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Coastal adaptation strategies: case studies.

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Last updated: July 2, 2024

• Mix land uses
• Take advantage of compact design
• Provide a range of housing choices
• Create walkable communities
• Foster distinctive, attractive communities
• Preserve open space & critical environmental areas
• Direct development toward existing communities
• Provide a variety of transportation options
• Make development decisions predictable & fair
• Encourage community & stakeholder collaboration
• getting started
• case studies

Coastal Smart Growth Home : Case Studies

The following case studies demonstrate the application of Coastal & Waterfront Smart Growth elements:

ELEMENT 1: Mix land uses, including water-dependent uses

Portland, maine.

In Portland, Maine, compatible uses, such as offices, are located above commercial fishing businesses. Courtesy: Bill Needleman

Portland, Maine, located on Casco Bay, began its waterfront planning effort by identifying a range of land uses appropriate for its commercial harbor (water-dependent, marine-related, and compatible non-marine) and then developing zoning approaches that allowed these uses to be mixed together. The community found that adopting a mixed-use zone that allows compatible non-marine uses to be located above and in certain areas along side water-dependent uses was more successful (and flexible) than the previous zoning designation, which restricted the waterfront area solely to water-dependent uses. This zoning change allowed pier and wharf owners to fill vacant properties and generate income by leasing second-floor space and other commercial space, which helped pay for the high costs of maintaining commercial marine infrastructure. For instance, Portland's Union Wharf rents dock-level space to commercial fishers and harbor support industries, while the upper-level space is rented to law offices andother businesses. The rent from the upstairs tenants subsidizes the water-based activities on the dock. The mixed-use overlay also allows development of appropriate "transitional" uses, such as research facilities, that can buffer marine industries (such as shipping or processing facilities) from nearby residential or commercial uses and provide jobs within walking distance of homes and services. Additionally, retail and restaurant uses are concentrated along Commercial Street, Portland's waterfront drive, away from the working ends of piers and closest to downtown and historic shopping areas. Economic downturns, coupled with long-term declines in fishing and maritime industries, continue to challenge the feasibility of maintaining the waterfront's aging marine-related infrastructure. Portland's innovative application of mixed-use zoning is an important strategy to help generate the funds needed to protect and maintain that built infrastructure.

ELEMENT 2: Take advantage of compact community design that enhances, preserves, and provides access to waterfront resources

A public walkway connects downtown Hyannis, Massachusetts, with the waterfront. Courtesy: Town of Barnstable

Barnstable, Massachusetts

Located on Cape Cod, the town of Barnstable has been experiencing tremendous growth. In particular, Hyannis, one of the town's seven villages, was seeing low-density growth at its edges while its downtown emptied. This pattern strained the town's infrastructure and diminished its historic character.

In response, Hyannis developed a strategy that encourages growth in the urban center, which is served by existing sewer and water lines. The strategy includes mixed-use zoning and design guidelines, expedited permitting for downtown development, incentives to shift development from outlying areas to downtown, and improved connections to the waterfront. The town also purchased land to protect drinking-water aquifers and other important natural areas.

The result is a renaissance for Hyannis's downtown. As of 2007, 93 new residential units and 22,000 square feet of commercial space had been created since the initiative began, along with approximately 342 new jobs and $25 million in private investment. Improvements continue, including construction of a harbor-front visitor's center and additional segments for the town's planned harbor walk.

ELEMENT 3: Provide a range of housing opportunities and choices to meet the needs of both seasonal and permanent residents

Santa cruz, california.

The Accessory Dwelling Unit (ADU) Development program in Santa Cruz, California, allowed for the conversion of a garage into an apartment. Courtesy: City of Santa Cruz

Like many communities in northern California, Santa Cruz has seen its housing costs increase dramatically, in part because of its coastal location on Monterey Bay and its desirability as a vacation, retirement, and second-home destination. In response to concerns over how to retain teachers, police officers, and service workers, the city created an Accessory Dwelling Unit (ADU) Development Program. The program makes it easier for homeowners to build a new structure or to convert all or part of a garage into an ADU. The city revised its zoning ordinance, commissioned design guidelines, and produced architect-generated building prototypes that have been pre-reviewed by city departments, thereby reducing processing time, planning fees, and design costs. To encourage affordable housing, loan and fee waiver programs are available to homeowners who will rent the unit at an affordable level. The program has been successful. In 2003, the program's first full year, 35 accessory units were built-a fourfold increase over the eight units built in 2001. Between 40 and 50 new accessory unit building permits have been issued each year since the program began.

