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Implementation research: what it is and how to do it

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• Peer review
• David H Peters , professor 1 ,
• Taghreed Adam , scientist 2 ,
• Olakunle Alonge , assistant scientist 1 ,
• Irene Akua Agyepong , specialist public health 3 ,
• Nhan Tran , manager 4
• 1 Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of International Health, 615 N Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
• 2 Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research, World Health Organization, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
• 3 University of Ghana School of Public Health/Ghana Health Service, Accra, Ghana
• 4 Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research, Implementation Research Platform, World Health Organization, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland
• Correspondence to: D H Peters  dpeters{at}jhsph.edu
• Accepted 8 October 2013

Implementation research is a growing but not well understood field of health research that can contribute to more effective public health and clinical policies and programmes. This article provides a broad definition of implementation research and outlines key principles for how to do it

The field of implementation research is growing, but it is not well understood despite the need for better research to inform decisions about health policies, programmes, and practices. This article focuses on the context and factors affecting implementation, the key audiences for the research, implementation outcome variables that describe various aspects of how implementation occurs, and the study of implementation strategies that support the delivery of health services, programmes, and policies. We provide a framework for using the research question as the basis for selecting among the wide range of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods that can be applied in implementation research, along with brief descriptions of methods specifically suitable for implementation research. Expanding the use of well designed implementation research should contribute to more effective public health and clinical policies and programmes.

Defining implementation research

Implementation research attempts to solve a wide range of implementation problems; it has its origins in several disciplines and research traditions (supplementary table A). Although progress has been made in conceptualising implementation research over the past decade, 1 considerable confusion persists about its terminology and scope. 2 3 4 The word “implement” comes from the Latin “implere,” meaning to fulfil or to carry into effect. 5 This provides a basis for a broad definition of implementation research that can be used across research traditions and has meaning for practitioners, policy makers, and the interested public: “Implementation research is the scientific inquiry into questions concerning implementation—the act of carrying an intention into effect, which in health research can be policies, programmes, or individual practices (collectively called interventions).”

Implementation research can consider any aspect of implementation, including the factors affecting implementation, the processes of implementation, and the results of implementation, including how to introduce potential solutions into a health system or how to promote their large scale use and sustainability. The intent is to understand what, why, and how interventions work in “real world” settings and to test approaches to improve them.

Principles of implementation research

Implementation research seeks to understand and work within real world conditions, rather than trying to control for these conditions or to remove their influence as causal effects. This implies working with populations that will be affected by an intervention, rather than selecting beneficiaries who may not represent the target population of an intervention (such as studying healthy volunteers or excluding patients who have comorbidities).

Context plays a central role in implementation research. Context can include the social, cultural, economic, political, legal, and physical environment, as well as the institutional setting, comprising various stakeholders and their interactions, and the demographic and epidemiological conditions. The structure of the health systems (for example, the roles played by governments, non-governmental organisations, other private providers, and citizens) is particularly important for implementation research on health.

Implementation research is especially concerned with the users of the research and not purely the production of knowledge. These users may include managers and teams using quality improvement strategies, executive decision makers seeking advice for specific decisions, policy makers who need to be informed about particular programmes, practitioners who need to be convinced to use interventions that are based on evidence, people who are influenced to change their behaviour to have a healthier life, or communities who are conducting the research and taking action through the research to improve their conditions (supplementary table A). One important implication is that often these actors should be intimately involved in the identification, design, and conduct phases of research and not just be targets for dissemination of study results.

Implementation outcome variables

Implementation outcome variables describe the intentional actions to deliver services. 6 These implementation outcome variables—acceptability, adoption, appropriateness, feasibility, fidelity, implementation cost, coverage, and sustainability—can all serve as indicators of the success of implementation (table 1 ⇓ ). Implementation research uses these variables to assess how well implementation has occurred or to provide insights about how this contributes to one’s health status or other important health outcomes.

 Implementation outcome variables

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Implementation strategies

Curran and colleagues defined an “implementation intervention” as a method to “enhance the adoption of a ‘clinical’ intervention,” such as the use of job aids, provider education, or audit procedures. 7 The concept can be broadened to any type of strategy that is designed to support a clinical or population and public health intervention (for example, outreach clinics and supervision checklists are implementation strategies used to improve the coverage and quality of immunisation).

A review of ways to improve health service delivery in low and middle income countries identified a wide range of successful implementation strategies (supplementary table B). 8 Even in the most resource constrained environments, measuring change, informing stakeholders, and using information to guide decision making were found to be critical to successful implementation.

Implementation influencing variables

Other factors that influence implementation may need to be considered in implementation research. Sabatier summarised a set of such factors that influence policy implementation (clarity of objectives, causal theory, implementing personnel, support of interest groups, and managerial authority and resources). 9

The large array of contextual factors that influence implementation, interact with each other, and change over time highlights the fact that implementation often occurs as part of complex adaptive systems. 10 Some implementation strategies are particularly suitable for working in complex systems. These include strategies to provide feedback to key stakeholders and to encourage learning and adaptation by implementing agencies and beneficiary groups. Such strategies have implications for research, as the study methods need to be sufficiently flexible to account for changes or adaptations in what is actually being implemented. 8 11 Research designs that depend on having a single and fixed intervention, such as a typical randomised controlled trial, would not be an appropriate design to study phenomena that change, especially when they change in unpredictable and variable ways.

Another implication of studying complex systems is that the research may need to use multiple methods and different sources of information to understand an implementation problem. Because implementation activities and effects are not usually static or linear processes, research designs often need to be able to observe and analyse these sometimes iterative and changing elements at several points in time and to consider unintended consequences.

Implementation research questions

As in other types of health systems research, the research question is the king in implementation research. Implementation research takes a pragmatic approach, placing the research question (or implementation problem) as the starting point to inquiry; this then dictates the research methods and assumptions to be used. Implementation research questions can cover a wide variety of topics and are frequently organised around theories of change or the type of research objective (examples are in supplementary table C). 12 13

Implementation research can overlap with other types of research used in medicine and public health, and the distinctions are not always clear cut. A range of implementation research exists, based on the centrality of implementation in the research question, the degree to which the research takes place in a real world setting with routine populations, and the role of implementation strategies and implementation variables in the research (figure ⇓ ).

Spectrum of implementation research 33

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A more detailed description of the research question can help researchers and practitioners to determine the type of research methods that should be used. In table 2 ⇓ , we break down the research question first by its objective: to explore, describe, influence, explain, or predict. This is followed by a typical implementation research question based on each objective. Finally, we describe a set of research methods for each type of research question.

 Type of implementation research objective, implementation question, and research methods

Much of evidence based medicine is concerned with the objective of influence, or whether an intervention produces an expected outcome, which can be broken down further by the level of certainty in the conclusions drawn from the study. The nature of the inquiry (for example, the amount of risk and considerations of ethics, costs, and timeliness), and the interests of different audiences, should determine the level of uncertainty. 8 14 Research questions concerning programmatic decisions about the process of an implementation strategy may justify a lower level of certainty for the manager and policy maker, using research methods that would support an adequacy or plausibility inference. 14 Where a high risk of harm exists and sufficient time and resources are available, a probability study design might be more appropriate, in which the result in an area where the intervention is implemented is compared with areas without implementation with a low probability of error (for example, P< 0.05). These differences in the level of confidence affect the study design in terms of sample size and the need for concurrent or randomised comparison groups. 8 14

Implementation specific research methods

A wide range of qualitative and quantitative research methods can be used in implementation research (table 2 ⇑ ). The box gives a set of basic questions to guide the design or reporting of implementation research that can be used across methods. More in-depth criteria have also been proposed to assess the external validity or generalisability of findings. 15 Some research methods have been developed specifically to deal with implementation research questions or are particularly suitable to implementation research, as identified below.

Key questions to assess research designs or reports on implementation research 33

Does the research clearly aim to answer a question concerning implementation?

Does the research clearly identify the primary audiences for the research and how they would use the research?

Is there a clear description of what is being implemented (for example, details of the practice, programme, or policy)?

Does the research involve an implementation strategy? If so, is it described and examined in its fullness?

Is the research conducted in a “real world” setting? If so, is the context and sample population described in sufficient detail?

Does the research appropriately consider implementation outcome variables?

Does the research appropriately consider context and other factors that influence implementation?

Does the research appropriately consider changes over time and the level of complexity of the system, including unintended consequences?

Pragmatic trials

Pragmatic trials, or practical trials, are randomised controlled trials in which the main research question focuses on effectiveness of an intervention in a normal practice setting with the full range of study participants. 16 This may include pragmatic trials on new healthcare delivery strategies, such as integrated chronic care clinics or nurse run community clinics. This contrasts with typical randomised controlled trials that look at the efficacy of an intervention in an “ideal” or controlled setting and with highly selected patients and standardised clinical outcomes, usually of a short term nature.

Effectiveness-implementation hybrid trials

Effectiveness-implementation hybrid designs are intended to assess the effectiveness of both an intervention and an implementation strategy. 7 These studies include components of an effectiveness design (for example, randomised allocation to intervention and comparison arms) but add the testing of an implementation strategy, which may also be randomised. This might include testing the effectiveness of a package of delivery and postnatal care in under-served areas, as well testing several strategies for providing the care. Whereas pragmatic trials try to fix the intervention under study, effectiveness-implementation hybrids also intervene and/or observe the implementation process as it actually occurs. This can be done by assessing implementation outcome variables.

Quality improvement studies

Quality improvement studies typically involve a set of structured and cyclical processes, often called the plan-do-study-act cycle, and apply scientific methods on a continuous basis to formulate a plan, implement the plan, and analyse and interpret the results, followed by an iteration of what to do next. 17 18 The focus might be on a clinical process, such as how to reduce hospital acquired infections in the intensive care unit, or management processes such as how to reduce waiting times in the emergency room. Guidelines exist on how to design and report such research—the Standards for Quality Improvement Reporting Excellence (SQUIRE). 17

Speroff and O’Connor describe a range of plan-do-study-act research designs, noting that they have in common the assessment of responses measured repeatedly and regularly over time, either in a single case or with comparison groups. 18 Balanced scorecards integrate performance measures across a range of domains and feed into regular decision making. 19 20 Standardised guidance for using good quality health information systems and health facility surveys has been developed and often provides the sources of information for these quasi-experimental designs. 21 22 23

Participatory action research

Participatory action research refers to a range of research methods that emphasise participation and action (that is, implementation), using methods that involve iterative processes of reflection and action, “carried out with and by local people rather than on them.” 24 In participatory action research, a distinguishing feature is that the power and control over the process rests with the participants themselves. Although most participatory action methods involve qualitative methods, quantitative and mixed methods techniques are increasingly being used, such as for participatory rural appraisal or participatory statistics. 25 26

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research uses both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis in the same study. Although not designed specifically for implementation research, mixed methods are particularly suitable because they provide a practical way to understand multiple perspectives, different types of causal pathways, and multiple types of outcomes—all common features of implementation research problems.

Many different schemes exist for describing different types of mixed methods research, on the basis of the emphasis of the study, the sampling schemes for the different components, the timing and sequencing of the qualitative and quantitative methods, and the level of mixing between the qualitative and quantitative methods. 27 28 Broad guidance on the design and conduct of mixed methods designs is available. 29 30 31 A scheme for good reporting of mixed methods studies involves describing the justification for using a mixed methods approach to the research question; describing the design in terms of the purpose, priority, and sequence of methods; describing each method in terms of sampling, data collection, and analysis; describing where the integration has occurred, how it has occurred, and who has participated in it; describing any limitation of one method associated with the presence of the other method; and describing any insights gained from mixing or integrating methods. 32

Implementation research aims to cover a wide set of research questions, implementation outcome variables, factors affecting implementation, and implementation strategies. This paper has identified a range of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods that can be used according to the specific research question, as well as several research designs that are particularly suited to implementation research. Further details of these concepts can be found in a new guide developed by the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research. 33

Summary points

Implementation research has its origins in many disciplines and is usefully defined as scientific inquiry into questions concerning implementation—the act of fulfilling or carrying out an intention

In health research, these intentions can be policies, programmes, or individual practices (collectively called interventions)

Implementation research seeks to understand and work in “real world” or usual practice settings, paying particular attention to the audience that will use the research, the context in which implementation occurs, and the factors that influence implementation

A wide variety of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods techniques can be used in implementation research, which are best selected on the basis of the research objective and specific questions related to what, why, and how interventions work

Implementation research may examine strategies that are specifically designed to improve the carrying out of health interventions or assess variables that are defined as implementation outcomes

Implementation outcomes include acceptability, adoption, appropriateness, feasibility, fidelity, implementation cost, coverage, and sustainability

Cite this as: BMJ 2013;347:f6753

Contributors: All authors contributed to the conception and design, analysis and interpretation, drafting the article, or revising it critically for important intellectual content, and all gave final approval of the version to be published. NT had the original idea for the article, which was discussed by the authors (except OA) as well as George Pariyo, Jim Sherry, and Dena Javadi at a meeting at the World Health Organization (WHO). DHP and OA did the literature reviews, and DHP wrote the original outline and the draft manuscript, tables, and boxes. OA prepared the original figure. All authors reviewed the draft article and made substantial revisions to the manuscript. DHP is the guarantor.

Funding: Funding was provided by the governments of Norway and Sweden and the UK Department for International Development (DFID) in support of the WHO Implementation Research Platform, which financed a meeting of authors and salary support for NT. DHP is supported by the Future Health Systems research programme consortium, funded by DFID for the benefit of developing countries (grant number H050474). The funders played no role in the design, conduct, or reporting of the research.

Competing interests: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form at www.icmje.org/coi_disclosure.pdf and declare: support for the submitted work as described above; NT and TA are employees of the Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research at WHO, which is supporting their salaries to work on implementation research; no financial relationships with any organisations that might have an interest in the submitted work in the previous three years; no other relationships or activities that could appear to have influenced the submitted work.

Provenance and peer review: Invited by journal; commissioned by WHO; externally peer reviewed.

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Writing a Research Strategy

This page is focused on providing practical tips and suggestions for preparing The Research Strategy, the primary component of an application's Research Plan along with the Specific Aims. The guidance on this page is primarily geared towards an R01-style application, however, much of it is useful for other grant types as well.

Developing the Research Strategy

The primary audience for your application is your peer review group. When writing your Research Strategy, your goal is to present a well-organized, visually appealing, and readable description of your proposed project and the rationale for pursuing it. Your writing should be streamlined and organized so your reviewers can readily grasp the information. If it's a key point, repeat it, then repeat it again. Add more emphasis by putting the text in bold , or bold italics . If writing is not your forte, get help. For more information, please visit  W riting For Reviewers .

How to Organize the Research Strategy Section

How to organize a Research Strategy is largely up to the applicant. Start by following the NIH application instructions and guidelines for formatting attachments such as the research plan section.

It is generally structured as follows:

Significance

For Preliminary Studies (for new applications) or a Progress Report (for renewal and revision applications).

• You can either include preliminary studies or progress report information as a subsection of Approach or integrate it into any or all of the three main sections.
• If you do the latter, be sure to mark the information clearly, for example, with a bold subhead.

 Helpful tips to consider when formatting:

• Organize using bold headers or an outline or numbering system—or both—that are used consistently throughout.
• Start each section with the appropriate header: Significance, Innovation, or Approach.
• Organize the Approach section around the Specific Aims.

For most applications, you need to address Rigor ous Study Design  by describing the experimental design and methods you propose and how they will achieve robust and unbiased results. See the NIH guidance for elaboration on the 4 major areas of rigor and transparency emphasized in grant review. These requirements apply to research grant, career development, fellowship, and training applications.

Tips for Drafting Sections of the Research Strategy

Although you will emphasize your project's significance throughout the application, the Significance section should give the most details. The farther removed your reviewers are from your field, the more information you'll need to provide on basic biology, importance of the area, research opportunities, and new findings. Reviewing the potentially relevant study section rosters may give you some ideas as to general reviewer expertise. You will also need to describe the prior and preliminary studies that provide a strong scientific rationale for pursuing the proposed studies, emphasizing the strengths and weaknesses in the rigor and transparency of these key studies.

This section gives you the chance to explain how your application is conceptually and/or technically innovative. Some examples as to how you might do this could include but not limited to:

• Demonstrate the proposed research is new and unique, e.g., explores new scientific avenues, has a novel hypothesis, will create new knowledge.
• Explain how the proposed work can refine, improve, or propose a new application of an existing concept or method.

If your proposal is paradigm-shifting or challenges commonly held beliefs, be sure that you include sufficient evidence in your preliminary data to convince reviewers, including strong rationale, data supporting the approach, and clear feasibility. Your job is to make the reviewers feel confident that the risk is worth taking.

For projects predominantly focused on innovation and outside-the-box research, investigators may wish to consider mechanisms other than R01s for example (e.g., exploratory/developmental research (R21) grants, NIH Director's Pioneer Award Program (DP1), and NIH Director's New Innovator Award Program (DP2).

The Approach section is where the experimental design is described. Expect your assigned reviewers to scrutinize your approach: they will want to know what you plan to do, how you plan to do it, and whether you can do it. NIH data show that of the peer review criteria, approach has the highest correlation with the overall impact score. Importantly, elements of rigorous study design should be addressed in this section, such as plans for minimization of bias (e.g. methods for blinding and treatment randomization) and consideration of relevant biological variables. Likewise, be sure to lay out a plan for alternative experiments and approaches in case you get uninterpretable or surprising results, and also consider limitations of the study and alternative interpretations. Point out any procedures, situations, or materials that may be hazardous to personnel and precautions to be exercised. A full discussion on the use of select agents should appear in the Select Agent Research attachment. Consider including a timeline demonstrating anticipated completion of the Aims. 

Here are some pointers to consider when organizing your Approach section:

• Enter a bold header for each Specific Aim.
• Under each aim, describe the experiments.
• If you get result X, you will follow pathway X; if you get result Y, you will follow pathway Y.
• Consider illustrating this with a flowchart.

