay attention to the research question, formatting style, word count, and any specific instructions or expectations.
  • Conduct thorough research : Begin by conducting extensive research on your chosen topic. Utilize various sources such as academic journals, books, reputable websites, and databases to gather relevant and reliable information. Take detailed notes and ensure that you cite your sources accurately.
  • Develop a strong thesis statement : Formulate a clear and concise thesis statement that captures the main objective or argument of your research paper. The thesis statement should guide your research and provide a roadmap for the rest of your paper.
  • Outline your paper : Create a well-organized outline to structure your research paper. Divide it into sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusion. Outline the main points and supporting evidence you will include in each section.
  • Write a compelling introduction : Begin your paper with an engaging introduction that grabs the reader’s attention and provides background information on the topic. Clearly state the purpose of your research, introduce the key concepts, and present your thesis statement.
  • Conduct a comprehensive literature review : Dedicate a section of your paper to reviewing relevant literature on the topic. Summarize and analyze existing studies, theories, and perspectives related to your research question. Identify gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
  • Describe your research methodology : Explain the research design, methods, and procedures you used to collect and analyze data. Provide a clear description of the participants, materials, and instruments used. Justify the appropriateness of your chosen methods for addressing your research question.
  • Present your findings : Share the results of your research in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, graphs, or charts to present quantitative data and provide detailed descriptions for qualitative data. Analyze and interpret the findings in relation to your research question.
  • Discuss the implications and significance : Analyze the implications of your findings and their significance in the field of physical education. Discuss how your research contributes to the existing knowledge, addresses the research question, and impacts practice or policy.
  • Conclude your paper effectively : Summarize the main points of your research paper in the conclusion section. Restate your thesis statement and highlight the key findings and implications. Discuss the limitations of your study and suggest areas for further research.
  • Revise and edit : Review your research paper thoroughly for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Check for grammatical and spelling errors, and ensure proper citation of sources using the required formatting style.
  • Seek feedback : Before submitting your final paper, seek feedback from peers, professors, or mentors. Incorporate their suggestions and revisions to improve the overall quality of your research paper.

By following these steps and dedicating sufficient time to each stage of the writing process, you can produce a well-researched and well-structured physical education research paper that effectively contributes to the field.

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research proposal for physical education

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‘Physical education makes you fit and healthy’. Physical education's contribution to young people's physical activity levels

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S. Fairclough, G. Stratton, ‘Physical education makes you fit and healthy’. Physical education's contribution to young people's physical activity levels, Health Education Research , Volume 20, Issue 1, February 2005, Pages 14–23, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg101

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The purpose of this study was to assess physical activity levels during high school physical education lessons. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity to ascertain whether or not physical education can be effective in helping young people meet health-related goals. Sixty-two boys and 60 girls (aged 11–14 years) wore heart rate telemeters during physical education lessons. Percentages of lesson time spent in moderate-and-vigorous (MVPA) and vigorous intensity physical activity (VPA) were recorded for each student. Students engaged in MVPA and VPA for 34.3 ± 21.8 and 8.3 ± 11.1% of lesson time, respectively. This equated to 17.5 ± 12.9 (MVPA) and 3.9 ± 5.3 (VPA) min. Boys participated in MVPA for 39.4 ± 19.1% of lesson time compared to the girls (29.1 ± 23.4%; P < 0.01). High-ability students were more active than the average- and low-ability students. Students participated in most MVPA during team games (43.2 ± 19.5%; P < 0.01), while the least MVPA was observed during movement activities (22.2 ± 20.0%). Physical education may make a more significant contribution to young people's regular physical activity participation if lessons are planned and delivered with MVPA goals in mind.

Regular physical activity participation throughout childhood provides immediate health benefits, by positively effecting body composition and musculo-skeletal development ( Malina and Bouchard, 1991 ), and reducing the presence of coronary heart disease risk factors ( Gutin et al. , 1994 ). In recognition of these health benefits, physical activity guidelines for children and youth have been developed by the Health Education Authority [now Health Development Agency (HDA)] ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). The primary recommendation advocates the accumulation of 1 hour's physical activity per day of at least moderate intensity (i.e. the equivalent of brisk walking), through lifestyle, recreational and structured activity forms. A secondary recommendation is that children take part in activities that help develop and maintain musculo-skeletal health, on at least two occasions per week ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). This target may be addressed through weight-bearing activities that focus on developing muscular strength, endurance and flexibility, and bone health.

School physical education (PE) provides a context for regular and structured physical activity participation. To this end a common justification for PE's place in the school curriculum is that it contributes to children's health and fitness ( Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom, 2004 ; Zeigler, 1994 ). The extent to which this rationale is accurate is arguable ( Koslow, 1988 ; Michaud and Andres, 1990 ) and has seldom been tested. However, there would appear to be some truth in the supposition because PE is commonly highlighted as a significant contributor to help young people achieve their daily volume of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ; Corbin and Pangrazi, 1998 ). The important role that PE has in promoting health-enhancing physical activity is exemplified in the US ‘Health of the Nation’ targets. These include three PE-associated objectives, two of which relate to increasing the number of schools providing and students participating in daily PE classes. The third objective is to improve the number of students who are engaged in beneficial physical activity for at least 50% of lesson time ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ). However, research evidence suggests that this criterion is somewhat ambitious and, as a consequence, is rarely achieved during regular PE lessons ( Stratton, 1997 ; US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ; Levin et al. , 2001 ; Fairclough, 2003a ).

The potential difficulties of achieving such a target are associated with the diverse aims of PE. These aims are commonly accepted by physical educators throughout the world ( International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education, 1999 ), although their interpretation, emphasis and evaluation may differ between countries. According to Simons-Morton ( Simons-Morton, 1994 ), PE's overarching goals should be (1) for students to take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lessons, and (2) become educated with the knowledge and skills to be physically active outside school and throughout life. The emphasis of learning during PE might legitimately focus on motor, cognitive, social, spiritual, cultural or moral development ( Sallis and McKenzie, 1991 ; Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ). These aspects may help cultivate students' behavioural and personal skills to enable them to become lifelong physical activity participants [(thus meeting PE goal number 2 ( Simons-Morton, 1994 )]. However, to achieve this, these aspects should be delivered within a curriculum which provides a diverse range of physical activity experiences so students can make informed decisions about which ones they enjoy and feel competent at. However, evidence suggests that team sports dominate English PE curricula, yet bear limited relation to the activities that young people participate in, out of school and after compulsory education ( Sport England, 2001 ; Fairclough et al. , 2002 ). In order to promote life-long physical activity a broader base of PE activities needs to be offered to reinforce the fact that it is not necessary for young people to be talented sportspeople to be active and healthy.

While motor, cognitive, social, spiritual, cultural and moral development are valid areas of learning, they can be inconsistent with maximizing participation in health-enhancing physical activity [i.e. PE goal number 1 ( Simons-Morton, 1994 )]. There is no guidance within the English National Curriculum for PE [NCPE ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 )] to inform teachers how they might best work towards achieving this goal. Moreover, it is possible that the lack of policy, curriculum development or teacher expertise in this area contributes to the considerable variation in physical activity levels during PE ( Stratton, 1996a ). However, objective research evidence suggests that this is mainly due to differences in pedagogical variables [i.e. class size, available space, organizational strategies, teaching approaches, lesson content, etc. ( Borys, 1983 ; Stratton, 1996a )]. Furthermore, PE activity participation may be influenced by inter-individual factors. For example, activity has been reported to be lower among students with greater body mass and body fat ( Brooke et al. , 1975 ; Fairclough, 2003c ), and higher as students get older ( Seliger et al. , 1980 ). In addition, highly skilled students are generally more active than their lesser skilled peers ( Li and Dunham, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996b ) and boys tend to engage in more PE activity than girls ( Stratton, 1996b ; McKenzie et al. , 2000 ). Such inter-individual factors are likely to have significant implications for pedagogical practice and therefore warrant further investigation.

In accordance with Simons-Morton's ( Simons-Morton, 1994 ) first proposed aim of PE, the purpose of this study was to assess English students' physical activity levels during high school PE. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ) to ascertain whether or not PE can be effective in helping children be ‘fit and healthy’. Specific attention was paid to differences between sex and ability groups, as well as during different PE activities.

Subjects and settings

One hundred and twenty-two students (62 boys and 60 girls) from five state high schools in Merseyside, England participated in this study. Stage sampling was used in each school to randomly select one boys' and one girls' PE class, in each of Years 7 (11–12 years), 8 (12–13 years) and 9 (13–14 years). Three students per class were randomly selected to take part. These students were categorized as ‘high’, ‘average’ and ‘low’ ability, based on their PE teachers' evaluation of their competence in specific PE activities. Written informed consent was completed prior to the study commencing. The schools taught the statutory programmes of study detailed in the NCPE, which is organized into six activity areas (i.e. athletic activities, dance, games, gymnastic activities, outdoor activities and swimming). The focus of learning is through four distinct aspects of knowledge, skills and understanding, which relate to; skill acquisition, skill application, evaluation of performance, and knowledge and understanding of fitness and health ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ). The students attended two weekly PE classes in mixed ability, single-sex groups. Girls and boys were taught by male and female specialist physical educators, respectively.

Instruments and procedures

The investigation received ethical approval from the Liverpool John Moores Research Degrees Ethics Committee. The study involved the monitoring of heart rates (HRs) during PE using short-range radio telemetry (Vantage XL; Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland). Such systems measure the physiological load on the participants' cardiorespiratory systems, and allow analysis of the frequency, duration and intensity of physical activity. HR telemetry has been shown to be a valid and reliable measure of young people's physical activity ( Freedson and Miller, 2000 ) and has been used extensively in PE settings ( Stratton, 1996a ).

The students were fitted with the HR telemeters while changing into their PE uniforms. HR was recorded once every 5 s for the duration of the lessons. Telemeters were set to record when the teachers officially began the lessons, and stopped at the end of lessons. Total lesson ‘activity’ time was the equivalent of the total recorded time on the HR receiver. At the end of the lessons the telemeters were removed and data were downloaded for analyses. Resting HRs were obtained on non-PE days while the students lay in a supine position for a period of 10 min. The lowest mean value obtained over 1 min represented resting HR. Students achieved maximum HR values following completion of the Balke treadmill test to assess cardiorespiratory fitness ( Rowland, 1993 ). This data was not used in the present study, but was collated for another investigation assessing children's health and fitness status. Using the resting and maximum HR values, HR reserve (HRR, i.e. the difference between resting and maximum HR) at the 50% threshold was calculated for each student. HRR accounts for age and gender HR differences, and is recommended when using HR to assess physical activity in children ( Stratton, 1996a ). The 50% HRR threshold represents moderate intensity physical activity ( Stratton, 1996a ), which is the minimal intensity required to contribute to the recommended volume of health-related activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). Percentage of lesson time spent in health enhancing moderate-and-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was calculated for each student by summing the time spent ≥50% HRR threshold. HRR values ≥75% corresponded to vigorous intensity physical activity (VPA). This threshold represents the intensity that may stimulate improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness ( Morrow and Freedson, 1994 ) and was used to indicate the proportion of lesson time that students were active at this higher level.

Sixty-six lessons were monitored over a 12-week period, covering a variety of group and individual activities ( Table I ). In order to allow statistically meaningful comparisons between different types of activities, students were classified as participants in activities that shared similar characteristics. These were, team games [i.e. invasion (e.g. football and hockey) and striking games (e.g. cricket and softball)], individual games (e.g. badminton, tennis and table tennis), movement activities (e.g. dance and gymnastics) and individual activities [e.g. athletics, fitness (circuit training and running activities) and swimming]. The intention was to monitor equal numbers of students during lessons in each of the four designated PE activity categories. However, timetable constraints and student absence meant that true equity was not possible, and so the number of boys and girls monitored in the different activities was unequal.

Number and type of monitored PE lessons

Boy Girls All students
Team games15722
Movement activities31316
Individual activities71017
Individual games7411
Total 32 34 66
Boy Girls All students
Team games15722
Movement activities31316
Individual activities71017
Individual games7411
Total 32 34 66

Student sex, ability level and PE activity category were the independent variables, with percent of lesson time spent in MVPA and VPA set as the dependent variables. Exploratory analyses were conducted to establish whether data met parametric assumptions. Shapiro–Wilk tests revealed that only boys' MVPA were normally distributed. Subsequent Levene's tests confirmed the data's homogeneity of variance, with the exception of VPA between the PE activities. Though much of the data violated the assumption of normality, the ANOVA is considered to be robust enough to produce valid results in this situation ( Vincent, 1999 ). Considering this, alongside the fact that the data had homogenous variability, it was decided to proceed with ANOVA for all analyses, with the exception of VPA between different PE activities.

Sex × ability level factorial ANOVAs compared the physical activity of boys and girls who differed in PE competence. A one-way ANOVA was used to identify differences in MVPA during the PE activities. Post-hoc analyses were performed using Hochberg's GT2 correction procedure, which is recommended when sample sizes are unequal ( Field, 2000 ). A non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA calculated differences in VPA during the different activities. Post-hoc Mann–Whitney U -tests determined where identified differences occurred. To control for type 1 error the Bonferroni correction procedure was applied to these tests, which resulted in an acceptable α level of 0.008. Although these data were ranked for the purposes of the statistical analysis, they were presented as means ± SD to allow comparison with the other results. All data were analyzed using SPSS version 11.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).

The average duration of PE lessons was 50.6 ± 20.8 min, although girls' (52.6 ± 25.4 min) lessons generally lasted longer than boys' (48.7 ± 15.1 min). When all PE activities were considered together, students engaged in MVPA and VPA for 34.3 ± 21.8 and 8.3 ± 11.1% of PE time, respectively. This equated to 17.5 ± 12.9 (MVPA) and 3.9 ± 5.3 (VPA) min. The high-ability students were more active than the average- and low-ability students, who took part in similar amounts of activity. These trends were apparent in boys and girls ( Table II ).

Mean (±SD) MVPA and VPA of boys and girls of differing abilities

Boyshigh2249.9 ± 19.813.2 ± 13.5
average2135.7 ± 17.77.4 ± 9.3
low1939.3 ± 20.010.1 ± 10.5
combined abilities6239.4 ± 19.1 10.3 ± 11.4
Girlshigh2233.7 ± 22.98.8 ± 12.4
average1825.5 ± 23.23.3 ± 7.5
low2027.3 ± 24.55.9 ± 10.0
combined abilities6029.1 ± 23.46.2 ± 10.4
Boys and girlshigh4438.3 ± 21.711.1 ± 13.0
average3931.0 ± 20.85.5 ± 8.7
low3933.1 ± 22.98.0 ± 10.3
combined abilities 122 34.3 ± 21.8 8.3 ± 11.1
Boyshigh2249.9 ± 19.813.2 ± 13.5
average2135.7 ± 17.77.4 ± 9.3
low1939.3 ± 20.010.1 ± 10.5
combined abilities6239.4 ± 19.1 10.3 ± 11.4
Girlshigh2233.7 ± 22.98.8 ± 12.4
average1825.5 ± 23.23.3 ± 7.5
low2027.3 ± 24.55.9 ± 10.0
combined abilities6029.1 ± 23.46.2 ± 10.4
Boys and girlshigh4438.3 ± 21.711.1 ± 13.0
average3931.0 ± 20.85.5 ± 8.7
low3933.1 ± 22.98.0 ± 10.3
combined abilities 122 34.3 ± 21.8 8.3 ± 11.1

Boys > girls, P < 0.01.

Boys > girls, P < 0.05.

Boys engaged in MVPA for 39.4% ± 19.1 of lesson time compared to the girls' value of 29.1 ± 23.4 [ F (1, 122) = 7.2, P < 0.01]. When expressed as absolute units of time, these data were the equivalent of 18.9 ± 10.5 (boys) and 16.1 ± 14.9 (girls) min. Furthermore, a 4% difference in VPA was observed between the two sexes [ Table II ; F (1, 122) = 4.6, P < 0.05]. There were no significant sex × ability interactions for either MVPA or VPA.

Students participated in most MVPA during team games [43.2 ± 19.5%; F (3, 121) = 6.0, P < 0.01]. Individual games and individual activities provided a similar stimulus for activity, while the least MVPA was observed during movement activities (22.2 ± 20.0%; Figure 1 ). A smaller proportion of PE time was spent in VPA during all activities. Once more, team games (13.6 ± 11.3%) and individual activities (11.8 ± 14.0%) were best suited to promoting this higher intensity activity (χ 2 (3) =30.0, P < 0.01). Students produced small amounts of VPA during individual and movement activities, although this varied considerably in the latter activity ( Figure 2 ).

Mean (±SD) MVPA during different PE activities. **Team games > movement activities (P < 0.01). *Individual activities > movement activities (P < 0.05).

Mean (±SD) MVPA during different PE activities. ** Team games > movement activities ( P < 0.01). * Individual activities > movement activities ( P < 0.05).

Mean (±SD) VPA during different PE activities. **Team games > movement activities (Z (3) = −4.9, P < 0.008) and individual games (Z (3) = −3.8, P < 0.008). †Individual activities > movement activities (Z (3) = −3.3, P < 0.008). ‡Individual game > movement activities (Z (3) = −2.7, P < 0.008).

Mean (±SD) VPA during different PE activities. ** Team games > movement activities ( Z (3) = −4.9, P < 0.008) and individual games ( Z (3) = −3.8, P < 0.008). † Individual activities > movement activities ( Z (3) = −3.3, P < 0.008). ‡ Individual game > movement activities ( Z (3) = −2.7, P < 0.008).