ELEMENT 4: Create walkable communities with physical and visual access to and along the waterfront for public use

The Marginal Way is a public walkway along the Atlantic shore, located a block from Ogunquit's downtown. Courtesy: Enji Park

Ogunquit, Maine

In Ogunquit, Maine, the Marginal Way is a public walkway along the Atlantic shore, located a block from Ogunquit's downtown. The Marginal Way is a remnant of a pre-colonial coastal trail, which a coastal property owner donated to the town in the 1920s. The town, working with several contiguous property owners, acquired easements in the 1940s to extend the trail another 2,000 feet. Signs direct pedestrians from downtown to the entrance of the Marginal Way, which extends along the coastline for nearly two miles, including access paths, ending at Perkins Cove, a small working harbor near Ogonquit with a variety of shops and restaurants. The town holds full title to most of the land area of the trail and is responsible for its management and maintenance. For an Ogonquit resident or tourist, the Marginal Way complements an already walkable community. The vibrant, mixed-use downtown has wide sidewalks and shade trees, and visitors are encouraged to park in a municipal lot next to the downtown and explore the area on foot or via the Ogunquit Trolley, which provides service along the coast during the summer months.

ELEMENT 5: Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place that capitalizes on the waterfront's heritage

Revitalization of the Fishtown docks helped Leland, Michigan, capitalize on its heritage and history despite the decline of its traditional fisheries based economy. Courtesy: Rick Lahmann (above) and Leeland Historical Society (below)

Leland, Michigan

Leland, Michigan, turned the challenge of a declining commercial fishery into an economic opportunity by focusing revitalization efforts on its historic and natural resources fronting the Leland River and Lake Michigan. Leland identified the fishing complex known as "Fishtown," with its weathered fishing shanties, smokehouses, and docks, as a key element to preserve in maintaining the city's maritime heritage. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the preserved and renovated structures of Fishtown now provide visitors with an opportunity to learn about the Great Lakes' maritime tradition and enjoy recreational activities on Lake Michigan and Lake Leelanau. Fishtown has helped Leland, with its walkable downtown and easy access to the water, capitalize on its heritage and history despite the decline of its traditional fisheries-based economy.

ELEMENT 6: Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and the critical environmental areas that characterize and support coastal and waterfront communities

Acquiring and protecting land along Brays Bayou in Houston, Texas, has helped provide community open space, protect water quality, reduce the potential for flood damage, and enhance wildlife habitat. Courtesy: Harris County Flood Control District

Brays Bayou, Houston, Texas

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Coastal and Estuarine Land Conservation Program (CELCP) was established in 2002 to protect valuable coastal and estuarine lands. One of CELCP's projects is in Brays Bayou in Houston, Texas. Through direct acquisition, CELCP grant funds are helping to protect about five acres of undeveloped floodplains along the bayou in a mixed-use neighborhood in East Houston. The city of Houston initiated this project in an effort to set aside land for public open space, restore and maintain water quality, reduce the potential for flood damage, and enhance wildlife habitat along the bayou. Although CELCP funds are buying only a small number of acres, these lands will complement previously acquired parcels and be combined with several planned acquisitions along the stream corridor. By improving access to the bayou, including walking and biking trails as well as scenic, shaded spaces for picnics, this project protects open space to reconnect a historically underserved urban community with the water. Restoration efforts undertaken by local volunteers and school groups are not only restoring marshland vegetation and wildlife habitat, but are also teaching the participants about the value of functioning wetlands. By keeping the land undeveloped and permeable to capture runoff from storms, this project will help reduce the potential for flood damage in an area that, since its early history, has had significant flooding problems. The project is also providing important wildlife habitat and a welcome community amenity that will strengthen residents' connection to the bayou.

ELEMENT 7: Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities and encourage waterfront revitalization

Providence, rhode island's downcity providence and waterplace park.

Revitalization of Downcity, including developing Waterplace Park and Riverwalk to provide pedestrian, canoe, and kayak access to the Providence River, has signaled the rebirth of downtown Providence, RI. Courtesy: Pam Rubinoff, RI Sea Grant

For much of the past two centuries, the downtown and Old Harbor of Providence, Rhode Island, functioned as the city's industrial and commercial center. Now often referred to as "Downcity," the area declined beginning in the 1950s, leading to the departure of water-related industries and the eventual burial of the Providence River for urban renewal purposes. In the early 1990s, when many of the Downcity buildings were vacant or underused, Providence developed a revitalization strategy to create a "round-the-clock" neighborhood and destination in the core of the city and along the Providence River.

The Downcity Master Plan and Implementation Plan called for the city to focus arts and entertainment uses in the downtown; create personal tax exemptions for artists, writers, painters, and composers to move to the area; and implement tax incentives for developers to create apartments and lofts in underused properties. Providence also reformed its zoning code to allow residential uses in commercial buildings. In combination with tax credits for restoring historic buildings, this led to the rehabilitation and reuse of many historic structures. Downcity is now connected with Waterplace Park and the Riverwalk, public spaces on the river that draw hundreds of thousands of visitors annually. These places were made possible in part by uncovering the Providence River, which once again flows through the city and is the focal point for Waterplace Park and the Capital Center area.

Downcity and the area made up of Waterplace Park, Riverwalk, and the Capital Center have seen more than $200 million in private investment, including over 40 new ground-level retail, entertainment, and restaurant establishments. While the nature of waterfront activities has changed, the area is again a thriving downtown with a variety of entertainment, shopping, cultural, and living opportunities.

