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Service learning in higher education: a systematic literature review

• Published: 28 February 2019
• Volume 20 , pages 573–593, ( 2019 )

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• Maimoona Salam   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7102-274X 1 ,
• Dayang Nurfatimah Awang Iskandar 1 ,
• Dayang Hanani Abang Ibrahim 1 &
• Muhammad Shoaib Farooq 2  

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In the last few years, adoption of service learning in higher educational institutions has emerged as a modern teaching and learning strategy. This study is aimed to offer a systematic literature review of service learning implementation in higher education. There is a lack of research on the role of service learning in higher education sector. Moreover, a comprehensive systematic literature review of service learning in higher education is also overlooked in previous studies. Therefore, this study covers an in-depth systematic literature review, which reflects the utilisation approach and outcomes of service learning in higher education. By employing a rigorous exploratory approach, this study offers four major findings: (1) Acceptance and use of service learning in different academic disciplines, which covers a detailed discussion of up to what extent service learning pedagogy practice exists in each discipline. (2) Emerging issues regarding the integration of service learning in different academic disciplines. (3) Comparative analysis of previous service learning frameworks, which includes theoretical foundation, main findings and limitations of each framework. (4) Potential benefits of service learning for all participants. Service learning presents diverse benefits for all stakeholders; we identified the list of potential outcomes in the light of emerging service learning literature. These findings show that service learning is frequently employed in some academic disciplines, i.e. medical and nursing sciences; business and economics; computer science and information system; social studies; teacher education; linguistic and environmental disciplines. Moreover, comparison of previous service learning frameworks revealed that most of them are subject-oriented, specifically focused on institutionalising and practical aspects.

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Acknowledgements

Authors wish to thank all the anonymous reviewers for their insightful, thoughtful and constructive comments on the earlier drafts of this manuscript. Same acknowledgment and gratitude goes to the worthy editor(s) of Asia Pacific Education Review for helping in refining this manuscript to its current form. This study is a part of PhD dissertation of Maimoona Salam, the corresponding author, under the supervision of Dr. Dayang Nurfatimah Awang Iskandar and Dr. Dayang Hanani Abang Ibrahim, which is submitted to Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia. Therefore, she wants to acknowledge and thank them for their continuous selfless support at UNIMAS. Further, during the revision phases of this study, Dr. Muhammad Shoaib Farooq significantly helped.

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Salam, M., Awang Iskandar, D.N., Ibrahim, D.H.A. et al. Service learning in higher education: a systematic literature review. Asia Pacific Educ. Rev. 20 , 573–593 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-019-09580-6

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EDITORIAL article

Editorial: service learning, educational innovation and social transformation.

• 1 Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, United States
• 2 University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Editorial on the Research Topic Service Learning, Educational Innovation and Social Transformation

Originating in North American and expanding around the world, service-learning is a pedagogy that deepens educational outcomes and is aligned with social action. Grounded in the principles of active and experiential learning articulated by Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget, among others ( Kolb, 2015 ), service-learning advocates for a more comprehensive education for students that includes not only academic learning but also civic learning and personal growth. In addition, it encompasses establishing reciprocal relationships with communities to the benefit of their residents and organizations.

Although the extant literature currently suggests that service-learning gives new meaning to the learning of competences and is a valuable tool in achieving them, there are still many challenges that arise for all agents involved in the process (e.g., residents, social entities, universities, instructors, students). Scholarship and research have historically been two fundamental activities that have shaped service-learning, but there are still many tensions, contrasts, and challenges that have to be resolved.

Service-learning is intentionally focused on student development and community improvement, situating it as a pedagogical strategy with the potential for both educational innovation and social transformation. In addition, just as service-learning also involves continuous reflection that allows connections between learning and action in community settings, scholarship and research on service-learning provides opportunities for scholars to reflect on and advance the theory and practice of service-learning.

This special issue of Frontiers in Education is one example of providing an opportunity for scholars to contribute to the development of service-learning. The entries are diverse in terms of institutional contexts, national settings, and theoretical/disciplinary orientations. Most of the manuscripts, like the field in general, reported research focused on student outcomes in service-learning. These manuscripts covered student outcomes across academic learning, careers and professional preparation, civic and democratic orientations to society, student identity, and personal growth. The breadth of these topics illustrates the potential for service-learning to contribute to different types of learning, thus enriching the educational experiences of students.