This study used HR telemetry to assess physical activity levels during a range of high school PE lessons. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ) to investigate whether or not PE can be effective in helping children be ‘fit and healthy’. Levels of MVPA were similar to those reported in previous studies ( Klausen et al. , 1986 ; Strand and Reeder, 1993 ; Fairclough, 2003b ) and did not meet the US Department of Health and Human Services ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ) 50% of lesson time criterion. Furthermore, the data were subject to considerable variance, which was exemplified by high standard deviation values ( Table II , and Figures 1 and 2 ). Such variation in activity levels reflects the influence of PE-specific contextual and pedagogical factors [i.e. lesson objectives, content, environment, teaching styles, etc. ( Stratton, 1996a )]. The superior physical activity levels of the high-ability students concurred with previous findings ( Li and Dunham, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996b ). However, the low-ability students engaged in more MVPA and VPA than the average-ability group. While it is possible that the teachers may have inaccurately assessed the low and average students' competence, it could have been that the low-ability group displayed more effort, either because they were being monitored or because they associated effort with perceived ability ( Lintunen, 1999 ). However, these suggestions are speculative and are not supported by the data. The differences in activity levels between the ability groups lend some support to the criticism that PE teachers sometimes teach the class as one and the same rather than planning for individual differences ( Metzler, 1989 ). If this were the case then undifferentiated activities may have been beyond the capability of the lesser skilled students. This highlights the importance of motor competence as an enabling factor for physical activity participation. If a student is unable to perform the requisite motor skills to competently engage in a given task or activity, then their opportunities for meaningful participation become compromised ( Rink, 1994 ). Over time this has serious consequences for the likelihood of a young person being able or motivated enough to get involved in physical activity which is dependent on a degree of fundamental motor competence.

Boys spent a greater proportion of lesson time involved in MVPA and VPA than girls. These differences are supported by other HR studies in PE ( Mota, 1994 ; Stratton, 1997 ). Boys' activity levels equated to 18.9 min of MVPA, compared to 16.1 min for the girls. It is possible that the characteristics and aims of some of the PE activities that the girls took part in did not predispose them to engage in whole body movement as much as the boys. Specifically, the girls participated in 10 more movement lessons and eight less team games lessons than the boys. The natures of these two activities are diverse, with whole body movement at differing speeds being the emphasis during team games, compared to aesthetic awareness and control during movement activities. The monitored lessons reflected typical boys' and girls' PE curricula, and the fact that girls do more dance and gymnastics than boys inevitably restricts their MVPA engagement. Although unrecorded contextual factors may have contributed to this difference, it is also possible that the girls were less motivated than the boys to physically exert themselves. This view is supported by negative correlations reported between girls' PE enjoyment and MVPA ( Fairclough, 2003b ). Moreover, there is evidence ( Dickenson and Sparkes, 1988 ; Goudas and Biddle, 1993 ) to suggest that some pupils, and girls in particular ( Cockburn, 2001 ), may dislike overly exerting themselves during PE. Although physical activity is what makes PE unique from other school subjects, some girls may not see it as such an integral part of their PE experience. It is important that this perception is clearly recognized if lessons are to be seen as enjoyable and relevant, whilst at the same time contributing meaningfully to physical activity levels. Girls tend to be habitually less active than boys and their levels of activity participation start to decline at an earlier age ( Armstrong and Welsman, 1997 ). Therefore, the importance of PE for girls as a means of them experiencing regular health-enhancing physical activity cannot be understated.

Team games promoted the highest levels of MVPA and VPA. This concurs with data from previous investigations ( Strand and Reeder, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996a , 1997 ; Fairclough, 2003a ). Because these activities require the use of a significant proportion of muscle mass, the heart must maintain the oxygen demand by beating faster and increasing stroke volume. Moreover, as team games account for the majority of PE curriculum time ( Fairclough and Stratton, 1997 ; Sport England, 2001 ), teachers may actually be more experienced and skilled at delivering quality lessons with minimal stationary waiting and instruction time. Similarly high levels of activity were observed during individual activities. With the exception of throwing and jumping themes during athletics lessons, the other individual activities (i.e. swimming, running, circuit/station work) involved simultaneous movement of the arms and legs over variable durations. MVPA and VPA were lowest during movement activities, which mirrored previous research involving dance and gymnastics ( Stratton, 1997 ; Fairclough, 2003a ). Furthermore, individual games provided less opportunity for activity than team games. The characteristics of movement activities and individual games respectively emphasize aesthetic appreciation and motor skill development. This can mean that opportunities to promote cardiorespiratory health may be less than in other activities. However, dance and gymnastics can develop flexibility, and muscular strength and endurance. Thus, these activities may be valuable to assist young people in meeting the HDA's secondary physical activity recommendation, which relates to musculo-skeletal health ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ).

The question of whether PE can solely contribute to young people's cardiorespiratory fitness was clearly answered. The students engaged in small amounts of VPA (4.5 and 3.3 min per lesson for boys and girls, respectively). Combined with the limited frequency of curricular PE, these were insufficient durations for gains in cardiorespiratory fitness to occur ( Armstrong and Welsman, 1997 ). Teachers who aim to increase students' cardiorespiratory fitness may deliver lessons focused exclusively on high intensity exercise, which can effectively increase HR ( Baquet et al. , 2002 ), but can sometimes be mundane and have questionable educational value. Such lessons may undermine other efforts to promote physical activity participation if they are not delivered within an enjoyable, educational and developmental context. It is clear that high intensity activity is not appropriate for all pupils, and so opportunities should be provided for them to be able to work at developmentally appropriate levels.

Students engaged in MVPA for around 18 min during the monitored PE lessons. This approximates a third of the recommended daily hour ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). When PE activity is combined with other forms of physical activity support is lent to the premise that PE lessons can directly benefit young people's health status. Furthermore, for the very least active children who should initially aim to achieve 30 min of activity per day ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ), PE can provide the majority of this volume. However, a major limitation to PE's utility as a vehicle for physical activity participation is the limited time allocated to it. The government's aspiration is for all students to receive 2 hours of PE per week ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ), through curricular and extra-curricular activities. While some schools provide this volume of weekly PE, others are unable to achieve it ( Sport England, 2001 ). The HDA recommend that young people strive to achieve 1 hour's physical activity each day through many forms, a prominent one of which is PE. The apparent disparity between recommended physical activity levels and limited curriculum PE time serves to highlight the complementary role that education, along with other agencies and voluntary organizations must play in providing young people with physical activity opportunities. Notwithstanding this, increasing the amount of PE curriculum time in schools would be a positive step in enabling the subject to meet its health-related goals. Furthermore, increased PE at the expense of time in more ‘academic’ subjects has been shown not to negatively affect academic performance ( Shephard, 1997 ; Sallis et al. , 1999 ; Dwyer et al. , 2001 ).

Physical educators are key personnel to help young people achieve physical activity goals. As well as their teaching role they are well placed to encourage out of school physical activity, help students become independent participants and inform them about initiatives in the community ( McKenzie et al. , 2000 ). Also, they can have a direct impact by promoting increased opportunities for physical activity within the school context. These could include activities before school ( Strand et al. , 1994 ), during recess ( Scruggs et al. , 2003 ), as well as more organized extra-curricular activities at lunchtime and after school. Using time in this way would complement PE's role by providing physical activity opportunities in a less structured and pedagogically constrained manner.

This research measured student activity levels during ‘typical’, non-intensified PE lessons. In this sense it provided a representative picture of the frequency, intensity and duration of students' physical activity engagement during curricular PE. However, some factors should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the data were cross-sectional and collected over a relatively short time frame. Tracking students' activity levels over a number of PE activities may have allowed a more accurate account of how physical activity varies in different aspects of the curriculum. Second, monitoring a larger sample of students over more lessons may have enabled PE activities to be categorized into more homogenous groups. Third, monitoring lessons in schools from a wider geographical area may have enabled stronger generalization of the results. Fourth, it is possible that the PE lessons were taught differently, and that the students acted differently as a result of being monitored and having the researchers present during lessons. As this is impossible to determine, it is unknown how this might have affected the results. Fifth, HR telemetry does not provide any contextual information about the monitored lessons. Also, HR is subject to emotional and environmental factors when no physical activity is occurring. Future work should combine objective physical activity measurement with qualitative or quantitative methods of observation.

During PE, students took part in health-enhancing activity for around one third of the recommended 1-hour target ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). PE obviously has potential to help meet this goal. However, on the basis of these data, combined with the weekly frequency of PE lessons, it is clear that PE can only do so much in supplementing young people's daily volume of physical activity. Students need to be taught appropriate skills, knowledge and understanding if they are to optimize their physical activity opportunities in PE. For improved MVPA levels to occur, health-enhancing activity needs to be recognized as an important element of lessons. PE may make a more significant contribution to young people's regular physical activity participation if lessons are planned and delivered with MVPA goals in mind.

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Author notes

1REACH Group and School of Physical Education, Sport and Dance, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L17 6BD and 2REACH Group and Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK

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  • Published: 17 December 2020

Physical education class participation is associated with physical activity among adolescents in 65 countries

  • Riaz Uddin 1 , 2 , 3 ,
  • Jo Salmon 1 ,
  • Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam 1 , 3 &
  • Asaduzzaman Khan 2 , 3  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  22128 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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In this study we examined the associations of physical education class participation with physical activity among adolescents. We analysed the Global School-based Student Health Survey data from 65 countries (N = 206,417; 11–17 years; 49% girls) collected between 2007 and 2016. We defined sufficient physical activity as achieving physical activities ≥ 60 min/day, and grouped physical education classes as ‘0 day/week’, ‘1–2 days/week’, and ‘ ≥ 3 days/week’ participation. We used multivariable logistic regression to obtain country-level estimates, and meta-analysis to obtain pooled estimates. Compared to those who did not take any physical education classes, those who took classes ≥ 3 days/week had double the odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.84–2.28) with no apparent gender/age group differences. The association estimates decreased with higher levels of country’s income with OR 2.37 (1.51–3.73) for low-income and OR 1.85 (1.52–2.37) for high-income countries. Adolescents who participated in physical education classes 1–2 days/week had 26% higher odds of being sufficiently active with relatively higher odds for boys (30%) than girls (15%). Attending physical education classes was positively associated with physical activity among adolescents regardless of sex or age group. Quality physical education should be encouraged to promote physical activity of children and adolescents.

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Introduction.

Physical activity is essential for health and wellbeing of children and adolescents 1 . Physical activity improves musculoskeletal, cardiac, metabolic, psychosocial, and cognitive health, and enhances cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness of children and adolescents 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . Regular participation also decreases adiposity in those who are overweight 3 . For optimal health benefits, the current international guidelines (i.e., the World Health Organization [WHO]) recommends that those aged 5–17-years accumulate at least 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily 5 . Globally, four out of five (81%) adolescents aged 11–17 years do not meet this recommendation and are insufficiently active 6 . Such inactive behaviours during adolescence have both current and future ramifications on health and wellbeing as behaviours such as physical activity established during adolescence can carry over to adulthood 7 , 8 . Therefore, pragmatic strategies to promote physical activity during adolescence around the globe are of critical importance 9 .

Adolescent physical activity occurs in different settings and domains including at home, in the community, for transportation, and at school. Opportunities for physical activity at school include during recess and lunch breaks, school sport and physical education lessons. Physical education classes may provide resources and opportunities for students to accumulate the daily physical activity level and can contribute to daily energy expenditure 10 , 11 . Recent meta-analyses found that 41% of secondary school 12 and 45% of elementary school 13 physical education lessons comprised moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. In many countries, physical education provides children and adolescents the understanding and motivation for an active lifestyle and also creates an environment to acquire knowledge and skills for physical activity throughout life 14 , 15 . In addition, adolescents who may have limited access to space and equipment outside of school can benefit from attending physical education classes at school 10 , 11 . School-based physical education, therefore, can be an accessible source of physical activity for many adolescents and can help develop an active healthy lifestyle 16 . In addition to the number of physical education classes, access to high-quality physical education experience (e.g., teacher behaviours, learning outcomes), which forms the foundation for lifelong engagement in physical activity, is also important for children and adolescents 17 , 18 , 19 .

Available evidence suggest that participation in physical education classes are positively associated with higher levels of physical activity 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 . However, the evidence is mostly based on single-country studies from high-income countries with limited multi-country study and lack of representation of low- and lower-middle-income countries 25 . A recent multi-country study reported country- and regional-level differences in physical education class participation, which was also differed by sex, age, and country-income classification 26 . In addition, delivery, content and quality of physical education also vary within and between countries 27 , 28 . It is often provided infrequently in schools across countries, and therefore the potential impact on total moderate-to-vigorous physical activity among boys and girls may be limited 29 . In order to obtain a comprehensive global perspective on the relationship between physical education and physical activity, large multi-country studies with representative samples are essential. Given the context and the opportunities that exist in schools for physical activity promotion, in this study, we aimed to examine whether participation in physical education classes (i.e., number of physical education class attendance) is associated with sufficient level of physical activity among adolescents (overall, and by sex and age-group) from 65 countries around the globe. We hypothesised that higher number of physical education class participation would be positively associated with sufficient level of physical activity among adolescents.

Data source

Data for this study were from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS), a population-based survey of school-going children and adolescents around the world 30 . In all participating countries, the GSHS uses the same standardised sampling technique and study methodology. All participants completed a standardised self-administered anonymous questionnaire, which included, but was not limited to, questions on demographics (e.g., age, sex), participation in physical education classes and physical activity. GSHS adopted questionnaire items, including items to measure physical activity and physical education from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey of American Adolescents. Countries, where GSHS were implemented, were encouraged to use culturally appropriate examples, words, and phrases to ensure sociocultural adaptability of the items. Furthermore, using a rigorous translation and back-translation process with the assistance of WHO and US CDC, countries were allowed to translate the questionnaire into their local language 31 .

As of 8 December 2019, 98 countries/territories around the globe had at least one GSHS dataset publicly available with the surveys being conducted between 2007 and 2016. For countries with more than one GSHS dataset, we used the most recent one available. Of the 98 countries, 84 countries had data on PA, while 67 countries had data on physical education. Two countries (Niue and Tokelau) were excluded from the analyses due to their small sample size (n < 140). The analytical sample consists of 206,417 adolescents aged 11 or younger to 17 years from 65 countries. Only a small proportion of students (1.05%) were in the age group “11 years old or younger”, and for modelling purposes, they were considered as 11 years old for this analysis, as it was not possible to determine what proportion of 1.05% students were younger than 11 years old. All countries provided nationally representative samples.

The GSHS received ethics approval from the Ministry of Education or a relevant Institutional Ethics Review Committee, or both in each of the participating countries. Only those adolescents and their parents who provided written or verbal consent participated. As the current study used retrospective, de-identified, publicly available data, ethics approval was not required for this secondary analysis. Detailed methods of the GSHS have been described on both the US CDC and the WHO websites 30 , 32 .

Outcome measure—physical activity participation

Physical activity was assessed with one item: ‘During the past 7 days, on how many days were you physically active for a total of at least 60 min per day?’ The response options were 0–7 days. Consistent with the WHO recommendations 5 , we defined participants as ‘sufficiently active’ who did ≥ 60 min/day of physical activity on seven days of the week.

Study factor—physical education participation

Physical education class attendance was assessed with one item: ‘During this school year, on how many days did you go to physical education (PE) class each week?’ The responses were classified into three groups: ‘0 day/week’, ‘1–2 days/week’, and ‘≥ 3 days/week’ as used elsewhere 25 , 33 .

Adolescents self-reported age, sex, and daily hours of sitting (when not in school or doing homework) in the survey. Food insecurity was assessed by asking: ‘During the past 30 days, how often did you go hungry because there was not enough food in your home?’ with response options being never, rarely, sometimes, most of the time, and always. As the GSHS did not include any direct measure of socioeconomic status, this variable was used as a proxy measure of socioeconomic status 34 , 35 . Self-reported height and weight were used to compute body mass index (BMI), which was categorised as underweight (BMI < −2SD), overweight (BMI >  + 1SD), and obese (BMI >  + 2SD), relative to median BMI, by age and sex based on the WHO Child Growth Standards 36 .

Statistical analyses

Of the 65 countries with data on physical activity and physical education, nine countries were from Africa, 20 from the Americas, 15 from Eastern Mediterranean, five from South East Asia, and 16 from the Western Pacific region. Using the World Bank country classification, collected at the time of the survey for the respective countries, seven countries were classified as low‐income, 21 lower‐middle‐income, 18 upper‐middle‐income, and 18 high-income. Income classification information was not available for Cook Island. The prevalence estimates of physical activity and physical education were obtained by using a Stata command ‘svyset’ to take into account sampling weights and the clustered sampling design of the surveys.

In examining the country-level association of physical education with physical activity, a set of covariates was considered including age, sex, weight status (i.e., BMI), food insecurity, and sitting time. Sitting time was considered as an adjusting factor given its demonstrated association with physical activity in adolescents 37 . Given the binary nature of physical activity outcome, logistic regression analysis with robust standard errors was used to examine the association at the country level, by taking into account the sampling weight that was applied to each participant record to adjust for non-response and the varying probability of selection. This GSHS weighting factor was applied in an identical way to estimate the association in each participating country. Within the GSHS protocol, weighting accounted for the probability of selection of schools and classrooms, non-responding schools and students, and distribution of the population by sex and grade.

Random effects meta-analysis was used to generate pooled estimates of the association between physical education and physical activity for the overall sample, by country income category (e.g., low-income, lower-middle income, upper-middle income, and high-income), and by WHO region, stratified by sex and age groups (11–14 years vs 15–17 years). Two age groups (11–14 years [early adolescence] and 15–17 years [middle adolescence]) 38 were considered to stratify the analysis in order to examine whether the association estimates vary across phases of adolescence. This analysis used DerSimonian and Laird method 39 with the estimate of heterogeneity being taken from the Mantel–Haenszel model. As the GSHS were conducted across different cultural settings in 65 countries around the world over a long period of time (2007–2016), it was reasonable to assume that the association estimates across countries were likely to vary from survey to survey, which supports the use of random effects meta-analysis that can adjust heterogeneity among studies 40 . The percentage of variability in estimates across studies that is attributable to between study heterogeneity (I 2 ) in our analysis ranges from 54.3 to 80.2%, which suggests a strong presence of heterogeneity in the association estimates, and further supports the use of random effects meta-analysis. All adjusted estimates of the association parameters are presented in the form of odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). All analyses were conducted by StataSE V14.0.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The GSHS received ethics approval from both a national government administration and an institutional review board or ethics committee. Only adolescents and their parents who provided written/verbal consent participated. As the current study used retrospective publicly available data, we did not require ethics approval from any Institutional Ethics Review Committee for this secondary analysis.