Preliminary Studies

If submitting a new application to a NOFO that allows preliminary data, it is strongly encouraged to include preliminary studies. Preliminary studies demonstrate competency in the methods and interpretation. Well-designed and robust preliminary studies also serve to provide a strong scientific rationale for the proposed follow-up experiments. Reviewers also use preliminary studies together with the biosketches to assess the investigator review criterion, which reflects the competence of the research team. Provide alternative interpretations to your data to show reviewers you've thought through problems in-depth and are prepared to meet future challenges. As noted above, preliminary data can be put anywhere in the Research Strategy, but just make sure reviewers will be able to distinguish it from the proposed studies. Alternatively, it can be a separate section with its own header.

Progress Reports

If applying for a renewal or a revision (a competing supplement to an existing grant), include a progress report for reviewers.

Create a header so reviewers can easily find it and include the following information:

• Project period beginning and end dates.
• Summary of the importance and robustness of the completed findings in relation to the Specific Aims.
• Account of published and unpublished results, highlighting progress toward achieving your Specific Aims.

Other Helpful Tips

Referencing publications.

References show breadth of knowledge of the field and provide a scientific foundation for your application. If a critical work is omitted, reviewers may assume the applicant is not aware of it or deliberately ignoring it.

Throughout the application, reference all relevant publications for the concepts underlying your research and your methods. Remember the strengths and weaknesses in the rigor of the key studies you cite for justifying your proposal will need to be discussed in the Significance and/or Approach sections.

Read more about Bibliography and References Cited at Additional Application Elements .

Graphics can illustrate complex information in a small space and add visual interest to your application. Including schematics, tables, illustrations, graphs, and other types of graphics can enhance applications. Consider adding a timetable or flowchart to illustrate your experimental plan, including decision trees with alternative experimental pathways to help your reviewers understand your plans.

Video may enhance your application beyond what graphics alone can achieve. If you plan to send one or more videos, you'll need to meet certain requirements and include key information in your Research Strategy. State in your cover letter that a video will be included in your application (don't attach your files to the application). After you apply and get assignment information from the Commons, ask your assigned Scientific Review Officer (SRO) how your business official should send the files. Your video files are due at least one month before the peer review meeting.

However, you can't count on all reviewers being able to see or hear video, so you'll want to be strategic in how you incorporate it into your application by taking the following steps:

• Caption any narration in the video.
• Include key images from the video
• Write a description of the video, so the text would make sense even without the video.

Tracking for Your Budget

As you design your experiments, keep a running tab of the following essential data:

• Who. A list of people who will help (for the Key Personnel section later).
• What. A list of equipment and supplies for the experiments
• Time. Notes on how long each step takes. Timing directly affects the budget as well as how many Specific Aims can realistically be achieved.

Jotting this information down will help when Creating a Budget  and complete other sections later.

Review and Finalize Your Research Plan

Critically review the research plan through the lens of a reviewer to identify potential questions or weak spots.

Enlist others to review your application with a fresh eye. Include people who aren't familiar with the research to make sure the proposed work is clear to someone outside the field.

When finalizing the details of the Research Strategy, revisit and revise the Specific Aims as needed. Please see Writing Specific Aims . 

Want to contact NINDS staff? Please visit our Find Your NINDS Program Officer page to learn more about contacting Program Officer, Grants Management Specialists, Scientific Review Officers, and Health Program Specialists. Find NINDS Program Officer

Research Strategies and Methods

• First Online: 22 July 2021

Cite this chapter

• Paul Johannesson 3 &
• Erik Perjons 3  

3038 Accesses

Researchers have since centuries used research methods to support the creation of reliable knowledge based on empirical evidence and logical arguments. This chapter offers an overview of established research strategies and methods with a focus on empirical research in the social sciences. We discuss research strategies, such as experiment, survey, case study, ethnography, grounded theory, action research, and phenomenology. Research methods for data collection are also described, including questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observations, and documents. Qualitative and quantitative methods for data analysis are discussed. Finally, the use of research strategies and methods within design science is investigated.

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The Implementation Research Logic Model: a method for planning, executing, reporting, and synthesizing implementation projects

• Justin D. Smith   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3264-8082 1 , 2 ,
• Dennis H. Li 3 &
• Miriam R. Rafferty 4  

Implementation Science volume  15 , Article number:  84 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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A Letter to the Editor to this article was published on 17 November 2021

Numerous models, frameworks, and theories exist for specific aspects of implementation research, including for determinants, strategies, and outcomes. However, implementation research projects often fail to provide a coherent rationale or justification for how these aspects are selected and tested in relation to one another. Despite this need to better specify the conceptual linkages between the core elements involved in projects, few tools or methods have been developed to aid in this task. The Implementation Research Logic Model (IRLM) was created for this purpose and to enhance the rigor and transparency of describing the often-complex processes of improving the adoption of evidence-based interventions in healthcare delivery systems.

The IRLM structure and guiding principles were developed through a series of preliminary activities with multiple investigators representing diverse implementation research projects in terms of contexts, research designs, and implementation strategies being evaluated. The utility of the IRLM was evaluated in the course of a 2-day training to over 130 implementation researchers and healthcare delivery system partners.

Preliminary work with the IRLM produced a core structure and multiple variations for common implementation research designs and situations, as well as guiding principles and suggestions for use. Results of the survey indicated a high utility of the IRLM for multiple purposes, such as improving rigor and reproducibility of projects; serving as a “roadmap” for how the project is to be carried out; clearly reporting and specifying how the project is to be conducted; and understanding the connections between determinants, strategies, mechanisms, and outcomes for their project.

Conclusions

The IRLM is a semi-structured, principle-guided tool designed to improve the specification, rigor, reproducibility, and testable causal pathways involved in implementation research projects. The IRLM can also aid implementation researchers and implementation partners in the planning and execution of practice change initiatives. Adaptation and refinement of the IRLM are ongoing, as is the development of resources for use and applications to diverse projects, to address the challenges of this complex scientific field.

Peer Review reports

Contributions to the literature

Drawing from and integrating existing frameworks, models, and theories, the IRLM advances the traditional logic model for the requirements of implementation research and practice.

The IRLM provides a means of describing the complex relationships between critical elements of implementation research and practice in a way that can be used to improve the rigor and reproducibility of research and implementation practice, and the testing of theory.

The IRLM offers researchers and partners a useful tool for the purposes of planning, executing, reporting, and synthesizing processes and findings across the stages of implementation projects.

In response to a call for addressing noted problems with transparency, rigor, openness, and reproducibility in biomedical research [ 1 ], the National Institutes of Health issued guidance in 2014 pertaining to the research it funds ( https://www.nih.gov/research-training/rigor-reproducibility ). The field of implementation science has similarly recognized a need for better specification with similar intent [ 2 ]. However, integrating the necessary conceptual elements of implementation research, which often involves multiple models, frameworks, and theories, is an ongoing challenge. A conceptually grounded organizational tool could improve rigor and reproducibility of implementation research while offering additional utility for the field.

This article describes the development and application of the Implementation Research Logic Model (IRLM). The IRLM can be used with various types of implementation studies and at various stages of research, from planning and executing to reporting and synthesizing implementation studies. Example IRLMs are provided for various common study designs and scenarios, including hybrid designs and studies involving multiple service delivery systems [ 3 , 4 ]. Last, we describe the preliminary use of the IRLM and provide results from a post-training evaluation. An earlier version of this work was presented at the 2018 AcademyHealth/NIH Conference on the Science of Dissemination and Implementation in Health, and the abstract appeared in the Implementation Science [ 5 ].

Specification challenges in implementation research

Having an imprecise understanding of what was done and why during the implementation of a new innovation obfuscates identifying the factors responsible for successful implementation and prevents learning from what contributed to failed implementation. Thus, improving the specification of phenomena in implementation research is necessary to inform our understanding of how implementation strategies work, for whom, under what determinant conditions, and on what implementation and clinical outcomes. One challenge is that implementation science uses numerous models and frameworks (hereafter, “frameworks”) to describe, organize, and aid in understanding the complexity of changing practice patterns and integrating evidence-based health interventions across systems [ 6 ]. These frameworks typically address implementation determinants, implementation process, or implementation evaluation [ 7 ]. Although many frameworks incorporate two or more of these broad purposes, researchers often find it necessary to use more than one to describe the various aspects of an implementation research study. The conceptual connections and relationships between multiple frameworks are often difficult to describe and to link to theory [ 8 ].

Similarly, reporting guidelines exist for some of these implementation research components, such as strategies [ 9 ] and outcomes [ 10 ], as well as for entire studies (i.e., Standards for Reporting Implementation Studies [ 11 ]); however, they generally help describe the individual components and not their interactions. To facilitate causal modeling [ 12 ], which can be used to elucidate mechanisms of change and the processes involved in both successful and unsuccessful implementation research projects, investigators must clearly define the relations among variables in ways that are testable with research studies [ 13 ]. Only then can we open the “black box” of how specific implementation strategies operate to predict outcomes.

• Logic models

Logic models, graphic depictions that present the shared relationships among various elements of a program or study, have been used for decades in program development and evaluation [ 14 ] and are often required by funding agencies when proposing studies involving implementation [ 15 ]. Used to develop agreement among diverse stakeholders of the “what” and the “how” of proposed and ongoing projects, logic models have been shown to improve planning by highlighting theoretical and practical gaps, support the development of meaningful process indicators for tracking, and aid in both reproducing successful studies and identifying failures of unsuccessful studies [ 16 ]. They are also useful at other stages of research and for program implementation, such as organizing a project/grant application/study protocol, presenting findings from a completed project, and synthesizing the findings of multiple projects [ 17 ].

Logic models can also be used in the context of program theory, an explicit statement of how a project/strategy/intervention/program/policy is understood to contribute to a chain of intermediate results that eventually produce the intended/observed impacts [ 18 ]. Program theory specifies both a Theory of Change (i.e., the central processes or drivers by which change comes about following a formal theory or tacit understanding) and a Theory of Action (i.e., how program components are constructed to activate the Theory of Change) [ 16 ]. Inherent within program theory is causal chain modeling. In implementation research, Fernandez et al. [ 19 ] applied mapping methods to implementation strategies to postulate the ways in which changes to the system affect downstream implementation and clinical outcomes. Their work presents an implementation mapping logic model based on Proctor et al. [ 20 , 21 ], which is focused primarily on the selection of implementation strategy(s) rather than a complete depiction of the conceptual model linking all implementation research elements (i.e., determinants, strategies, mechanisms of action, implementation outcomes, clinical outcomes) in the detailed manner we describe in this article.

Development of the IRLM

The IRLM began out of a recognition that implementation research presents some unique challenges due to the field’s distinct and still codifying terminology [ 22 ] and its use of implementation-specific and non-specific (borrowed from other fields) theories, models, and frameworks [ 7 ]. The development of the IRLM occurred through a series of case applications. This began with a collaboration between investigators at Northwestern University and the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab in which the IRLM was used to study the implementation of a new model of patient care in a new hospital and in other related projects [ 23 ]. Next, the IRLM was used with three already-funded implementation research projects to plan for and describe the prospective aspects of the trials, as well as with an ongoing randomized roll-out implementation trial of the Collaborative Care Model for depression management [Smith JD, Fu E, Carroll AJ, Rado J, Rosenthal LJ, Atlas JA, Burnett-Zeigler I, Carlo, A, Jordan N, Brown CH, Csernansky J: Collaborative care for depression management in primary care: a randomized rollout trial using a type 2 hybrid effectiveness-implementation design submitted for publication]. It was also applied in the later stages of a nearly completed implementation research project of a family-based obesity management intervention in pediatric primary care to describe what had occurred over the course of the 3-year trial [ 24 ]. Last, the IRLM was used as a training tool in a 2-day training with 63 grantees of NIH-funded planning project grants funded as part of the Ending the HIV Epidemic initiative [ 25 ]. Results from a survey of the participants in the training are reported in the “Results” section. From these preliminary activities, we identified a number of ways that the IRLM could be used, described in the section on “Using the IRLM for different purposes and stages of research.”

The Implementation Research Logic Model

In developing the IRLM, we began with the common “pipeline” logic model format used by AHRQ, CDC, NIH, PCORI, and others [ 16 ]. This structure was chosen due to its familiarity with funders, investigators, readers, and reviewers. Although a number of characteristics of the pipeline logic model can be applied to implementation research studies, there is an overall misfit due to implementation research’s focusing on the systems that support adoption and delivery of health practices; involving multiple levels within one or more systems; and having its own unique terminology and frameworks [ 3 , 22 , 26 ]. We adapted the typical evaluation logic model to integrate existing implementation science frameworks as its core elements while keeping to the same aim of facilitating causal modeling.

The most common IRLM format is depicted in Fig. 1 . Additional File A1 is a Fillable PDF version of Fig. 1 . In certain situations, it might be preferable to include the evidence-based intervention (EBI; defined as a clinical, preventive, or educational protocol or a policy, principle, or practice whose effects are supported by research [ 27 ]) (Fig. 2 ) to demonstrate alignment of contextual factors (determinants) and strategies with the components and characteristics of the clinical intervention/policy/program and to disentangle it from the implementation strategies. Foremost in these indications are “home-grown” interventions, whose components and theory of change may not have been previously described, and novel interventions that are early in the translational pipeline, which may require greater detail for the reader/reviewer. Variant formats are provided as Additional Files A 2 to A 4 for use with situations and study designs commonly encountered in implementation research, including comparative implementation studies (A 2 ), studies involving multiple service contexts (A 3 ), and implementation optimization designs (A 4 ). Further, three illustrative IRLMs are provided, with brief descriptions of the projects and the utility of the IRLM (A 5 , A 6 and A 7 ).

Implementation Research Logic Model (IRLM) Standard Form. Notes. Domain names in the determinants section were drawn from the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research. The format of the outcomes column is from Proctor et al. 2011

Implementation Research Logic Model (IRLM) Standard Form with Intervention. Notes. Domain names in the determinants section were drawn from the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research. The format of the outcomes column is from Proctor et al. 2011

Core elements and theory

The IRLM specifies the relationships between determinants of implementation, implementation strategies, the mechanisms of action resulting from the strategies, and the implementation and clinical outcomes affected. These core elements are germane to every implementation research project in some way. Accordingly, the generalized theory of the IRLM posits that (1) implementation strategies selected for a given EBI are related to implementation determinants (context-specific barriers and facilitators), (2) strategies work through specific mechanisms of action to change the context or the behaviors of those within the context, and (3) implementation outcomes are the proximal impacts of the strategy and its mechanisms, which then relate to the clinical outcomes of the EBI. Articulated in part by others [ 9 , 12 , 21 , 28 , 29 ], this causal pathway theory is largely explanatory and details the Theory of Change and the Theory of Action of the implementation strategies in a single model. The EBI Theory of Action can also be displayed within a modified IRLM (see Additional File A 4 ). We now briefly describe the core elements and discuss conceptual challenges in how they relate to one another and to the overall goals of implementation research.

Determinants

Determinants of implementation are factors that might prevent or enable implementation (i.e., barriers and facilitators). Determinants may act as moderators, “effect modifiers,” or mediators, thus indicating that they are links in a chain of causal mechanisms [ 12 ]. Common determinant frameworks are the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) [ 30 ] and the Theoretical Domains Framework [ 31 ].

Implementation strategies

Implementation strategies are supports, changes to, and interventions on the system to increase adoption of EBIs into usual care [ 32 ]. Consideration of determinants is commonly used when selecting and tailoring implementation strategies [ 28 , 29 , 33 ]. Providing the theoretical or conceptual reasoning for strategy selection is recommended [ 9 ]. The IRLM can be used to specify the proposed relationships between strategies and the other elements (determinants, mechanisms, and outcomes) and assists with considering, planning, and reporting all strategies in place during an implementation research project that could contribute to the outcomes and resulting changes

Because implementation research occurs within dynamic delivery systems with multiple factors that determine success or failure, the field has experienced challenges identifying consistent links between individual barriers and specific strategies to overcome them. For example, the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) compilation of strategies [ 32 ] was used to determine which strategies would best address contextual barriers identified by CFIR [ 29 ]. An online CFIR–ERIC matching process completed by implementation researchers and practitioners resulted in a large degree of heterogeneity and few consistent relationships between barrier and strategy, meaning the relationship is rarely one-to-one (e.g., a single strategy is often is linked to multiple barriers; more than one strategy needed to address a single barrier). Moreover, when implementation outcomes are considered, researchers often find that to improve one outcome, more than one contextual barrier needs to be addressed, which might in turn require one or more strategies.

Frequently, the reporting of implementation research studies focuses on the strategy or strategies that were introduced for the research study, without due attention to other strategies already used in the system or additional supporting strategies that might be needed to implement the target strategy. The IRLM allows for the comprehensive specification of all introduced and present strategies, as well as their changes (adaptations, additions, discontinuations) during the project.

Mechanisms of action

Mechanisms of action are processes or events through which an implementation strategy operates to affect desired implementation outcomes [ 12 ]. The mechanism can be a change in a determinant, a proximal implementation outcome, an aspect of the implementation strategy itself, or a combination of these in a multiple-intervening-effect model. An example of a causal process might be using training and fidelity monitoring strategies to improve delivery agents’ knowledge and self-efficacy about the EBI in response to knowledge-related barriers in the service delivery system. This could result in raising their acceptability of the EBI, increase the likelihood of adoption, improve the fidelity of delivery, and lead to sustainment. Relatively, few implementation studies formally test mechanisms of action, but this area of investigation has received significant attention more recently as the necessity to understand how strategies operate grows in the field [ 33 , 34 , 35 ].

Implementation outcomes are the effects of deliberate and purposive actions to implement new treatments, practices, and services [ 21 ]. They can be indicators of implementation processes, or key intermediate outcomes in relation to service, or target clinical outcomes. Glasgow et al. [ 36 , 37 , 38 ] describe the interrelated nature of implementation outcomes as occurring in a logical, but not necessarily linear, sequence of adoption by a delivery agent, delivery of the innovation with fidelity, reach of the innovation to the intended population, and sustainment of the innovation over time. The combined impact of these nested outcomes, coupled with the size of the effect of the EBI, determines the population or public health impact of implementation [ 36 ]. Outcomes earlier in the sequence can be conceptualized as mediators and mechanisms of strategies on later implementation outcomes. Specifying which strategies are theoretically intended to affect which outcomes, through which mechanisms of action, is crucial for improving the rigor and reproducibility of implementation research and to testing theory.