ELEMENT 8: Provide a variety of land- and water-based transportation options

The Staten Island Ferry provides a water-based transportation option for 65,000 passengers daily, reducing congestion in the bridges and tunnels that provide access to Manhattan and reducing associated pollution. Courtesy: Mike Powell / CC BY-SA 2.0

The Staten Island Ferry, New York

Every year, the Staten Island Ferry gives more than 19 million passengers-including commuters, residents, and tourists-a ride across New York Harbor between Staten Island and lower Manhattan. The ferry runs 24 hours a day, every day of the year. Operated by New York City as a municipal service since 1905, the ferry serves 65,000 passengers on a typical weekday and is open to pedestrians only. Rail and bus service is available at both ferry terminals; the Staten Island Terminal is served by multiple buses and the Staten Island Railway, while the Whitehall Terminal in Manhattan is within walking distance of the city subway and three bus lines. According to New York City's Independent Budget Office, about 40,000 weekday trips are made on the ferry by Staten Island residents, equivalent to roughly 20,000 two-way commuter trips a day across the two bridge and tunnel routes into lower Manhattan. Given that a typical bridge or tunnel lane can accommodate about 6,000 vehicles during peak rush hours, the ferry has helped to reduce congestion, as well as the need for investment in additional lane capacity.

ELEMENT 9: Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective through consistent policies and coordinated permitting processes

Bremerton, washington.

Bremerton, Washington, invested in a waterfront park and streamlined the development process along shoreline of Puget Sound to attract residential and commercial development. Courtesy: Matt Dalbey, USEPA

The city of Bremerton, Washington, recognized that the revitalization of its waterfront along Puget Sound and its downtown next to the waterfront were central to the community's future. Revitalization of the waterfront was particularly challenging, since the area included the U.S. Navy's Bangor shipyard and submarine base and the state-controlled Seattle-Bremerton Ferry terminal. Vacant and underused sites that were ideal places for new development were subject to a myriad of development regulations, as well as Homeland Security regulations (given the proximity to the shipyard and submarine base).

To address these challenges, Bremerton implemented a Shoreline Master Program, a waterfront redevelopment policy tool available to localities through Washington's Shoreline Management Act and the Bremerton Community Renewal program, and set out to create a redevelopment climate that would attract private developers to build projects the city needed and the market could support. Public investments in the ferry terminal, a conference center, and a waterfront park attracted private developers who invested in office and residential properties. Since 2000, over $500 million worth of construction has occurred in the Harborside District. Bremerton has capitalized on this success by adopting a new downtown plan, complete with design guidelines, mixed-use zoning, and streetscape standards, that has streamlined the development process.

ELEMENT 10: Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions, ensuring that public interests in and rights of access to the waterfront and coastal waters are upheld

Vienna, Maryland, used community workshops, surveys and interviews to create a development plan that articulates the community's vision for both accommodating growth and preserving its rural character in the future. Courtesy: The Conservation Fund

Vienna, Maryland

Vienna is a small town on the Nanticoke River, a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay. One of the oldest settlements in Maryland, with an original plan dating back to 1706, this town on Maryland's Eastern Shore retains a strong fishing and agricultural base. In response to growth pressures in the early 2000's and to prepare for a scheduled update of the town's comprehensive plan, Vienna asked The Conservation Fund, a national nonprofit group, to help develop a new vision for the community. The town council, the mayor, and experts from The Conservation Fund worked with the community to assess the town's natural resources, economic opportunities, land use trends, and development potential. The tools they used included a public opinion survey that involved about half the town's adult population, in-depth community interviews with individual residents, and community workshops. As a result, the town developed a plan that preserves Vienna's rural town character while still accommodating growth. Although the nationwide real estate downturn of 2008 gave the area some breathing room, residents and real estate experts expect development to return. When it does, the Vienna-Conservation Fund process can serve as a model for conservation and growth in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Additional Case Studies

• Ashland, Wisconsin (pdf)
• Oswego, New York (pdf)
• Porter County, Indiana (pdf)

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Coastal dynamic and evolution: case studies from different sites around the world.

1. Introduction

2. coastal dynamic and response modalities, 3. overview of this special issue, 3.1. shoreline characterization, dynamics and evaluation.

• Nicu et al. [ 61 ]. Shoreline Dynamics and Evaluation of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Shores of Large Reservoirs: Kuibyshev Reservoir, Russian Federation .
• Mammì et al. [ 62 ]. Mathematical Reconstruction of Eroded Beach Ridges at the Ombrone River Delta.
• Griggs et al. [ 63 ]. Documenting a Century of Coastline Change along Central California and Associated Challenges: From the Qualitative to the Quantitative.
• Taaouati et al. [ 64 ]. Influence of a Reef Flat on Beach Profiles Along the Atlantic Coast of Morocco.
• Villate Daza et al. [ 65 ]. Mangrove Forests Evolution and Threats in the Caribbean Sea of Colombia.
• Molina et al. [ 66 ]. Dune Systems’ Characterization and Evolution in the Andalusia Mediterranean Coast (Spain).
• Mattei et al. [ 67 ]. New Geomorphological and Historical Elements on Morpho-Evolutive Trends and Relative Sea-Level Changes of Naples Coast in the Last 6000 Years.
• Urbis et al. [ 68 ]. Key Aesthetic Appeal Concepts of Coastal Dunes and Forests on the Example of the Curonian Spit (Lithuania).