Several of the articles captured multidisciplinary orientations to service-learning and others contributed unique theoretical analyses of service-learning. Two articles examined technology-based service-learning (eS-L), a particularly timely topic because the CoVid pandemic resulted in many service-learning courses being converted into eS-L courses. The integration of technology has the potential to improve all service-learning in the future and for practitioners to re-examine how reflection can be supported by technology, the nature of technology-based civility and civic skills, and technology-supported relationships. Thus, the versatility of service-learning as explored in these articles suggested additional ways in which service-learning can enhance its efficacy and result in change in the university curriculum.

The scholarship reported in this issue can advance understanding of the processes of optimal course design, implementation, and evaluation as instructors and students work with community partners to reach meaningful outcomes. As such, service-learning has the potential to change work on campus beyond a single course, an isolated practitioner, and a specific community-based activity. Service-learning can be an agent of change more broadly in the university curriculum, in the professional lives of academic staff and instructors, in the relationships that support service-learning, in the lives of students, and in the democratic processes of the campus and communities ( Saltmarsh et al., 2009 ). In this way, service-learning becomes a significant contributor to defining, refining, and redefining the public purposes of institutions of higher education and their relationships to local, national, regional, and global communities that are increasingly diverse. Strategic institutional support will be needed to build upon the existing practice and scholarship currently existing around the world. Our hope is that the contents of this special issue will contribute to the momentum that currently exists to analyze and expand service-learning and will transform institutions and their practice to be more engaged, more democratic, and more humane in the future.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

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The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development . 2nd. Ed. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education .

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Saltmarsh, J., Hartley, M., and Clayton, P. H. (2009). Democratic Engagement White Paper . Boston, MA, New England Resource Center for Higher Education .

Keywords: service-learning, research, community engagement, scholarship, reflection

Citation: Bringle RG, Santos Rego MA and Regueiro B (2022) Editorial: Service Learning, Educational Innovation and Social Transformation. Front. Educ. 6:818660. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.818660

Received: 19 November 2021; Accepted: 09 December 2021; Published: 05 January 2022.

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Copyright © 2022 Bringle, Santos Rego and Regueiro. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Robert G. Bringle, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Service learning within community-engaged research: Facilitating nursing student learning outcomes

Melissa l horning.

a University of Minnesota School of Nursing, 5-140 Weaver Densford Hall, 308 Harvard St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55414

Laurel Ostrow

b Minnesota State University, Mankato, College of Allied Health and Nursing, 228 Wiecking Center, Mankato, MN 56001

Patricia Beierwaltes

Jennifer beaudette.

c Minneapolis Heart Institute Foundation, 920 E 28th St #100, Minneapolis, MN 55407.

Kate Schmitz

Jayne a. fulkerson.

The objective of this manuscript is to describe a method of integrating baccalaureate nursing student service-learning experiences within a randomized controlled trial conducted in a community setting to facilitate student learning and expose students to the nursing scientist role. Placing students in a research service-learning experience involved several steps beginning with finding a nursing program for potential collaboration where this service-learning opportunity would be a natural fit with course content and formalizing the collaboration between the two institutions. Upon receipt of research grant funding, researchers and course faculty worked to navigate logistics and place students within the service-learning experience. After research training, 35 students assisted with intervention delivery and completed course assignments to document their learning. The collaboration described between a community-engaged research team from a research-intensive university and course faculty from a distant institution could be replicated with all types of nursing research.

Engaging Nursing Students in Research

Developing the next generation of nursing leaders and scientists is paramount to the future of nursing and nursing science. Although important for nursing students at any educational stage, aligned with the AACN’s Baccalaureate Nursing (BSN) Education Essentials (2008), it is particularly critical to engage undergraduate BSN students in research. As enrollment in Nursing PhD programs continues to plateau nationally ( AACN, 2019 ), the nursing profession must excite and educate the next generation of nurse researchers. Furthermore, nursing students must understand the basics of research to successfully incorporate evidence-based research findings into their daily practice. Thus, BSN student involvement in research is not only crucial for the profession but also has many potential benefits for student academic (e.g., knowledge and application of the research process) and future career growth (e.g., pursuit of graduate degrees, continued involvement in research; Abbott-Anderson, Gilmore-Bykovskyi, & Lyles, 2016 ; Ayoola et al., 2017 ; De Jong, Meijer, Schout, & Abma, 2018 ; Kessler & Alverson, 2017 ; Slattery et al., 2016 ). While best practice strategies for engaging BSN students in research throughout the curriculum have been recommended ( Ayoola et al., 2017 ; Christie, Hamill, & Power, 2012 ; Jansen et al., 2015 ), finding ways to embed applied research experiences within and throughout existing BSN curricula remains challenging.