Using the Implementation Research Logic Model

Guiding principles.

One of the critical insights from our preliminary work was that the use of the IRLM should be guided by a set of principles rather than governed by rules. These principles are intended to be flexible both to allow for adaptation to the various types of implementation studies and evolution of the IRLM over time and to address concerns in the field of implementation science regarding specification, rigor, reproducibility, and transparency of design and process [ 5 ]. Given this flexibility of use, the IRLM will invariably require accompanying text and other supporting documents. These are described in the section “Use of Supporting Text and Documents.”

Principle 1: Strive for comprehensiveness

Comprehensiveness increases transparency, can improve rigor, and allows for a better understanding of alternative explanations to the conclusions drawn, particularly in the presence of null findings for an experimental design. Thus, all relevant determinants, implementation strategies, and outcomes should be included in the IRLM.

Concerning determinants, the valence should be noted as being either a barrier, a facilitator, neutral, or variable by study unit. This can be achieved by simply adding plus (+) or minus (–) signs for facilitators and barriers, respectively, or by using coding systems such as that developed by Damschroder et al. [ 39 ], which indicates the relative strength of the determinant on a scale: – 2 ( strong negative impact ), – 1 ( weak negative impact ), 0 ( neutral or mixed influence ), 1 ( weak positive impact ), and 2 ( strong positive impact ). The use of such a coding system could yield better specification compared to using study-specific adjectives or changing the name of the determinant (e.g., greater relative priority, addresses patient needs, good climate for implementation). It is critical to include all relevant determinants and not simply limit reporting to those that are hypothesized to be related to the strategies and outcomes, as there are complex interrelationships between determinants.

Implementation strategies should be reported in their entirety. When using the IRLM for planning a study, it is important to list all strategies in the system, including those already in use and those to be initiated for the purposes of the study, often in the experimental condition of the design. Second, strategies should be labeled to indicate whether they were (a) in place in the system prior to the study, (b) initiated prospectively for the purposes of the study (particularly for experimental study designs), (c) removed as a result of being ineffective or onerous, or (d) introduced during the study to address an emergent barrier or supplement other strategies because of low initial impact. This is relevant when using the IRLM for planning, as an ongoing tracking system, for retrospective application to a completed study, and in the final reporting of a study. There have been a number of processes proposed for tracking the use of and adaptations to implementation strategies over time [ 40 , 41 ]. Each of these is more detailed than would be necessary for the IRLM, but the processes described provide a method for accurately tracking the temporal aspects of strategy use that fulfill the comprehensiveness principle.

Although most studies will indicate a primary implementation outcome, other outcomes are almost assuredly to be measured. Thus, they ought to be included in the IRLM. This guidance is given in large part due to the interdependence of implementation outcomes, such that adoption relates to delivery with fidelity, reach of the intervention, and potential for sustainment [ 36 ]. Similarly, the overall public health impact (defined as reach multiplied by the effect size of the intervention [ 38 ]) is inextricably tied to adoption, fidelity, acceptability, cost, etc. Although the study might justifiably focus on only one or two implementation outcomes, the others are nonetheless relevant and should be specified and reported. For example, it is important to capture potential unintended consequences and indicators of adverse effects that could result from the implementation of an EBI.

Principle 2: Indicate key conceptual relationships

Although the IRLM has a generalized theory (described earlier), there is a need to indicate the relationships between elements in a manner aligning with the specific theory of change for the study. Researchers ought to provide some form or notation to indicate these conceptual relationships using color-coding, superscripts, arrows, or a combination of the three. Such notations in the IRLM facilitate reference in the text to the study hypotheses, tests of effects, causal chain modeling, and other forms of elaboration (see “Supporting Text and Resources”). We prefer the use of superscripts to color or arrows in grant proposals and articles for practical purposes, as colors can be difficult to distinguish, and arrows can obscure text and contribute to visual convolution. When presenting the IRLM using presentation programs (e.g., PowerPoint, Keynote), colors and arrows can be helpful, and animations can make these connections dynamic and sequential without adding to visual complexity. This principle could also prove useful in synthesizing across similar studies to build the science of tailored implementation, where strategies are selected based on the presence of specific combinations of determinants. As previously indicated [ 29 ], there is much work to be done in this area given.

Principle 3: Specify critical study design elements

This critical element will vary by the study design (e.g., hybrid effectiveness-implementation trial, observational, what subsystems are assigned to the strategies). This principle includes not only researchers but service systems and communities, whose consent is necessary to carry out any implementation design [ 3 , 42 , 43 ].

Primary outcome(s)

Indicate the primary outcome(s) at each level of the study design (i.e., clinician, clinic, organization, county, state, nation). The levels should align with the specific aims of a grant application or the stated objective of a research report. In the case of a process evaluation or an observational study including the RE-AIM evaluation components [ 38 ] or the Proctor et al. [ 21 ] taxonomy of implementation outcomes, the primary outcome may be the product of the conceptual or theoretical model used when a priori outcomes are not clearly indicated. We also suggest including downstream health services and clinical outcomes even if they are not measured, as these are important for understanding the logic of the study and the ultimate health-related targets.

For quasi/experimental designs

When quasi/experimental designs [ 3 , 4 ] are used, the independent variable(s) (i.e., the strategies that are introduced or manipulated or that otherwise differentiate study conditions) should be clearly labeled. This is important for internal validity and for differentiating conditions in multi-arm studies.

For comparative implementation trials

In the context of comparative implementation trials [ 3 , 4 ], a study of two or more competing implementation strategies are introduced for the purposes of the study (i.e., the comparison is not implementation-as-usual), and there is a need to indicate the determinants, strategies, mechanisms, and potentially outcomes that differentiate the arms (see Additional File A 2 ). As comparative implementation can involve multiple service delivery systems, the determinants, mechanisms, and outcomes might also differ, though there must be at least one comparable implementation outcome. In our preliminary work applying the IRLM to a large-scale comparative implementation trial, we found that we needed to use an IRLM for each arm of the trial as it was not possible to use a single IRLM because the strategies being tested occurred across two delivery systems and strategies were very different, by design. This is an example of the flexible use of the IRLM.

For implementation optimization designs

A number of designs are now available that aim to test processes of optimizing implementation. These include factorial, Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial (SMART) [ 44 ], adaptive [ 45 ], and roll-out implementation optimization designs [ 46 ]. These designs allow for (a) building time-varying adaptive implementation strategies based on the order in which components are presented [ 44 ], (b) evaluating the additive and combined effects of multiple strategies [ 44 , 47 ], and (c) can incorporate data-driven iterative changes to improve implementation in successive units [ 45 , 46 ]. The IRLM in Additional File A 4 can be used for such designs.

Additional specification options

Users of the IRLM are allowed to specify any number of additional elements that may be important to their study. For example, one could notate those elements of the IRLM that have been or will be measured versus those that were based on the researcher’s prior studies or inferred from findings reported in the literature. Users can also indicate when implementation strategies differ by level or unit within the study. In large multisite studies, strategies might not be uniform across all units, particularly those strategies that already exist within the system. Similarly, there might be a need to increase the dose of certain strategies to address the relative strengths of different determinants within units.

Using the IRLM for different purposes and stages of research

Commensurate with logic models more generally, the IRLM can be used for planning and organizing a project, carrying out a project (as a roadmap), reporting and presenting the findings of a completed project, and synthesizing the findings of multiple projects or of a specific area of implementation research, such as what is known about how learning collaboratives are effective within clinical care settings.

When the IRLM is used for planning, the process of populating each of the elements often begins with the known parameter(s) of the study. For example, if the problem is improving the adoption and reach of a specific EBI within a particular clinical setting, the implementation outcomes and context, as well as the EBI, are clearly known. The downstream clinical outcomes of the EBI are likely also known. Working from the two “bookends” of the IRLM, the researchers and community partners and/or organization stakeholders can begin to fill in the implementation strategies that are likely to be feasible and effective and then posit conceptually derived mechanisms of action. In another example, only the EBI and primary clinical outcomes were known. The IRLM was useful in considering different scenarios for what strategies might be needed and appropriate to test the implementation of the EBI in different service delivery contexts. The IRLM was a tool for the researchers and stakeholders to work through these multiple options.

When we used the IRLM to plan for the execution of funded implementation studies, the majority of the parameters were already proposed in the grant application. However, through completing the IRLM prior to the start of the study, we found that a number of important contextual factors had not been considered, additional implementation strategies were needed to complement the primary ones proposed in the grant, and mechanisms needed to be added and measured. At the time of award, mechanisms were not an expected component of implementation research projects as they will likely become in the future.

For another project, the IRLM was applied retrospectively to report on the findings and overall logic of the study. Because nearly all elements of the IRLM were known, we approached completion of the model as a means of showing what happened during the study and to accurately report the hypothesized relationships that we observed. These relationships could be formally tested using causal pathway modeling [ 12 ] or other path analysis approaches with one or more intervening variables [ 48 ].

Synthesizing

In our preliminary work with the IRLM, we used it in each of the first three ways; the fourth (synthesizing) is ongoing within the National Cancer Institute’s Improving the Management of symPtoms during And Following Cancer Treatment (IMPACT) research consortium. The purpose is to draw conclusions for the implementation of an EBI in a particular context (or across contexts) that are shared and generalizable to provide a guide for future research and implementation.

Use of supporting text and documents

While the IRLM provides a good deal of information about a project in a single visual, researchers will need to convey additional details about an implementation research study through the use of supporting text, tables, and figures in grant applications, reports, and articles. Some elements that require elaboration are (a) preliminary data on the assessment and valence of implementation determinants; (b) operationalization/detailing of the implementation strategies being used or observed, using established reporting guidelines [ 9 ] and labeling conventions [ 32 ] from the literature; (c) hypothesized or tested causal pathways [ 12 ]; (d) process, service, and clinical outcome measures, including the psychometric properties, method, and timing of administration, respondents, etc.; (e) study procedures, including subject selection, assignment to (or observation of natural) study conditions, and assessment throughout the conduct of the study [ 4 ]; and (f) the implementation plan or process for following established implementation frameworks [ 49 , 50 , 51 ]. By utilizing superscripts, subscripts, and other notations within the IRLM, as previously suggested, it is easy to refer to (a) hypothesized causal paths in theoretical overviews and analytic plan sections, (b) planned measures for determinants and outcomes, and (c) specific implementation strategies in text, tables, and figures.

Evidence of IRLM utility and acceptability

The IRLM was used as the foundation for a training in implementation research methods to a group of 65 planning projects awarded under the national Ending the HIV Epidemic initiative. One investigator (project director or co-investigator) and one implementation partner (i.e., a collaborator from a community service delivery system) from each project were invited to attend a 2-day in-person summit in Chicago, IL, in October 2019. One hundred thirty-two participants attended, representing 63 of the 65 projects. A survey, which included demographics and questions pertaining to the Ending the HIV Epidemic, was sent to potential attendees prior to the summit, to which 129 individuals—including all 65 project directors, 13 co-investigators, and 51 implementation partners (62% Female)—responded. Those who indicated an investigator role ( n = 78) received additional questions about prior implementation research training (e.g., formal coursework, workshop, self-taught) and related experiences (e.g., involvement in a funded implementation project, program implementation, program evaluation, quality improvement) and the stage of their project (i.e., exploration, preparation, implementation, sustainment [ 50 ]).

Approximately 6 weeks after the summit, 89 attendees (69%) completed a post-training survey comprising more than 40 questions about their overall experience. Though the invitation to complete the survey made no mention of the IRLM, it included 10 items related to the IRLM and one more generally about the logic of implementation research, each rated on a 4-point scale (1 = not at all , 2 = a little , 3 = moderately , 4 = very much ; see Table 1 ). Forty-two investigators (65% of projects) and 24 implementation partners indicated attending the training and began and completed the survey (68.2% female). Of the 66 respondents who attended the training, 100% completed all 11 IRLM items, suggesting little potential response bias.

Table 1 provides the means, standard deviations, and percent of respondents endorsing either “moderately” or “very” response options. Results were promising for the utility of the IRLM on the majority of the dimensions assessed. More than 50% of respondents indicated that the IRLM was “moderately” or “very” helpful on all questions. Overall, 77.6% ( M = 3.18, SD = .827) of respondents indicated that their knowledge on the logic of implementation research had increased either moderately or very much after the 2-day training. At the time of the survey, when respondents were about 2.5 months into their 1-year planning projects, 44.6% indicated that they had already been able to complete a full draft of the IRLM.

Additional analyses using a one-way analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences in responses to the IRLM questions between investigators and implementation partners. However, three items approached significance: planning the project ( F = 2.460, p = .055), clearly reporting and specifying how the project is to be conducted ( F = 2.327, p = .066), and knowledge on the logic of implementation research ( F = 2.107, p = .091). In each case, scores were higher for the investigators compared to the implementation partners, suggesting that perhaps the knowledge gap in implementation research lay more in the academic realm than among community partners, who may not have a focus on research but whose day-to-day roles include the implementation of EBPs in the real world. Lastly, analyses using ordinal logistic regression did not yield any significant relationship between responses to the IRLM survey items and prior training ( n = 42 investigators who attended the training and completed the post-training survey), prior related research experience ( n = 42), and project stage of implementation ( n = 66). This suggests that the IRLM is a useful tool for both investigators and implementers with varying levels of prior exposure to implementation research concepts and across all stages of implementation research. As a result of this training, the IRLM is now a required element in the FY2020 Ending the HIV Epidemic Centers for AIDS Research/AIDS Research Centers Supplement Announcement released March 2020 [ 15 ].

Resources for using the IRLM

As the use of the IRLM for different study designs and purposes continues to expand and evolve, we envision supporting researchers and other program implementers in applying the IRLM to their own contexts. Our team at Northwestern University hosts web resources on the IRLM that includes completed examples and tools to assist users in completing their model, including templates in various formats (Figs. 1 and 2 , Additional Files A 1 , A 2 , A 3 and A 4 and others) a Quick Reference Guide (Additional File A 8 ) and a series of worksheets that provide guidance on populating the IRLM (Additional File A 9 ). These will be available at https://cepim.northwestern.edu/implementationresearchlogicmodel/ .

The IRLM provides a compact visual depiction of an implementation project and is a useful tool for academic–practice collaboration and partnership development. Used in conjunction with supporting text, tables, and figures to detail each of the primary elements, the IRLM has the potential to improve a number of aspects of implementation research as identified in the results of the post-training survey. The usability of the IRLM is high for seasoned and novice implementation researchers alike, as evidenced by our survey results and preliminary work. Its use in the planning, executing, reporting, and synthesizing of implementation research could increase the rigor and transparency of complex studies that ultimately could improve reproducibility—a challenge in the field—by offering a common structure to increase consistency and a method for more clearly specifying links and pathways to test theories.

Implementation occurs across the gamut of contexts and settings. The IRLM can be used when large organizational change is being considered, such as a new strategic plan with multifaceted strategies and outcomes. Within a narrower scope of a single EBI in a specific setting, the larger organizational context still ought to be included as inner setting determinants (i.e., the impact of the organizational initiative on the specific EBI implementation project) and as implementation strategies (i.e., the specific actions being done to make the organizational change a reality that could be leveraged to implement the EBI or could affect the success of implementation). The IRLM has been used by our team to plan for large systemic changes and to initiate capacity building strategies to address readiness to change (structures, processes, individuals) through strategic planning and leadership engagement at multiple levels in the organization. This aspect of the IRLM continues to evolve.

Among the drawbacks of the IRLM is that it might be viewed as a somewhat simplified format. This represents the challenges of balancing depth and detail with parsimony, ease of comprehension, and ease of use. The structure of the IRLM may inhibit creative thinking if applied too rigidly, which is among the reasons we provide numerous examples of different ways to tailor the model to the specific needs of different project designs and parameters. Relatedly, we encourage users to iterate on the design of the IRLM to increase its utility.

The promise of implementation science lies in the ability to conduct rigorous and reproducible research, to clearly understand the findings, and to synthesize findings from which generalizable conclusions can be drawn and actionable recommendations for practice change emerge. As scientists and implementers have worked to better define the core methods of the field, the need for theory-driven, testable integration of the foundational elements involved in impactful implementation research has become more apparent. The IRLM is a tool that can aid the field in addressing this need and moving toward the ultimate promise of implementation research to improve the provision and quality of healthcare services for all people.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research

Evidence-based intervention

Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change

Implementation Research Logic Model

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank our colleagues who provided input at different stages of developing this article and the Implementation Research Logic Model, and for providing the examples included in this article: Hendricks Brown, Brian Mustanski, Kathryn Macapagal, Nanette Benbow, Lisa Hirschhorn, Richard Lieber, Piper Hansen, Leslie O’Donnell, Allen Heinemann, Enola Proctor, Courtney Wolk-Benjamin, Sandra Naoom, Emily Fu, Jeffrey Rado, Lisa Rosenthal, Patrick Sullivan, Aaron Siegler, Cady Berkel, Carrie Dooyema, Lauren Fiechtner, Jeanne Lindros, Vinny Biggs, Gerri Cannon-Smith, Jeremiah Salmon, Sujata Ghosh, Alison Baker, Jillian MacDonald, Hector Torres and the Center on Halsted in Chicago, Michelle Smith, Thomas Dobbs, and the pastors who work tirelessly to serve their communities in Mississippi and Arkansas.