3.2. Coastal Hazard Evaluation and Impact Assessment of Marine Events

• Sanuy et al. [ 69 ]. Sensitivity of Storm-Induced Hazards in a Highly Curvilinear Coastline to Changing Storm Directions. The Tordera Delta Case (NW Mediterranean).
• Yahya Surya et al. [ 70 ]. Impacts of Sea-Level Rise and River Discharge on the Hydrodynamics Characteristics of Jakarta Bay (Indonesia).
• Anfuso et al. [ 71 ]. Spatial Variability of Beach Impact From Post-Tropical Cyclone Katia (2011) on Northern Ireland’s North Coast.
• Lo Re et al. [ 72 ]. Tsunami Propagation and Flooding in Sicilian Coastal Areas by Means of a Weakly Dispersive Boussinesq Model.

3.3. Relevance of Sediment Collection and Analysis for Coastal Nourishment

• Poullet et al. [ 73 ]. Influence of Different Sieving Methods on Estimation of Sand Size Parameters.
• Asensio-Montesinos et al. [ 74 ]. The Origin of Sand and its Colour on the South-Eastern Coast of Spain: Implications for Erosion Management.

4. Conclusions

Author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Rizzo, A.; Anfuso, G. Coastal Dynamic and Evolution: Case Studies from Different Sites around the World. Water 2020 , 12 , 2829. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102829

Rizzo A, Anfuso G. Coastal Dynamic and Evolution: Case Studies from Different Sites around the World. Water . 2020; 12(10):2829. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102829

Rizzo, Angela, and Giorgio Anfuso. 2020. "Coastal Dynamic and Evolution: Case Studies from Different Sites around the World" Water 12, no. 10: 2829. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102829

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Coastal Opportunities & Hazards ( CIE IGCSE Geography )

Revision note.

Geography Content Creator

Coastal Opportunities

• There are many opportunities that the coast can bring:
• Restaurants etc. 
• Nature reserves
• Swimming and sports
• Fishing and aquaculture
• Agriculture
• Ports and harbours

Coastal Hazards

• Coastal hazards can be either natural or human induced
• Natural hazards include storms, flooding and tsunamis
• Human actions cause a variety of issues as shown in the table below:

Remember that if you are asked to draw on a case study, you MUST name and locate the place and also use place names to locate specific features. 

Natural coastal hazards

• Storm surges   - a rapid rise in sea level caused by really low-pressure storms (e.g. tropical storm) 
• Storm tides   - occur when there is a combination of high tide and low-pressure storm
• Tsunamis   - large sea waves due to underwater earthquakes. The closer to the coast, the bigger the impact
• Sea level rise   due to global warming
• High river discharge   after a storm - when combined with a spring tide , water in the estuary cannot discharge into the sea causing a backflow of water and flooding
• Any number of these hazards bring coastal flooding 
• The biggest impacts are felt by emerging countries, although the biggest costs are to MEDCs

Tropical storms

• Hurricanes form in the tropical North Atlantic Ocean and Northeast Pacific
• Typhoons form in the Northwest Pacific Ocean
• Cyclones form in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean
• In the northern hemisphere they form between May and  November
• Between October and May in the southern hemisphere
• A tropical storm can destroy coastal areas and kill people and the effects are worse in LEDCs due to lack of economic funds
• Destruction of buildings and infrastructure
• Heavy rainfall and storm surges
• Loss of ecosystems, trees, land, crops and animals
• Ships are wrecked at sea and sunk
• Power and communications are lost
• Costs can run into the millions of $ and the effects are greatest in heavily populated areas
• Sea walls and artificial levees to prevent flooding
• Evacuation plans for the population
• Satellite tracking and early warning systems
• Build homes and buildings to withstand strong winds 
• Raise homes above storm surge levels and have strong shutters on windows
• Emergency supplies and shelters
• Have storm insurance

Changing sea levels

• Rising sea levels   produce   submergent coastlines , with rias and fjords
• Falling sea levels   produce   emergent coastlines , with relic features such as raised beaches, cliffs with caves, arches etc.
• Sea levels have risen and fallen many times in the past
• During the last Ice Age, sea levels fell as the water was locked up in glaciers and ice sheets, rising again as the ice melted
• Sea levels are linked to global warming and will have a significant effect on many low-lying coasts and islands
• Many Pacific Ocean islands, such as Kiribati and Tuvalu are at risk of being completely submerged by rising sea levels
• This issue is made worse as many of the world's densely populated areas are located on coastal lowlands
• New York and Miami in the US are major cities vulnerable to sea-level rise as the cities are built at sea level