Authentic Learning Environments – Service-learning

Authentic learning environments immerse students in real-world application of classroom knowledge/skills in settings similar to those of their future careers. These activities can facilitate student learning outcomes ( Almeida et al., 2018 ; Murray, 2013 ) and include simulations, clinical practice, and service-learning experiences. Service-learning is an educational method that actively engages students in organized reflection and community service experiences designed to address ongoing need and enhance academic and personal learning ( National and Community Service Act of 1990 , 1990). However, because not all nursing courses are affiliated with authentic learning experiences, it is possible students may see course content as less applicable to their future careers and/or may not feel comfortable in applying the didactic course content in real world situations.

Embedding research experience as part of course service-learning activities is a unique opportunity to further engage BSN students in research while also facilitating didactic course learning in courses not attached to a clinical or simulation experience. Furthermore, courses with integrated service-learning activities focused on health promotion, prevention, lifestyle change interventions, and early detection of alterations in physiologic integrity may be more readily conducive to application of classroom learning in community settings. Such foci are important components of primary and tertiary prevention of diseases and conditions commonly found in the population and are likely targets for nursing care as students enter their careers.

This manuscript describes a unique application of service-learning within a randomized control trial (RCT) delivered in a community setting, which has transferability to many different types of clinical- or community-based research projects. Specific steps will be outlined to detail how those conducting nursing research in community settings can collaborate with nursing faculty to provide opportunities for nursing student engagement in research to facilitate course learning.

Background on the Trial and Identifying the Service-Learning Opportunity

The New-Ulm at HOME (NU-HOME) trial aimed to test the effectiveness of an obesity prevention intervention with 7–10 year-old children living in rural communities (n=114 families). Recruitment occurred in two cohorts (2017–2018 and 2018–2019). After baseline assessments, 58 families were randomly assigned to the NU-HOME intervention program and 56 families were allocated to the wait-list control condition. Based on previous research ( Flattum et al., 2015 ; Fulkerson et al., 2015 , Fulkerson et al., 2017 ), the interactive, hands-on, NU-HOME intervention program engaged families to promote healthfulness of family meals, snacks and the home food environment and positive family activities (e.g., family physical activity, cooking together).

The intervention was delivered monthly over a seven-month period to multiple family groups assigned to the intervention condition. Based on previous trial experience, it was deemed the intervention was best delivered to 5–7 families at a time, as all family members were invited to attend and groups could get large. Thus, to accommodate up to 28 families each month, the program was offered four times per month. This scheduling allowed for all families to fit in the space and participate in program activities. Program activities included: a parent group that had facilitated discussion on key nutrition and physical activity topics, strategies, and behaviors; a child group with hands-on learning related to nutrition, cooking, and physical activity; evening meal preparation; and physical activity breaks ( Flattum et al., 2015 ; Fulkerson et al., 2015 ).

In the team’s previous research, nursing and public health students were successfully engaged in intervention delivery ( Flattum et al., 2015 ; Fulkerson et al., 2015 ). Based on this success, the NU-HOME study researchers sought a way to engage BSN students in valuable hands-on experience through service-learning with the NU-HOME study by working with families in the rural community setting to promote healthful nutrition and lifestyles. The students would also provide useful assistance in the NU-HOME intervention delivery. This service-learning opportunity would keep research intervention costs down and enhance research program sustainability in the community.

Establishing a Collaboration for the Service-Learning Opportunity

After identifying the potential service-learning opportunity would be beneficial for student learning and the trial, the researchers sought a collaboration to facilitate the service-learning opportunity. While some researchers may be able to seek a collaboration within their own department/institution, for the NU-HOME study, there was also a distance-related logistical challenge—the intervention took place about 100 miles from the NU-HOME researchers’ institution. Thus, the researchers reached out to a BSN program near the location of the NU-HOME trial to propose a collaboration and to find a course in which this service-learning opportunity would be a natural fit with course content and processes.