This study was supported by grant P30 DA027828 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, awarded to C. Hendricks Brown; grant U18 DP006255 to Justin Smith and Cady Berkel; grant R56 HL148192 to Justin Smith; grant UL1 TR001422 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences to Donald Lloyd-Jones; grant R01 MH118213 to Brian Mustanski; grant P30 AI117943 from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to Richard D’Aquila; grant UM1 CA233035 from the National Cancer Institute to David Cella; a grant from the Woman’s Board of Northwestern Memorial Hospital to John Csernansky; grant F32 HS025077 from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; grant NIFTI 2016-20178 from the Foundation for Physical Therapy; the Shirley Ryan AbilityLab; and by the Implementation Research Institute (IRI) at the George Warren Brown School of Social Work, Washington University in St. Louis, through grant R25 MH080916 from the National Institute of Mental Health and the Department of Veterans Affairs, Health Services Research & Development Service, and Quality Enhancement Research Initiative (QUERI) to Enola Proctor. The opinions expressed herein are the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the National Institutes of Health, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality the Department of Veterans Affairs, or any other part of the US Department of Health and Human Services.

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Justin D. Smith

Center for Prevention Implementation Methodology for Drug Abuse and HIV, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Preventive Medicine, Department of Medical Social Sciences, and Department of Pediatrics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA

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JDS conceived of the Implementation Research Logic Model. JDS, MR, and DL collaborated in developing the Implementation Research Logic Model as presented and in the writing of the manuscript. All authors approved of the final version.

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Supplementary information

Additional file 1..

IRLM Fillable PDF form

Additional file 2.

IRLM for Comparative Implementation

Additional file 3.

IRLM for Implementation of an Intervention Across or Linking Two Contexts

Additional file 4.

IRLM for an Implementation Optimization Study

Additional file 5.

IRLM example 1: Faith in Action: Clergy and Community Health Center Communication Strategies for Ending the Epidemic in Mississippi and Arkansas

Additional file 6.

IRLM example 2: Hybrid Type II Effectiveness–Implementation Evaluation of a City-Wide HIV System Navigation Intervention in Chicago, IL

Additional file 7.

IRLM example 3: Implementation, spread, and sustainment of Physical Therapy for Mild Parkinson’s Disease through a Regional System of Care

Additional file 8.

IRLM Quick Reference Guide

Additional file 9.

IRLM Worksheets

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Smith, J.D., Li, D.H. & Rafferty, M.R. The Implementation Research Logic Model: a method for planning, executing, reporting, and synthesizing implementation projects. Implementation Sci 15 , 84 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-020-01041-8

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How to write a research plan: Step-by-step guide

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Today’s businesses and institutions rely on data and analytics to inform their product and service decisions. These metrics influence how organizations stay competitive and inspire innovation. However, gathering data and insights requires carefully constructed research, and every research project needs a roadmap. This is where a research plan comes into play.

Read this step-by-step guide for writing a detailed research plan that can apply to any project, whether it’s scientific, educational, or business-related.

• What is a research plan?

A research plan is a documented overview of a project in its entirety, from end to end. It details the research efforts, participants, and methods needed, along with any anticipated results. It also outlines the project’s goals and mission, creating layers of steps to achieve those goals within a specified timeline.

Without a research plan, you and your team are flying blind, potentially wasting time and resources to pursue research without structured guidance.

The principal investigator, or PI, is responsible for facilitating the research oversight. They will create the research plan and inform team members and stakeholders of every detail relating to the project. The PI will also use the research plan to inform decision-making throughout the project.

• Why do you need a research plan?

Create a research plan before starting any official research to maximize every effort in pursuing and collecting the research data. Crucially, the plan will model the activities needed at each phase of the research project .

Like any roadmap, a research plan serves as a valuable tool providing direction for those involved in the project—both internally and externally. It will keep you and your immediate team organized and task-focused while also providing necessary definitions and timelines so you can execute your project initiatives with full understanding and transparency.

External stakeholders appreciate a working research plan because it’s a great communication tool, documenting progress and changing dynamics as they arise. Any participants of your planned research sessions will be informed about the purpose of your study, while the exercises will be based on the key messaging outlined in the official plan.

Here are some of the benefits of creating a research plan document for every project:

Project organization and structure

Well-informed participants

All stakeholders and teams align in support of the project

Clearly defined project definitions and purposes

Distractions are eliminated, prioritizing task focus

Timely management of individual task schedules and roles

Costly reworks are avoided

• What should a research plan include?

The different aspects of your research plan will depend on the nature of the project. However, most official research plan documents will include the core elements below. Each aims to define the problem statement , devising an official plan for seeking a solution.

Specific project goals and individual objectives

Ideal strategies or methods for reaching those goals

Required resources

Descriptions of the target audience, sample sizes , demographics, and scopes

Key performance indicators (KPIs)

Project background

Research and testing support

Preliminary studies and progress reporting mechanisms

Cost estimates and change order processes

Depending on the research project’s size and scope, your research plan could be brief—perhaps only a few pages of documented plans. Alternatively, it could be a fully comprehensive report. Either way, it’s an essential first step in dictating your project’s facilitation in the most efficient and effective way.

• How to write a research plan for your project

When you start writing your research plan, aim to be detailed about each step, requirement, and idea. The more time you spend curating your research plan, the more precise your research execution efforts will be.

Account for every potential scenario, and be sure to address each and every aspect of the research.

Consider following this flow to develop a great research plan for your project:

Define your project’s purpose

Start by defining your project’s purpose. Identify what your project aims to accomplish and what you are researching. Remember to use clear language.

Thinking about the project’s purpose will help you set realistic goals and inform how you divide tasks and assign responsibilities. These individual tasks will be your stepping stones to reach your overarching goal.

Additionally, you’ll want to identify the specific problem, the usability metrics needed, and the intended solutions.

Know the following three things about your project’s purpose before you outline anything else:

What you’re doing

Why you’re doing it

What you expect from it

Identify individual objectives

With your overarching project objectives in place, you can identify any individual goals or steps needed to reach those objectives. Break them down into phases or steps. You can work backward from the project goal and identify every process required to facilitate it.

Be mindful to identify each unique task so that you can assign responsibilities to various team members. At this point in your research plan development, you’ll also want to assign priority to those smaller, more manageable steps and phases that require more immediate or dedicated attention.

Select research methods

Once you have outlined your goals, objectives, steps, and tasks, it’s time to drill down on selecting research methods . You’ll want to leverage specific research strategies and processes. When you know what methods will help you reach your goals, you and your teams will have direction to perform and execute your assigned tasks.

Research methods might include any of the following:

User interviews : this is a qualitative research method where researchers engage with participants in one-on-one or group conversations. The aim is to gather insights into their experiences, preferences, and opinions to uncover patterns, trends, and data.

Field studies : this approach allows for a contextual understanding of behaviors, interactions, and processes in real-world settings. It involves the researcher immersing themselves in the field, conducting observations, interviews, or experiments to gather in-depth insights.

Card sorting : participants categorize information by sorting content cards into groups based on their perceived similarities. You might use this process to gain insights into participants’ mental models and preferences when navigating or organizing information on websites, apps, or other systems.

Focus groups : use organized discussions among select groups of participants to provide relevant views and experiences about a particular topic.

Diary studies : ask participants to record their experiences, thoughts, and activities in a diary over a specified period. This method provides a deeper understanding of user experiences, uncovers patterns, and identifies areas for improvement.

Five-second testing: participants are shown a design, such as a web page or interface, for just five seconds. They then answer questions about their initial impressions and recall, allowing you to evaluate the design’s effectiveness.

Surveys : get feedback from participant groups with structured surveys. You can use online forms, telephone interviews, or paper questionnaires to reveal trends, patterns, and correlations.

Tree testing : tree testing involves researching web assets through the lens of findability and navigability. Participants are given a textual representation of the site’s hierarchy (the “tree”) and asked to locate specific information or complete tasks by selecting paths.

Usability testing : ask participants to interact with a product, website, or application to evaluate its ease of use. This method enables you to uncover areas for improvement in digital key feature functionality by observing participants using the product.

Live website testing: research and collect analytics that outlines the design, usability, and performance efficiencies of a website in real time.

There are no limits to the number of research methods you could use within your project. Just make sure your research methods help you determine the following:

What do you plan to do with the research findings?

What decisions will this research inform? How can your stakeholders leverage the research data and results?

Recruit participants and allocate tasks

Next, identify the participants needed to complete the research and the resources required to complete the tasks. Different people will be proficient at different tasks, and having a task allocation plan will allow everything to run smoothly.

Prepare a thorough project summary

Every well-designed research plan will feature a project summary. This official summary will guide your research alongside its communications or messaging. You’ll use the summary while recruiting participants and during stakeholder meetings. It can also be useful when conducting field studies.

Ensure this summary includes all the elements of your research project . Separate the steps into an easily explainable piece of text that includes the following:

An introduction: the message you’ll deliver to participants about the interview, pre-planned questioning, and testing tasks.

Interview questions: prepare questions you intend to ask participants as part of your research study, guiding the sessions from start to finish.

An exit message: draft messaging your teams will use to conclude testing or survey sessions. These should include the next steps and express gratitude for the participant’s time.

Create a realistic timeline

While your project might already have a deadline or a results timeline in place, you’ll need to consider the time needed to execute it effectively.

Realistically outline the time needed to properly execute each supporting phase of research and implementation. And, as you evaluate the necessary schedules, be sure to include additional time for achieving each milestone in case any changes or unexpected delays arise.

For this part of your research plan, you might find it helpful to create visuals to ensure your research team and stakeholders fully understand the information.

Determine how to present your results

A research plan must also describe how you intend to present your results. Depending on the nature of your project and its goals, you might dedicate one team member (the PI) or assume responsibility for communicating the findings yourself.

In this part of the research plan, you’ll articulate how you’ll share the results. Detail any materials you’ll use, such as:

Presentations and slides

A project report booklet

A project findings pamphlet

Documents with key takeaways and statistics

Graphic visuals to support your findings

• Format your research plan

As you create your research plan, you can enjoy a little creative freedom. A plan can assume many forms, so format it how you see fit. Determine the best layout based on your specific project, intended communications, and the preferences of your teams and stakeholders.

Find format inspiration among the following layouts:

Written outlines

Narrative storytelling

Visual mapping

Graphic timelines

Remember, the research plan format you choose will be subject to change and adaptation as your research and findings unfold. However, your final format should ideally outline questions, problems, opportunities, and expectations.

• Research plan example

Imagine you’ve been tasked with finding out how to get more customers to order takeout from an online food delivery platform. The goal is to improve satisfaction and retain existing customers. You set out to discover why more people aren’t ordering and what it is they do want to order or experience. 

You identify the need for a research project that helps you understand what drives customer loyalty . But before you jump in and start calling past customers, you need to develop a research plan—the roadmap that provides focus, clarity, and realistic details to the project.

Here’s an example outline of a research plan you might put together:

Project title

Project members involved in the research plan

Purpose of the project (provide a summary of the research plan’s intent)

Objective 1 (provide a short description for each objective)

Objective 2

Objective 3

Proposed timeline

Audience (detail the group you want to research, such as customers or non-customers)

Budget (how much you think it might cost to do the research)

Risk factors/contingencies (any potential risk factors that may impact the project’s success)

Remember, your research plan doesn’t have to reinvent the wheel—it just needs to fit your project’s unique needs and aims.

Customizing a research plan template

Some companies offer research plan templates to help get you started. However, it may make more sense to develop your own customized plan template. Be sure to include the core elements of a great research plan with your template layout, including the following:

Introductions to participants and stakeholders

Background problems and needs statement

Significance, ethics, and purpose

Research methods, questions, and designs

Preliminary beliefs and expectations

Implications and intended outcomes

Realistic timelines for each phase

Conclusion and presentations

How many pages should a research plan be?

Generally, a research plan can vary in length between 500 to 1,500 words. This is roughly three pages of content. More substantial projects will be 2,000 to 3,500 words, taking up four to seven pages of planning documents.

What is the difference between a research plan and a research proposal?

A research plan is a roadmap to success for research teams. A research proposal, on the other hand, is a dissertation aimed at convincing or earning the support of others. Both are relevant in creating a guide to follow to complete a project goal.

What are the seven steps to developing a research plan?

While each research project is different, it’s best to follow these seven general steps to create your research plan:

Defining the problem

Identifying goals

Choosing research methods

Recruiting participants

Preparing the brief or summary

Establishing task timelines

Defining how you will present the findings

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• Int J Health Policy Manag
• v.9(5); 2020 May

Implementation Research: An Efficient and Effective Tool to Accelerate Universal Health Coverage

Agnes binagwaho.

1 University of Global Health Equity, Kigali, Rwanda.

Miriam F. Frisch

Kelechi udoh, laura drown, jovial thomas ntawukuriryayo, dieudonné nkurunziza, kateri b. donahoe, lisa r. hirschhorn.

2 Department of Medical Social Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.

Success in the implementation of evidence-based interventions (EBIs) in different settings has had variable success. Implementation research offers the approach needed to understand the variability of health outcomes from implementation strategies in different settings and why interventions were successful in some countries and failed in others. When mastered and embedded into a policy and implementation framework, the application of implementation research by countries can provide policy-makers and implementers with the knowledge necessary to work towards universal health coverage (UHC) with the effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability, and fidelity needed to achieve sustainable positive health outcomes for all. To achieve this goal however, work is needed by the communities of research producers and consumers to create more clarity on implementation research methodologies and to build capacity to apply them as a critical tool for countries on their path to achieving UHC.

Scientific innovations in preventive, curative, palliative, and rehabilitative medicine have dramatically improved access to more effective care and treatment across the world. 1 , 2 However, implementation approaches for interventions that generated positive health outcomes in one place have not always been successful elsewhere, even when conditions are similar. This variability demonstrates the need for better evidence for countries to identify the appropriate implementation strategies to ensure success and the contextual factors which inform where and how adaptation is needed. 3 , 4 To understand why the population level success of an evidence-based intervention (EBI) such as vaccination is not uniform when implemented in real world settings, a new type of science, implementation science ( Table ), has emerged in prominence over recent years.

Abbreviation: EBIs, evidence-based interventions.

Done well, implementation research can facilitate the scale-up and sustainment of EBIs and policies. 10 These methods also recognize the role of contextual factors, their importance in the successes and failures of implementation strategies, and where adaptation is needed in different settings. 8 , 11 These factors include resources and the design of health systems, stakeholders within healthcare delivery systems, including healthcare professionals and other implementers, and the community being served, including their values, attitudes and resources. Organizational behavior, at the national and local levels, is also an important factor because it affects decision-making and action from planning stages through implementation and sustainability of the evidence-based practices. 8 , 11 Through implementation research, policy-makers, healthcare professionals, and researchers now have a set of methods to study when, how, and why implementation strategies, policies, and laws designed to move evidence from research into practice can be successfully tested, routinely adapted, and integrated into policy and practice to achieve desired population health outcomes.

In the health sector, adopting and embedding implementation research into health care policy and practice will accelerate progress to the global goals of universal health coverage (UHC), which is defined as access to affordable quality healthcare, essential for reaching the goals of improving healthcare for all. 12 Implementation research can generate better knowledge needed to answer the key questions that face policy-makers, politicians, implementers, and the community on how to accelerate and strengthen implementation, effectiveness, and sustainability of interventions known to improve individual and population health and reach. In particular, the knowledge on when and how to choose and adapt implementation strategies to local contexts, within and across countries, is important and often missing. This knowledge gained can be applied to both lower- and higher-income settings, though our analysis is focused on lower-income countries as it is our area of expertise. Some critical areas where implementation research can produce the needed knowledge include:

• How implementation strategies are optimally designed and put into practice to increase access to quality care and save lives. This work can be done through implementation research frameworks such as Exploration, Preparation, Implementation and Sustainment or determinant frameworks such as Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research. 13 , 14 These frameworks can guide how to design and put into action an overall implementation plan, how to adopt or adapt effective implementation strategies, including when and how to incorporate systems and societal context into implementation decisions. Applied systematically, the use of implementation research will promote a learning environment when strengthening health systems, and better equip decision-makers and implementers to increase quality service coverage of current and future EBIs, as well as to respond to unpredictable events which have become increasingly frequent. 15
• Which contextual factors are most important to consider while designing the implementation of interventions. These factors include those which should influence the choice and adaption of implementation strategies, factors which can be leveraged to increase success, and other factors which need to be addressed as threats to achieving the goals targeted by the intervention. For example, implementation of efforts to expand family planning would differ based on cultural norms, community trust in the health care system, health care worker availability, and access to health care facilities. 16 , 17
• Why and how countries decide to invest in scaling up of implementation strategies from initial testing of interventions to achieve greater access to quality care nationally. There is important knowledge gained by studying how and why the initial testing worked and how to expand and adapt the implementation strategies as needed. Additionally, knowledge on how to embed measurement of key implementation outcomes (including acceptability, appropriateness, feasibility, fidelity, sustainability, and cost) is important to increase planning capacities, understand what data are needed in different contexts, and accelerate country coverage. 18
• How to accelerate new EBI implementation (within a country or elsewhere) through implementation research in order to produce knowledge on effective implementation strategies and key contextual factors which can then be applied to new EBIs. This use of generalizable knowledge can decrease the time between the development of new scientific innovations and their full and effective implementation, allowing countries to save more lives more quickly. For example, in Rwanda, the human papilloma virus vaccine was implemented based on knowledge gained from other vaccine implementation, with adaption such as for the different age group. 19
• How to ensure sustainability by understanding what strategies were used by countries who have sustained implementation of EBIs. These include strategies used during the planning and implementation phases, such as integrating them into their planning and budgeting and the regulatory processes, as well as leveraging in-country resources and other system changes needed to sustain improved health outcomes.