Influence of geology

• Geology shapes the coastline over time, place and space
• A coastline made up of softer rocks such as sands and clays will be easily eroded by destructive waves to form low, flat landscapes such as bays and beaches
• Coastlines of more resistant, harder rock will take longer to erode and produce rugged landscapes such as headlands
• The differences between hard and soft rocks will also impact the shape and characteristics of cliffs

• The impact of erosion along the coast is seen globally, however, on local scale geology has the biggest effect
• Areas that are made of less resistant rock such as limestone, sandstone and boulder clay will erode faster than those coastlines made up of more resistant rock such as granite
• Longshore drift and destructive waves removing sand from beaches exposes the base of cliffs to higher energy destructive processes 
• Coastal management can increase rates of erosion further along the coast - using groynes to slow down longshore drift depletes sediment elsewhere and creates shallow beaches which exposes the shore to erosion
• Coastal erosion threatens many islands placing residents and tourist resorts at risk 
• Tourist and coastal developments all speed up the rate of erosion and remove natural coastal protection such as mangroves, coral reefs, sand dunes and salt marshes

Worked example

Study fig. 2a. suggest two ways   changes in sea level have created coastal landforms.

• This question tells you to use the figure to show how changes in sea level have created coastal landforms
• You must identify features and then develop your answer to suggest how it was formed due to changes in sea levels
•  If you do not refer to the figure, you will not gain full marks

• From the figure we can see where the sea level has decreased [1] . This has created an emergent coastline [1] with a relic cliff and raised beach [1] . Over time, the raised beach has become vegetated, supporting the observation of changing sea levels  [1]
• Wave action  [1] from previous sea levels has eroded the relic cliff to expose a wave-cut notch [1] , showing that sea levels used to be higher than the present [1] . This has led to a relic cliff and sea cave showing further back than the current cliff face in the figure [1]

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Author: Jacque Cartwright

Jacque graduated from the Open University with a BSc in Environmental Science and Geography before doing her PGCE with the University of St David’s, Swansea. Teaching is her passion and has taught across a wide range of specifications – GCSE/IGCSE and IB but particularly loves teaching the A-level Geography. For the last 5 years Jacque has been teaching online for international schools, and she knows what is needed to pass those pesky geography exams.

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The Holderness Coast

The Holderness Coast is Europe’s fastest eroding coastline.

The Holderness Coast Case Study

Looking for information on the landforms of erosion and deposition on the Holderness Coast? You can find it here .

What is the location of the Holderness Coast?

The Holderness Coast is located on the east coast of England. It extends 61km from Flamborough in the north to Spurn Point in the south.

Lost settlements on the Holderness Coast

The Holderness Coastline is one of Europe’s fastest eroding at an average annual rate of around 2 metres. This is around 2 million tonnes of material every year. Approximately 3 miles (5kms) of land has been lost since Roman times, including 23 towns/villages. These are shown on the map below.

What is the geology of the Holderness Coast?

Underlying the Holderness Coast is bedrock made up of Cretaceous Chalk. However, in most places, this is covered by glacial till deposited over 18,000 years ago. It is this soft boulder clay that is being rapidly eroded.

There are two main reasons why this area is eroding so rapidly. The first is the result of the strong prevailing winds creating destructive waves. The second is that the cliffs are made of soft boulder clay, which erodes rapidly when saturated.

Holderness Coast Case Study

The Holderness Coast is a great case study for examining coastal processes and their associated features. This is because the area contains ‘textbook’ examples of coastal erosion and deposition. The exposed chalk of Flamborough provides examples of erosion and features such as caves, arches and stacks. Coastal management at Hornsea and Withernsea are examples of hard engineering solutions to coastal erosion. Erosion at Skipsea illustrates the human impact of erosion in areas where coastlines are not being defended.  Mappleton is an excellent case study of an attempt at coastal management, which has a negative impact further along the coast.

Spurn Point provides evidence of longshore drift on the Holderness Coast. It is an excellent example of a spit, a depositional landform . Around 3% of the material eroded from the Holderness Coast is deposited here annually.

Find out more about the landforms of coastal erosion and deposition on the Holderness Coast .

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Use the images below to explore locations along the Holderness Coast.