The mean age of the participating adolescents (n = 206,417) was 14.35 (SD = 1.45) years, 54.4% aged 11–14 years, and 49.2% were girls. The prevalence of sufficient physical activity was 15.0%, with boys having higher prevalence (18.3%) than girls (11.5%). Over half (56.5%) of adolescents participated in physical education classes 1–2 days/week (boys 54.7%; girls 58.3%) and about a quarter (24.2%) participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week (boys 26.8%; girls 21.6%). As shown in Fig.  1 , the overall percentage of adolescents being sufficiently active was greater for those who attended more physical education classes in both sexes.

figure 1

Proportion of adolescents sufficiently physically active by participation in physical education classes, Global School-based Student Health Survey, 2007–2016.

Estimates of associations of physical education class participation with sufficient physical activity by country are shown in Table 1 . The country-level analysis shows that 50 out of 65 participating countries (77%) demonstrated significant and positive associations between attending physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week and being sufficiently active with 33 countries (51%) revealing at least double the odds (OR ≥ 2.0) of meeting physical activity guidelines. For example, Bolivian adolescents who attended physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had threefold odds of reporting sufficient physical activity compared with their counterparts who attended no physical education class (OR 3.00, 95% CI 1.93–4.67). In examining the association between attending physical education classes 1–2 days/week and being sufficiently active, 20 countries (31%) demonstrated significant positive associations. For example, Thai adolescents who attended physical education classes 1–2 days/week had double the odds to reporting sufficient physical activity compared with their counterparts who attended no physical education class (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.39–3.19). As shown in Table 1 , attending physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week was positively and strongly associated with physical activity in all WHO regions with South East Asia region showing the strongest association (OR 2.89, 2.11–3.97), followed by Africa (OR 2.45, 1.72–3.48) and Western Pacific region (OR 2.40, 1.92–3.00). The analysis also showed evidence of positive and moderate association between attending physical education classes 1–2 days/week and being sufficiently active in all WHO regions with the pooled association estimates ranging from OR 1.19 (1.01–1.41) in the Americas region to OR 1.86 (1.03–3.36) in South East Asia.

Overall, adolescents who took physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week, compared to those who did not take any physical education classes, had double the odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.84–2.28) with no apparent gender (OR 2.09, 1.88–2.33 for boys; and OR 1.95, 1.69–2.25 for girls) or age (OR 2.19, 1.93–2.48 for 11–14-year-old; and OR 2.03, 1.80–2.28 for 15–17-year-old adolescents) differences (Table 2 ). Adolescents who participated in physical education classes 1–2 days/week had 26% higher odds of being sufficiently active (OR 1.26, 1.15–1.37) with relatively higher odds for boys (OR 1.30, 1.17–1.46) than girls (OR 1.15, 1.03–1.29) and younger adolescents aged 11–14 years (OR 1.28, 1.16–1.42) that older adolescents aged 15–17 years (OR 1.19, 1.08–1.32).

The odds of attending physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week and being sufficiently active were lower in country with higher income (Table 2 ). In low-income countries, adolescents who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had 137% higher odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.37, 1.51–3.73) with comparable odds for boys (OR 2.51, 1.70–3.70) and girls (OR 2.36, 1.31–4.26) and slightly higher odds for younger (OR 2.94, 1.92–4.51) than older adolescents (OR 2.32, 1.36–3.96). In high-income countries, the odds of being sufficiently active was 85% higher for adolescents who attended physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week (OR 1.85; 1.52–2.25) with no apparent gender (boys OR 1.89, 1.50–2.37; girls OR 1.69, 1.36–2.10) or age (younger OR 1.83, 1.47–2.28; older OR 1.80 (1.48–2.19) differences. In lower-middle income countries, adolescents who attended physical education classes 1–2 days/week had 39% higher odds of being sufficiently active (OR 1.39, 1.19–1.62) compared to their counterparts who did not take any physical education classes, with relatively higher odds for boys (OR 1.46, 1.21–1.76) than girls (OR 1.30, 1.03–1.65), and similar odds for younger (OR 1.36, 1.09–1.68) and older adolescents (OR 1.33, 1.16–1.51).

Boys of South East Asian region who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had the highest odds of being sufficiently active (OR 3.29, 1.97–5.47), followed by the boys of Africa region (OR 2.41, 1.74–3.33) (Supplementary Table S1 ). Girls of Western Pacific and Africa region who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had the highest odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.68, 1.89–3.77, and OR 2.63, 1.63–4.26, respectively). Even by attending physical education classes 1–2 days/week, boys of the Americas region and girls of Africa region can increase their odds, though not considerably, of being sufficiently active (OR 1.29, 1.06–1.58, and OR 1.41, 1.15–1.73, respectively).

Both younger and older adolescents in all WHO regions demonstrated positive association between ≥ 3 days/week physical education class attendance and meeting the physical activity recommendations (Supplementary Table S1 ). Younger adolescents in South East Asia (OR 3.03, 2.42–3.79) and Africa (OR 2.95, 2.07–4.20), and older adolescents in South East Asia (OR 3.24, 1.57–6.67) who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had over three times higher odds of being sufficiently active. There were moderate positive associations between physical education class attendance for 1–2 days/week and meeting the physical activity recommendations for younger adolescents in Africa (OR 1.38, 1.03–1.84), the Americas (OR 1.29, 1.07–1.56), and Eastern Mediterranean regions (OR 1.24, 1.06–1.44), and for older adolescents in Africa (OR 1.24, 1.03–1.48), Eastern Mediterranean (OR 1.26, 1.07–1.49), and Western Pacific region (OR 1.19, 1.01–1.41).

To our knowledge, this is the most extensive global study to assess the association of physical education class attendance with physical activity of adolescents, based on nationally representative samples from 65 countries around the globe. The key finding of our study is that adolescents, irrespective of sex or age, who had a higher frequency (≥ 3 days/week) of physical education class attendance had significantly higher odds of meeting the WHO’s physical activity recommendations. The estimates of association between the frequency of attending physical education and meeting physical activity recommendations were lower among countries with higher income. We observed some regional differences with South East Asia having the highest associations and the Americas having the lowest. Our findings suggest that adolescents, especially girls and those aged 15–17 years, are mostly benefited from a higher frequency (i.e., ≥ 3 days/week) of physical education participation. Our study also found some benefits of less frequent participation in physical education classes (1–2 days/week) in meeting the physical activity guidelines, which is encouraging. About one-third of the countries demonstrated positive association between less frequent participation in physical education classes and meeting the physical activity recommendations, and such association was prominent in boys and younger adolescents in all but low-income countries. Our study thus argues that even less frequent participation in physical education classes can bring some benefits for some adolescents.

Our finding that a higher frequency of physical education class attendance was positively associated with meeting the physical activity recommendations is consistent with other studies in children and adolescents 20 , 21 , 24 , 25 . It has been argued that participation in physical education classes acts as a positive reinforcement to “keep young people going” by being more physically active with less time in sedentary behaviour throughout the day 25 . Physical education classes provide children with an opportunity to familiarise themselves with different types of physical activity, motivates them to be active within the school environment, and potentially also encourages more out-of-school physical activity 41 . Physical activity during physical education classes may reduce fatigue and improve mood by changing neurophysiological stimulation and the brain’s information processing function (i.e., cerebral cortex), which may improve children’s preparedness to move more throughout the day 25 . While the frequency of physical education class is important, it is also critical that children have access to quality physical education 18 , 19 . Previously, researchers have suggested that in spite of the traditional class-based and sports-centred physical education curriculum, physical education ought to be a health-centred dynamic learning experience for children 19 , 42 . Quality physical education is important for age-appropriate cognitive learning and to acquire fitness, develop motor skills and psychosocial and emotional skills, which can help children to lead an active lifestyle, inside and outside of the school environment, throughout their life course 18 , 19 , 42 . Given the role of physical education for active and healthy lifestyle, different stakeholders, including United Nations agencies (i.e., UNESCO) 19 , European Commission 17 , have recommended to ensure quality physical education for children and adolescents, and called for political commitments and actions from Governments and supports from the international communities.

In our study, adolescents boys and girls in low-income countries with ≥ 3 days/week physical education class attendance had the highest odds of meeting the physical activity recommendations, and the associations became smaller (yet significant) with a higher country income classification for both sexes. A previous 12-country study 25 reported similar findings for boys, but not for girls. Unlike our study that is based on self-reported data, the earlier study used a device-based physical activity measure and included Australia and other high-income countries of Europe and North America. In addition to high-income countries, our study included adolescents from low- and lower-middle-income countries. It is possible that for many children, regardless of sex or country income, schools provide the most pragmatic and readily accessible opportunities for various physical activity, while out-of-school physical activity options, logistics, and environments might be variable 10 , 11 . The environments, in general, may be more supportive of out of school physical activity for children in high-income countries than their counterparts in low-income countries; however, high-income countries may have other challenges including gender and socioeconomic disparities in physical activity. For example, children from high-poverty neighbourhood may have fewer opportunities for out of school physical activity in many high-income countries 43 , 44 . Appreciating the heterogeneity in resources for physical education within- and across countries, all governments should consider schools as the primary focus to promote an active and healthy lifestyle among children and adolescents, which is likely to be a cost-effective and opportunistic initiative to get them moving. Our findings also show that physical education is potentially more important in South East Asia than the Americas in promoting physical activity. In addition to environmental support, such variations could be a sign of the quality of the respective physical education programs, including time allocated for physical education across the countries. There is a large heterogeneity in weekly time allocated for physical education in countries around the globe. For example, weekly time for physical education of secondary school students in Bangladesh (180 min) is reportedly higher than in Peru (90 min) 28 . Research is needed to understand whether physical education classes are designed to facilitate physical activity and/or how much time students actually spend in physical activity during physical education classes. It is also important to understand how physical education lessons can help the students to develop skills so that they can be more active both inside and outside of school. This information can help in designing a physical education curriculum with balanced components of physical activity and physical education lessons on other health and wellbeing so that the students can develop a healthy lifestyle. Opportunities for quality physical education should be equitable and inclusive, and available for all children regardless their gender, disability status, socio-economic position, and cultural or religious backgrounds, and the delivery of physical education should be ensured for marginalised and vulnerable groups 19 .

The strengths of our study are the inclusion of a large number of countries around the globe, representing different world regions and income groups. All countries included in our study provided nationally representative data. We used the GSHS sample weighting to account for distribution of the population by age and sex in countries for whose data were analysed. Any potential skewness, by sex or age, in the observed data is unlikely to impact the weighted analysis results. All countries where GSHS was implemented, used a standardised data collection procedure. In all countries, a standardised questionnaire with the same survey items to assess physical activity and physical education class attendance was used, which facilitated our regional comparisons. We adjusted our estimates for several potential covariates to avoid possible confounding effects of these factors.

The findings of our study should be interpreted in light of its limitations. Data for our study were collected using self-reported questionnaire; these data are vulnerable to social desirability and recall bias. Unavailability of GSHS data from European and North American countries, some of the Latin/Central American and Asia and Pacific countries, limits the generalisability of the findings only to the GSHS participating countries. Although a standardised questionnaire was used in all participating countries, there is a lack of information on the reliability and validity of GSHS measures across different countries or cultures. Physical education classes can have different meanings and can constitute different components, including a knowledge-based curriculum component (i.e., lessons and discussions) and/or skill-based physical activity session, in different settings. We did not have any information on components of physical education classes across the participating countries. The cross‐sectional design of the study limits our ability to make any causal inferences from the association estimates. Some adolescents in our study may have had difficulties with understanding the questionnaire because of poor reading skills. In this study, we used data collected between 2007 and 2016, which may have biased the results because of the period effect.

Conclusions

Our study suggests a positive association between regular participation in physical education classes and meeting the physical activity guidelines among children and adolescents around the globe regardless of sex or age group. The odds were lower in high- than low-income countries. The benefits of regular participation in physical education classes to enhance physical activity are universal across all WHO regions, with the highest being observed among adolescents from South East Asian countries. Even less frequent participation in physical education classes (i.e., 1–2 days a week) was related to higher odds of being sufficiently active in all but low-income countries, especially in boys. Thus, the findings support the importance of physical education for ensuring sufficient physical activity among school-going children and adolescents around the globe. Countries must not miss the opportunity to ensure schools deliver a daily or at least 3 days per week of well-designed physical education classes, which can play a vital role in creating active nations around the world.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization for making the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) data publicly available for analysis. The authors thank the GSHS country coordinators and other staff members. R.U. is supported by Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. J.S. is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Leadership Level 2 Fellowship (APP 1176885). S.M.S.I. is supported by the Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin University and a post doctorate fellowship from the National Heart Foundation of Australia (Award #102112).

This research received no external funding.

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R.U.: concept and design study, data analysis and interpretation, drafting manuscript, critical revision of manuscript, final approval; J.S.: data interpretation, critical revision of manuscript, final approval; S.M.S.I.: data interpretation, critical revision of manuscript, final approval; A.K.: concept and design study, data analysis and interpretation, statistical analysis, drafting manuscript, critical revision of manuscript, final approval.

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Uddin, R., Salmon, J., Islam, S.M.S. et al. Physical education class participation is associated with physical activity among adolescents in 65 countries. Sci Rep 10 , 22128 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79100-9

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Physical Activity and Quality of Life in High School Students: Proposals for Improving the Self-Concept in Physical Education

Affiliations.

  • 1 Department of Didactics of Musical, Plastic and Body Expression, Faculty of Teaching Training, University of Extremadura, Avenida Universidad, S/N, 10071 Cáceres, Spain.
  • 2 Department of Specific Didactics, Faculty of Education, University of Burgos, CalleVilladiego 1, 09001 Burgos, Spain.
  • 3 Physical Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, S/N, 16071 Cuenca, Spain.
  • PMID: 34281121
  • PMCID: PMC8297227
  • DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18137185

Adolescence is a critical period for the acquisition of health-related behaviors that will transcend later psychological well-being in adulthood. The present study presents a theoretical model whose objective is to analyze how physical activity predicts an adequate quality of life through self-concept and subjective happiness among adolescents. A total of 452 students aged 12 to 15 (M = 13.8; SD = 0.77) from four Compulsory Secondary Education institutes of the Autonomous Community of Extremadura participated, including boys ( n = 258) and girls ( n = 194). The students reported information on the following variables: physical activity, body mass index, self-concept, subjective happiness, and quality of life. The results show acceptable fit indices for the proposed theoretical model, which showed the importance of physical activity through self-concept and subjective happiness in quality of life: MRLχ 2 = 67.533, p < 0.05, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.90, SRMR = 0.05, and RMSA = 0.07. Likewise, the model presented a better fit index for males than females. This study draws conclusions on the importance of physical activity as a predictor of quality of life mediated by the perception of self-concept and mood in adolescents.

Keywords: adolescents; physical activity; predictive model; quality of life; students.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Hypothesized model in adolescents. Note.…

Hypothesized model in adolescents. Note. QoL: Quality of life.

Structural equation model. Note. QoL:…

Structural equation model. Note. QoL: quality of life; BMI: body mass index, physical…

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Effects of a physical education program on physical activity and emotional well-being among primary school children.

research proposal for physical education

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. participants, 2.2. instruments, 2.2.1. the evaluation of physical activity, 2.2.2. the revised children’s manifest anxiety scale, 2.3. procedure, 2.4. data analysis, 3.1. physical activity of 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children in the experimental group, 3.2. physical activity of 6–7- and 8–9-year-old children in the control group, 3.3. anxiety of 6–7-year-old children (first grade), 3.4. anxiety of 8–9-year-old children (second grade), 4. discussion.

  • Aerobic activities: Most daily activities should be moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic activities, such as bicycling, playing sports and active games, and brisk walking.
  • Strength training: The program should include muscle-strengthening activities at least three days a week, such as performing calisthenics, weight-bearing activities, and weight training.
  • Bone strengthening: Bone-strengthening activities should also be included at least three days a week, such as jump-rope, playing tennis or badminton, and engaging in other hopping-type activities.