If applied effectively by countries working to reach the goals of UHC, implementation research can not only improve access to evidence-based healthcare services but make the implementation more efficient and these services more effective and create a system more ready to respond to new or emerging needs. However, if implementation research is to be useful for reaching UHC, much work remains. There are different schools of thought, processes, and terminology in implementation research, leading to confusion and lack of consensus among potential consumers and emerging researchers from countries in definitions and how to apply and communicate methods and results. 20 There also remains a lack of consensus around how to best apply these methods and frameworks in different settings to generate the different types of evidence needed depending on the intervention under consideration or implementation gap being addressed. 5 This ambiguity limits policy-makers’ and researchers’ ability to make decisions on what research and evidence is needed and the conclusions they can draw about research results, including which implementation approaches are replicable and which need adaptation for more effective scale. 20

If we can achieve this clarity and the needed country capacity and ownership, when mastered and embedded into policy and implementation work, implementation research can produce the knowledge needed to determine how to reach UHC with maximum efficiency, equity, fidelity, and sustainability. Building the capacity of in-country researchers and consumers of the new knowledge, including implementers and policy-makers, is an important step needed to ensure the results produced are relevant to the setting and accelerate the uptake through improved ownership and engagement. 21

Ethical issues

Not applicable.

Competing interests

Authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

AB: Conception and design; LRH: Assisted with conception and design, critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content; MFF, LD, KBD, JTN, DN, KU, DN: Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content; DN: Administrative support.

Authors’ affiliations

1 University of Global Health Equity, Kigali, Rwanda. 2 Department of Medical Social Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.

Citation: Binagwaho A, Frisch MF, Udoh K, et al. Implementation research: an efficient and effective tool to accelerate universal health coverage. Int J Health Policy Manag . 2020;9(5):182–184. doi:10.15171/ijhpm.2019.125

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VII. Researched Writing

7.3 Developing a Research Strategy

Deborah Bernnard; Greg Bobish; Jenna Hecker; Irina Holden; Allison Hosier; Trudi Jacobson; Tor Loney; Daryl Bullis; and Sarah LeMire

Sarah’s art history professor just assigned the course project and Sarah is delighted that it isn’t the typical research paper. Rather, it involves putting together a website to help readers understand a topic. It will certainly help Sarah get a grasp on the topic herself. Learning by attempting to teach others, she agrees, might be a good idea. The professor wants the website to be written for people who are interested in the topic and with backgrounds similar to the students in the course. Sarah likes that a target audience is defined, and since she has a good idea of what her friends might understand and what they would need more help with, she thinks it will be easier to know what to include in her site…well, at least easier than writing a paper for an expert like her professor.

An interesting feature of this course is that the professor has formed the students into teams. Sarah wasn’t sure she liked this idea at the beginning, but it seems to be working out okay. Sarah’s team has decided that their topic for this website will be 19 th century women painters. Her teammate Chris seems concerned: “Isn’t that an awfully big topic?” The team checks with the professor who agrees they would be taking on far more than they could successfully explain on their website. He suggests they develop a draft thesis statement to help them focus, and after several false starts, they come up with:

The involvement of women painters in the Impressionist movement had an effect upon the subjects portrayed.

They decide this sounds more manageable. Because Sarah doesn’t feel comfortable on the technical aspects of setting up the website, she offers to start locating resources that will help them to develop the site’s content. The next time the class meets, Sarah tells her teammates what she has done so far:

“I thought I’d start with some scholarly sources, since they should be helpful, right? I put a search into the online catalog for the library, but nothing came up! The library should have books on this topic, shouldn’t it? I typed the search in exactly as we have it in our thesis statement. That was so frustrating. Since that didn’t work, I tried Google, and put in the search. I got over 8 million results, but when I looked over the ones on the first page, they didn’t seem very useful. One was about the feminist art movement in the 1960s, not during the Impressionist period. The results all seemed to have the words I typed highlighted, but most really weren’t useful. I am sorry I don’t have much to show you. Do you think we should change our topic?”

Alisha suggests that Sarah talk with a reference librarian . She mentions that a librarian came to talk to one of her other classes about doing research, and it was really helpful. Alisha thinks that maybe Sarah shouldn’t have entered the entire thesis statement as the search, and maybe she should have tried databases to find articles. The team decides to brainstorm all the search tools and resources they can think of.

Here’s what they came up with:

Brainstormed List of Search Tools and Resources

Based on your experience, do you see anything you would add?

Sarah and her team think that their list is pretty good. They decide to take it further and list the advantages and limitations of each search tool, at least as far as they can determine.

Brainstormed Advantages and Disadvantages of Search Tools and Resources

Alisha suggests that Sarah should show the worksheet to a librarian and volunteers to go with her. The librarian, Mr. Harrison, says they have made a really good start, but he can fill them in on some other search strategies that will help them to focus on their topic. He asks if Sarah and Alisha would like to learn more.

Let’s step back from this case study and think about the elements that someone doing research should plan before starting to enter search terms in Google, Wikipedia, or even a scholarly database. There is some preparation you can do to make things go much more smoothly than they have for Sarah.

Self-Reflection

As you work through your own research quests, it is very important to be self-reflective. Consider:

• What do you really need to find?
• Do you need to learn more about the general subject before you can identify the focus of your search?
• How thoroughly did you develop your search strategy?
• Did you spend enough time finding the best tools to search?
• What is going really well, so well that you’ll want to remember to do it in the future?

Another term for what you are doing is metacognition, or thinking about your thinking. Reflect on what Sarah is going through. Does some of it sound familiar based on your own experiences? You may already know some of the strategies presented here. Do you do them the same way? How does it work? What pieces are new to you? When might you follow this advice? Don’t just let the words flow over you; rather, think carefully about the explanation of the process. You may disagree with some of what you read. If you do, follow through and test both methods to see which provides better results.

Selecting Search Tools

After you have thought the planning process through more thoroughly, think about the best place to find information for your topic and for the type of paper. Part of planning to do research is determining which search tools will be the best ones to use. This applies whether you are doing scholarly research or trying to answer a question in your everyday life, such as what would be the best place to go on vacation. “Search tools” might be a bit misleading since a person might be the source of the information you need. Or it might be a web search engine , a specialized database , an association—the possibilities are endless. Often people automatically search Google first, regardless of what they are looking for. Choosing the wrong search tool may just waste your time and provide only mediocre information, whereas other sources might provide really spot-on information and quickly, too. In some cases, a carefully constructed search on Google, particularly using the advanced search option, will provide the necessary information, but other times it won’t. This is true of all sources: make an informed choice about which ones to use for a specific need.

So, how do you identify search tools? Let’s begin with a first-rate method. For academic research, talking with a librarian or your professor is a great start. They will direct you to those specialized tools that will provide access to what you need. If you ask a librarian for help, they may also show you some tips about searching in the resources. This section will cover some of the generic strategies that will work in many search tools, but a librarian can show you very specific ways to focus your search and retrieve the most useful items.

If neither your professor nor a librarian is available when you need help, take a look at the TAMU Libraries website . There is a Help button in the top right corner of the website that will direct you to assistance via phone, chat, text, and email. Under the Guides button, you’ll find class- and subject-related guides that list useful databases and other resources for particular classes and majors to assist researchers. There is also a directory of the databases the library subscribes to and the subjects they cover. Take advantage of the expertise of librarians by using such guides. Novice researchers usually don’t think of looking for this type of help and, as a consequence, often waste time.

When you are looking for non-academic material, consider who cares about this type of information. Who works with it? Who produces it or the help guides for it? Some sources are really obvious and you are already using them—for example, if you need information about the weather in London three days from now, you might check Weather.com for London’s forecast. You don’t go to a library (in person or online), and you don’t do a research database search. For other information you need, think the same way. Are you looking for anecdotal information on old railroads? Find out if there is an organization of railroad buffs. You can search on the web for this kind of information or, if you know about and have access to it, you could check the Encyclopedia of Associations. This source provides entries for all U.S. membership organizations which can quickly lead you to a potentially wonderful source of information. Librarians can point you to tools like these.

Consider Asking an Expert

Have you thought about using people, not just inanimate sources, as a way to obtain information? This might be particularly appropriate if you are working on an emerging topic or a topic with local connections. There are a variety of reasons that talking with someone will add to your research.

For personal interactions, there are other specific things you can do to obtain better results. Do some background work on the topic before contacting the person you hope to interview. The more familiarity you have with your topic and its terminology, the easier it will be to ask focused questions. Focused questions are important if you want to get into the meat of what you need. Asking general questions because you think the specifics might be too detailed rarely leads to the best information. Acknowledge the time and effort someone is taking to answer your questions, but also realize that people who are passionate about subjects enjoy sharing what they know. Take the opportunity to ask experts about sources they would recommend. One good place to start is with the librarians at the Texas A&M University Libraries. Visit the library information page for details on how to contact a librarian. [1]

Determining Search Concepts and Keywords

Once you’ve selected some good resources for your topic, and possibly talked with an expert, it is time to move on to identify words you will use to search for information on your topic in various databases and search engines. This is sometimes referred to as building a search query . When deciding what terms to use in a search, break down your topic into its main concepts. Don’t enter an entire sentence or a full question. Different databases and search engines process such queries in different ways, but many look for the entire phrase you enter as a complete unit rather than the component words. While some will focus on just the important words, such as Sarah’s Google search that you read about earlier in this chapter, the results are often still unsatisfactory. The best thing to do is to use the key concepts involved with your topic. In addition, think of synonyms or related terms for each concept. If you do this, you will have more flexibility when searching in case your first search term doesn’t produce any or enough results. This may sound strange since, if you are looking for information using a Web search engine, you almost always get too many results. Databases, however, contain fewer items, and having alternative search terms may lead you to useful sources. Even in a search engine like Google, having terms you can combine thoughtfully will yield better results.

The worksheet in Figure 7.3.1 [2] is an example of a process you can use to come up with search terms. It illustrates how you might think about the topic of violence in high schools. Notice that this exact phrase is not what will be used for the search. Rather, it is a starting point for identifying the terms that will eventually be used.

Example Search Term Brainstorming Worksheet

Now, use a clean copy of the same worksheet (Figure 7.3.2) [3] to think about the topic Sarah’s team is working on. How might you divide their topic into concepts and then search terms? Keep in mind that the number of concepts will depend on what you are searching for and that the search terms may be synonyms or narrower terms. Occasionally, you may be searching for something very specific, and in those cases, you may need to use broader terms as well. Jot down your ideas, then compare what you have written to the information on the second, completed worksheet (Figure 7.3.3) [4] and identify three differences.

Boolean Operators

Once you have the concepts you want to search, you need to think about how you will enter them into the search box. Often, but not always, Boolean operators will help you. You may be familiar with Boolean operators as they provide a way to link terms. There are three Boolean operators: AND , OR , and NOT . (Note: Some databases require Boolean operators to be in all caps while others will accept the terms in either upper or lower case.

We will start by capturing the ideas of the women creating the art. We will use women painters and women artists as the first step in our sample search. You could do two separate searches by typing one or the other of the terms into the search box of whatever tool you are using:

women painters women artists

You would end up with two separate results lists and have the added headache of trying to identify unique items from the lists. You could also search on the phrase:

women painters AND women artists

But once you understand Boolean operators, that last strategy won’t make as much sense as it seems to. The first Boolean operator is AND. AND is used to get the intersection of all the terms you wish to include in your search. With this example,

you are asking that the items you retrieve have both of those terms. If an item only has one term, it won’t show up in the results. This is not what the searcher had in mind—she is interested in both artists and painters because she doesn’t know which term might be used. She doesn’t intend that both terms have to be used. Let’s go on to the next Boolean operator, which will help us out with this problem.

OR is used when you want at least one of the terms to show up in the search results. If both do, that’s fine, but it isn’t a condition of the search. So OR makes a lot more sense for this search:

women painters OR women artists

Now, if you want to get fancy with this search, you could use both AND as well as OR :

women AND (painters OR artists)

The parentheses mean that these two concepts, painters and artists, should be searched as a unit, and the search results should include all items that use one word or the other. The results will then be limited to those items that contain the word women . If you decide to use parentheses for appropriate searches, make sure that the items contained within them are related in some way. With OR , as in our example, it means either of the terms will work. With AND , it means that both terms will appear in the document.

Type both of the searches above in Google Scholar (scholar.google.com) and compare the results.

• Were they the same?
• If not, can you determine what happened?
• Which results list looked better?

Here is another example of a search string using both parentheses and two Boolean operators:

entrepreneurship AND (adolescents OR teens)

In this search, you are looking for entrepreneurial initiatives connected with people in their teens. Because there are so many ways to categorize this age group, it makes sense to indicate that either of these terms should appear in the results along with entrepreneurship.

The search string above isn’t perfect. Can you pick out two problems with the search terms?

The third Boolean operator, NOT , can be problematic. NOT is used to exclude items from your search. If you have decided, based on the scope of the results you are getting, to focus only on a specific aspect of a topic, use NOT , but be aware that items are being lost in this search.

For example, if you entered

entrepreneurship AND (adolescents OR teens) NOT adults

you might lose some good results.

Why might you lose some good results using the search above?

Other Helpful Search Techniques

Using Boolean operators isn’t the only way you can create more useful searches. In this section, we will review several others.

In this search:

entrepreneurs AND (adolescents OR teens)

you might think that the items that are retrieved from the search can refer to entrepreneurs and to terms from the same root, like entrepreneurship. But because computers are very literal, they usually look for the exact terms you enter. While some search engines like Google are moving beyond this model, library databases tend to require more precision. Truncation, or searching on the root of a word and whatever follows, is how you can tell the database to do this type of search.

So, if you search on:

entrepreneur * AND (adolescents OR teens)

You will get items that refer to entrepreneur , but also entrepreneurship .

Look at these examples:

adolescen * educat *

Think of two or three words you might retrieve when searching on these roots. It is important to consider the results you might get and alter the root if need be. An example of this is polic * . Would it be a good idea to use this root if you wanted to search on policy or policies ? Why or why not?

In some cases, a symbol other than an asterisk is used. To determine what symbol to use, check the help section in whatever resource you are using. The topic should show up under the truncation or stemming headings.

Phrase Searches

Phrase searches are particularly useful when searching the web. If you put the exact phrase you want to search in quotation marks, you will only get items with those words as a phrase and not items where the words appear separately in a document, website, or other resource. Your results will usually be fewer, although surprisingly, this is not always the case.

Try these two searches in the search engine of your choice:

• “ essay exam” 

Was there a difference in the quality and quantity of results?

If you would like to find out if the database or search engine you are using allows phrase searching and the conventions for doing so, search the help section. These help tools can be very, well, helpful!

Advanced Searches

Advanced searching allows you to refine your search query and prompts you for ways to do this. Consider the basic Google search box. It is very minimalistic, but that minimalism is deceptive. It gives the impression that searching is easy and encourages you to just enter your topic without much thought to get results. You certainly do get many results, but are they really good results? Simple search boxes do many searchers a disfavor. There is a better way to enter searches.

Advanced search screens show you many of the options available to you to refine your search and, therefore, get more manageable numbers of better items. Many web search engines include advanced search screens, as do databases for searching research materials. Advanced search screens will vary from resource to resource and from web search engine to research database, but they often let you search using:

• Implied Boolean operators (for example, the “all the words” option is the same as using the Boolean AND );
• Limiters for date, domain (.edu, for example), type of resource (articles, book reviews, patents);
• Field (a field is a standard element, such as title of publication or author’s name);
• Phrase (rather than entering quote marks) Let’s see how this works in practice.

Practical Application: Google Searches

Go to the advanced search option in Google. You can find it at http://www.google.com/advanced_search

Take a look at the options Google provides to refine your search. Compare this to the basic Google search box. One of the best ways you can become a better searcher for information is to use the power of advanced searches, either by using these more complex search screens or by remembering to use Boolean operators, phrase searches, truncation, and other options available to you in most search engines and databases.

While many of the text boxes at the top of the Google Advanced Search page mirror concepts already covered in this section (for example, “this exact word or phrase” allows you to omit the quotes in a phrase search), the options for narrowing your results can be powerful. You can limit your search to a particular domain (such as .edu for items from educational institutions) or you can search for items you can reuse legally (with attribution, of course!) by making use of the “usage rights” option. However, be careful with some of the options as they may excessively limit your results. If you aren’t certain about a particular option, try your search with and without using it and compare the results. If you use a search engine other than Google, check to see if it offers an advanced search option: many do.

Subject Headings

In the section on advanced searches, you read about field searching. To explain further, if you know that the last name of the author whose work you are seeking is Wood, and that he worked on forestry-related topics, you can do a far better search using the author field. Just think what you would get in the way of results if you entered a basic search such as forestry AND wood . It is great to use the appropriate Boolean operator, but oh, the results you will get! But what if you specified that wood had to show up as part of the author’s name? This would limit your results quite a bit.

So what about forestry ? Is there a way to handle that using a field search? The answer is yes. Subject headings are terms that are assigned to items to group them. An example is cars—you could also call them autos, automobiles, or even more specific labels like SUVs or vans. You might use the Boolean operator OR and string these all together. But if you found out that the sources you are searching use automobiles as the subject heading, you wouldn’t have to worry about all these related terms, and could confidently use their subject heading and get all the results, even if the author of the piece uses cars and not automobiles .

How does this work? In many databases, a person called an indexer or cataloger scrutinizes and enters each item. This person performs helpful, behind-the-scenes tasks such as assigning subject headings, age levels, or other indicators that make it easier to search very precisely. An analogy is tagging, although indexing is more structured than tagging. If you have tagged items online, you know that you can use any terms you like and that they may be very different from someone else’s tags. With indexing, the indexer chooses from a set group of terms. Obviously, this precise indexing isn’t available for web search engines—it would be impossible to index everything on the web. But if you are searching in a database, make sure you use these features to make your searches more precise and your results lists more relevant. You also will definitely save time.

You may be thinking that this sounds good. Saving time when doing research is a great idea. But how will you know what subject headings exist so you can use them? Here is a trick that librarians use. Even librarians don’t know what terms are used in all the databases or online catalogs that they use, so a librarian’s starting point isn’t very far from yours. But they do know to use whatever features a database provides to do an effective search. They find out about them by acting like a detective.

You’ve already thought about the possible search terms for your information needs. Enter the best search strategy you developed which might use Boolean operators or truncation. Scan the results to see if they seem to be on topic. If they aren’t, figure out what results you are getting that just aren’t right and revise your search. Terms you have searched on often show up in bold face type so they are easy to pick out. Besides checking the titles of the results, read the abstracts (or summaries), if there are any. You may get some ideas for other terms to use. But if your results are fairly good, scan them with the intent to find one or two items that seem to be precisely what you need. Get to the full record (or entry), where you can see all the details entered by the indexers. Figure 7.3.4 [5]  is an example from the Texas A&M University Libraries’ Quick Search, but keep in mind that the catalog or database you are using may have entries that look very different.