A match was made with an institution of higher education near the site of the intervention delivery and a BSN course was identified for the service-learning opportunity. The BSN course identified was an innovative nursing course focused on health promotion, prevention, and early detection of alterations in physiologic integrity that utilized service-learning in community programs. This first-semester BSN course is four credits (two credits theory, two credits experiential learning) and requires completion of 60 hours of experiential learning. In this course, students are assigned to a wide variety of experiential learning activities, many of them service-learning. In discussion with BSN course faculty, it was determined that the NU-HOME study would provide an excellent student service-learning opportunity to allow students to gain family health promotion experiences. The collaboration between the researchers, course faculty and institutions was formalized in a support letter by College of Allied Health and Nursing, Minnesota State University Mankato for the NU-HOME study grant application. During the grant writing and awaiting funding period, researchers kept course faculty abreast of the research grant status.

Development of the NU-HOME Service-Learning Activity

After grant funding was awarded, the researchers contacted course faculty to logistically plan for student service-learning involvement in the research study. Both groups worked to ensure a close match between the service-learning activities, course content and course objectives/requirements (e.g., to plan the schedule so students would obtain the required hours of service-learning experience, to outline the students’ role/activities). In addition, roles/responsibilities of the researchers and course faculty were outlined.

For the NU-HOME project, the researchers and course faculty determined that the students would assist with the intervention once each month during the semester with a consistent group of participating families. At the students’ assigned monthly intervention session, it was planned that students would spend 5–6 hours preparing, setting up, interacting with families, and cleaning up. Students were also given credit for time spent in orientation and training (see below). Course faculty planned for students to participate in oral and written reflection during and at the end of their experience. Faculty sought verbal confirmation from the research team to verify student participation during the project. At the end of the semester, students turned in a reflective log including proposed nursing diagnoses and descriptions of the interventions used in this experiential learning to address the nursing diagnoses. In addition, students assessed and documented how their work with the NU-HOME study met their course objectives and learning outcomes in an end-of-the semester reflective assignment. These assignments were graded on a pass/fail basis. Feedback received from the coordinator at the partner institution and grading of the final reflections verified the students’ successful completion of the activity.

Navigating Logistics

The researchers and course faculty also navigated logistics of two institutions and the physical distance separating them. These logistics included the researchers working with course faculty to ensure students had on file completed background checks and HIPAA confidentiality training completions. Researchers also coordinated plans with course faculty for required student trainings (i.e., to the study, research ethics, food safety). Course faculty used researcher-designed and narrated slides to introduce the study and service-learning opportunity to students in class. Course faculty also facilitated student sign-up for NU-HOME intervention shifts, which happened on the first day of class in the semester. Course faculty then sent the researchers the list of student names and assigned intervention shifts.

Student Training and Orientation to Service-Learning within NU-HOME

The researchers reached out by email to the students on the NU-HOME research service-learning project to coordinate orientation and training. Orientation and training to the study and research ethics were hosted by video conference. Students were also required to complete the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Research Ethics and Compliance Training. This training completion was documented at the researchers’ human subjects review board. To ensure students completed the correct CITI training modules, students used a step-by-step training guide developed by the researchers. Finally, as part of training, students were required to view and document completion of a food safety training module and financial conflict of interest report.

Implementation of the Research-based Service-Learning Opportunity

In total, 35 students completed their service-learning hours with the NU-HOME study, and the number of students participating each semester ranged from 5 to 12. While schedules were set at the beginning of the semester, research intervention staff provided reminders and just-in-time communication with students through text or email about any schedule changes on an ongoing basis. Research intervention staff also met with students prior to each NU-HOME intervention session to provide hands-on training to students before engaging with families; this meeting allowed time to set up, review session objectives, and assign student roles. In the intervention sessions, student engagement included welcoming families and assisting the intervention staff during groups. Student assistance during the child group was particularly important because children in the intervention ranged from 7 to 10 years old and sometimes needed assistance to complete child group activities. Additionally, students worked one-on-one with families during the cooking portion of the intervention when whole families were assigned to a recipe and a cooking space. Families and students prepared the assigned recipe for the large group family-style meal at the end of the intervention session.