5. Conclusions

Author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

Dynamic exerciseAerobic capacity and/or muscle strength education.
Exercise can be any movement that improves physical fitness. Exercise that gives you more energy or stamina is regularly called aerobic exercise [ ].
Intense motor skills repetitionDiminishing/eliminating queues, such that children are not waiting their turn; having small-sided games or group activities like 3 versus 3 (which expands the number of times the children need to develop/apply their skills—this assists in preventing children from being on the periphery of or excluded from a game/activity); and expanding the amount of gear equipment for the children and/or potentially expanding the number of stations.
DifferentiationAll children ought to be set assignments that are fit to their physical, intellectual, and social situation, which encourages them to take part in active learning time. Teachers ought to guarantee that they know about the space, errand, hardware, and individuals (STEP) structure for the dynamic differentiation of activities [ , ].
Seating and parking reductionWhen a teacher is providing feedback or questioning students frequently, they do not have to stop the entire class; instead, they can simply target and stop a group of students or an individual child. Engaging children in activity quickly toward the beginning of the exercise, through concise questioning and feedback. Guaranteeing that equipment is prepared, coordinated, and available toward the beginning of and all through the exercise [ ].
Physical activity distribution in the classroomThis rule depends on teachers encouraging children’s in-class physical activity through positive praise. Instances of the advancement of in-class physical activity incorporate “incredible collaboration, continue moving, and searching for space” [ ].
Lesson TopicAreas of Activity for the Physical Education LessonLesson TopicAreas of Activity for the Physical Education Lesson
First GradeSecond Grade
Month 1Exercising with a textbook and notes. Arrangement, basic starting hand and leg positions. Honest conduct. Proper breathing over time.Healthy lifestyle
Movement skills
Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (athletics)
Working with a textbook and notes.
Walking and running exercises.
Smooth running in a group.
3 × 10 m speed shuttle run test—agility.
Playing with balls.
Healthy lifesty
leMovement skills
Sport units (athletics)
Sport units (sports games)
Month 2Exercising with a textbook and notes. Ball school. I pass the ball to a companion. I am figuring out how to pass the ball precisely. Running is the best movement. Running: Relay. Proper posture.Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (basketball)
Sport units (athletics)
Working with a textbook and notes.
Exercises with ball.
Football game.
Flexibility training.
Developing movement skills through play.
Healthy lifestyle
Movement skills
Sport units (football)
Sport units (gymnastics)
Month 3Exercising with a textbook and notes. Jumping on two feet. Spider and turn. Animal aerobatics. Let us jump by jumping. Shuttle running 3 × 10 m.Healthy lifestyle
Movement skills
Unconventional physical activity
Sport units (athletics)
Working with a textbook and notes.
Let us get acquainted with game of square.
Let us learn to play square.Long jump-rope.
Activity games.
The long jump test to test explosive power of children’s leg muscles.
Healthy lifestyle
Movement skills
Sport units (gymnastics)
Sport units (athletics)
Month 4Exercising with a textbook and notes. Long jump. Figure out how to kick and drive a soccer ball, to drive a soccer ball in a straight and winding line. Children’s yoga.Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (athletics)
Sport units (football)
Unconventional physical activity
Working with a textbook and notes.
Exercises to help calm down and concentrate.
Kids yoga.
Throw a small ball at a target (vertical).
Throw a small ball at a target (horizontal).
Throw a small ball at a target (vertical and horizontal).
Healthy lifestyle
Unconventional physical activity
Movement skills
Sport units (athletics)
Month 5Exercising with a textbook and notes. How to kick a soccer ball into the goal. The basics of aerobatics: practice with gymnastic balls. Muscle stretching. Attempt to keep balance.Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (football)
Unconventional physical activity
Working with a textbook and notes.
Overcoming horizontal and vertical barriers. Jumping.
Hanging.
Medical (stuffed) 1 kg ball pushing from the chest to test the explosive power of hands.
Aerobics.
Movement skills outdoors.
Healthy lifestyle
Movement skills
Sport units (athletics)
Unconventional physical activity
Month 6Exercising with a textbook and notes. Basics of gymnastics implies tools and right posture. Jump-rope. Basic strides of aerobics. Fun relays.Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (gymnastics)
Unconventional physical activity
Movement skills
Working with a textbook and notes. Getting ready and learning to play basketball.
Learn to rotate gymnastics hoop.
Methods of movements in space (darkness).
Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (basketball)
Sport units (gymnastics)
Unconventional physical activity
Month 7Exercising with a textbook and notes. We figure out how to drive, pass, and catch a basketball by exercising in pairs, to drive a basketball in a straight and winding line. Obstacle course.Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (basketball)
Movement skills
Unconventional physical activity
Working with a textbook and notes.
Playing with balls.
How to move a log without falling.
Running from a high start.
Running from a low start.
Starting positions (high or low start).
Healthy lifestyle
Movement skills
Sport units (athletics)
Unconventional physical activity
Month 8Exercising with a textbook and notes. Tossing a ball.
We cooperate to
overcome obstacles.
We play football. We figure out how to orient ourselves. Sports event.
Healthy lifestyle
Sport units (athletics)
Sport units (football) Movement skills
Working with a textbook and notes.
Outdoor games.
We learn how to orient in the area.
Strengthening the musculoskeletal system. Outdoor
Project “Health and Sport Day”.
Healthy lifestyle
Movement skills
Sport units (gymnastics)
Unconventional physical activity
Type of Physical ActivityPhysical Education LessonCycling to SchoolWalking to SchoolSport Groups (Mean Physical Activity)
MET3.543.36
1 day/min300.450.359
Days per week1341
The experimental groupPre-testPost-test
GradeFirstSecondFirstSecond
Physical Education lesson92.1597.50115.83130.01
Cycling to school17.5218.4018.3921.33
Walking to school15.9823.5016.0730.37
Sport groups (mean physical activity)805.951072.12958.121271.91
On average931.60 * §1211.55 * 1108.41 * 1453.62 *
Type of Physical ActivityPhysical Education LessonCycling to SchoolWalking to SchoolSport Groups (Mean Physical Activity)
MET3.5406
1 day/min300.58 *|0.50 **0.3 *|0.71 **58
Days per week1341
Note. *—First Grade; **—Second Grade.
The control groupPre-testPost-test
GradeFirstSecondFirstSecond
Physical Education lesson91.6895.8798.1105.7
Cycling to school15.9123.0316.5823.54
Walking to school022.15028.65
Sport groups (mean physical activity)798.81964.66880.981053.81
On average906.40 * 1105.71 *995.66 * 1211.70 *
Note. *, p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between physical activity types; , p < 0.05 (according to the Mann–Whitney U test) between First and Second Grades.
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Kliziene, I.; Cizauskas, G.; Sipaviciene, S.; Aleksandraviciene, R.; Zaicenkoviene, K. Effects of a Physical Education Program on Physical Activity and Emotional Well-Being among Primary School Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 7536. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147536

Kliziene I, Cizauskas G, Sipaviciene S, Aleksandraviciene R, Zaicenkoviene K. Effects of a Physical Education Program on Physical Activity and Emotional Well-Being among Primary School Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2021; 18(14):7536. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147536

Kliziene, Irina, Ginas Cizauskas, Saule Sipaviciene, Roma Aleksandraviciene, and Kristina Zaicenkoviene. 2021. "Effects of a Physical Education Program on Physical Activity and Emotional Well-Being among Primary School Children" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 14: 7536. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147536

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Cover of Educating the Student Body

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

  • Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

5 Approaches to Physical Education in Schools

Key messages.

  • Because it is guaranteed to reach virtually all children, physical education is the only sure opportunity for nearly all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities.
  • High-quality physical education programs are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week (30 minutes per day) for children in elementary schools and 225 minutes per week (45 minutes per day) for students in middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation.
  • Students are more physically active on days on which they have physical education.
  • Quality physical education has strong support from both parents and child health professional organizations.
  • Several models and examples demonstrate that physical education scheduled during the school day is feasible on a daily basis.
  • Substantial discrepancies exist in state mandates regarding the time allocated for physical education.
  • Nearly half of school administrators (44 percent) reported cutting significant time from physical education and recess to increase time spent in reading and mathematics since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act.
  • Standardized national-level data on the provision of and participation, performance, and extent of engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity are insufficient to allow assessment of the current status and trends in physical education in the United States.
  • Systematic research is needed on personal, curricular, and policy barriers to successful physical education.
  • The long-term impact of physical education has been understudied and should be a research priority to support the development of evidence-based policies.

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as “a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence.” As a school subject, physical education is focused on teaching school-aged children the science and methods of physically active, healthful living ( NASPE, 2012 ). It is an avenue for engaging in developmentally appropriate physical activities designed for children to develop their fitness, gross motor skills, and health ( Sallis et al., 2003 ; Robinson and Goodway, 2009 ; Robinson, 2011 ). This chapter (1) provides a perspective on physical education in the context of schooling; (2) elaborates on the importance of physical education to child development; (3) describes the consensus on the characteristics of quality physical education programs; (4) reviews current national, state, and local education policies that affect the quality of physical education; and (5) examines barriers to quality physical education and solutions for overcoming them.

  • PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLING

Physical education became a subject matter in schools (in the form of German and Swedish gymnastics) at the beginning of the 19th century ( Hackensmith, 1966 ). Its role in human health was quickly recognized. By the turn of the 20th century, personal hygiene and exercise for bodily health were incorporated in the physical education curriculum as the major learning outcomes for students ( Weston, 1962 ). The exclusive focus on health, however, was criticized by educator Thomas Wood (1913 ; Wood and Cassidy, 1930 ) as too narrow and detrimental to the development of the whole child. The education community subsequently adopted Wood's inclusive approach to physical education whereby fundamental movements and physical skills for games and sports were incorporated as the major instructional content. During the past 15 years, physical education has once again evolved to connect body movement to its consequences (e.g., physical activity and health), teaching children the science of healthful living and skills needed for an active lifestyle ( NASPE, 2004 ).

Sallis and McKenzie (1991) published a landmark paper stating that physical education is education content using a “comprehensive but physically active approach that involves teaching social, cognitive, and physical skills, and achieving other goals through movement” (p. 126). This perspective is also emphasized by Siedentop (2009) , who states that physical education is education through the physical. Sallis and McKenzie (1991) stress two main goals of physical education: (1) prepare children and youth for a lifetime of physical activity and (2) engage them in physical activity during physical education. These goals represent the lifelong benefits of health-enhancing physical education that enable children and adolescents to become active adults throughout their lives.

Physical Education as Part of Education

In institutionalized education, the main goal has been developing children's cognitive capacity in the sense of learning knowledge in academic disciplines. This goal dictates a learning environment in which seated learning behavior is considered appropriate and effective and is rewarded. Physical education as part of education provides the only opportunity for all children to learn about physical movement and engage in physical activity. As noted, its goal and place in institutionalized education have changed from the original focus on teaching hygiene and health to educating children about the many forms and benefits of physical movement, including sports and exercise. With a dramatic expansion of content beyond the original Swedish and German gymnastics programs of the 19th century, physical education has evolved to become a content area with diverse learning goals that facilitate the holistic development of children ( NASPE, 2004 ).

To understand physical education as a component of the education system, it is important to know that the education system in the United States does not operate with a centralized curriculum. Learning standards are developed by national professional organizations such as the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and/or state education agencies rather than by the federal Department of Education; all curricular decisions are made locally by school districts or individual schools in compliance with state standards. Physical education is influenced by this system, which leads to great diversity in policies and curricula. According to NASPE and the American Heart Association (2010), although most states have begun to mandate physical education for both elementary and secondary schools, the number of states that allow waivers/exemptions from or substitutions for physical education increased from 27 and 18 in 2006 to 32 and 30 in 2010, respectively. These expanded waiver and substitution policies (discussed in greater detail later in the chapter) increase the possibility that students will opt out of physical education for nonmedical reasons.

Curriculum Models

Given that curricula are determined at the local level in the United States, encompassing national standards, state standards, and state-adopted textbooks that meet and are aligned with the standards, physical education is taught in many different forms and structures. Various curriculum models are used in instruction, including movement education, sport education, and fitness education. In terms of engagement in physical activity, two perspectives are apparent. First, programs in which fitness education curricula are adopted are effective at increasing in-class physical activity ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ). Second, in other curriculum models, physical activity is considered a basis for students' learning skill or knowledge that the lesson is planned for them to learn. A paucity of nationally representative data is available with which to demonstrate the relationship between the actual level of physical activity in which students are engaged and the curriculum models adopted by their schools.

Movement Education

Movement has been a cornerstone of physical education since the 1800s. Early pioneers (Francois Delsarte, Liselott Diem, Rudolf von Laban) focused on a child's ability to use his or her body for self-expression ( Abels and Bridges, 2010 ). Exemplary works and curriculum descriptions include those by Laban himself ( Laban, 1980 ) and others (e.g., Logsdon et al., 1984 ). Over time, however, the approach shifted from concern with the inner attitude of the mover to a focus on the function and application of each movement ( Abels and Bridges, 2010 ). In the 1960s, the intent of movement education was to apply four movement concepts to the three domains of learning (i.e., cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). The four concepts were body (representing the instrument of the action); space (where the body is moving); effort (the quality with which the movement is executed); and relationships (the connections that occur as the body moves—with objects, people, and the environment; Stevens-Smith, 2004 ). The importance of movement in physical education is evidenced by its inclusion in the first two NASPE standards for K-12 physical education ( NASPE, 2004 ; see Box 5-7 later in this chapter).

Standards for a Physically Educated Person. SOURCE: NASPE, 2004.

These standards emphasize the need for children to know basic movement concepts and be able to perform basic movement patterns. It is imperative for physical educators to foster motor success and to provide children with a basic skill set that builds their movement repertoire, thus allowing them to engage in various forms of games, sports, and other physical activities (see also Chapter 3 ).

Sport Education

One prevalent physical education model is the sport education curriculum designed by Daryl Siedentop ( Siedentop, 1994 ; Siedentop et al., 2011 ). The goal of the model is to “educate students to be players in the fullest sense and to help them develop as competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspersons” (2011, p. 4, emphasis in original). The model entails a unique instructional structure featuring sport seasons that are used as the basis for planning and teaching instructional units. Students are organized into sport organizations (teams) and play multiple roles as team managers, coaches, captains, players, referees, statisticians, public relations staff, and others to mimic a professional sports organization. A unit is planned in terms of a sports season, including preseason activity/practice, regular-season competition, playoffs and/or tournaments, championship competition, and a culminating event (e.g., an awards ceremony or sport festivity). Depending on the developmental level of students, the games are simplified or modified to encourage maximum participation. In competition, students play the roles noted above in addition to the role of players. A sport education unit thus is much longer than a conventional physical education unit. Siedentop and colleagues (2011) recommend 20 lessons per unit, so that all important curricular components of the model can be implemented.

Findings from research on the sport education model have been reviewed twice. Wallhead and O'Sullivan (2005) report that evidence is insufficient to support the conclusion that use of the model results in students' developing motor skills and fitness and learning relevant knowledge; some evidence suggests that the model leads to stronger team cohesion, more active engagement in lessons, and increased competence in game play. In a more recent review, Hastie and colleagues (2011) report on emerging evidence suggesting that the model leads to improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness (only one study) and mixed evidence regarding motor skills development, increased feeling of enjoyment in participation in physical education, increased sense of affiliation with the team and physical education, and positive development of fair-play values. The only study on in-class physical activity using the model showed that it contributed to only 36.6 percent activity at the vigorous- or moderate-intensity levels ( Parker and Curtner-Smith, 2005 ). Hastie and colleagues caution, however, that because only 6 of 38 studies reviewed used an experimental or quasi-experimental design, the findings must be interpreted with extreme caution. The model's merits in developing motor skills, fitness, and desired physical activity behavior have yet to be determined in studies with more rigorous research designs.

Fitness Education

Instead of focusing exclusively on having children move constantly to log activity time, a new curricular approach emphasizes teaching them the science behind why they need to be physically active in their lives. The curriculum is designed so that the children are engaged in physical activities that demonstrate relevant scientific knowledge. The goal is the development and maintenance of individual student fitness. In contrast with the movement education and sport education models, the underlying premise is that physical activity is essential to a healthy lifestyle and that students' understanding of fitness and behavior change result from engagement in a fitness education program. The conceptual framework for the model is designed around the health-related components of cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility. A recent meta-analysis ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ) suggests that physical education curricula that include fitness activities can significantly increase the amount of time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Several concept-based fitness education curriculum models exist for both the middle school and senior high school levels. They include Fitness for Life: Middle School ( Corbin et al., 2007 ); Personal Fitness for You ( Stokes and Schultz, 2002 ); Get Active! Get Fit! ( Stokes and Schultz, 2009 ); Personal Fitness: Looking Good, Feeling Good ( Williams, 2005 ); and Foundations of Fitness ( Rainey and Murray, 2005 ). Activities in the curriculum are designed for health benefits, and the ultimate goal for the student is to develop a commitment to regular exercise and physical activity. It is assumed that all children can achieve a health-enhancing level of fitness through regular engagement in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity.

Randomized controlled studies on the impact of a science-based fitness curriculum in 15 elementary schools showed that, although the curriculum allocated substantial lesson time to learning cognitive knowledge, the students were more motivated to engage in physical activities than students in the 15 control schools experiencing traditional physical education ( Chen et al., 2008 ), and they expended the same amount of calories as their counterparts in the control schools ( Chen et al., 2007 ). Longitudinal data from the study reveal continued knowledge growth in the children that strengthened their understanding of the science behind exercise and active living ( Sun et al., 2012 ). What is unclear, however, is whether the enthusiasm and knowledge gained through the curriculum will translate into the children's lives outside of physical education to help them become physically active at home.

To incorporate standards and benchmarks into a fitness education model, a committee under the auspices of NASPE (2012) developed the Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. It is suggested that through this proposed comprehensive framework, fitness education be incorporated into the existing physical education curriculum and embedded in the content taught in all instructional units. The entire framework, highlighted in Box 5-1 , can be viewed at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/publications/upload/Instructional-Framework-for-Fitness-Education-in-PE-2012-2.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

Instructional Framework for Fitness Education in Physical Education. Technique: Demonstrate competency in techniques needed to perform a variety of moderate to vigorous physical activities. Technique in developing cardiovascular fitness.

Emergence of Active Gaming in Fitness Education

Today, active gaming and cell phone/computer applications are a part of physical activity for both youth and adults. Accordingly, fitness education in school physical education programs is being enhanced through the incorporation of active video games, also known as exergaming. Examples of active gaming programs with accompanying equipment include Konami Dance Dance Revolution (DDR), Nintendo Wii, Gamebikes, Kinect XBOX, Xavix, and Hopsports. These active games have been incorporated into school wellness centers as high-tech methods of increasing student fitness levels to supplement the traditional modes for attaining vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity ( Greenberg and Stokes, 2007 ).