Once you have the “full” record (which does not refer to the full text of the item, but rather the full descriptive details about the book, including author, subjects, date, and place of publication, and so on), look at the subject headings and see what words are used. They may be called descriptors or some other term, but they should be recognizable as subjects. They may be identical to the terms you entered but if not, revise your search using the subject heading words. The result list should now contain items that are relevant for your needs.

It is tempting to think that once you have gone through all the processes around the circle, as seen in the diagram in Figure 7.3.5 [6] , your information search is done and you can start writing. However, research is a recursive process. You don’t start at the beginning and continue straight through until you end at the end. Once you have followed this planning model, you will often find that you need to alter or refine your topic and start the process again, as seen here:

This revision process may happen at any time before or during the preparation of your paper or other final product. The researchers who are most successful do this, so don’t ignore opportunities to revise.

So let’s return to Sarah and her search for information to help her team’s project. Sarah realized she needed to make a number of changes in the search strategy she was using. She had several insights that definitely led her to some good sources of information for this particular research topic. Can you identify the good ideas she implemented?

This section contains material from:

Bernnard, Deborah, Greg Bobish, Jenna Hecker, Irina Holden, Allison Hosier, Trudi Jacobson, Tor Loney, and Daryl Bullis. The Information Literacy User’s Guide: An Open, Online Textbook , edited by Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson. Geneseo, NY: Open SUNY Textbooks, Milne Library, 2014. http://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License .

• https://library.tamu.edu ↵
• “Concept Brainstorming,” derived in 2019 from: Deborah Bernnard et al., The Information Literacy User’s Guide: An Open, Online Textbook , eds. Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson (Geneseo, NY: Open SUNY Textbooks, Milne Library, 2014), https://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License . ↵
• “Blank Concept Brainstorming Worksheet,” derived in 2019 from: Deborah Bernnard et al., The Information Literacy User’s Guide: An Open, Online Textbook , eds. Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson (Geneseo, NY: Open SUNY Textbooks, Milne Library, 2014), https://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License . ↵
• “Completed Concept Brainstorming Worksheet” derived in 2019 from: Deborah Bernnard et al., The Information Literacy User’s Guide: An Open, Online Textbook , eds. Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson (Geneseo, NY: Open SUNY Textbooks, Milne Library, 2014), https://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License . ↵
• “Full Record Entry for a Book” is a reproduction from July 2019 of a Texas A&M University Libraries catalog entry from the Texas A&M University Libraries Quick Search. https://libcat.tamu.edu/vwebv/searchBasic. ↵
• “Planning Model” derived in 2019 from: Deborah Bernnard et al., The Information Literacy User’s Guide: An Open, Online Textbook , eds. Greg Bobish and Trudi Jacobson (Geneseo, NY: Open SUNY Textbooks, Milne Library, 2014), https://textbooks.opensuny.org/the-information-literacy-users-guide-an-open-online-textbook/ . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License . ↵

A statement, usually one sentence, that summarizes an argument that will later be explained, expanded upon, and developed in a longer essay or research paper. In undergraduate writing, a thesis statement is often found in the introductory paragraph of an essay. The plural of thesis is theses .

When something is described as scholarly, that means that has been written by and for the academic community. The term scholarly is commonly used as shorthand to indicate that information that has been peer reviewed  or examined by other experts of the same academic field or discipline. Sometimes, the terms academic, scholarly, and peer reviewed are confused as synonyms; peer reviewed is a narrower term referring to an item that has been reviewed by experts in the field prior to publication, while academic is a broader term that also includes works that are written by and for academics, but that have not been peer reviewed.

A library catalog is a database of records for the items a library holds and/or to which it has access. Searching a library catalog is not the same as searching the web, even though you may see a similar search box for both tools. Library catalog searches can return information that you would not find on the open web, and the searching process will likely take longer to refine.

A librarian who specializes in helping the public find information. In academic librarians, reference librarians often have subject specialties.

A database is an organized collection of data in a digital format. Library research databases are often composed of academic publications like journal articles and book chapters, although there are also specialty databases that have data like engineering specifications or world news articles.

An online software tool used to find information on the web. Many popular online search engines return query results by using algorithms to return probable desired information.

A short account or telling of an incident or story, either personal or historical; anecdotal evidence is frequently found in the form of a personal experience rather than objective data or widespread occurrence.

Query: to ask a question or make an inquiry, often with some amount of skepticism involved.

With relation to a database, a query is a call for results. Most times a query is a search term entered into a search box.

A full record for a library item is all of the bibliographic information entered into the catalog for that particular work. Common entries in a full record will include the name of the work, the author, the publisher, the place of publication, the number of pages, the format, subject terms, and sometimes chapter titles.

A form of returning back to or reoccurrence, usually as a procedure or practice that can be repeated.

7.3 Developing a Research Strategy Copyright © 2022 by Deborah Bernnard; Greg Bobish; Jenna Hecker; Irina Holden; Allison Hosier; Trudi Jacobson; Tor Loney; Daryl Bullis; and Sarah LeMire is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Strategic Plan 2025-2029

Strategic plan 2025–2029.

OBSSR’s fourth Strategic Plan reflects the rapidly changing nature of behavioral and social sciences research and builds on our previous accomplishments. This plan capitalizes on OBSSR’s unique coordinating role, highlighting scientific priorities that transcend specific diseases and conditions, address critical areas, and fulfill the needs of multiple NIH Institutes, Centers, and Offices (ICOs).

Select the icons to learn more about OBSSR’s strategic priorities and the cross-cutting theme for 2025–2029.

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Can we add some intro text here? Strat Plan currently does not have intro text for the Research Priorities

Research Priority 1: Synergistic Inquiry

Need intro text here – Strat Plan currently does not have an intro for this Research Priority (but does for the other two)

Goals under the Synergistic Inquiry Research Priority are to:

• Integrate and Coordinate BSSR across NIH
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Research Priority 2: Innovative Investigation

Encouraging innovation and rigor in research measurement, experimental designs, and data analytics used in BSSR will accelerate scientific advances and support a more comprehensive and seamless integration of BSSR into the larger biomedical enterprise. Across the BSSR disciplines, there is a need to support the development and use of more advanced, multi-level, and harmonizable measurement approaches.

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Too often there is a gap between what is efficacious in well-controlled intervention research and what works when those interventions are implemented in real-world clinical or community settings. Our previous strategic plan identified a need for more research designed to answer questions that can facilitate rapid, data-driven decisions around implementation of research and its relevance for policy recommendations and we remain committed to addressing this challenge in our current plan.

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Diversity within research teams and equitable participation in research are essential for OBSSR to meet its scientific priorities. Supporting investigative teams with a breadth of social and cultural influences and experiences is likely to expand and diversify the research topics within the overall basic BSSR portfolio.

Operational Priority 2: Build Equitable Partnerships and Collaborations

OBSSR is committed to building equitable partnerships and collaborations with NIH staff, federal agencies, and external partners to accelerate translation of BSSR evidence into programs, practice, and policies. To foster team science and enhance multidisciplinary integration, OBSSR strategically provides co-funding support for NIH-wide initiatives that encompass OBSSR priorities and intersect with the interests of multiple NIH ICOs.

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Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

Implementing a discipleship strategy plan for lay leaders at redemption baptist church to help them grow spiritually.

Robermann Dorceus , Liberty University Follow

Rawlings School of Divinity

Doctor of Ministry (DMin)

Glenn Stone

disciple, discipleship, mission, lay leaders, discipleship training

Disciplines

Practical Theology | Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of Religion

Recommended Citation

Dorceus, Robermann, "Implementing a Discipleship Strategy Plan for Lay Leaders at Redemption Baptist Church to Help Them Grow Spiritually" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5916. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5916

Discipleship may not be a requirement for salvation. However, it is a requirement for spiritual development and a command that Jesus has given all His disciples to obey. Christians must understand that they are Jesus' followers with a calling to bring others to Christ. Jesus makes it clear when He calls His disciples to follow Him. He calls them to follow so that they can become disciple-makers (Matt 4: 19). However, some members, mainly lay leaders at the church, whose responsibility is to disciple others, were not trained to disciple others, which creates a burden for the pastoral ministry in the church. The DMIN action research project's purpose is to urgently implement a discipleship program to equip lay leaders, who are the backbones of the church, with the necessary skills and knowledge to enhance their involvement in the church's discipleship ministry. If Redemption Baptist Church implements this discipleship training for lay leaders, they will be equipped to disciple others for Christ and help the pastor carry the church's discipleship load. The intervention comprised an eight-week discipleship training consisting of a one-hour and 30-minute teaching session each week that was crucial in guiding and teaching the participants the necessary characteristics of a genuine disciple of Christ. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected before and after the intervention. The results revealed a significant increase in the participants' knowledge and commitment, demonstrating the potential of discipleship training to engage in the church's discipleship ministry actively.

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Pulitzer Center Update August 14, 2024

Applications Open: Fall 2024 Teacher Fellowship, "Making Connections to Global Health Stories"

From climate change to social justice, Pulitzer Center journalism cuts to the core of the world’s biggest challenges by exploring key issues that connect us all. Over the past four years, the over 100 educators who have participated in our  Teacher Fellowship program have extended the impact of Pulitzer Center stories through deep classroom engagement by over 6,500 students  with reporting that deepens their critical understanding of global issues and inspires them to meet global and local challenges with curiosity, empathy, and empowered action. 

This fall, Teacher Fellows will explore the following theme:

Making Connections to Global Health Stories

As part of this paid, virtual Fellowship, a cohort of up to 14 educators will explore global health stories over the course of six workshops in a community with other passionate Fellows, award-winning journalists and the Pulitzer Center education team. They will analyze how news stories engage students in critical analysis of several global health topics, guide students in making local connections, and explore paths for students to apply their learning to address health issues in their own communities. Ultimately, educators will design a rigorous learning experience that centers at least one news story and culminates in an activity exemplifying empowered action. Participants will share the results of this learning experience by publishing a narrative blog post or lesson plan capturing student learning, engagement, and empowered action.

Click here to apply! Applications are due Sunday, September 8, 2024

Upon successful completion of the program, Fellows will be provided with …

• $600 stipend (made in two payments of $300 disbursed in November 2024 and January 2025)
• Pulitzer Center Teacher Fellow digital badge
• Certificate for 30 professional learning units (PLUs)

If you have questions after reading the eligibility requirements and Fellowship details below, please reach out to us at  [email protected] .

The Pulitzer Center is committed to making real, measurable progress on diversity, equity, and inclusion in all of our programs and partnerships. Please review our  Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion statement for more information on our commitments. Educators from historically marginalized backgrounds, and/or educators who are teaching students from historically marginalized backgrounds, are strongly encouraged to apply.

Eligibility Requirements:

This Fellowship is open to all classroom teachers (grades four–12) working in public, charter, independent, and alternative schools in the United States and U.S. territories. Educators working with adults and youth in jails, prisons, or youth detention facilities are also encouraged to apply. Applicants must be currently teaching virtually or in person, and plan to continue teaching in their current school at least through the end of the 2024–2025 school year. 

Because all sessions will be held virtually, applicants must have stable internet access and a computer with a webcam and microphone.

Fellowship Description:

Through text analysis, group discussion, and engagements with journalists, Fellows will practice applying a media literacy lens to global health news stories on a range of topics, including the health impacts of pollution and extreme weather events, vaccine access, maternal health, disparities in health care access, gender equality, and health research and innovation. Fellows will connect with journalists who cover global health topics through a myriad of storytelling methods, including print, video, photography, and data. Participants will strengthen the skills to ask critical questions and make informed connections between local and global issues. They will also evaluate how news stories can inspire broader classroom discussions about health.

Guiding questions:

• How do individual health outcomes reflect the impact of larger systemic issues (i.e. ,climate change, migration, human rights) in communities?
• How do systemic health issues connect  to challenges faced by students and their communities?
• Why is it important to bring discussions about health to our classrooms? How can critical analysis of news stories support those discussions and equip students to take action?

Teachers will design a short learning experience (one-three class periods) that centers at least one global health topic and culminates in an activity exemplifying empowered action. Teachers will be responsible for documenting student learning in a narrative blog or a lesson plan with embedded student examples.

Fellowship Requirements:

Fellows will participate in a virtual orientation on Saturday, October 5, 2024, and join five weekly evening sessions from October 2024 through November 2024. Each evening session will be two hours long and three will feature discussions with experienced journalists covering global health topics. Other sessions will focus on strategies and resources to engage students, lesson brainstorming and development, and opportunities for peer feedback. All sessions will be held live via Zoom.

With the support of the Pulitzer Center education team, all Fellows will …

• Create a lesson plan centering a global health news story from the Pulitzer Center website 
• Facilitate their lesson with students in November 2024
• Document and share their experience by writing a narrative account or sharing a lesson plan that captures students’ instructional journey. The blog post/lesson plan can include teaching materials, evaluation materials, student quotes, and images/videos that capture student engagement. 

Fellows’ work will be shared on the Pulitzer Center website. Fellows may also have the opportunity to participate in professional development webinars and/or conference presentations.

The Fellowship will launch on Saturday, October 5, 2024, and conclude on Wednesday, December 9, 2024. 

While the exact amount of time spent by each Fellow will depend on his or her classes and projects, we anticipate the Fellowship time commitment to be about 30 hours. This includes participation in virtual workshops, project design, implementation, and evaluation.

• Saturday, October 5, 2024, 11:30 am-4:30pm ET
• Wednesday,  October 9, 2024, 6:00-8:00pm ET
• Wednesday, October 16, 2024, 6:00-8:00pm ET
• Wednesday, October 23, 2024, 6:00-8:00pm ET
• Wednesday, October 30, 2024, 6:00-8:00pm ET
• Wednesday, November 6, 2024, 6:00-8:00pm ET
• Implementation of lesson plan:  November 6 -December 6, 2024 
• Closing: Wednesday, December 11, 2024, 6:00-8:00pm ET

Deliverables and Fellowship Payments:

• Week of November 25, 2024:  Process first payment of $300 upon completion of first six workshops
• Monday, December 9, 2024:  Final deliverables due
• Week of December 16, 2024:  Process second payment of $300 upon review of lesson plan or blog post  

If you have additional questions, please contact us by emailing [email protected] . We look forward to hearing from you!

Learn more about past Teacher Fellows and their work  here .

RELATED TOPICS

Health Inequities

Health Science

Water and Sanitation

Outbreaks and Epidemics

RELATED CONTENT

Teacher fellowship.

August 17, 2021

Pulitzer Center Teacher Fellows Inspire 1,300 Students

August 6, 2024

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Saving Lives with Connectivity – Vehicle-to-Everything National Deployment Plan: A Perspective from the Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program Office Director Brian Cronin

"On your left!", from a cyclist to a car. The honk of a horn. A driver waving a pedestrian across the street. A stoplight turning green. These are all forms of communication used daily in transportation. But what if there was another way to communicate - a digital way - that augmented the way humans communicate today and gave us information to make better, safer decisions? What if it gave people more time to make these decisions? That is what the future of transportation looks like with vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications. It provides all road users with critical information and situational awareness so they can avoid crashes and travel safely on our roadways, no matter if they are drivers, cyclists, or pedestrians.

This is the goal of the U.S. Department of Transportation's (USDOT) National V2X Deployment Plan , which was released in draft form in October 2023. USDOT is currently reviewing public comments submitted in response to the plan.

We have likely all had the experience of slamming on our brakes on the highway as we came upon a crash that was beyond our field of view. As soon as drivers realize they can stop safely, concern can shift to being hit from behind when another driver fails to stop. Secondary crashes are common, particularly in bad weather, but they don't have to be. V2X communications allow cars to share information with other cars about the crash minutes ahead of time. Many of us have also had the experience of hitting the brakes as a cyclist comes into view as we are making a turn - or perhaps we are that cyclist and must swerve to avoid the car. V2X communications provide the equivalent of a verbal "on your left" heads up, but in advance so drivers and cyclists can have additional time to react and avoid crashes. V2X addresses these all-too-common situations and many more because it allows road users to see beyond their line of sight.

Imagine a city where every intersection broadcasts real-time traffic signal status information and every traffic signal received location information on all travelers. Imagine every pedestrian, bicyclist, and vehicle could send and receive real-time information. In this city, pedestrians obscured by large vehicles would now be seen, and drivers would receive and alert when a vehicle runs a red light. These wireless communications between vehicles, traffic signals, sensors, and pedestrians are secure and private.

Imagine a rural freeway with fog or a blizzard rolling in. How do truckers see if there is a vehicle quickly stopping ahead? How do drivers know if they are approaching a work zone? Imagine receiving a digital alert a mile ahead. Imagine knowing that you should slow down and change lanes. V2X enables this sort of information. We are fortunate to live in a time when these technologies are available today to improve safety on our roads.

V2X is a suite of communications technologies that is designed to save lives, while also enabling improvements in mobility, climate, and the economy. A key priority of the USDOT, a nationwide, interoperable V2X deployment will add value exponentially over time, as the installation of connectivity is used to support a wide array of applications that will support a wide array of benefits. USDOT is working with infrastructure owner-operators, vehicle original equipment manufacturers, mobile network operators, and many others to build this ecosystem. It will take time to build a robust ecosystem, however, we have made incredible strides in the technology communications in the last few years. For example, digital alerting on highways is available now on some automobiles and with a variety of applications. This allows public safety vehicles to display as a warning message in a vehicle, as they rapidly approach with lights and sirens moving toward a medical emergency. Crash imminent safety application infrastructure is beginning to be deployed and vehicle-based applications will follow. How will benefits evolve?