Research staff communicated with faculty about the students’ service-learning work, and students completed their assigned reflection activities about their experience with the NU-HOME study as part of their course. Through their NU-HOME study experience, students reflected they met the following course objectives: examining major health concerns in the framework of the public health prevention model, incorporating nutritional assessment and care, demonstrating evidence-based practices in providing societal level care, and utilizing evidence-based care of patients and families with preventable alterations in physiological integrity. In addition, students also developed written nursing care plans focused on one nursing diagnosis for the population with which they worked.

This paper describes a course-related, service-learning opportunity for BSN students within a research study. This service-learning activity allowed students to integrate knowledge of behavioral, biological, physical, and nursing sciences in evidence-based care of patients/families with preventable alterations in physiological integrity, particularly focused on healthful nutrition and physical activity behaviors. This opportunity also allowed students to gain experience communicating with families, demonstrate using evidence-based practice in providing societal level care, and practice therapeutic relationship and communication skills. Finally, students were immersed in community-engaged research, intervention delivery, research ethics, and development of evidence-based practice. Aligned with the BSN Essentials ( AACN, 2008 ), this experiential research engagement helped students see how they can apply evidence in practice and how to contribute to research that informs evidenced-based practice.

This service-learning opportunity with the NU-HOME study intervention also greatly benefited the families participating in the NU-HOME trial. Because students were engaged in the intervention, families received individualized attention during the cooking and group activities that would not have otherwise been possible. This one-on-one time with students allowed for the group intervention to be tailored to specific needs of the individual families within the group. For example, the family-student pairings helped to ensure the families’ needs were being met and provided families a space to ask questions specific to their family or questions they may not have preferred to share with all families. The children also saw the students as role models; if a child was reluctant to try the vegetable of the month or one of the dishes at dinner, encouragement from the students facilitated the child’s willingness to try it.

Students were enthusiastic about this service-learning experience, even signing up for extra shifts beyond course requirements. In written and oral reflections about their experiences required for the course, students made connections between class learning outcomes and their research engagement. They promoted healthful, nutrient-dense meals to families, both applying and recognizing the levels of prevention. Students became teachers, which was empowering for them and participating families. The importance of building teamwork skills is critical to developing effective nurses and was also accomplished through this activity.

Although the experience was well-received by students and instrumental to conducting the research trial, integrating service-learning and research environments was not without challenges. For example, the researchers contacted the course faculty and their institution for a letter of support, but because grant funding is limited and competitive, it was several grant review cycles before the grant was funded so definitive plans could not be made. Also, because the research was grant-funded, the research option for service-learning was bound by the aims/scope/timeline of the grant and opportunities for sustainability were not completely clear once funding ended. Fortunately, the researchers connected course faculty with partners in the rural community of the NU-HOME trial for potential additional collaborations of service-learning through program sustainability efforts and other health programming. There was also a research-related challenge by engaging students who were not formally trained intervention researchers, because students assisting with the intervention could pose a risk to the trial’s intervention fidelity. However, in conjunction with the professional research staff, the students were wholly capable of being successful within the scope of their responsibilities (after receiving formal and just-in-time training), as documented through the periodic monitoring of intervention fidelity. Finally, the intervention ran for seven straight months for two school years in a row, spanning four academic semesters. While this schedule allowed for more student involvement, it also required the research team to plan around the students’ scheduled breaks (i.e., winter break) and allow for extra time to get new students trained and approved by the IRB each semester.

Ultimately, the collaboration described between the community-engaged research team from a research-intensive university and course faculty from a distant institution provided a unique and powerful student service-learning activity and instrumental support for ongoing research. This type of collaboration could be replicated with all types of nursing research to provide mutual benefit to nursing students and research projects. Such collaborations facilitate student learning of research and didactic content, provide integral support to nursing research, expose students to the nurse-scientist role, and potentially contribute to the development of the future generation of nursing researchers.

• Many types of nursing research can provide service learning opportunities
• Learning outcomes can be enhanced with service learning in research settings
• Service learning students can provide integral support for nursing research
• Student engagement in research can help develop future nurse scientists

Acknowledgments

Funding: This work was supported by Grant R01 HL123699 (J. Fulkerson, PI) from the NHLBI/NIH. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health.

The NU-HOME trial and student engagement within the trial was approved by the Institutional Review Board.

The NU-HOME trial is registered at clinicaltrials.gov : {"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT02973815","term_id":"NCT02973815"}} NCT02973815

The authors have no conflicts of interest to report

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Undergraduate Journal of Service Learning & Community-Based Research

Announcements, volume 14.2 is now live.