Flamborough

Spurn Point

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Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in coastal areas: a case study in Lianjiang, East China Sea

• Tong Li 1, 2 , 
• Jihui Zhang 2 , 
• Dongling Li 1, 2 ,  ,  , 
• Chengxu Zhou 3 , 
• Chenxi Liu 1, 2 , 
• Hao Xu 1, 2 , 
• Bing Song 4 , 
• Longbin Sha 1, 2

Donghai Academy, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China

Department of Geography and Spatial Information Techniques, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China

College of Food Science and Engineering, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China

State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China

• Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected] ; [email protected]
• Accepted Date: 2023-09-26
• diatom , 
• transfer function , 
• multivariate statistical analysis , 
• environmental variable , 
• sea surface salinity

Proportional views

通讯作者: 陈斌, [email protected]

沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

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• Figure 1. Location of the study area in Lianjiang County. (A) Location of the study area within China, shown by the red circle. (B) Topography and distribution of rivers in the study area. The Aojiang River is in the northern part of the figure and the Minjiang River is in the southern part; the Lianjiang coast is influenced by both rivers. (C) Locations of surface sediment samples and a sediment core HK3.
• Figure 2. Spatial distribution of diatom concentrations and the SW index of diatoms in surface sediment samples from the Lianjiang coastal area. (A) and (D) refer to October, (B) and (E) to January, (C) and (F) to April.
• Figure 3. Summary of the results of the PCA of the environmental variables: variable loadings (arrows) and sample scores (coloured symbols) on PC1 and PC2. The solid arrows represent the primary environmental factors that have the maximum load on PCA1 and PCA2, respectively, and the dashed arrows represent secondary impact factors. The angle between arrows indicates the correlation between individual environmental variables. SST: sea surface temperature; ORP: redox potential; C: conductivity; Tur: turbidity; DO: dissolved oxygen; TDS: total dissolved solids; SSS: sea surface salinity; MD: sediment mean grain size.
• Figure 4. CCA biplot of environmental variables and diatoms species. See Table S2 for abbreviations. Red symbols: diatoms associated with coarse-grained sediments (Zone I); green symbols: main freshwater diatom species (Zone II); blue symbols: predominantly marine diatoms (Zone III). SST: sea surface temperature; ORP: redox potential; Tur: turbidity; DO: dissolved oxygen; SSS: sea surface salinity; MD: sediment mean grain size.
• Figure 5. Vertical profiles of 210 Pb ex activity, clay content, and calculated 210 Pb ex activity in core HK3. Error bars consider counting statistics uncertainties at 2σ.
• Figure 6. Plots of observed versus predicted values and observed versus residual (predicted minus observed) values for four transfer function models derived for SSS. (A) and (B): PLS with 3 components model; (C) and (D): PLS with 5 components model; (E) and (F): WA-PLS with 4 components model; (G) and (H): WA-PLS with 5 components model.
• Figure 7. Correlations between the diatom-based reconstructed SSS for core HK3 and the modern SSS data. (A) WA-PLS with 4 components model, (B) WA-PLS with 5 components model, (C) PLS with 3 components model, (D) PLS with 5 components model.
• Figure 8. Time series of reconstructed sea surface salinity (grey intervals are error values), diatom concentration, Shannon-Weaver diversity index, sediment mean grain size, and relative abundance of freshwater and marine diatom species in core HK3. Note that abrupt decreases in the SSS occurred in 2019, 2013, and 1999.

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Ground water quality evaluation for irrigation purpose: case study al-wafaa area, western iraq.

© 2024 The authors. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

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This study was conducted during the summer season of 2023 to assess the groundwater quality in the Al-Wafaa region of Anbar Province western Iraq for irrigation purposes.18 water samples were collected from 18 wells Distributed in the study area. pH, EC, Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), main cations, and anions (Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Cl - , HCO 3 - , NO 3 - ) were measured. The main cations were used to calculate the Percent Sodium (%Na) and Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR). Additionally, Wilcox and United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL) diagrams were employed to evaluate the suitability of the groundwater for irrigation. The study found that based on the EC values; all groundwater in the research area is classified as having very high salinity and is therefore not suitable for irrigation. Based on the Wilcox diagram, 83% of the well water samples in the Al-Wafaa region are classified as unsuitable for irrigation, and 17% fall within a doubtful to unsuitable category. According to the USSL diagram, 22% of groundwater samples are in the C4S3 category, indicating very high salinity with high sodium. Additionally, 61% of samples fall into the C4S2 category, suggesting very high salinity with medium sodium, and 17% of samples fall into the (C4S1) category, indicating very high salinity with low sodium. Overall, the findings indicate that the samples are not suitable for crop watering.

assessment, irrigation, groundwater quality, hazard, percent sodium, electrical conductivity (EC), Wilcox, United States Salinity Laboratory