Bailey and McInnis (2011) compared selected active games with treadmill walking and found that each game—DDR, LightSpace (Bug Invasion), Nintendo Wii (Boxing), Cyber Trazer (Goalie Wars), Sportwall, and Xavix (J-Mat)—raised energy expenditure above that measured at rest. Mean metabolic equivalent (MET) values for each game were comparable to or higher than those measured for walking on a treadmill at 3 miles per hour. Graf and colleagues (2009) , studying boys and girls aged 10-13, found that both Wii boxing and DDR (level 2) elicited energy expenditure, heart rate, perceived exertion, and ventilatory responses that were comparable to or greater than those elicited by moderate-intensity walking on a treadmill. Similar results were found by Lanningham-Foster and colleagues (2009) among 22 children aged 10-14 and adults in that energy expenditure for both groups increased significantly when playing Wii over that expended during all sedentary activities. Staiano and colleagues (2012) explored factors that motivated overweight and obese African American high school students to play Wii during school-based physical activity opportunities. They found greater and more sustained energy expenditure over time and noted that players' various intrinsic motivations to play also influenced their level of energy expenditure. Mellecker and McManus (2008) determined that energy expenditure and heart rate were greater during times of active play than in seated play. Fawkner and colleagues (2010) studied 20 high school–age girls and found that dance simulation games provided an opportunity for most subjects to achieve a moderate-intensity level of physical activity. The authors conclude that regular use of the games aids in promoting health through physical activity. Haddock and colleagues (2009) conducted ergometer tests with children aged 7-14 and found increased oxygen consumption and energy expenditure above baseline determinations. Maddison and colleagues (2007) , studying children aged 10-14, found that active video game playing led to significant increases in energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity counts in comparison with baseline values. They conclude that playing these games for short time periods is comparable to light- to moderate-intensity conventional modes of exercise, including walking, skipping, and jogging. Mhurchu and colleagues (2008) also conclude that a short-term intervention involving active video games is likely to be an effective means of increasing children's overall level of physical activity. Additionally, Sit and colleagues (2010) , studying the effects of active gaming among 10-year-old children in Hong Kong, found the children to be significantly more physically active while playing interactive games compared with screen-based games.

Exergaming appears to increase acute physical activity among users and is being used in school settings because it is appealing to students. Despite active research in the area of exergaming and physical activity, however, exergaming's utility for increasing acute and habitual physical activity specifically in the physical education setting has yet to be confirmed. Further, results of studies conducted in nonlaboratory and nonschool settings have been mixed ( Baranowski et al., 2008 ). Moreover, any physical activity changes that do occur may not be sufficient to stimulate physiologic changes. For example, White and colleagues (2009) examined the effects of Nintendo Wii on physiologic changes. Although energy expenditure was raised above resting values during active gaming, the rise was not significant enough to qualify as part of the daily 60 minutes or more of vigorous-or moderate-intensity exercise recommended for children.

While collecting data on the effects of Nintendo Wii on 11-year-olds in New Zealand, White and colleagues (2009) found that active video games generated higher energy expenditure than both resting and inactive screen watching. They determined, however, that active gaming is a “low-intensity” physical activity. Therefore, it may be helpful in reducing the amount of sedentary behavior, but it should not be used as a replacement for more conventional modes of physical activity. Sun (2012) found that active gaming can increase student motivation to engage in physical activity, but the motivation may decrease as a result of prolonged exposure to the same games. This study also found that exergaming lessons provided less physical activity for children than regular conventional physical education. For inactive children, however, the exergaming environment is conducive to more active participation in the game-based physical activities than in conventional physical education ( Fogel et al., 2010 ). Finally, Sheehan and Katz (2012) found that among school-age children the use of active gaming added to postural stability, an important component of motor skills development.

From the research cited above, as well as ongoing research being conducted by the Health Games Research Project funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, active gaming is promising as a means of providing young children an opportunity to become more physically active and helping them meet the recommended 60 or more minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. Different types of games may influence energy expenditure differentially, and some may serve solely as motivation. Selected games also appear to hold greater promise for increasing energy expenditure, while others invite youth to be physically active through motivational engagement. The dynamic and evolving field of active gaming is a promising area for future research as more opportunities arise to become physically active throughout the school environment.

Other Innovative Programs

While several evidence-based physical education programs—such as the Coordinated Approach to Child Health (CATCH) and Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK)—are being implemented in schools, many innovative programs also have been implemented nationwide that are motivating and contribute to skills attainment while engaging youth in activities that are fun and fitness oriented. These programs include water sports, involving sailing, kayaking, swimming, canoeing, and paddle boarding; adventure activities such as Project Adventure; winter sports, such as snow skiing and snowshoeing; and extreme sports, such as in-line skating, skateboarding, and cycling.

Differences Among Elementary, Middle, and High Schools

Instructional opportunities vary within and among school levels as a result of discrepancies in state policy mandates. Although the time to be devoted to physical education (e.g., 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for secondary schools) is commonly included in most state mandates, actual time allocation in school schedules is uncertain and often left to the discretion of local education officials.

With respect to content, in both elementary and secondary schools, physical activity is an assumed rather than an intended outcome except in the fitness education model. The goals of skill development and knowledge growth in physical education presumably are accomplished through participation in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. Data are lacking, however, to support the claim that physical activity offered to further the attainment of skills and knowledge is of vigorous or moderate intensity and is of sufficient duration for children to reap health benefits.

Children in Nontraditional Schools

Research on physical education, physical activity, and sports opportunities in nontraditional school settings (charter schools, home schools, and correctional facilities) is extremely limited. Two intervention studies focused on charter schools addressed issues with Mexican American children. In the first ( Johnston et al., 2010 ), 10- to 14-year-old children were randomly assigned to either an instructor-led intervention or a self-help intervention for 2 years. The instructor-led intervention was a structured daily opportunity for the students to learn about nutrition and to engage in structured physical activities. The results indicate that the children in the instructor-led intervention lost more weight at the end of the intervention than those in the self-help condition. In the second study ( Romero, 2012 ), 11- to 16-year-old Mexican American children from low-income families participated in a 5-week, 10-lesson, hip-hop dance physical activity intervention. In comparison with data collected prior to the intervention, the children reported greater frequency of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, lower perceived community barriers to physical activity, and stronger self-efficacy for physical activity. Collectively, the results of these two studies suggest that a structured physical activity intervention can be effective in enhancing and enriching physical activity opportunities for Mexican American adolescents in charter schools.

Research on physical activity among home-schooled children is also limited. The only study found was published in 2004 ( Welk et al., 2004 ). It describes differences in physical fitness, psychosocial correlates of physical activity, and physical activity between home-schooled children and their public school counterparts aged 9-16. No significant differences were found between the two groups of children on the measures used, but the researchers did note that the home-schooled children tended to be less physically active.

Research on physical education and physical activity in juvenile correction institutions is equally scarce. Munson and colleagues (1985 , 1988 ) conducted studies on the use of physical activity programs as a behavior mediation intervention strategy and compared its impact on juvenile delinquents' behavior change with that of other intervention strategies. They found that physical activity did not have a stronger impact than other programs on change in delinquent behavior.

Fitness Assessment

All states except Iowa have adopted state standards for physical education. However, the extent to which students achieve the standards is limited since no accountability is required.

An analysis of motor skills competency, strategic knowledge, physical activity, and physical fitness among 180 4th- and 5th-grade children demonstrated that the physical education standards in force were difficult to attain ( Erwin and Castelli, 2008 ). Among the study participants, fewer than a half (47 percent) were deemed motor competent, 77 percent demonstrated adequate progress in knowledge, only 40 percent were in the Healthy Fitness Zone on all five components of the Fitnessgram fitness assessment, and merely 15 percent engaged in 60 or more minutes of physical activity each day. Clearly most of the children failed to meet benchmark measures of performance for this developmental stage. This evidence highlights the need for additional physical activity opportunities within and beyond physical education to enhance opportunities for students to achieve the standards.

Relationships among these student-learning outcomes were further decomposed in a study of 230 children ( Castelli and Valley, 2007 ). The authors determined that aerobic fitness and the number of fitness test scores in the Healthy Fitness Zone were the best predictors of daily engagement in physical activity relative to factors of gender, age, body mass index (BMI), motor skills competency, and knowledge. However, in-class engagement in physical activity was best predicted by aerobic fitness and motor skills competence, suggesting that knowledge and skills should not be overlooked in a balanced physical education curriculum intended to promote lifelong physical activity.

As an untested area, student assessment in physical education has been conducted on many indicators other than learning outcomes. As reported in a seminal study ( Hensley and East, 1989 ), physical education teachers base learning assessment on participation (96 percent), effort (88 percent), attitude (76 percent), sportsmanship (75 percent), dressing out (72 percent), improvement (68 percent), attendance (58 percent), observation of skills (58 percent), knowledge tests (46 percent), skills tests (45 percent), potential (25 percent), and homework (11 percent). These data, while several years old, show that most learning assessments in physical education fail to target relevant learning objectives such as knowledge, skills, and physical activity behavior. The development of teacher-friendly learning assessments consistent with national and/or state standards is sorely needed.

Fitness assessment in the school environment can serve multiple purposes. On the one hand, it can provide both teacher and student with information about the student's current fitness level relative to a criterion-referenced standard, yield valid information that can serve as the basis for developing a personal fitness or exercise program based on current fitness levels, motivate students to do better to achieve a minimum standard of health-related fitness where deficiencies exist, and possibly assist in the identification of potential future health problems. On the other hand, an overall analysis of student fitness assessments provides valuable data that can enable teachers to assess learner outcomes in the physical education curriculum and assess the present curriculum to determine whether it includes sufficient fitness education to allow students to make fitness gains throughout the school year. Fitness assessment also provides a unique opportunity for schools to track data on students longitudinally. The ultimate goal of assessing student fitness in the school environment should be to educate students on the importance of maintaining a physically active lifestyle throughout the life span.

When administering fitness assessments in the school setting, caution is essential to ensure confidentiality of the results. The results and their interpretation should be shared with students and parents/guardians to have the greatest impact. To ensure the greatest benefits from fitness assessment, NASPE (2010) developed a position statement on “Appropriate Uses of Fitness Measurement.” Table 5-1 outlines appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing in schools and other educational settings.

TABLE 5-1. Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing in Schools and Other Educational Settings.

Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing in Schools and Other Educational Settings.

When fitness assessment becomes part of a quality physical education program, teaching and learning strategies will guide all students to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain and improve their personal health-related fitness as part of their commitment to lifelong healthy lifestyles. Teachers who incorporate fitness education as a thread throughout all curricula will make the greatest impact in engaging and motivating students to participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in order to maintain and/or improve their personal health-related fitness. For example, the development of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program with the use of a criterion-referenced platform provides students with the educational benefits of fitness assessment knowledge (see Box 5-2 ). The emergence of one national fitness assessment, Fitnessgram, along with professional development and recognition protocols, further supports fitness education in the school environment.

Presidential Youth Fitness Program. The Presidential Youth Fitness Program, launched in September 2012, is a comprehensive program that provides training and resources to schools for assessing, tracking, and recognizing youth fitness. The program promotes (more...)

Online Physical Education

Online physical education is a growing trend. Fully 59 percent of states allow required physical education credits to be earned through online courses. Only just over half of these states require that the online courses be taught by state-certified physical education teachers. Daum and Buschner (2012) report that, in general, online physical education focuses more on cognitive knowledge than physical skill or physical activity, many online courses fail to meet national standards for learning and physical activity guidelines, and teachers are not concerned about students' accountability for learning.

Although online courses differ from traditional in-school physical education courses in the delivery of instruction, the standards and benchmarks for these courses must mirror those adopted by each individual state, especially when the course is taken to meet high school graduation requirements. NASPE (2007a , p. 2) recommends that all physical education programs include “opportunity to learn, meaningful content, appropriate instruction, and student and program assessment.” If an online physical education program meets these standards, it may be just as effective as a face-to-face program. Online physical education can be tailored to each student's needs, and it helps students learn how to exercise independently. The full NASPE position statement on online physical education can be found at http://www.ncpublic-schools.org/docs/curriculum/healthfulliving/resources/onlinepeguidelines.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013). The physical education policy of one online school, the Florida Virtual School, is presented in Box 5-3 .

Florida Virtual School's Physical Education Policy. Sections 1001.11(7) and 1003.453(2) of the Florida Statutes require that every school district have a current version of its Physical Education Policy on the district website. This document satisfies (more...)

Online physical education provides another option for helping students meet the standards for physical education if they lack room in their schedule for face-to-face classes, need to make up credit, or are just looking for an alternative to the traditional physical education class. On the other hand, online courses may not be a successful mode of instruction for students with poor time management or technology skills. According to Daum and Buschner (2012) , online learning is changing the education landscape despite the limited empirical research and conflicting results on its effectiveness in producing student learning. Through a survey involving 45 online high school physical education teachers, the authors found that almost three-fourths of the courses they taught failed to meet the national guideline for secondary schools of 225 minutes of physical education per week. Most of the courses required physical activity 3 days per week, while six courses required no physical activity. The teachers expressed support, hesitation, and even opposition toward online physical education.

Scheduling Decisions

Lesson scheduling is commonly at the discretion of school principals in the United States. The amount of time dedicated to each subject is often mandated by federal or state statutes. Local education agencies or school districts have latitude to make local decisions that go beyond these federal or state mandates. Often the way courses are scheduled to fill the school day is determined by the managerial skills of the administrator making the decisions or is based on a computer program that generates individual teacher schedules.

Successful curriculum change requires supportive scheduling (see Kramer and Keller, 2008 , for an example of curriculum reform in mathematics). More research is needed on the effects of scheduling of physical education. In one such attempt designed to examine the impact of content and lesson length on calorie expenditure in middle school physical education, Chen and colleagues (2012) found that a lesson lasting 45-60 minutes with sport skills or fitness exercises as the major content would enable middle school students to expend more calories than either shorter (30–40 minutes) or longer (65–90 minutes) lessons. The evidence from such research can be used to guide allocation of the recommended weekly amount of physical education (150 minutes for elementary schools, 225 minutes for secondary schools) to achieve optimal health benefits for youth. Additional discussion of scheduling is provided later in this chapter in the section on solutions for overcoming the barriers to quality physical education.

  • IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT

As discussed in Chapter 3 , there is a direct correlation between regular participation in physical activity and health in school-age children, suggesting that physical activity provides important benefits directly to the individual child ( HHS, 2008 ). Physical activity during a school day may also be associated with academic benefits ( Chapter 4 ) and children's social and emotional well-being ( HHS, 2008 ; Chapter 3 ). Physical education, along with other opportunities for physical activity in the school environment (discussed in Chapter 6 ), is important for optimal health and development in school-age children. It may also serve as a preventive measure for adult conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes.

Little has been learned about the short- and long-term effectiveness of physical education in addressing public health issues ( Pate et al., 2011 ). Because the learning objectives of physical education have not included improvement in health status as a direct measure, indirect measures and correlates have been used as surrogates. However, some promising research, such as that conducted by Morgan and colleagues (2007) , has demonstrated that students are more physically active on days when they participate in physical education classes. Further, there is no evidence of a compensatory effect such that children having been active during physical education elect not to participate in additional physical activity on that day. Accordingly, quality physical education contributes to a child's daily accumulation of physical activity and is of particular importance for children who are overweight or who lack access to these opportunities in the home environment ( NASPE, 2012 ).

Unlike other physical activity in school (e.g., intramural or extramural sports), physical education represents the only time and place for every child to learn knowledge and skills related to physical activity and to be physically active during the school day. It also is currently the only time and place for all children to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity safely because of the structured and specialist-supervised instructional environment. It is expected that children will use the skills and knowledge learned in physical education in other physical activity opportunities in school, such as active recess, active transportation, and intramural sports. For these reasons, physical education programming has been identified as the foundation on which multicomponent or coordinated approaches incorporating other physical activity opportunities can be designed and promoted.

Coordinated approaches in one form or another have existed since the early 1900s, but it was not until the 21st century that physical education was acknowledged as the foundation for these approaches. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010) , the National Association of State Boards of Education ( NASBE; 2012 ), and NASPE (2004 , 2010 ) all support this view because physical education provides students with the tools needed to establish and maintain a physically active lifestyle throughout their life span. As discussed in Chapter 3 , research on motor skills development has provided evidence linking physical skill proficiency levels to participation in physical activity and fitness ( Stodden et al., 2008 , 2009 ). Exercise psychology research also has identified children's perceived skill competence as a correlate of their motivation for participation in physical activity ( Sallis et al., 2000 ). When school-based multicomponent interventions include physical activities experienced in physical education that are enjoyable and developmentally appropriate, such coordinated efforts are plausible and likely to be effective in producing health benefits ( Corbin, 2002 ). Accordingly, two of the Healthy People 2020 ( Healthy People 2020, 2010 ) objectives for physical activity in youth relate to physical education: “PA-4: Increase the proportion of the Nation's public and private schools that require daily physical education for all students ” and “PA-5: Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education.” 1

The importance of physical education to the physical, cognitive, and social aspects of child development has been acknowledged by many federal, state, and local health and education agencies. Many private entities throughout the country likewise have offered their support and recommendations for strengthening physical education. For example, the Institute of Medicine (2012a), in its report Accelerating Progress in Obesity Prevention: Solving the Weight of the Nation , points to the need to strengthen physical education to ensure that all children engage in 60 minutes or more of physical activity per school day. Similarly, the National Physical Activity Plan (2010) , developed by a group of national organizations at the forefront of public health and physical activity, comprises a comprehensive set of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity in all segments of schools. The plan is intended to create a national culture that supports physically active lifestyles so that its vision that “one day, all Americans will be physically active and they will live, work, and play in environments that facilitate regular physical activity” can be realized. To accomplish this ultimate goal, the plan calls for improvement in the quantity and quality of physical education for students from prekindergarten through 12th grade through significant policy initiatives at the federal and state levels that guide and fund physical education and other physical activity programs. Specifically, the plan prescribes seven specific tactics presented in Box 5-4 .

National Physical Activity Plan: Strategy 2. The National Physical Activity Plan's Strategy 2 is as follows: Strategy 2: Develop and implement state and school district policies requiring school accountability for the quality and quantity of physical (more...)

Medical professional associations, such as the American Cancer Society (ACS), American Diabetes Association (ADA), and American Heart Association (AHA), have long acknowledged the importance of physical education and have endorsed policies designed to strengthen it. A position statement on physical education from the ACS Cancer Action Network, ADA, and AHA (2012) calls for support for quality physical education and endorses including physical education as an important part of a student's comprehensive, well-rounded education program because of its positive impact on lifelong health and well-being. Further, physical education policy should make quality the priority while also aiming to increase the amount of time physical education is offered in schools.