Volume 14.2 of the Undergraduate Journal of Service Learning and Community-Based Research is now live! We hope you enjoy. Congratulations to this volume's authors! Submissions for Volume 15.1 will be accepted on a rolling basis until March 30th, 2024.

Current Issue

Vol. 14 No. 2 (2024)

Dear readers,

            As we begin another journey around the sun, we have much to be hopeful for in 2024. Students in higher education are now becoming increasingly connected to classmates and professors as many institutions of higher learning resume not only face-to-face instruction in the classroom setting, but also the operations of many campus organizations that provide students with valuable opportunities to reconnect and reengage. After the many challenges of the last few years, it is heartening to see more students networking, engaging in field experiences, and exploring their communities. Of course, with increased professional and community integration for students in higher education, we are also seeing an increase in opportunities for community-based research and service learning. The pandemic, the conflicts we are seeing domestically and abroad, the fragility of our economy…all of these things are contributing to rapid change and a general sense of instability for many. But amid these challenges, 2024 can be a chance for us to strengthen the fabric of our relationships and our communities.

            We as a journal are committed to sharing the research and the stories of those who dare to strengthen the fabric. As you continue to learn from each other and the world around you, you will give of yourself in ways that empower you. You will bring hope and inspiration to others, and in return, you will gain more than you thought possible. Bring to us the stories of what you learn out there in the world, whether through data or anecdotes. It is these stories that fuel the drivers of change.

            As always, we are grateful for your readership and your academic contributions to the Undergraduate Journal of Service Learning and Community-Based Research. Please enjoy this year’s first issue, and kick off 2024 with high hopes and renewed vigor!

Dr. Amelia Huelskamp and Dr. Jenn Vanderminden

Published: 2024-04-25

Research Done in Partnership with a Community Organization

Evaluating the normative view on parental involvement, research articles, stigma reduction on reproductive health, the community’s perspective on mentorship through service-learning: a qualitative analysis, reflective essays, reflecting on service: the common denominator, implementing a wellness program with trenton youth: reflections about undergraduate professional development in the context of community engaged research.

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Center for Teaching

• What is Service Learning or Community Engagement?

• Benefits of Community Engagement

Models of Community Engagement Teaching

Ways to integrate community engagement into an existing course.

Community engagement pedagogies, often called “service learning,” are ones that combine learning goals and community service in ways that can enhance both student growth and the common good.  In the words of the National Service Learning Clearinghouse , it is “a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities.”  Or, to quote Vanderbilt University’s Janet S. Eyler (winner of the 2003 Thomas Ehrlich Faculty Award for Service Learning) and Dwight E. Giles, Jr., it is

“a form of experiential education where learning occurs through a cycle of action and reflection as students. . . seek to achieve real objectives for the community and deeper understanding and skills for themselves. In the process, students link personal and social development with academic and cognitive development. . . experience enhances understanding; understanding leads to more effective action.”

Typically, community engagement is incorporated into a course or series of courses by way of a project that has both learning and community action goals.  This project is designed via collaboration between faculty and community partners, such as non-governmental organizations or government agencies.  The project asks students to apply course content to community-based activities.  This gives students experiential opportunities to learn in real world contexts and develop skills of community engagement, while affording community partners opportunities to address significant needs. Vanderbilt University’s Sharon Shields has argued that service learning is “one of the most significant teaching methodologies gaining momentum on many campuses.” Indeed, when done well, teaching through community engagement benefits students, faculty, communities, and institutions of higher education. Below are some of the benefits that education researchers and practitioners have associated with community engaged teaching.

Student Benefits of Community Engagement

Learning outcomes.