In the near term of the National Deployment Plan, state and local agencies can expect to see benefits of intersection installations for their public fleets in the manner of faster, more reliable travel times. This will help get children to school on time, public transit riders to their jobs, snowy roads plowed faster, and emergency vehicles to the hospital. Pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclists may quickly be part of the ecosystem through their cell phones, or other devices, acting as a beacon to drivers on the road, making them readily seen, or receiving a warning through a phone-based application. As automobile equipage evolves, the dramatic safety benefits will start, and multiply exponentially. Crashes will be prevented, thousands of lives will be saved, and serious injuries will be avoided.

The Federal Communications Commission provided 30 MHz of licensed spectrum to assure the industry that lifesaving crash imminent applications can be developed, deployed, and trusted. To get there, we need to work together. We will also leverage American innovation and the immense capabilities of our mobile network operators to advance digital alerting through our cellular services. Finally, the public sector will draw upon our unique role to ensure public good and equitable deployment of life-saving technology.

With the launch of this plan, we are advancing this journey together towards zero deaths. Join us!

Posted 3/11/24

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Việt nam, cambodia promote cooperation in military-defence strategy research.

HÀ NỘI - Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Việt Nam People's Army (VPA) Sen. Lieut. Gen. Huỳnh Chiến Thắng hosted a reception in Hà Nội on Tuesday for a delegation of the Centre for Military Strategy Studies under the General Command of the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces led by its director General Kim Vanna.

Congratulating Cambodia on important achievements that the country has gained so far, Thắng expressed his belief that under the leadership of the Cambodian People's Party headed by President Hun Sen and the management of Prime Minister Hun Manet, Cambodia will achieve greater successes.

He underlined that defence-military cooperation between the two countries have been promoted over the past years with practical effectiveness, becoming an important pillar in relations between Việt Nam and Cambodia.

Notably, the two sides have maintained the exchange of delegations at all levels, especially high-level ones, along with cooperation mechanisms, especially the deputy ministerial defence dialogue, and coordination in border management and protection, human resources training, and popularisation of the historical tradition, the meaning and significance of the Việt Nam-Cambodia solidarity, and coordination in searching and repatriating the remains of martyrs. The two sides have also supported each other at regional and multilateral forums, he noted.

Thắng said that in the coming time, the two military-defence strategy research agencies of the two sides should continue effectively implementing their memorandum of understanding on research cooperation, while sharing information and organising strategic research training courses.

He pledged that leaders of the VPA General Staff will continue supporting and creating optimal conditions for the two agencies to strengthen their cooperation, contributing to further deepening bilateral defence cooperation.

For his part, Kim Vanna said he hopes the two sides will continue to work together and support each other, contributing to enhancing the friendship between the two militaries and people for peace and stability in the region. - VNS

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State Information Service Your Gateway to Egypt

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If indefinite articles are the proverbial thorn in your side, the good news is that you don't need a lot of grammatical jargon to understand their usage. You simply need your ears (okay, and maybe just a little grammatical jargon). In English, a and

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Egypt National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050

Egypt launched on 19/5/2022 the National Climate Change strategy 2050.

Egypt's National Climate Change strategy is designed to consolidate all aspects of climate change in one document to be a basic reference that ensures the integration of climate change dimension into general planning of all sectors in the country. It was developed at the request of the National Council for Climate Change.

The strategy contains five key goals and sets directions to achieve each objective:

Goal 1: Achieving Sustainable Economic Growth and Low-Emission Development in Various Sectors

Objective (1.a): Energy transition by increasing the share of all renewable and alternative energy sources in the energy mix

The energy field is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions and represents about 64.5 of the total greenhouse gas emissions, according to the biennially updated report that was prepared in 2018. These emissions result from burning natural gas and petroleum products to produce energy, and power plants in Egypt depend mainly on natural gas, due to their self-sufficiency after recent discoveries.

However, the contribution of new and renewable energy sources in the production of electrical energy amounted to 4.4% in 20192020/, with an increase of more than two thousand megawatts compared to the 20152016/ rates, through a mixture of electricity generating stations using wind energy, and solar energy (represented in photovoltaic cells and concentrated solar cells), in Egypt National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050 14 addition to the contribution of water sources, especially the High Dam, which represents another 7.6% of the generated electricity mixture.

The Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy has taken several measures aimed at increasing the contribution of new and renewable energy, which is planned to reach 42% of the total electrical energy produced in 2035.

Objective (1.b): Reducing emissions associated with the use of fossil fuels

In the context of reducing emissions from the energy sector, focus should also be placed on the possibility of using low-carbon fuel alternatives, especially in areas where fuel cannot be dispensed with as part of the operation process, and the effectiveness of this goal has increased due to the availability of alternatives that achieve lower emissions of greenhouse Egypt National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050 15 gases, such as Natural gas, which Egypt achieved a surplus of its production in past years. Indeed, the use of natural gas in power stations reached 94.1% during 20192020/, while reducing the consumption of Mazut and Diesel compared to the previous year. The objective looks forward to spreading this culture in various sectors.

Objective (1.c): Maximizing energy efficiency

In an effort to complete the energy-related axes, energy efficiency is one of the most important axes of work, as it ensures increased utilization of resources, whether in their primary form as fuel or through produced electric energy. This consequently leads to the availability of resources for other developmental uses, and thus achieves the main objective of sustainable economic development through lower emissions.

Objective (1.d): Adopt sustainable consumption and production trends for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from other non-energy activities

Sectors such as agriculture and waste also represent significant contributing percentages to the total greenhouse gases, as the contribution of each of them amounted to about 9% of the 2018 rates. The agricultural sector is one of the most sensitive sectors to climate changes, as it directly or indirectly affects the efficiency of the sector, which threatens the achievements of food security, and therefore economic growth. Given the sensitivity of the agricultural sector and its direct impact on the economy, the expected contribution seeks to increase productivity while maintaining emissions levels more than reducing them, unlike the waste sector, which has the capabilities to reduce emissions significantly, as the government is working to develop the waste management system.

Goal 2: Enhancing Adaptive Capacity and Resilience to Climate Change and Alleviating the Associated Negative Impacts

Objective (2.a): Protect citizens from the negative health impacts of climate change

The updated Egypt Vision 2030 states that the human being is the main focus of development as one of the governing principles of the strategy. Based on this principle, the importance of protecting citizens from the negative health impacts of climate change, especially at the cusp of the Covid-19 pandemic, is evident. This showed how important it is to prepare well for emergency health variables and join efforts in the various relevant sectors to try to manage the crisis well and limit the negative impacts on citizens.

Objective (2.b): Minimize loss and damage to country assets and ecosystems by preserving them from the impacts of climate change

Preserving state assets, such as infrastructure and historical heritage monuments from the impacts of climate change is one of the most important strategic goals due to its great social, economic and cultural dimensions. The preservation of ecosystems is also of paramount importance to maintain the ecological balance and prevent negative social, health and economic impacts that may result from a disturbance in that balance.

Objective (2.c): Preserving the country›s resources from the impacts of climate change

Preserving natural resources is an essential part of achieving sustainability in general. Natural resources are the main source of economic development and are the source of food and raw materials for various industries. They are also the lands on which various development projects are developed. Therefore, it is necessary to preserve them from the threats of climate change and maximize their utilization as much as possible.

Objective (2.d): Resilient infrastructure and services in the face of climate change impacts

Among the basic services that will create a decent life for citizens and raise the standard of living are infrastructure services, such as road networks, water, sewage and electricity and natural gas distribution network in cities and villages and various residential projects as well as infrastructure serving agricultural and industrial projects. Given the importance of these services, it must be ensured that they are ready to deal with the various impacts expected from climate changes, such as sea level rise, precipitation concentration and temperature increase.

Objective (2.e): Implementation of disaster risk reduction concepts

 The readiness to deal with potential risks is one of the most important factors that will reduce the expected and unexpected impacts in general. Taking into account the extent of the impact of climate change and Egypt’s status as one of the most affected countries, the aim of the objective is to ensure that there are means of forecasting and warning followed by actions taken on the ground to address these risks.

Objective (2.f): Preserving and expanding green spaces

Afforestation and the increase of green spaces contribute to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and reduction of thermal stress, especially with the rise in temperatures as a result of climate change. Accordingly, preserving and expanding green spaces contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions and are an adaptation to the negative impacts of rising temperatures.

Goal 3: Enhancing Climate Change Action Governance

Objective (3.a): Defining the roles and responsibilities of the different stakeholders in order to achieve the strategic goals

The synergy of various efforts is a key factor in the success of achieving strategic goals. The importance of institutional integration between different sectors and ministries is increasing to deal with a complex issue like climate change. Therefore, objective 3.a sheds light to defining and distributing roles in a manner that commensurate with the current situation of conducting tasks and integrating with it.

Objective (3.b): Improving the rank of Egypt in the international profile of climate change actions to attract further investments and climate finance opportunities

To implement the proposed projects and develop monitoring and control systems in the various sectors as well as at the state level, the necessary funding must be provided to support development at all levels. This comes through international grants and loans that support mitigation and adaptation projects, or through internal financing when sources of income are available. There are some bodies that measure climate action indicators at the global level (e.g., CCPI) and these results are taken into account by some international donors. Attracting supportive investments remains one of the most important sources of funding that can achieve effective results on the ground. Therefore, it is necessary to emphasize Egypt›s interest in the issue of climate change and to highlight the efforts made in this regard.

Objective (3.c): Sectoral policy reform to capture the required climate change mitigation and adaptation interventions

In order to support the effective implementation of the proposed sectoral measures, the necessary sectoral policies should be developed and reformed to ensure the involvement of the private sector and all relevant groups. The policies of the Ministry of Electricity and Energy to implement solar energy projects through the inclusion of various means (such as feed-in tariffs, public auction and net metering system) is a successful example of Egypt National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050 30 encouraging the inclusion of the private sector in the implementation of mitigation projects.

Objective (3.d): Enhancing institutional, procedural and legal arrangements such as Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system

Monitoring, reporting and verification system is a major axis in measuring the effectiveness of the specific strategic objectives. It is also one of the most effective tools in enhancing Egypt›s rank in the international profile of climate change actions to attract further investments and climate finance opportunities. With the existence of the NCCC and its effective role at the political level, the importance of extending institutional arrangements to include all levels and in the various relevant sectors must be emphasized.

Goal 4: Enhancing Climate Financing Infrastructure

Objective (4.a): Promoting local green banking and green credit lines

The banking sector is one of the most important sources of project financing in the private and public sectors. The banking entity sets a set of requirements that the recipient of support must comply with before approving the financing. Those set of requirements can include environmental and social aspects to turn those investments into green ones. Following the example of the international banking community, such as The World Bank and other international sources of financing, giving adequate attention to micro, small and Egypt National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050 32 medium enterprises (MSMEs) to benefit from financing opportunities.

Objective (4.b): Promoting innovative financing mechanisms prioritizing adaptation actions, e.g., green bonds

During the second half of 2020, Egypt issued its first green bond offering with a value of 750 million dollars. Thus, Egypt was the pioneer in issuing these bonds at the level of the Middle East and Africa. Green bonds aim to attract investors who are working on sustainable projects as they are intended for projects related to the environment and climate. Through green bonds, projects can be financed such as those related to renewable energy, energy efficiency, waste management, clean transportation, climate change adaptation and other projects of environmental, social and governance-related importance.

Objective (4.c): Private sector engagement in climate finance and promotion of green jobs

The private sector is generally characterized by flexibility in dealing with rapid changes that affect the investment climate in general. This has been evident during the Covid-19 crisis, which greatly affected the global economy and global trade movement. Due to the pandemic crisis, unemployment rates rose in different countries. The Egyptian state has shown good handling of the crisis as a whole, but due to the ease of making rapid changes, the private sector has contributed to facing the challenges of the crisis. This shows the importance of the sector›s participation in financing climate activities.

Objective 4.d: Compliance with Multilateral Development Banks (MDB) guidelines for climate finance

The Multi-lateral Development Banks (MDB) have added a number of requirements related to climate activities to fund projects. These requirements must be taken into account to facilitate obtaining the funding required to support the work planned to be achieved with high efficiency to ensure continuous improvement in procedures. These requirements include the dimensions of mitigation and adaptation.

Objective (4.e): Building on success of the current climate finance programs

According to the above mentioned, Egypt has already achieved successes in the field of financing climate activities, by offering green bonds, for example, and by implementing policies to involve the private sector in projects for financing solar power plants, such as the Benban plant, which is currently the largest solar power plant using solar energy (Photovoltaic cells) and other projects. That is why it is necessary to learn from previous successes to repeat them and to know the obstacles that were faced in order to avoid them.

Goal 5: Enhancing Scientific Research, Technology Transfer, Knowledge Management and Awareness to Combat Climate Change

Objective (5.a): Strengthening the role of scientific research and technology transfer in climate change mitigation and adaptation

Scientific research can contribute to a number of areas related to climate change, such as analyzing climate phenomena, predicting expected changes and developing plans to Egypt National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS) 2050 36 address them, whether with various mitigation or adaptation measures, after studying the effects of plans in detail. The transfer of technology complements the goal by ensuring that research results are implemented on the ground, as well as benefiting from the experiences of others in the same field and developing what has been reached.

Objective (5.b): Facilitating the dissemination of climate-relevant information and knowledge management among government institutions and citizens

 In the past years, the circulation of information has become of paramount importance in accelerating the pace of scientific research. It has become a key partner factor supporting technological development, helped by the presence of helpful and open platforms for specialists and those interested in various fields. Egypt has a good infrastructure in the field of communications that enabled it to benefit from the global openness of knowledge. There are a number of important scientific and research tools for every knowledge student, such as the Egyptian Knowledge Bank, which contains many books, references and practical research available to all Egyptian students. In order to maximize the benefit from the efforts, the strategy emphasizes the need to encourage coordination and communication between research and government agencies and decision makers.

Objective (5.c): Raising awareness on climate change among different stakeholders (high-level policy/decision makers, citizens, and students)

Increasing awareness contributes to achieving readiness to deal with any potential threat in a correct manner. It also produces a generation that has sufficient awareness of the dimensions of the issue and thus can increase the effectiveness of the mechanisms required to address the impacts of climate change. As a result, it increases the possibility of their participation as an active part in the green economy and their awareness of the importance of projects established to mitigate the impacts of climate change, as well as adapting, especially with the expectation of increased risks in the future.

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Harris vs. Trump: Where the 2024 Presidential Candidates Stand on Key Housing Issues

August 12, 2024.

By Cindy Chetti, Senior Vice President, Government Affairs, NMHC

Cindy Vosper Chetti is Senior Vice President for Government Affairs, with responsibility for managing NMHC’s federal legislative and regulatory advocacy strategy agenda. She also oversees NMHC’s political operations and the NMHC PAC. Learn more about Cindy .

As the 2024 presidential election approaches, our members find themselves at a critical juncture with policies that could significantly impact rental housing providers hanging in the balance. The similarities and differences between former President Trump and Vice President Harris on key issues related to housing, urban development and economic policy represent two distinct outcomes that could impact providers in a multitude of ways.

This analysis aims to shed light on the stances of the two candidates. By understanding these perspectives, members can better anticipate potential policy shifts and their implications for our sector in the coming years.

Use the drop-down feature below to dive into where the 2024 Presidential candidates stand on an array of policy issues—including those that impact rental housing.

Portions of this analysis are provided to NMHC by Brownstein Hyatt Farber Schreck, LLP.

Kamala Harris

• As vice president and as a presidential candidate in 2024, Harris has mostly advocated for the same tax policy priorities as President Biden, including touting the energy-tax provisions in the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA, Pub. L. 117-169 ) and committing to protect tax and audit rates for individuals and businesses earning less than $400,000 per year.
• In line with President Biden’s FY 2025 Budget request, Harris proposed raising the corporate tax rate from 21% to 28% and raising the capital gains tax rate. As part of her presidential campaign in 2019, she had proposed raising the corporate tax rate to 35%.
• As a senator, Harris’ most notable tax policy proposal was her introduction of the LIFT the Middle Class Act (LIFT Act), which would have established a refundable tax credit of up to $3,000 for single tax filers and $6,000 for joint filers with low or moderate incomes.
• Harris also introduced the Rent Relief Act of 2019, which would have created a tax credit for low- to moderate-income rent-burdened Americans.
• During her 2020 presidential campaign, Harris highlighted several concepts such as restoring the marginal income tax rate for the top 1% of earners to 39.6% and implementing an “income-based premium tax” of 4% on households making more than $100,000 to pay for her version of “Medicare for All.”