Recently, private-sector organizations—such as the NFL through its Play60 program—have been joining efforts to ensure that youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. One such initiative is Nike's (2012) Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda , a framework for improving access to physical activity for all American children in schools. Although the framework does not focus exclusively on physical education, it does imply the important role of physical education in the action agenda (see Box 5-5 ).

Nike's Designed to Move: A Physical Activity Action Agenda. Universal access: Design programs that are effective for every child, including those who face the most barriers to participating in physical activity. Age appropriate: Physical activities and (more...)

Finally, in response to First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move initiative, the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) launched the Let's Move In School initiative, which takes a holistic approach to the promotion of physical activity in schools. The purpose of the initiative is to help elementary and secondary schools launch the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP), which is focused on strengthening physical education and promoting all opportunities for physical activity in school. The CSPAP in any given school is intended to accomplish two goals: (1) “provide a variety of school-based physical activity opportunities that enable all students to participate in at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity each day” and (2) “provide coordination among the CSPAP components to maximize understanding, application, and practice of the knowledge and skills learned in physical education so that all students will be fully physically educated and well-equipped for a lifetime of physical activity” ( AAHPERD, 2012 ). The five CSPAP components, considered vital for developing a physically educated and physically active child, are physical education, physical activity during school, physical activity before and after school, staff involvement, and family and community involvement ( AAHPERD, 2012 ). Schools are allowed to implement all or selected components.

An AAHPERD (2011) survey indicated that 16 percent of elementary schools, 13 percent of middle schools, and 6 percent of high schools (from a self-responding nationwide sample, not drawn systematically) had implemented a CSPAP since the program was launched. Although most schools sampled (90 percent) provided physical education, the percentage declined through middle school and high school, such that only 44 percent of high schools provided physical education to seniors. In most schools (92 percent), classes were taught by teachers certified to teach physical education.

More than 76 percent of elementary schools provided daily recess for children, and 31 percent had instituted a policy prohibiting teachers from withholding children from participating in recess for disciplinary reasons. In 56 percent of elementary schools that had implemented a CSPAP, physical activity was encouraged between lessons/classes; in 44 percent it was integrated into academic lessons; and in 43 percent the school day started with physical activity programs.

The percentage of schools that offered intramural sports clubs to at least 25 percent of students declined from 62 percent of middle schools to 50 percent of high school for males, and from 53 to 40 percent, respectively, for females. Interscholastic sports were offered in 89 percent of high schools. Among them, approximately 70 percent involved at least 25 percent of the male student population participating and 58 percent involved at least 25 percent of the female student population participating. Sixty-five percent of high schools had “cut” policies, which could limit the enrollment of students in interscholastic sports.

  • CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

As noted, a high-quality physical education program can help youth meet the guideline of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day. This increase in physical activity should be balanced with appropriate attention to skill development and to national education standards for quality physical education (see Box 5-6 ). In a recent literature review, Bassett and colleagues (2013) found that physical education contributes to children achieving an average of 23 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity daily. However, the time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity could be increased by 6 minutes if the physical education curriculum were to incorporate a standardized curriculum such as SPARK (discussed in detail below) ( Bassett et al., 2013 ). Thus, it is possible for physical education to contribute to youth meeting at least half (30 minutes) of their daily requirement for vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. To help children grow holistically, however, physical education needs to achieve other learning goals when children are active. To this end, physical education programs must possess the quality characteristics specified by NASPE (2007b , 2009b , c ) (see Box 5-6 ). Designing and implementing a physical education program with these characteristics in mind should ensure that the time and curricular materials of the program enable students to achieve the goals of becoming knowledgeable exercisers and skillful movers who value and adopt a physically active, healthy lifestyle.

NASPE's Characteristics of a High-Quality Physical Education Program. All students are required to take physical education. Instructional periods total 150 minutes per week (elementary schools) and 225 minutes per week (middle and secondary schools).

Findings from research on effective physical education support these characteristics as the benchmarks for quality programs. In an attempt to understand what effective physical education looks like, Castelli and Rink (2003) conducted a mixed-methods comparison of 62 physical education programs in which a high percentage of students achieved the state physical education learning standards with programs whose students did not achieve the standards. Comprehensive data derived from student performance, teacher surveys, and onsite observations demonstrated that highly effective physical education programs were housed in cohesive, long-standing departments that experienced more facilitators (e.g., positive policy, supportive administration) than inhibitors (e.g., marginalized status as a subject matter within the school). Further, effective programs made curricular changes prior to the enactment of state-level policy, while ineffective programs waited to make changes until they were told to do so. The teachers in ineffective programs had misconceptions about student performance and, in general, lower expectations of student performance and behavior.

Examples of Evidence-Based Physical Education Curricular Programs

Two large-scale intervention studies—SPARK and CATCH—are discussed in this section as examples of how programs can be structured to increase vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes.

The aim of SPARK, a research-based curriculum, is to improve the health, fitness, and physical activity levels of youth by creating, implementing, and evaluating programs that promote lifelong wellness. Each SPARK program “fosters environmental and behavioral change by providing a coordinated package of highly active curriculum, on-site teacher training, extensive follow-up support, and content-matched equipment focused on the development of healthy lifestyles, motor skills and movement knowledge, and social and personal skills” ( SPARK, 2013 ).

Research supports the use of SPARK as a platform for improving the quality of physical activity instruction in schools. The SPARK curriculum has demonstrated the ability to improve student activity levels, increase the number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for students, and provide sustainable and positive change in a school district ( Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012 ). In one study, researchers found that “the children were positive about this specific curriculum. This is gratifying because one of the goals of the program was to engender positive feeling in the students toward physical activity” ( McKenzie et al., 1994 , p. 213). In another study, a SPARK intervention is credited with exposing students to an increase in motor skills drills, which in turn led to a higher level of manipulative motor skills acquisition ( McKenzie et al., 1998 ). As a result of improved activity levels, students who participated in the SPARK curriculum improved their times in the 1-mile run and sit-up tests ( Sallis et al., 1997 ). Finally, System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) classroom observations revealed that students in SPARK classes increased their time spent in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class from 17.8 to up to 40.2 minutes compared with students in non-SPARK classes, who engaged in 17.8 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per class. Teachers involved in the SPARK intervention offered increased levels of fitness promotion and provided students with an increased amount of general instruction and increased minutes of attention per week ( McKenzie et al., 1997 ; Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, 2012 ).

The CATCH program teaches children in grades K-8 how to be healthy throughout their lifetimes through a coordinated approach that involves engaging the community, families, and educators to work together. The goal of CATCH is to impact children's health behaviors positively, improve the school health environment, and influence and change school health policies and practices in order to reduce and eliminate health risk factors and risk-related behaviors of students ( Perry et al., 1990 ). CATCH significantly increases the physical activity levels of students during physical education class and provides a wide range of learning experiences for students of all abilities.

CATCH began as a clinical trial from 1991 to 1994 in four regional sites: Tulane University in New Orleans; the University of California, San Diego; the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis; and the University of Texas in Houston. The participants were elementary school children in grades 3 through 5 and included children from multiethnic backgrounds. Upon completion of the main trial, CATCH had succeeded in producing positive and lasting changes in children's behaviors, including decreasing fat consumption and increasing physical activity ( Luepker et al., 1996 ). The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention ( Nader et al., 1999 ).

National Standards

Because physical education is part of the curriculum in schools, its quality should be judged only by whether and to what extent children have learned and benefited from it. In a landmark document on learning goals, Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education , NASPE (2004) proposes six student learning standards specifying both conceptual and behavioral characteristics that a physically educated person must possess and display (see Box 5-7 ). These characteristics encompass knowledge, skill, behavior, and confidence critical to the development and maintenance of health and to the enjoyment of a physically active, healthful lifestyle.

Certified Physical Education Specialists as the Main Teaching Force

If standards are the gauge for quality, teachers make the difference in a particular school in terms of the extent to which students can achieve the standards. Research has made clear that certified physical education specialists can provide more and longer opportunities for students to meet physical activity guidelines compared with classroom teachers trained to teach physical education ( McKenzie et al., 2001 ). Moreover, when teachers are taught strategies to encourage vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education class, a significant increase in physical activity can be expected ( Lonsdale et al., 2013 ). The role of certified physical education specialists in health-enhancing physical education has become increasingly critical ( McKenzie, 2007 ). The evidence is unequivocal regarding the need for a continued effort to train physical education specialists and the need for schools to continue to employ them as the main teaching force designing and implementing health-enhancing physical education programs to the fullest extent.

Aside from serving as the instructional leader for physical education, physical education specialists can serve as expert resources for classroom teachers in the implementation of classroom physical activity breaks and recess (discussed in detail in Chapter 6 ). Their expertise in age-appropriate physical activity helps ensure that students are participating in activities that are fun and engaging. Additionally, as the catalyst for a healthy school environment, the physical education specialist can assist in the design and delivery of intramural programs provided before and after school, as well as serve as a community outreach specialist for onsite activity partnerships. For physical education specialists interested in a more formal role as a physical activity leader at their school, NASPE has developed a director of physical activity certification program.

It is a commonly held notion of society that to maintain the quality of education, schools should hire teachers certified to teach in the subject matter areas in which they are licensed. Unfortunately, in the United States, not all physical education classes are taught by certified physical education specialists. Indeed, 68 percent of elementary schools allow classroom teachers (generalists) to teach physical education ( NASPE, 2012 ). Certification or licensure of middle/junior high school and high school physical education teachers is required in only 82 percent and 90 percent of states ( NASPE, 2012 ), respectively. Only 37 states (72 percent) have a requirement for professional development and continuing education hours/credit for physical education teachers to maintain or renew their certification, with renewal time ranging from 3 to 5 years ( NASPE, 2012 ). Twenty-eight states (55 percent) allow temporary/emergency certificates to teach physical education that are valid for 1 to 3 years ( NASPE, 2012 ). The basic requirements for emergency certification include a bachelor's degree in teaching or in any area except physical education. Only 31 states (60 percent) support physical education teachers going through the national board certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator ( NASPE, 2012 ).

Preservice Education for Teachers

Teaching physical education to children effectively and safely requires specific knowledge about children and their physical/mental development, body composition (anatomy) and functions (physiology and biomechanics), and motor skills development and acquisition. In addition, teaching physical education requires substantial knowledge and skill in pedagogy—the science and art of teaching. Box 5-8 lists the NASPE standards for beginning physical education teachers who have completed a bachelor's teacher training program and those who have completed advanced (master's-level) training.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers. Scientific and theoretical knowledge: Physical education teacher candidates know and apply discipline-specific scientific and theoretical concepts (more...)

These standards are accompanied by measurement rubrics (unacceptable, acceptable, and target, with target being exemplary) developed jointly by NASPE and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) for evaluating physical education teacher education programs across the country (the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico). NCATE identified a total of 133 physical education teacher education programs as “nationally recognized.” The committee was unable to determine how many programs nationwide have met the minimum standards (not at the nationally recognized level) or locate reliable information on the total number of physical education teacher education programs. A Web search using the term “physical education” resulted in two different but relatively reliable statistics: 720 ( College Board, 2013 ) and 1,945 ( Peterson's, 2013 ). But the data sources did not distinguish between physical education teaching majors and other kinesiology concentrations (e.g., sports medicine, exercise physiology/fitness). Statistics on the number of physical education teacher education programs and their quality based on the NASPE standards are needed.

The current wave of effort to curb physical inactivity among youth has begun to influence teacher education programs. According to a national survey study ( Kulinna et al., 2010 ), current teacher candidates believe that helping K-12 students become physically active and fit is the first priority of physical education, followed by helping them actualize their own goals, develop motor skills, and become responsible. These data appear to suggest that physical education teacher education programs are beginning to turn from a traditionally sports- and skills-centered model to a more comprehensive, physical activity– and health-centered model. This change is important in that the role of both current and future physical education teachers extends beyond merely teaching their classes to advancing public health goals ( McKenzie, 2007 ).

In many universities, however, teacher education programs in physical education have either been reduced or eliminated because of the decline in physical education requirements, which has resulted in a decrease in the number of physical education teachers being employed. Concomitantly, physical education teacher education programs are experiencing an unprecedented crisis. A recent report indicates that, in school year 2008–2009, only 23 doctorate-granting kinesiology departments offered doctoral programs that were training future teacher educators ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011a ). A total of 140 doctoral students were receiving training offered by 114 professors (including part-time), and 11 percent of those professors were planning to retire. Boyce and Rikard (2011a) report that in the past 13 years, 479 doctoral students graduated as physical education teacher educators—36.8 each year on average—89 percent of whom were able to find positions in colleges and universities. During the same period, 61 positions were open, only 39 of which were filled (64 percent), with an applicant pool of 38 candidates with earned degrees and 13 who completed the doctoral course-work but did not complete the dissertation research ( Boyce and Rikard, 2011b ). Clearly there is a shortage of physical education teacher educators in higher education institutions. Because of a lack of national tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is unclear.

Professional Development

In all educational settings, professional development for teachers and administrators is a continuous process of acquiring new knowledge and skills that relate to an educator's profession or academic subject area, job responsibilities, or work environment. Professional development is essential for improving classroom instruction and student achievement ( Ball and Cohen, 1999 ; Cohen and Hill, 2000 ). Through a variety of delivery methods, professional development activities may include credit or noncredit courses, classroom or online venues, workshops, seminars, teleconferences, and webinars, with the ultimate goal of improving the delivery of instruction to enhance student achievement.

Yoon and colleagues (2007) assert that a strong link exists among professional development, teacher learning and practice, and student achievement. Figure 5-1 , which aligns with the research on effective professional development ( Kennedy, 1998 ; Loucks-Horsley and Matsumoto, 1999 ; Cohen and Hill, 2000 ; Garet et al., 2001 ; Fishman et al., 2003 ; Guskey and Sparks, 2004 ), illustrates how (1) professional development enhances teacher knowledge and skills, (2) better knowledge and skills improve classroom teaching, and (3) improved teaching raises student achievement.

Logic model of the impact of professional development on student achievement.

The most impactful statement of government policy on the preparation and professional development of teachers was the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act ( Whitehurst, 2002 ), known as the No Child Left Behind Act. While Title I of the act places highly qualified teachers in the classroom, Title II addresses the same goal by funding professional development for teachers. The importance of quality professional development is well documented in the act.

Professional development, according to the No Child Left Behind Act, should be offered to improve teachers' knowledge of the subject matter they teach, strengthen their classroom management skills, advance their understanding and implementation of effective teaching strategies, and build their capabilities to address disparities in education. The act states that high-quality professional development programs should have the characteristics listed in Box 5-9 .

Characteristics of a High-Quality Professional Development Program. It is sustained, intensive, and content-focused to have a positive and lasting impact on classroom instruction and teacher performance. It is aligned with and directly related to state (more...)

Although there is a substantial literature on professional development, only a few high-quality studies relate teachers' professional development experiences to student outcomes. Recommendations for high-quality professional development tend to emphasize the importance of intense, content-focused experiences, as well as opportunities for peer collaboration and structured induction experiences for new teachers. Wiley and Yoon (1995) and Kennedy (1998) suggest that teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that are aligned with standards-based reform.

Kulinna (2012) used Guskey and Sparks' (2004) Model of Teacher Change to determine whether students' physical activity and BMI changed after their teacher underwent a 1-year professional development program. Significant increases in students' physical activity levels were found, but no significant changes in BMI. Looking at the effect of professional development on changes in behavior among physical education teachers, Martin and colleagues (2008) found that, following a variety of professional development experiences and follow-up sessions, teachers showed increases in their efficacy in attaining motor skills objectives, physical activity and fitness knowledge objectives, and personal and social objectives. These results lend support to the value of professional development in enhancing teachers' perceptions of self-efficacy for teaching the curriculum. McCaughtry and colleagues (2006) explored the factors that make teacher professional development successful and what success might mean in terms of teachers' instructional practices and feelings about change. Results indicated that after teachers completed professional development the resources they gained enabled them to improve their instruction by teaching more content, maximizing student learning opportunities, teaching diverse learners, teaching to development, and increasing classroom safety.

Learning Forward (formerly known as the National Staff Development Council) provides research-based guidelines to assist districts in aligning local professional development programs with qualitative standards. Its Standards for Professional Learning were revised in 2011 and are guided by the relationship between professional learning and student results (see Box 5-10 ). According to Learning Forward (2012) :

Standards for Professional Learning. Learning communities: Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students occurs within learning communities committed to continuous improvement, collective responsibility, and (more...)

  • When professional learning is standards based, it has greater potential to change what educators know, are able to do, and believe.
  • When educators' knowledge, skills, and dispositions change, they have a broader repertoire of effective strategies to use in adapting their practices to meet performance expectations and students' learning needs.
  • When educator practices improve, students have a greater likelihood of achieving results.
  • When student results improve, the cycle repeats for continuous improvement.
  • Professional learning standards provide a foundation on which to design professional learning experiences at the district or school level that will assist educators in acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and tools.

As a recognized means of providing physical education teachers with the tools necessary to enhance student achievement, quality professional development should be provided on a regular basis with follow-up support, along with a method for determining its effectiveness in meeting both curricular and pedagogical standards. Furthermore, to enhance the fitness achievement of students, school-based professional development should provide instruction on the integration of fitness testing into a curriculum and should include training in protocols, the interpretation and communication of results, and the setting and achievement of fitness goals and recommendations for developing healthy living habits for both students and their parents ( IOM, 2012a ).

  • POLICIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Instructional opportunities for physical activity and physical education are mandated by most states. In comparison with data prior to 2006, more states have developed mandates for physical education at both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, most mandates lack a specified time allocation that ensures meeting the NASPE recommendation of 150 and 225 minutes per week for elementary and secondary schools, respectively ( McCullick et al., 2012 ), despite the fact that physical education has been considered a cornerstone for developing schoolwide multicomponent interventions to address the issue of physical inactivity in schools. Some obstacles to the implementation of quality physical activity are listed in Box 5-11 .