• Positive impact on students’ academic learning
• Improves students’ ability to apply what they have learned in “the real world”
• Positive impact on academic outcomes such as demonstrated complexity of understanding, problem analysis, problem-solving, critical thinking, and cognitive development
• Improved ability to understand complexity and ambiguity

Personal Outcomes

• Greater sense of personal efficacy, personal identity, spiritual growth, and moral development
• Greater interpersonal development, particularly the ability to work well with others, and build leadership and communication skills

Social Outcomes

• Reduced stereotypes and greater inter-cultural understanding
• Improved social responsibility and citizenship skills
• Greater involvement in community service after graduation

Career Development

• Connections with professionals and community members for learning and career opportunities
• Greater academic learning, leadership skills, and personal efficacy can lead to greater opportunity

Relationship with the Institution

• Stronger relationships with faculty
• Greater satisfaction with college
• Improved graduation rates

Faculty Benefits of Community Engagement

• Satisfaction with the quality of student learning
• New avenues for research and publication via new relationships between faculty and community
• Providing networking opportunities with engaged faculty in other disciplines or institutions
• A stronger commitment to one’s research

College and University Benefits of Community Engagement

• Improved institutional commitment to the curriculum
• Improved student retention
• Enhanced community relations

Community Benefits of Community Engagement

• Satisfaction with student participation
• Valuable human resources needed to achieve community goals
• New energy, enthusiasm and perspectives applied to community work
• Enhanced community-university relations

Discipline-Based

Discipline-based model.

In this model, students are expected to have a presence in the community throughout the semester and reflect on their experiences regularly.  In these reflections, they use course content as a basis for their analysis and understanding of the key theoretical, methodological and applied issues at hand.

Problem-Based

Problem-based model.

Students relate to the community much as “consultants” working for a “client.” Students work with community members to understand a particular community problem or need.  This model presumes that the students have or will develop capacities with which to help communities solve a problem.  For example: architecture students might design a park; business students might develop a web site; botany students might identify non-native plants and suggest eradication methods.

Capstone Course

Capstone course model.

These courses are generally designed for majors and minors in a given discipline and are offered almost exclusively to students in their final year. Capstone courses ask students to draw upon the knowledge they have obtained throughout their course work and combine it with relevant service work in the community. The goal of capstone courses is usually either exploring a new topic or synthesizing students’ understanding of their discipline.

Service Internship

Service internship model.

This approach asks students to work as many as 10 to 20 hours a week in a community setting. As in traditional internships, students are charged with producing a body of work that is of value to the community or site. However, unlike traditional internships, service internships have on-going faculty-guided reflection to challenge the students to analyze their new experiences using discipline-based theories.  Service internships focus on reciprocity: the idea that the community and the student benefit equally from the experience.

Undergrad Community-Based Action Research

Action research model.

Community-based action research is similar to an independent study option for the student who is highly experienced in community work.  This approach can be effective with small classes or groups of students.  In this model, students work closely with faculty members to learn research methodology while serving as advocates for communities.  This model assumes that students are or can be trained to be competent in time management and can negotiate diverse communities.

Directed Study Extra Credit

Directed study additional/extra credit model.

Students can register for up to three additional/extra credits in a course by making special arrangements with the instructor to complete an added community-based project.  The course instructor serves as the advisor for the directed study option.  Such arrangements require departmental approval and formal student registration.

There are many ways to integrate community engagement into an existing course, depending on the learning goals, the size of the class, the academic preparation of the students, and the community partnership or project type. Below are some general tips to consider as you begin:

• One-time group service projects: Some course objectives can be met when the entire class is involved in a one-time service project. Arrangements for service projects can be made prior to the semester and included in the syllabus. This model affords the opportunity for faculty and peer interaction because a common service experience is shared. One-time projects have different learning outcomes than ongoing service activities.
• Option within a course: Many faculty begin community engagement with a pilot project. In this design, students have the option to become involved in the community-based project.  A portion of the normal coursework is substituted by the community-based component.  For example, a traditional research paper or group project can be replaced with an experiential research paper or personal journal that documents learning from the service experience.
• Required within a course: In this case, all students are involved in service as an integrated aspect of the course. This expectation must be clearly stated at the first class meeting, on the syllabus, with a clear rationale provided to students as to why the service component is required. Exceptions can be arranged on an individual basis or students can transfer to another class. If all students are involved in service, it is easier to design coursework (i.e., class discussions, writing assignments, exam questions) that integrates the service experience with course objectives. Class sessions can involve agency personnel and site visits. Faculty report that it is easier to build community partnerships if a consistent number of students are involved each semester.
• Action research projects: This type of class involves students in research within the community. The results of the research are communicated to the agency so that it can be used to address community needs. Action research and participatory action research take a significant amount of time to build relationships of trust in the community and identify common research agendas; however, community research projects can support the ongoing research of faculty. Extending this type of research beyond the confines of a semester may be best for all involved.
• Disciplinary capstone projects: Community engagement is an excellent way to build upon students’ cumulative knowledge in a specific discipline and to demonstrate the integration of that knowledge with real life issues. Upper class students can explore ways their disciplinary expertise and competencies translate into addressing community needs. Other community-based classes within the department can prepare the student for this more extensive community-based class.
• Multiple course projects :  Community engagement projects with one or more partners may span different courses in the same semester or multiple courses over a year or longer.  These projects must be broad enough to meet the learning goals of multiple courses over time, and because of this they may have a cumulative impact on both student learning and community development that is robust.  Such projects may be particularly suited to course clusters or learning communities within or across disciplines, or course sequences, say, within a major, that build student capacity towards advanced learning and community action goals.