In many countries of the world, groundwater is an important source for irrigation of agricultural lands, so groundwater quality evaluation has become a necessary task for managing groundwater quality in the future. In Iraq, the water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is considered an important source of drinking water, crop irrigation, and other purposes, but in recent years many problems have appeared that affected the river water quality such as the lack of rainfall and increased pollution. Therefore, it is necessary to search for other sources of water and hydrological evaluation of the well water location. Well water is taken into consideration the high-quality source for irrigating agricultural lands, it is possible to drink, and it is supposed to be dependable and free of contaminants, suspended substances, and sickness-causing microorganisms [1]. Several factors impact the willpower of the suitability charge of water for irrigation, together with water fine, climate, plant capacity to tolerate excessive salinity, soil type, and water drainage [2]. Modern innovations and techniques were utilized to evaluate and observe groundwater for irrigation. Some of these innovations used included irrigation water indicators like sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) [3]. The Water Quality Index (WQI) is a very suitable and powerful approach to evaluate the appropriateness of water best [4]. Many researchers have investigated the valuation of groundwater to irrigate crops and human utilization, specifically in Iraq and comparable arid regions in the world. Allawi et al. [5] presented research to evaluate groundwater quality within the Alnekheeb basin in western Iraq to perceive an extra applicable and sustainable water delivery. In this research, three groundwater water first-rate signs, hardness, SAR, and salinity, are forecast by employing two primarily based on artificial intelligence fashions, the Radial Basis Neural Network (RBF-NN) and the Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN). Furthermore, this study focused on the impact of enters parameters on the overall performance of the advised models. According to the evaluation results, adding greater information variables may once in a while enhance the efficacy of the advised models in forecasting accuracy. The outcomes indicate that the PNN model has an amazing overall performance in forecasting groundwater water exceptional matrices, outperforming the RBF-NN version. Khudair et al. [6] presented a study in 2021 to assess the quality of groundwater in the Al-Qaim metropolis, western Iraq, to irrigate crops within the research area. The research tested seven places in the study location to determine the effectiveness of irrigation. The pH, electric conductivity (EC), important cations, and anions (K, Na, Mg 2 , Ca 2 , HCO 3 , Cl - , SO 4 ), and CO 3 have been determined. The effects revealed that the examined water is suitable for crop watering regarding pH cost and EC. The total hardness values have been modest and did now not represent trouble, and the main cations and anions have been in the acceptable degrees for the indicated classes. The SAR was determined to be in magnificence S1, indicating that the groundwater in the research district is suitable for crop watering. Ghalib [7] conducted research to estimate the quality of groundwater satisfaction in Wasit province, Iraq. The physicochemical traits, consisting of total dissolved strong, important cation and anions, pH, and EC, have been utilized to estimate groundwater high-quality for human use and crop watering by comparing them to World Health Organization and Iraqi standards. TDS, sodium adsorption ratio, residual sodium bicarbonate, permeability index (PI), and magnesium ratio were used to determine irrigation appropriateness. The examined groundwater samples have been oversaturated with carbonate minerals and lacking evaporated minerals. The effects found that almost all of the groundwater samples were hazardous for drinking and irrigation because of salt and salinity risks. The present study has evaluated the quality of groundwater in a 5119 km 2 area in Babylon City, Iraq [8]. This research included well positions, maps, and data about the quality of groundwater provided by way of the special government. The WQI and IWQI were decided for groundwater samples using some characteristics such as EC, Cl-, HCO 3 -, Na, and pH. Furthermore, groundwater suitability for watering is assessed by the use of some Indicators which include Kelly's Ratio (KR), SAR, and PI. Water Quality Indicator graphs were made using the Geographical Information System (GIS) surroundings. The findings show that the groundwater inside the research region needs particular treatments to be appropriate for use. Awad et al. [9] focused on studying the hydrogeochemical properties of groundwater, consisting of ion change, salinization, and hydrochemistry in the Green Belt area in northern Najaf province, Iraq. Also targeted the research on the evaluation of the pleasant of groundwater for crop watering based on the IWQI for thirteen parameters and groundwater quality indices such as TDS, EC, SAR, overall hardness (TH), PI, KR, and magnesium hazard ratio (MHR). The results indicate that groundwater inside the research district is incorrect for crop watering. To ensure the sustainability of groundwater applications, a continuous tracking program and appropriate control techniques. Al-Tameemi et al. [10] assessed the quality of groundwater in Kirkuk province, northern Iraq, for human uses, crop watering, leisure activities, and animal uses from 2017 to 2019, using the Canadian Water Quality Index (CWQI) and GIS. The groundwater quality was tested using Iraqi and World Health Organization (WHO) suggestions as well. The Iraqi standards were utilized for drinking water, whereas WHO standards were applied for watering, leisure activities, and animal purposes. Based on the CWQI, groundwater samples were classed as medium in 2017 and 2018, while there was unsafe drinking water detected in 2019. Al-Kubaisi et al. [11] presented an article to assess the groundwater for irrigation in the Al-Dabdaba aquifer in Karbala - Najaf Plateau in Iraq. The research blanketed mapping of the water quality index and the outcomes labeled the groundwater inside the Al-Dabdaba layer as having moderate. Soren et al. [12] used Wilcox and USSL schemes to evaluate groundwater first-class for irrigation and drinking functions in South 24-Parganas in West Bengal, India. The results confirmed that 46% of the samples had been categorized under the coolest to the permissible category and 37% were categorized below the permissible to questionable class. Sadashivaiah et al. [13] applied the technique of SAR, RSC, salinity hazards, and USSL chart to evaluate water for irrigation purposes in Tukur Taluk. The findings from USSL charts showed that the samples are classified as suitable for irrigation purposes and are classified in the suitable range for irrigation from SAR or RSC values. Hydrochemistry of groundwater in the Ain Azel plain, Algeria was used to evaluate groundwater for irrigation and the results showed that most of the samples are located in the area (C3-S1), meaning the risk of salinity is high and the risk of sodium is low [14]. The groundwater quality for irrigation purposes was evaluated in the city of Acarão Basin in Brazil by developing an IWQI depending on several parameters such as (EC, CL, HCO 3 , Na) [15]. The study showed the risk of soil salinity and water venomousness in the crops. Siswoyo et al. [16] presented a study to evaluate groundwater to irrigate agricultural lands in the Jombang region, East Java, Indonesia. The study relied on IQWI techniques, and the results classified the groundwater quality between moderate restriction and low irrigation restriction. A study was presented to evaluate the groundwater quality for irrigation of agricultural lands in three villages in Iran using a combination of geographic information systems and the irrigation water quality index [17]. Ketata et al. [18] used IWQI as a device to manage groundwater nice within the El Khairat Deep aquifer inside the Tunisian Sahel. Nastos et al. [19] used artificial neural networks to forecast rainfall intensity for four months. The results simulations from the model showed decent forecasting of rainfall intensity values. Using artificial neural networks (ANN) for forecasting the water level of the Euphrates rivers in western Iraq and the result showed the artificial neural networks can valued water level (t+1) with a high grade accuracy [20]. Modeling approaches used in hydrological and hydraulic processes are required to provide accurate and sustainable water resource management [21].