Donald Trump

• One of Trump’s biggest priorities will be cementing his legacy through extending or making permanent the tax rate reductions in the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (TCJA, Pub. L. 115-97 ), including individual, business and estate tax rates.
• Trump has also proposed taking many TCJA provisions further, such as reducing the TCJA-enacted corporate tax rate of 21% to 20%.
• Trump has proposed numerous additional tax policy proposals on the campaign trail, including to eliminate federal taxation of tip income as well as eliminating the taxation of Social Security benefits.
• Trump has also expressed interest in greater taxation of university endowments.
• To offset the cost of ending the TCJA’s tax provisions, Trump has suggested imposing a 10% baseline tariff on all imports, with a 60% tariff on imports from China.
• In the Senate, Harris introduced the Accountability for Wall Street Executives Act, which would empower state attorneys general and other state law enforcement to issue subpoenas while conducting investigations into national banks’ compliance with state law.
• She also supported legislation to require the Federal Reserve to conduct stress tests on large financial institutions to gauge their resilience to climate-related financial risks.
• Harris has been supportive of increased Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) oversight of various lenders.
• As vice president, she announced the CFPB’s proposal to remove medical debt from credit reports, and her office coordinated with North Carolina officials on a pilot project to forgive medical debt for 2 million individuals.
• During her 2020 campaign, Harris proposed a financial transactions tax (FTT) that would consist of a 0.2% tax on stock trades, a 0.1% tax on bond trades, and a 0.002% tax on derivative transactions.
• In previous campaigns, Trump promised to repeal the Dodd-Frank Act and reduce burdensome, anti-growth regulations.
• During his first term, Trump issued an Executive Order (EO) outlining his “Core Principles for Regulating the United States Financial System.” The principles include empowering Americans to make financial decisions and requiring more rigorous regulatory impact analysis of proposed financial regulations.
• Trump also issued an EO requiring that agencies rescind two federal regulations for every newly created regulation.
• Trump has assumed a pro-cryptocurrency position on the campaign trail, a reversal from his stance on digital assets as president.
• He has repeatedly opposed ESG initiatives, vowing to end the Securities and Exchange Commission’s (SEC) climate rule and issue an executive order to limit employer offerings of ESG funds in retirement plans.
• While campaigning for president in July, Harris publicly voiced support for President Biden’s proposal for a 5% cap on annual rent increases, stating that “we will take on corporate landlords and cap unfair rent increases.”
• As California’s attorney general, Harris secured an $18 billion agreement as part of a settlement regarding bank servicing and foreclosure misconduct during the foreclosure crisis.
• Harris drafted and helped pass the California Homeowner Bill of Rights in 2013, which issued numerous reforms in the mortgage process and how foreclosures are handled.
• In the Senate, Harris sponsored the Rent Relief Act in 2018, a bill that would create a refundable tax credit for renters who earn below $100,000 annually and spend more than 30% of their income on rent and utilities.
• Harris sponsored the Housing is Infrastructure Act, which would provide $70 billion to address the public housing capital backlog, and other funds to support public housing.
• The Republican Party’s 2024 platform proposed opening portions of federal lands for new home construction, tax incentives to support first-time buyers, and rescinding “unnecessary” regulations.
• Trump wrote an op-ed with former HUD Secretary Ben Carson in 2020, criticizing efforts to eliminate local single-family zoning regulations.
• His administration terminated the Obama-era Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing regulation.
• His administration also raised the threshold for providing disparate impact liability, rolling back the 2013 Disparate Impact Standard rule.
• Created Opportunity Zones as a way for businesses to invest in underserved neighborhoods through the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act.
• Trump’s Treasury Department released a plan to end the conservatorship of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.
• Issued and extended a federal eviction moratorium during the COVID-19
• Harris has cemented herself as a staunch advocate of abortion rights. She promises to codify abortion-related protections enshrined in Roe v. Wade into federal law.
• She has promised to expand and strengthen health care coverage provided by the Affordable Care Act (ACA) and reduce health care costs, pivoting from her previous support of a single-payer health care system.
• Harris supports extending Medicaid coverage in the 10 states that have not yet expanded it under the ACA.
• Harris continues to support efforts to lower the cost of prescription drugs and provisions included in the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), including Medicare drug price negotiations. When Harris was running for president, she wanted to go further on drug pricing and proposed capping U.S. prices to the lowest ones negotiated by other countries to no more than the OECD average. Harris also previously endorsed “march- in” rights under the Bayh Dole Act.
• When Harris was attorney general of California, she focused heavily on health care consolidation and anticompetitive behavior in pharmaceutical, insurance and hospital industries. She filed an antitrust lawsuit to block a proposed $54 billion merger of two insurers.
• As vice president, she took the lead on medical debt initiatives and announced rules that ban medical debt from credit reports.
• Trump said he wants to leave abortion in the hands of the states after the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade and declined to endorse a federal abortion ban. Trump has also advocated for exceptions and strongly supports the availability of in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• Trump has softened his “repeal and replace” approach to the ACA, instead highlighting that he is looking at alternatives to make it less expensive. He previously supported establishing Medicaid block grants, Medicaid work requirements and upper payment limits. His administration repealed the individual mandate tax penalty and protected insurance coverage for people with preexisting conditions.
• Trump has been critical of both the pharmaceutical industry and pharmacy benefit managers (PBMs), often rallying against the high cost of prescription drugs. His previous administration finalized regulations that allow states to import lower-cost drugs from Canada and issued regulations requiring hospitals and health insurers to provide consumers list prices for specific drugs and services.
• Trump continues to tout his prior efforts on the Most Favored Nation drug pricing proposal.
• Trump has promised to end surprise medical billing and increase fairness through price transparency, building on his previous administration’s efforts.
• In March 2021, President Biden tapped Harris to engage Mexico and Northern Triangle countries on identifying and addressing the root causes of illegal migration across the region.
• In February 2024, Harris endorsed the Senate’s bipartisan border security package and would revive it if elected.
• During her 2020 presidential campaign, Harris issued a plan to expand the use of deferred action programs and pledged to use executive actions to prevent certain undocumented immigrants from deportations.
• In a May 2024 statement , Harris pledged to protect from deportation those enrolled in the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program.
• In January 2024, Harris called for a implementing a “meaningful pathway to citizenship” to address the current border situation.
• In her first Senate floor speech , Harris denounced Trump’s migration restrictions, declaring that “an undocumented immigrant is not a criminal.”
• In July 2021 remarks , Harris called on Congress to pass legislation to provide a pathway to citizenship for DACA recipients and Dreamers ( H.R.16 ) and to reform the H-2A visa temporary agricultural worker program( H.R.4319 ).
• In November 2019, Harris said she would support lifting current per-country caps on H-1B visas.
• Harris twice sponsored legislation to expedite the reunification of separated families and promote the humane treatment of asylum- seeking immigrants ( S.3227 & S.557 ), to prohibit the use of federal funds for building or expanding migrant detention facilities ( S.2849 & S.2221 ), to improve the safety standards and resettlement processes for unaccompanied children ( S.3624 & S.388 ), and to enhance protections for migrants facing immigration-related legal proceedings ( S.2219 & S.349 ).
• In an April 2024 interview , Trump said his second term agenda would include deporting 15-20 million migrants from the United States; he also expressed openness in creating funding incentives for state and local law enforcement to assist with the federal government’s immigration enforcement.
• In a June 2024 interview , Trump floated a proposal to provide green cards to foreign students who graduate from U.S.-based colleges.
• In May 2023, Trump pledged to pass an Executive Order (EO) banning birthright citizenship on the first day of his second term in office.
• During his first term, Trump pushed for the construction of a wall along the U.S.-Mexico border; he has pledged to “complete” the wall if returned to the White House.
• During his first term, Trump utilized the Title 42 public health order to expel asylum seekers due to public health concerns.
• Under his guidance, DHS instituted the Migrant Protection Protocols (MPP) program in 2018, also known as the “Remain in Mexico” policy.
• Trump moved to rescind the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program in 2017.
• Soon after entering office, Trump signed EO 13769 , which placed restrictions on admitting refugees from several Middle East and North African nations.
• Harris supported President Biden’s actions to limit dependence on Chinese goods, and she said China needs to be held accountable for its anticompetitive behavior, including intellectual property theft.
• In 2021, Harris met with World Trade Organization (WTO) Director General Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala and said they both “agreed on the importance of using trade to promote equity and economic growth.”
• Harris criticized Trump’s trade policies during his presidency, and she was one of 10 senators to oppose the USMCA.
• During her 2020 campaign, Harris said any trade deal she signed should protect workers and the environment.
• In a 2019 presidential debate, Harris stated, “I am not a protectionist Democrat,” and advocated for maintaining export markets for American goods.
• Harris has said she would have voted “no” on the North America Fair Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
• Harris opposed President Obama’s proposed Trans- Pacific Partnership (TPP) trade agreement.
• Trump touts his “America First” trade policy, which is aimed at eliminating the trade deficit and protecting American jobs.
• Trump proposed a 60% tariff on Chinese goods and phasing out Chinese imports of essential goods, as well as a 10% tariff on most other imports.
• Trump proposed levying tariffs on electric vehicles (EVs) from Mexico, stating China manufactures EVs in Mexico to avoid tariffs.
• In his first term, Trump withdrew from TPP negotiations, and he imposed tariffs amounting to roughly $380 billion worth of goods in 2018 and 2019, mostly on Chinese goods.
• Trump proposed revoking China’s Most Favored Nation status, and he criticized China’s admission into the WTO.
• Trump negotiated USMCA in 2018 and criticized NAFTA, which he threatened to withdraw from, as “the worst trade deal ever made.”
• Trump criticized the U.S.-Korea Free Trade Agreement (KORUS), and he oversaw its revision.
• Trump opposed Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala becoming director general of the WTO, and he threatened to pull the U.S. out of the WTO due to unfair treatment.
• Harris gained a significant portion of her foreign policy experience during her time as vice president and would be expected to largely continue the existing policies of President Biden.
• The potential Harris administration would likely continue to pursue global labor and environmental issues.
• She would likely continue to aid Israel, although she has been seen as more supportive of Palestine than Biden.
• Harris is expected to support existing policies designed to counter Chinese influence in Africa and the Indo- Pacific.
• Harris’s foreign policy team has largely been made up of establishment figures and would pursue a foreign agenda similar to past Democratic administrations.
• Trump has pursued an “America First” policy agenda that has often rejected the notion that America has a responsibility to manage world affairs.
• His will continue to focus on China, and his administration would look at policies that harm Chinese influence and strengthen U.S. engagement in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Trump would likely continue to provide aid to Israel and Taiwan. However, he has criticized support for Ukraine and would most likely push for a negotiated settlement in the conflict.
• A second Trump administration would also be expected to act more unilaterally and push NATO countries to take on a greater role in paying for the alliance’s defense.
• On labor issues, Trump would place an emphasis on protecting domestic manufacturing and would likely pursue protectionist policies that prevent jobs from going overseas.
• Trump would be expected to maintain strong relations with Middle East allies, such as Israel and Saudi Arabia, and would likely push for the expansion of the Abraham Accords and more action against Iran.
• Harris will likely follow the China competition strategy of the Biden administration. Although she is not as hawkish as Biden, Harris has called out the Chinese Communist Party for imposing territory claims on its small neighbors in the South China Sea. She has also reiterated U.S. support for Taiwan.
• During her time as senator, Harris signed on to legislation promoting the imposition of sanctions to individuals connected to human rights abuses in Hong Kong and Xinjiang. She has also committed to prioritizing China’s human rights abuses to Uyghurs and others in her presidential campaign and if she wins office.
• Harris has advocated for de-risking from China to protect American interests and jobs, emphasizing the importance of increasing domestic production capabilities and international alliances.
• Harris often acts in Biden’s place during crucial international gatherings of Indo-Pacific nations to boost alliances with Japan, South Korea and other regional powers. She has also led U.S. delegations during summits in Asia (like ASEAN or APEC) focused on increasing U.S. security and economic partnerships.
• Despite the “tough on China” sentiment, Harris has expressed interest to cooperate with China on climate change and anti-drug/fentanyl trafficking initiatives.
• During Trump’s first term has president, he took a hard stance on China by launching a trade war and hardening ties following the COVID-19 pandemic. In current campaign events, he has expressed plans to ramp up the trade war and impose tariffs of 60%–100% on every Chinese import to the United States.
• Trump’s policy focus is primarily an economic nationalist and protectionist approach, which is often seen in his stance on China. He supports a sharp decoupling from China and increasing restrictions on export controls and outbound investment.
• Trump wishes to go further than bipartisan action against China’s abusive practices, such as dumping goods at low costs to deter competition. He also wishes to stem the flow of U.S. technology and chips to China.
• Trump has often declined to commit to defending Taiwan against Chinese threats, claiming Taiwan should pay the United States for defense. However, many top Trump advisers and senior officials view U.S. support for Taiwan a priority for U.S. national security. The advisors and officials also advocate for continued close cooperation with Asian countries on the front line of Chinese aggression.
• Although Trump is known for being tough on China, he’s occasionally expressed his admiration for Chinese President Xi Jinping’s strength as its leader.
• As vice president, Harris supported modernization and innovation within the military and integrating defense strategies with economic policies. She has also been vocal in her support of comprehensive assistance for veterans.
• Harris strongly supports NATO and has criticized Trump’s approach to the alliance, emphasizing the importance of maintaining robust international partnerships and coalition approaches to addressing global security challenges.
• Harris has emphasized a tough stance on China, advocating for reducing economic dependence and protecting American interests. She has supported policies aimed at de-risking from China and has criticized Trump’s tariffs for hurting the American economy without achieving a rebalance.
• Harris supports deepening alliances in Asia and the Indo-Pacific, endorses Taiwan’s self-defense and championed human rights legislation for Hong Kong and Uyghurs. She has played a significant role in fostering transatlantic cooperation and support for Ukraine.
• Harris advocates for a two-state solution for Israel and Palestine, has called for a temporary cease-fire in Gaza and has supported legislation to restrict arms sales and military assistance to Saudi Arabia.
• Trump focused on China as the foremost military threat to the United States and implemented measures to counter broader Chinese influence. His administration prioritized securing critical supply chains and protecting U.S. research and development from foreign interference.
• Trump oversaw a significant focus on rebuilding and modernizing the U.S. military, with over $2.2 trillion in defense spending. He also established the U.S. Space Force, modernized nuclear forces, enhanced missile defenses and elevated Cyber Command to a major warfighting command.
• Trump criticized European NATO allies for not investing adequately in defense, urging them to increase their security spending, emphasizing NATO’s commitment of 2% member spending on defense.
• Trump’s administration took action against terrorist networks, including military action against ISIS and eliminating Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi and Qasem Soleimani.
• Trump’s administration also utilized the maximum pressure campaign against Iran to deprive the government of the resources necessary to build weapons and fund terrorist proxies in the region.
• Trump’s administration initiated a comprehensive assessment of the U.S. defense industrial base and implemented measures to protect information and communications technology supply chains and secure.
• In a recent speech, Harris vowed to sign the Protecting the Right to Organize Act should it reach her desk as president, which would enhance an employee’s ability to join labor unions and strikes without fear of employer retaliation, among other things.
• When Harris ran for president in 2020, she proposed requiring companies with 100 or more employees to obtain an equal pay certification every two years, demonstrating they are paying men and women the same for analogous work.
• Harris also promised to guarantee up to six months of paid family and medical leave for all working individuals, with workers earning less than $75,000 receiving full wage replacement. In addition, she vowed to create a new Office of Paid Family and Medical Leave.
• In the Senate, Harris cosponsored the Social Security Expansion Act to expand Social Security by $2,400 per year.
• Harris previously chaired the White House Task Force on Worker Organizing and Empowerment.
• In his Republican National Convention (RNC) platform, Trump said he will protect Social Security and make no changes to the retirement age.
• In his RNC platform, Trump said he will build up American manufacturing and ban companies that outsource jobs from doing business with the federal government.
• Trump has spoken out against a number of Biden’s regulations and is expected to repeal several finalized rules, including the Registered Apprenticeship, Independent Contractor and Fiduciary rules, or not continue to defend rules such as the recent Overtime, Noncompete and Joint Employer rules in ongoing litigation.
• Trump has proposed exempting tips from income taxes.
• During his 2020 State of the Union address, Trump called for paid family leave through allowing parents to borrow from their future selves, rather than provide a new source of funding to take leave.
• In the Senate, Harris cosponsored the College for All Act, which would make four-year public universities free for anyone earning less than $125,000 and make public community college tuition free for everyone.
• As Attorney General of California, Harris erased $5.8 billion in loans for former students at Corinthians College, alleging they used deceptive and false advertisements and aggressive marketing campaigns.
• Harris has supported the Biden administration’s actions to forgive student loan debt and has reportedly advocated for additional loan forgiveness behind the scenes.
• In 2020, as a presidential candidate, Harris proposed cancelling debt for Pell Grant recipients who opened and operated a business in a disadvantaged community for at least three years.
• In 2020 and through her time in the Biden administration, Harris has vowed to pass the Child Care for Working Families Act and provide universal access to preschool for all three-and-four-year-olds. She also vowed to increase funding for Head Start and Early Head Start.
• Harris also committed to expanding the Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights.
• As a graduate of Howard University, Harris has pledged to invest in the success of HBCUs.
• In his Republican National Convention (RNC) platform, Trump vowed to dismantle the Department of Education and allow states to have complete control over the education system. He has made similar statements dating back to his 2016 campaign, and his administration proposed merging the Education and Labor departments into one federal agency as part of a larger plan to restructure the government.
• In his RNC platform, Trump vowed to overturn the Biden administration’s final Title IX rule, create alternatives to traditional four-year college to reduce costs, expand 529 Education Savings Accounts, support parent choice in schools and make the expansion of the Child Tax Credit permanent.
• Trump has said he would cut federal funding for schools pushing “critical race theory, transgender insanity, and other inappropriate racial, sexual, or political content on our children.”
• In a 2023 campaign video, Trump proposed taxing and fining universities with large endowments to start a new institution that will be free for everyone.
• In Trump’s last proposed budget, he proposed cuts to the National Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation and the elimination of funding to the National Endowments for the Art and Humanities.
• While in the Senate, Harris sponsored the Fairness for Farmworkers Act, a bill that would remove the minimum wage and overtime pay exemptions for farmworkers.
• She sponsored the Closing the Meal Gap Act, which would raise the baseline benefit for all SNAP households and allocate additional funds to those with large medical and housing expenses.
• Harris also cosponsored the Agricultural Worker Program Act, a measure that would provide a legal right to work in the United States for certain undocumented farmworkers.
• Harris voted for the 2018 Farm Bill and pushed for water infrastructure projects to be included in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA).
• As California’s attorney general, Harris appealed a federal ruling that struck down California’s ban on foie gras sales.
• Trump has proposed placing significant tariffs on American purchases from China, repeating a tactic he used as president in 2018. During Trump’s first term, China placed retaliatory tariffs on U.S. agricultural and food exports in response to Trump’s trade policies surrounding Chinese goods. Because of this, U.S. farmers saw lower commodity prices and reduced income from lost sales. Trump issued an aid package under the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) Charter Act to mitigate short-term losses to farmers, but U.S. agricultural markets and exports still suffered.
• Trump would seek to roll back federal regulations that place burdensome restrictions on U.S. farmers, including rules put forward by the Biden administration regarding the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act, Superfund and wetlands that limit land use to advance environmental protections.
• Trump’s “2024 GOP Platform to Make America Great Again” notes that Trump and Republicans are committed to protecting American workers, farmers and industries from unfair foreign competition.

Staff Resource

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