Other CFT Guides About Community Engagement Pedagogies

• A Word on Nomenclature
• Best Practices in Community Engaged Teaching
• Community Engaged Teaching Step by Step
• Challenges and Opportunities of Community Engaged Teaching
• Additional Resources

Teaching Guides

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• Principles & Frameworks
• Pedagogies & Strategies
• Reflecting & Assessing
• Challenges & Opportunities
• Populations & Contexts

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LIVE Learning Innovation Incubator

Redforest reading tool.

Posted by Meagan Postema on Thursday, April 18, 2024 in Uncategorized .

Redforest is a system that has grown out of research exploring the differences and similarities between digital and paper reading. It provides data (including eye-gaze data from various eye-gaze tools) on in-the-moment reading behaviors, shedding light on the reading process as it relates to the reading product. The Redforest system allows teachers to get data on HOW students are reading because it provides where students looked, what they did (highlight, etc), how they scrolled, and what tools they used. The system is setup to be flexible such that various content can be uploaded and then students and teachers can get data on the reading behaviors used during a first reading as well as what they are doing during comprehension tasks such as answering questions or summarizing. The tool continues to be developed and we are moving towards training an AI model to identify larger behaviors like re-reading, skimming, deep processing, etc. AI and various means are also used to communicate the quality of behaviors (i.e., did the student re-read the full text to answer the question or look back the specific location) so that such knowledge can inform instruction. This tool can serve assessment, instruction, and research needs. Our team uses it primarily to explore modern reading and hence digital and paper reading similarities and differences.

How to Get Involved:

The Redforest Team loves to collaborate to improve our systems including our eye-gaze tools, our coding of our AI model, our visuals, and all other areas.

Redforest PI

Redforest Personnel

Core Publications

Goodwin, A. P., Cho, S. J., Reynolds, D., & Brady, K. (2020) . Digital vs Paper Reading Processes and Links to Comprehension for Middle School Students . American Educational Research Journal, 57 (4), 1837-1867.

Shimizu, A. Y., Havazelet, M., & Goodwin, A. P. (2024). More than one way: Fifth-graders’ varied digital reading behaviors and comprehension outcomes . AERA Open, 10, 1-25.

Cho, S.-J., Goodwin, A. P., Naveiras, M., & Salas, J. (in press). Differential and functional response time item analysis: An application to understanding paper versus digital reading processes . Journal of Educational Measurement .

Funding Sources

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• DOI: 10.1016/j.sel.2024.100058
• Corpus ID: 271416673

Oregon’s K-12 Transformative Social and Emotional Learning Framework and Standard Development

• Vanessa Martinez , Beth Wigham , +1 author Deirdre Hon
• Published in Social and Emotional Learning… 1 July 2024
• Education, Psychology

One Reference

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Deep Learning for Economists

Deep learning provides powerful methods to impute structured information from large-scale, unstructured text and image datasets. For example, economists might wish to detect the presence of economic activity in satellite images, or to measure the topics or entities mentioned in social media, the congressional record, or firm filings. This review introduces deep neural networks, covering methods such as classifiers, regression models, generative AI, and embedding models. Applications include classification, document digitization, record linkage, and methods for data exploration in massive scale text and image corpora. When suitable methods are used, deep learning models can be cheap to tune and can scale affordably to problems involving millions or billions of data points.. The review is accompanied by a companion website, EconDL, with user-friendly demo notebooks, software resources, and a knowledge base that provides technical details and additional applications.

I would like to thank four anonymous referees, the editor, and Jake Carlson for their helpful comments and suggestions. Yiyang Chen provided excellent research assistance. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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