Obstacles to Implementation of Quality Physical Education. Class periods dedicated to physical education are declining at all school levels. Existing discrepancies between policy and implementation with respect to specific time allocation contribute to (more...)

According to Title IX of the No Child Left Behind Act (Part A Sec 9101–11), core academic subjects include “English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts, history, and geography.” If physical education were designated as a core academic subject, it would receive much-needed policy attention that would enhance its overall quality with respect to content offerings, instruction, and accountability. In support of the inclusion of physical education as a core subject, Senator Tom Udall (D-NM) reintroduced the Promoting Health for Youth Skills in Classrooms and Life (PHYSICAL) Act on February 27, 2013, to support and encourage the health and well-being of elementary and secondary school students.

With physical education not being considered a core subject, and amid growing concern regarding the increase in childhood obesity and physical inactivity, several national studies and reports have emphasized the importance of implementing state statutes, laws, and regulations both mandating time requirements for physical education and monitoring compliance. Yet although several national governmental, nongovernmental, private industry, and public health organizations have recommended specific day and time/minute requirements for physical education, no standardized state policy has emerged.

Analysis of State Statutes and Administrative Codes

In the United States, school policies on curriculum and school-based activities are determined by local education agencies according to state laws governing educational activities. Decisions about what to teach, who will teach it, and what level of resources will be provided are made by the state, county or district, and school administration. To better understand the status of state statutes, administrative codes, and policies impacting physical education in schools, the committee analyzed NASBE's State School Health Policy Database ( NASBE, 2012 ; www.nasbe.org/healthy_schools [accessed February 1, 2013]). Of importance to this analysis is the distinction made between state statutes and administrative codes, which accords with the definition proffered by Perna and colleagues (2012) : “At the state level, the 2 primary official public policy levers referred to as ‘codified law’ used for developing school-based physical education policy are 1) statutory laws (laws enacted by the given State legislature); and 2) administrative laws (rule and regulations by state executive branch agencies, such as the Department of Education)” (p. 1594). A second point to note is that in descriptions of physical education graduation requirements, it is impossible to differentiate among “credit,” “Carnegie unit,” and “course” so as to determine the exact time requirements for graduation.

Using the NASBE database, the committee performed an overall analysis of policies on physical education and physical activity of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The analysis revealed that 45 states (88 percent) mandate physical education; 22 states (23 percent) require it with mandatory minutes, while 25 states (49 percent) have no mandatory minutes and 4 (0.07 percent) leave the required number of minutes up to local decision makers. A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for physical education (see the discussion below). Fitness assessment is required in 15 states (29 percent), and other curricular assessments are required in 4 states (0.07 percent). Twenty-six states (53 percent) require physical education grades to be included in a student's grade point average. Forty-three states (84 percent) require some degree of physical education for high school graduation, with a range of 0.5 to 3.75 credits. One state (0.02 percent) requires K-12 physical education but does not require 4 years of physical education for high school graduation.

Although no federal policies requiring physical education presently exist, the above evidence shows that the majority of states require physical education. However, the number of days and time required vary greatly by state and local school district, as does the amount of physical education required for high school graduation. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess, and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle. The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity.

Policies That Support Physical Education

In addition to policies that directly require offering physical education in schools, other policies support physical education opportunities in schools. In 2004 the U.S. government issued a mandate, under the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, requiring school districts that receive funds under this act to establish local school wellness policies. These policies were to include provisions for physical activity and healthy eating, thus expanding schools' responsibility for providing physical activity to school-age children. The enactment of this mandates made schools “the central element in a community system that ensures that students participate in enough physical activity to develop healthy lifestyles” ( Pate et al., 2006 , p. 1215). Several government agencies and organizations have recommended embedding a specific number of days and minutes of physical education into each school's or district's wellness policy. Although school districts are required to include goals for physical activity in their local school wellness policies, they are not required to address physical education specifically.

Policies That Hinder Physical Education

Some policies have contributed to the substantial reduction in the opportunities for school-age children to be physically active, such as by shortening or eliminating physical education classes. These reductions can be attributed to budget cuts and increased pressure for schools to meet academic standards imposed by the federal government.

No Child Left Behind Act

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 requires that states develop assessment and accountability measures to verify performance improvements in the subject areas of reading and mathematics (P.L. No. 107-110, Section 115). Specifically, federal funding is now dependent on schools making adequate progress in reading and mathematics. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer statewide standardized annual tests for all students. Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make adequate yearly progress in test scores (e.g., each year 5th graders must do better on standardized tests than the previous year's 5th graders). If required improvements are not made, schools are penalized through decreased funding. If a school produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school. If a school does not make adequate progress for 5 consecutive years, a full restructuring of the school is mandated.

Under the act, physical education, music, and art are considered “nonessential” subjects and are not a main focus of the school learning environment. In response to the act, schools have devoted more time in the school day to instruction in reading and mathematics. Since the act was passed, 62 percent of elementary schools and 20 percent of middle schools have increased instructional time in reading/language arts and mathematics ( Center on Education Policy, 2008 ). Unfortunately, 44 percent of school administrators reported that these increases in instructional time for reading and mathematics were achieved at the expense of time devoted to physical education, recess, art, music, and other subjects ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 , 2008 ) (see Table 5-2 ).

TABLE 5-2. Changes in Time Allocation in Elementary Schools Since 2001–2002.

Changes in Time Allocation in Elementary Schools Since 2001–2002.

The emphasis on high-stakes testing and pressure for academic achievement in the core subjects has had unintended consequences for other subjects throughout the school day. In developing master schedules, school site administrators have been forced to make difficult decisions regarding the allotment of time for “nonessential” subjects. The average reduction in instructional time in these “nonessential” subjects has been 145 minutes per week. As discussed earlier, however, no evidence suggests that physical education and physical activity have a negative effect on student achievement or academic outcomes ( CDC, 2010 ). On the contrary, positive academic-related outcomes (e.g., improved on-task classroom behavior, cognitive development, academic performance) have been associated with physical education and physical activity (see Chapter 4 ).

The Center on Education Policy (2007) conducted an analysis of 2006–2007 survey data from 349 school districts on the amount of time devoted to specific subjects to determine the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Shifts in instructional time toward English language arts and mathematics and away from other subjects were relatively large in a majority of school districts that made these types of changes. Sixty-two percent of districts reported increasing time in elementary schools in English language arts and/or mathematics since 2001–2002. A higher proportion of urban districts (76 percent) than rural districts (54 percent) reported such increases.

Districts that increased instructional time for English language arts and/or mathematics did so by 43 percent on average. Districts that also reduced instructional time in other subjects reported total reductions of 32 percent, on average. Eight of 10 districts that reported increasing time for English language arts did so by at least 75 minutes per week, and more than half (54 percent) did so by 150 minutes or more per week. Among districts that reported adding time for mathematics, 63 percent added at least 75 minutes per week, and 19 percent added 150 minutes or more per week.

Most districts that increased time for English language arts or mathematics also reported substantial cuts in time for other subjects or periods, including social studies, science, art and music, physical education, recess, and lunch. Among the districts that reported both increasing time for English language arts or mathematics and reducing time in other subjects, 72 percent indicated that they reduced the time for one or more of these other subjects by a total of at least 75 minutes per week. For example, more than half (53 percent) of these districts cut instructional time by at least 75 minutes per week in social studies, and the same percentage (53 percent) cut time by at least 75 minutes per week in science ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ).

Districts that reported an increase in instructional time for elementary school English language arts spent an average of 378 minutes per week on this subject before No Child Left Behind was enacted. After the act became law, they spent 520 minutes per week. The average increase for English language arts was 141 minutes per week, or a 47 percent increase over the level prior to the act ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ; see district survey items 18 and 19 in Table IT-18A). Table 5-3 shows the specific amounts of time cut from various subjects in districts that reported decreases.

TABLE 5-3. Time Cut from Subjects or Periods in Districts Reporting Decreases in Instructional Time.

Time Cut from Subjects or Periods in Districts Reporting Decreases in Instructional Time.

Districts with at least one school identified as “in need of improvement” under the act were far more likely than districts not in need of improvement to decrease time in certain subjects so as to devote more time to English language arts and mathematics (78 versus 57 percent). For example, 51 percent of districts with a school in need of improvement reported decreased time in social studies, compared with 31 percent of districts with no school in need of improvement ( Center on Education Policy, 2007 ).

Exemptions from Physical Education Requirements

The 2012 Shape of the Nation Report includes documentation of the multiple reasons students may be exempt from physical education classes. Thirty-three states permit school districts or schools to allow students to substitute other activities for physical education. The most common substitutions are Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC), inter-scholastic sports, marching band, cheerleading, and community sports. Twenty-eight states allow schools and school districts to grant exemptions/waivers from physical education time or credit requirements. Reasons for exemptions/waivers include health, physical disability, religious belief, and early graduation; six states leave the reasons to the local schools or school districts. Although it would seem reasonable that some substitution programs such as JROTC or cheerleading might accrue physical activity comparable to that from physical education, these programs do not necessarily offer students opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activities. Research on the impact of exemptions/waivers from physical education is lacking. No evidence currently exists showing that students receive any portion of the recommended 60 minutes or more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity through substituted activities sanctioned by their schools.

  • BARRIERS TO QUALITY PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOLUTIONS

Barriers other than the policies detailed above hinder efforts to improve and maintain high-quality physical education. This section reviews these barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them.

Morgan and Hanson (2008) classify barriers that hinder schools from implementing quality physical education programs as either institutional (outside the teacher's control) or teacher related (arising from teacher behavior). Table 5-4 lists institutional and teacher-related as well as student-related barriers identified by various authors.

TABLE 5-4. Barriers to the Delivery of Physical Education and Physical Activity Programs to Primary and Secondary School Students.

Barriers to the Delivery of Physical Education and Physical Activity Programs to Primary and Secondary School Students.

Dwyer and colleagues (2003) examined Toronto teachers' perspectives on why children were not engaged in daily physical education. They identified three categories of barriers: lower priority for physical education relative to other subjects, lack of performance measures for physical activity, and lack of sufficient infrastructure. Jenkinson and Benson (2010) surveyed 270 secondary school physical education teachers in Victoria, Australia, and asked them to rank order the barriers they perceived to providing quality physical education. The results are shown in Table 5-5 . The institutional barriers listed in this table are similar to those identified for U.S. schools in Table 5-4 .

TABLE 5-5. Physical Education Teachers' Ranking of Barriers to Providing Quality Physical Education (PE) in Victorian State Secondary Schools.

Physical Education Teachers' Ranking of Barriers to Providing Quality Physical Education (PE) in Victorian State Secondary Schools.

Jenkinson and Benson (2010) also presented teachers with a list of barriers to student participation in physical education and physical activity in three categories: institutional, teacher-related, and student-related. The teachers were asked to rank the top five barriers they perceived. Results are presented in Table 5-6 .

TABLE 5-6. Perceived Barriers to Student Participation in Physical Education and Physical Activity in Victorian State Secondary Schools: Physical Education Teachers' Ranking (from most [“5”] to least [“1”] influential).

Perceived Barriers to Student Participation in Physical Education and Physical Activity in Victorian State Secondary Schools: Physical Education Teachers' Ranking (from most [“5”] to least [“1”] influential).

Finally, Gallo and colleagues (2006) found that the greatest process barriers to assessing students in physical education were grading students on skill levels and abilities; time constraints; class size; and record keeping, especially when assessing students on skills, cognitive knowledge, and fitness.

Two key barriers to physical education identified in the studies summarized above are staffing and funding. These barriers reflect a lack of support structure in schools for quality physical education.

As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance resulting in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its budget. If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive their programs as being undervalued.

According to the Government Accountability Office report K-12 Education: School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs ( GAO, 2012 ), school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students. Budget cuts have affected schools' ability to hire physical education teachers, maintain appropriate class sizes, and purchase sufficient equipment. As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (see Tables 5-5 and 5-6 ). Limited budgets have a negative impact on a school's ability to purchase enough physical education equipment to engage all students in increasingly large class sizes and cause physical education teachers to abandon quality evidence-based physical education programs and resort to large-group games and “throw out the ball” activities. Students disengaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more active lifestyles. A NASPE (2009a) survey found that the median physical education budget for physical education programs nationally was $764 per school ($460 per elementary school, $900 per middle school, and $1,370 per high school).

Solutions for Overcoming the Barriers

For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical education classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active under adult supervision in a structured environment. For students with disabilities in particular, physical education classes are one of the only outlets for physical activity. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs.

The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention in schools being diverted to academic requirements. Yet the district has always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by a certified physical education teacher. This is accomplished by scheduling physical education during the classroom teacher's planning time. In addition, students receive school board–mandated recess for either 20 minutes two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures 5-2 and 5-3 show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate how 150 minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated successfully into any master schedule.

Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTE: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a traditional elementary school. SOURCE: Large Urban Public School District, Miami-Dade County Public Schools.

Example of a schedule demonstrating time for 150 minutes per week of physical education. NOTES: Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a combination special education and disabilities (SPED)/Spanish-language elementary class. PE = physical education; (more...)

Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education Matters ( San Diego State University, 2007 ), include successful case studies from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physical education teachers, and district support. Identifying the need to reform physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes that (1) curriculum matters, (2) class size matters, (3) qualified teachers matter, (4) professional development matters, and (5) physical environment matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education specialists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; professional development in activity-focused physical education must be delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.

A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical Education Programs ( San Diego State University, 2007 ), notes that when funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs using innovative instructional strategies. Those strategies included wellness centers and active gaming, which engaged students in becoming more physically active. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional development. Having certified physical education teachers and making physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External factors further strengthened programs, including having school district support, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to provide accountability. Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in participation in physical activity among staff.

Still another way to overcome the barriers to quality physical education is to assist administrative decision makers and policy makers in understanding the correlation between physical education and academic achievement (see Chapter 4 ). The report Active Education: Physical Education, Physical Activity and Academic Performance by Active Living Research ( Trost, 2009 ) cites evidence that “children who are physically active and fit tend to perform better in the classroom and that daily physical education does not adversely affect academic performance. Schools can provide outstanding learning environments while improving children's health through physical education.” The findings reported include the following (p. 6):

  • “In some cases, more time in physical education leads to improved grades and standardized test scores.”
  • “Physically active and fit children tend to have better academic achievement.”
  • “Evidence links higher levels of physical fitness with better school attendance and fewer disciplinary problems.”
  • “There are several possible mechanisms by which physical education and regular physical activity may improve academic achievement, including enhanced concentration skills and classroom behavior.”
  • “Additional research is needed to determine the impact of physical activity on academic performance among those children who are at highest risk for obesity in the United States, including black, Latino, American Indian and Alaska Native, and Asian-American and Pacific Islander children, as well as children living in lower-income communities.”

Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools, it is standards based, and it encompasses assessment according to standards and benchmarks. Select curriculum-based physical education programs have been described in this chapter to show the potential of high-quality physical education in developing children into active adults. Such models provide the only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Curriculum models for physical education programs include movement education, which emphasizes the importance of fundamental motor skills competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span; sport education, which emphasizes helping students become skillful players in lifetime sports of their choosing; and fitness education, which imparts physical fitness concepts to students, including the benefits and scientific principles of exercise, with the goal of developing and maintaining individual fitness and positive lifestyle change. The emergence of a technology-focused fitness education curriculum and the new Presidential Youth Fitness Program offer further motivational opportunities for students to engage in lifelong physical activities.

Because quality physical education programs are standards based and assessed, they are characterized by (1) instruction by certified physical education teachers, (2) a minimum of 150 minutes per week for elementary schools and 225 minutes per week for middle and high schools, and (3) tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation. Quality professional development programs are an essential component for both novice and veteran teachers to ensure the continued delivery of quality physical education.

An analysis of datasets from NASPE, NASBE, and Bridging the Gap reveals that the implementation of supportive physical education policies varies from state to state and from school to school. Since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, several studies and reports have identified a decline in physical education resulting from the shifting of time to academic subjects. Because physical education is not a high-stakes tested content area, the implementation of supportive policies often is hindered by other education priorities. Although the above analysis indicates that 30 states (74.5 percent) mandate physical education, most policies do not require specific amounts of instructional time, and more than half allow for waivers or exemptions. In addition, an unintended consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act has been disparities in access to physical education and physical activity opportunities during the school day for Hispanic students and those of lower socioeconomic status. In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum required credit hours (one credit in all states but one) appears to be unfruitful.

Strengthening of school physical education has received support from the public, health agencies, and parents. Parents recently surveyed expressed favorable views of physical education. Specifically:

  • A majority of parents (54–84 percent) believe that physical education is at least as important as other academic subjects ( CDC, 2010 ).
  • Ninety-one percent believe that there should be more physical education in schools (Harvard School of Public Health, 2003).
  • Seventy-six percent think that more school physical education could help control or prevent childhood obesity ( NASPE, 2009a ).
  • Ninety-five percent believe that regular daily physical activity helps children do better academically and should be a part of the school curriculum for all students in grades K-12 ( NASPE, 2003 ).

Additionally, many public and private organizations have proposed initiatives aimed at developing a comprehensive school-based strategy centered on curriculum physical education. As the largest institution where children spend more than half of their waking hours on school days, schools can play a pivotal role in increasing students' physical activity levels by providing access for all to quality physical education, along with physical activities throughout the school environment, the subject of Chapter 7 .

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Available online at http://www ​.healthypeople ​.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020 ​/pdfs/PhysicalActivity.pdf (accessed February 1, 2013).

  • Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 5, Approaches to Physical Education in Schools.
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Curricular proposals for physical education: local, global and transnational perspectives

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Many authors have discussed the organization of knowledge in the field of curriculum over the last decades. Contemporary challenges question the curriculum, especially its social and scientific validity. Facing it seems central when, added to the theme, we attempt to understand these guideline elaboration ...

Keywords : Physical Education; Comparative Studies; National curricula

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Dear Colleague Letter: NSF and the Romanian Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation Funding (UEFISCDI) Lead Agency Opportunity in the Mathematical and Physical Sciences

September 6, 2024

Dear Colleagues:

The Mathematical & Physical Sciences Directorate (MPS) of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Romanian Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation Funding (UEFISCDI) are in a partnership to support international collaboration under the NSF-UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity in Mathematical and Physical Sciences. The goal of this activity is to promote collaborative research within the mathematical sciences by reducing barriers to conducting research with international collaborators. The NSF-UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity allows U.S. and Romanian researchers to submit a single collaborative proposal that will undergo a single merit review process through NSF as the lead agency.

This document provides guidelines for the preparation, submission, review and award of NSF-UEFISCDI Collaborative Proposals.

Under the NSF-UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity, proposals may be accepted for collaborative research in areas at the intersection of MPS's and UEFISCDI's missions. Proposers should review the participating MPS and UEFISCDI programs for further information on which areas of research are eligible for support through this activity. Proposals are expected to adhere to typical proposal sizes and durations for the relevant UEFISCDI and MPS programs from which funding is sought. Proposals will be accepted for both interdisciplinary and disciplinary research projects. Please consult the list of participating MPS programs . Please note that this activity is limited to core programs within the MPS Directorate; no cross-cutting or agency-wide special programs are eligible.

Proposers are advised that all documents submitted to NSF for this opportunity may be shared by secure electronic means with UEFISCDI.

The collaborative opportunity described in this Dear Colleague Letter (DCL) remains in effect until archived.

PROPOSAL PREPARATION AND SUBMISSION

All proposals must fall within the mission and funding parameters of both NSF/MPS and UEFISCDI. Proposals that do not fall within the missions of both funding organizations will not be considered.

There is a two-stage application process. Stage 1, Expression of Interest (EOI) submission, must be completed prior to Stage 2, full proposal submission.

After acceptance of an EOI, proposals must be submitted in accordance with the deadlines of the participating NSF programs. For NSF programs with a proposal submission deadline, project teams should submit the EOI at least 60 days ahead of the proposal submission deadline. For NSF programs without a proposal submission deadline, project teams should submit the EOI 60 days ahead of their intended proposal submission date.

Stage 1: Expression of Interest (EOI)

  • Proposed Project Title.
  • Names, email addresses, and departmental and institutional affiliations of the U.S. and Romanian researchers.
  • Bottom-line estimates of total expected funding (including indirect costs) to be requested from NSF and UEFISCDI in appropriate monetary units (USD for U.S. budget and RON for Romanian budget).
  • Clear indication of the NSF/MPS target program. This may not be the only NSF program that will consider the Expression of Interest, but identification of the target program allows for faster consideration.
  • a statement on the intellectual merit of the proposed activity, and
  • a statement on the broader impacts of the proposed activity.

The U.S. portion of the work should fall within the scope of one or more participating programs as noted above. The Romanian portion of the work should fall within the scope of Bilateral/Multilateral Complex Projects, Lead Agency Procedure .

It is advisable for proposers to consult with their institution's Office of Sponsored Research for budget advice prior to finalizing a total estimate. Full proposal budgets should not vary from those specified in the EOI by more than 10% and any such changes should be fully justified.

  • To submit the above information, proposers complete an  Expression of Interest (EOI) form . Proposers email the completed form to  [email protected] at least 60 days prior to the intended proposal submission date. EOIs will be shared with UEFISCDI and both agencies will review the submitted information to check for eligibility (namely whether the proposed research fits within the participating agencies' portfolios and whether the proposed researchers and institutions meet the agencies' funding eligibility requirements). UEFISCDI eligibility requirements for the Romanian side can be found here: https://uefiscdi.gov.ro/nsf-uefiscdi-lead-agency-opportunity .
  • Upon confirmation from the NSF that both agencies have reviewed the EOI and confirmed that the proposed collaborative research is appropriate for review under the NSF-UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity, NSF will contact the proposers to inform them whether they are encouraged to submit a full research proposal to the NSF/MPS program indicated. In some cases, an alteration of the budget request may be required in the full proposal submission.
  • If this communication has not taken place prior to a proposal submission, the proposal will be returned without review.

Stage 2: Full Proposal Submission

  • Proposers from both countries are to collaborate to write a single proposal. It is the responsibility of the U.S. proposer to submit the proposal to the appropriate NSF program for review.  The full proposal should be submitted within twelve months of the EOI being approved.  In the case of the original EOI expiring, proposers should contact NSF for clarification on how to proceed; a new EOI may be necessary.
  • The proposal should indicate that it is to be considered under this Lead Agency Opportunity by prefacing the title with "NSF-UEFISCDI:".
  • Proposers must comply with the proposal preparation requirements outlined in NSF's Proposal & Award Policies & Procedures Guide (PAPPG). The proposal must be submitted to the appropriate standing program within MPS via Research.gov or Grants.gov. If proposers are using Research.gov and the research collaboration only includes one US institution, proposers may select the option "Single Proposal (with or without sub-awards)" in Step 4. Proposal Details of the "Prepare New Full Proposal" wizard in Research.gov. Although NSF-UEFISCDI projects involve collaborative research, proposals are only classified as "collaborative" in Research.gov if they either 1) have sub-award(s) or 2) the lead proposal has associated non-lead proposal(s) attached to it. For more information on NSF collaborative proposals, see Chapter II.E.3 of the PAPPG.
  • The proposal should only indicate the U.S. expenses on the NSF Budget Form. A detailed breakdown of funding requested from UEFISCDI should be added to the proposal as a Supplementary Document, using the Budget Breakdown Template available on UEFISCDI's website, here: https://uefiscdi.gov.ro/nsf-uefiscdi-lead-agency-opportunity . This document is to be shared with UEFISCDI to verify eligibility of costs requested. The Budget Justification section of the proposal should address the full project budget (that is, both the U.S. and Romanian funding items).
  • Biographical Sketch - Required. The biographical information must be clearly identified as "non-NSF funded collaborators" biographical information and uploaded as a single PDF file in the Other Supplementary Documents section of the proposal. Use of a specific format is not required except in specific cases when the individual announcement to the community for the participating programs will indicate a required NSF format.
  • Collaborators and Other Affiliations (COA) Information - Required. The COA information should be provided through the use of the COA template , identified as "non-NSF funded collaborators" COA information, and uploaded as a PDF file in the Single Copy Documents section of the proposal.
  • Synergistic activities - Required
  • Current and Pending (Other) Support - Not required.
  • Results from Prior NSF Support - Not required.
  • An institutional statement in support of the joint submission must be provided by each Romanian partner organization in the proposal submission. This statement should be in the form of a signed letter from an Authorized Organizational Representative including the following text: "I confirm on behalf of [insert name or institution] that the U.S.-Romanian collaborative proposal between [insert name of the lead agency PI and institution] and [insert name of the non-lead agency PI and institution] is endorsed and has been submitted by [name of research office]." This letter must be included in the "Supplementary Documents" section.
  • For projects involving human subjects/participants or animals, proposers are expected to adhere to the policies, law, and guidelines concerning research ethics and must have requisite institutional approvals or exemptions in place prior to any potential award.
  • Research funded through this Lead Agency Opportunity is to be conducted in accordance with NSF's Responsible and Ethical Conduct of Research Policies ( https://www.nsf.gov/od/recr.jsp ).
  • Proposers are advised that all documents submitted to NSF as the Lead Agency may be shared securely, via a password-protected SharePoint or extranet site, with UEFISCDI. These documents will be hosted on a site associated with NSF, housed behind firewalls, and using NSF-specific protocols to ensure data protection (personal data protection included).
  • Proposals that request duplicative funding from NSF and/or UEFISCDI may be returned without review.

MERIT REVIEW

NSF-UEFISCDI collaborative proposals will be reviewed alongside all other unsolicited or standard research grant proposals received in the same funding round or call and will not undergo a special or separate review process. Proposals will be reviewed in accordance with NSF's standard merit review criteria.

FUNDING DECISIONS

There are no separate NSF funds available for this effort; proposals will compete with all other proposals submitted to participating programs and will be evaluated on the strengths of the proposed intellectual merit, broader impacts, and any program- and/or solicitation-specific review criteria that may apply. NSF, as the lead agency, will use its usual internal procedures to determine whether a proposal will be awarded or declined. Funding decisions may be subject to budget limits.

All proposers will be advised whether their proposal has been recommended for funding or will be declined. Proposers will receive copies of the reviewers' unattributed comments and, where applicable, a panel summary.

Once a proposer has been notified of a pending award, the Romanian researcher(s) associated with the project must submit a copy of the proposal to the UEFISCDI so that each agency has complete documentation of the overall proposed research project. UEFISCDI will provide further guidance to successful proposers at this stage.

For projects recommended for award, NSF and UEFISCDI will coordinate the U.S. and Romanian award timing as much as possible. However, because the participating agencies have different funding cycles, it is possible that some projects will have delayed start dates to wait until funds become available or until all pre-award requirements are met. Wherever possible, both agencies will endeavor to hold standard turnaround times for each participating agency, but in exceptional circumstances outcomes could be delayed.

RESUBMISSIONS

Should a proposal be declined for funding, proposers should follow these guidelines on resubmission:

  • refer to the resubmission guidelines of both agencies. 
  • submit a new EOI at least 3 months in advance of resubmitting a full proposal. The EOI should clearly indicate that it is a resubmission and what changes have been made. Both agencies reserve the right to reject an EOI that does not meet their resubmission criteria.

POST-AWARD CONSIDERATIONS

Award recipients will be expected to comply with the award conditions and reporting requirements of the agencies from which they receive funding.

Award recipients are to acknowledge both NSF and the UEFISCDI in any reports or publications arising from the grant.

Requests for no cost extensions will be considered by NSF and UEFISCDI using standard procedures. Requests for changes to awards will be discussed with other involved funding agencies before a mutual decision is reached.

DATA PROTECTION CONSIDERATIONS

NSF and UEFISCDI will share relevant information and data—whether in connection with the proposal and award process, or thereafter during the post award process. Data are expected to be shared between NSF and UEFISCDI to enable the secure and efficient processing of full proposals for the NSF- UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity. Data shared may include proposal attachments, anonymized peer reviews, and panel summaries. NSF and UEFISCDI are committed to maintaining data confidentiality, protection, and privacy and intend to fully abide by their own applicable laws and policies concerning the sharing of data in our collaborative activities.

PROGRAM CONTACTS

For general inquiries about the NSF-UEFISCDI lead agency opportunity, please contact [email protected] . For inquiries pertaining to the specific MPS programs to which an NSF-UEFISCDI may be submitted, please contact the program officers listed on the specific programs' web pages. A list of participating MPS programs can be found at the bottom of NSF's web page on international collaborations with Romania, here: OISE International Collaborations - Romania .

Additionally, NSF's Office of International Science and Engineering (OISE) helps to coordinate the overall engagement between NSF and UEFISCDI. The current OISE program manager for Romania is listed at https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/country-list.jsp .

Denise Caldwell Acting Assistant Director Mathematical and Physical Sciences

Proposal of a physical education program with multicultural elements in the Secondary Education and evaluation of student satisfaction

  • January 2014
  • 2(12):165 - 180

Lampaki Olympia at SCHOOL OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

  • SCHOOL OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Eva Pavlidou at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

  • Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Panagiotis Antoniou at Democritus University of Thrace

  • Democritus University of Thrace

Argyris Kyridis at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Abstract and Figures

comparative distribution of score values among the students of the sample

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COMMENTS

  1. (PDF) Proposal for an Enhanced Physical Education Program in the

    Proposal for an Enhanced Physical Education Program in the Primary School: Evaluation of Feasibility and Effectiveness in Improving Physical Skills and Fitness May 2016 Journal of Physical ...

  2. PDF Increasing Student Physical Fitness Through Increased Choice of Fitness

    research were physical education students in grades 10 - 12. The students exhibited physical fitness levels below that of the state and national norms, and also displayed negative attitudes about physical fitness. Evidence for the existence of the problem included data collected from a

  3. Physical Education Research Paper Topics

    100 Physical Education Research Paper Topics. Exploring the diverse facets of physical education through research papers offers a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the field and contribute to the growing body of knowledge. To assist you in this endeavor, we have compiled a comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics.

  4. Effects of a Physical Education Program on Physical Activity and

    1. Introduction. Teaching in physical education has evolved rapidly over the last 50 years, with a spectrum of teaching styles [], teaching models [], curricular models [], instruction models [], current pedagogical models [5,6], and physical educational programs [].As schools provide benefits other than academic and conceptual skills at present, we can determine new ways to meet different ...

  5. The Impact of Physical Activity on Academic Growth

    Analysis of the data concludes that student academic growth was increased as a result of the. increased physical activity of the students. Keywords: physical activity, growth, academics The Impact of Physical Activity on Academic Growth. Providing a classroom environment where the whole person is involved is an idea that.

  6. The Impact of a Daily Physical Education Program on Students' Attitudes

    2.1 Daily Physical Education Literature 14 2.2 Attitude Towards Physical Activity : Measurement and Development 18 2.2.1 Daily Physical Education and Student's Attitudes 22 2.3 Participation in Physical Activity 23 2.3.1 Measurement of Physical Activity Levels 26 2.3.2 Daily Physical Education and Levels of Physical Activity 27

  7. 'Physical education makes you fit and healthy'. Physical education's

    Introduction. Regular physical activity participation throughout childhood provides immediate health benefits, by positively effecting body composition and musculo-skeletal development (Malina and Bouchard, 1991), and reducing the presence of coronary heart disease risk factors (Gutin et al., 1994).In recognition of these health benefits, physical activity guidelines for children and youth ...

  8. Teaching health in physical education: An action research project

    In many countries, health has in some way framed the history of physical education (PE) (Augestad, 2003; Kirk, 1992; Tinning and McCuaig, 2006), and PE has often been aligned with medicalized notions of health (Fitzpatrick and Tinning, 2014).Currently, health is a subject in formal education and is considered an important aspect of PE (Cale, 2020; Schenker, 2018; Stolz, 2014).

  9. Physical education class participation is associated with physical

    In this study we examined the associations of physical education class participation with physical activity among adolescents. We analysed the Global School-based Student Health Survey data from ...

  10. Research Process in Physical Education and Sports Sciences

    Research is powerful tool for decision making which plays an important role in forecasting the way forward for growth and development and produce new knowledge. There are four cornerstones of a good research, which are a well formulated proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance.The research in physical ...

  11. Physical Activity and Quality of Life in High School Students

    Physical Activity and Quality of Life in High School Students: Proposals for Improving the Self-Concept in Physical Education Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Jul 5;18 (13):7185. ... 3 Physical Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario, S/N, 16071 Cuenca, Spain.

  12. (PDF) Action Research in Physical Education: Focusing beyond Myself

    FOCUSING BEYOND MYSELF. 3. quality collaborative AR: 1) a community of practice, 2) a knowledge-producing, epistemic. community, 3) a thorough grounding in the nature of AR, and 4) a knowledge of ...

  13. Sustainable Development Goals and Physical Education. A Proposal for

    The bibliographic and critical analysis in this research shows that of the 169 specific goals proposed in the SDGs, only 24 could be worked on in physical education. Upon completion of the analysis, a proposal for the relationship between the practice-based models and these 24 goals is presented.

  14. Effects of a Physical Education Program on Physical Activity and ...

    (1) Background: It has been identified that schools that adopt at least two hours a week of physical education and plan specific contents and activities can achieve development goals related to physical level, such as promoting health, well-being, and healthy lifestyles, on a personal level, including bodily awareness and confidence in physical skills, as well as a general sense of well-being ...

  15. Curricular proposals for physical education: local, global and

    The communication and scientific dialogue between national curricula projects represent a heuristic alternative to improving the quality of teaching and professional education.This research topic aims to combine a collection of papers that individually and collectively reveal perspectives of curricular proposals for physical education.

  16. PDF Proposal of a physical education program with multicultural elements in

    International Journal of Education and Research Vol. 2 No. 12 December 2014 165 Proposal of a physical education program with multicultural elements in the Secondary Education and evaluation of student satisfaction Lampaki Olympia1, Pavlidou ... teachers of Physical Education, we should have access to it, learn, and use it (Mohnsen, 2014). ...

  17. 5 Approaches to Physical Education in Schools

    Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as "a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy ...

  18. (PDF) Research and Practice in Physical Education

    The research aimed to identify strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities for improvement, ultimately enhancing curriculum and bridging the gap between academia and the physical education and sports ...

  19. PDF BSc Physical Education Programme Proposal

    BSc Physical Education Programme Proposal The Moray House School of Education March 2013 Address for Correspondence: Andrew Horrell St Leonard's Land Holyrood Road Edinburgh EH8 8AQ Email: [email protected] ... School of Education Physical Education Research . st. education .

  20. Curricular proposals for physical education: local, global and

    The communication and scientific dialogue between national curricula projects represent a heuristic alternative to improving the quality of teaching and professional education.This research topic aims to combine a collection of papers that individually and collectively reveal perspectives of curricular proposals for physical education.

  21. The Role of Physical Education at School

    Physical education is the foundation of a comprehensive school physical. activity program. It provides cognitive content and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and. behaviors ...

  22. Sample Action Research Plan

    This document outlines a research plan by Marc Morris B. Mancenido to address the problem of students in Manuel S. Enverga Memorial School of Arts and Trades not meeting competencies in Physical Education and Health in modular distance learning. The plan involves grouping students collaboratively based on access to devices and internet. The proposed research aims to improve PE and Health ...

  23. Dear Colleague Letter: NSF and the Romanian Executive Agency for Higher

    September 6, 2024. Dear Colleagues: The Mathematical & Physical Sciences Directorate (MPS) of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Romanian Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research, Development and Innovation Funding (UEFISCDI) are in a partnership to support international collaboration under the NSF-UEFISCDI Lead Agency Opportunity in Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

  24. (PDF) Proposal of a physical education program with multicultural

    The aim of this study was the implementation of a Physical Education (PE) program with mobility cooperative games and dances of the world, and the assessment of the satisfaction of the participants.