Al-Waffa area is a semi-desert region with no surface water, so groundwater is essential to meet the water needs for irrigation and drinking purposes. This research aims to assess the groundwater quality for irrigation purposes.

Al-Wafaa is an area located in western Iraq, west of Anbar province, 50 km west of Ramadi. The study area is located between latitudes (33°23'51" N) and longitudes (42°51'11" E) The area is about 100 km 2 and has a population of about 8000 people. The Euphrates River flows east of the research region shown in Figure 1. The environment of the region is a very hot desert with and dehydrated summer with a high amount of evaporation and a cold season with a reduction in rainfall. It is characterized by simple slop and presence of the seasonal valleys such as Al-Asal Valley [22]. It is affected by the Abu Al-Jir area fault [23]. The area is also rich in bitumen and sulfates and the area is characterized by the presence of an unconfined aquifer consisting of sandstone with fine gravel and mudstone, covered with a layer of gypsum and sandy soil. Groundwater is extracted in this area by drilling wells [24].

Figure 1. The map of the study area

3.1 Collection of samples

Eighteen wells were selected in the study area shown in Figure 2. The wells' coordinates were determined via (GPS) and documented in Table 1. The samples were collected in August 2023 and kept in 2-liter clean and dry plastic bottles and transferred to the water quality control laboratory at the College of Engineering, Anbar University for the measurement of chemical parameters.

Figure 2. Location of the wells

Table 1. The coordinates of wells in the Al-Wafaa region

3.2 Lab analysis of samples

Water samples were analyzed for chemical parameters: pH, EC, TDS, Calcium (Ca 2+ ), Magnesium (Mg 2+ ), Sodium (Na + ), Potassium (K + ), Sulphate (SO 4 -2 ), Chloride (Cl -1 ) and Bicarbonate (HCO 3 -1 ). pH, EC, and TDS are important parameters for assessing groundwater for several purposes. All parameters were examined depending on the Standard Method for the Examination of water and wastewater following (APHA, 1998) American Public Health Association guidelines [25]. Conductivity and pH were measured by using a portable device pH/EC/ meter (HANNA HI9321). TDS, bicarbonate (HCO 3 − ), chloride (Cl − ), magnesium (Mg 2+ ), and calcium (Ca 2+ ) were analyzed by titration methods; potassium (K + ) and sodium (Na+) were tested using the flame photometric method by flame photometer (Jenway PFP7); and sulfate (SO 4 2− ) were analyzed by spectrophotometer (DR 5000 HACH).

3.3 Calculation of water quality indices for irrigation

There are several key parameters to consider when evaluating the quality of irrigation water. These include pH, salinity levels, bicarbonate concentration (which is related to calcium and magnesium levels), and the presence of components such as sodium and chloride, which can be harmful to plants. To assess the suitability of groundwater for irrigation, water quality indices like the SAR and %Na are commonly used. In addition, graphical methods like the Wilcox diagram and USSL diagram are frequently employed to confirm the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purposes.

The Sodium Adsorption Ratio is considered an important factor to assess the groundwater quality and it was calculated using the equation given by Raghunath [26]. The ion concentration was measured in (meq/l).

$\mathrm{SAR}=\frac{{Na}^{+}}{\sqrt{\left({Ca}^{2+}+{Mg}^{2+}\right) / 2}}$      (1)

%Na was calculated by the equation given by Todd and Mays [27]. The ion concentration was measured in (meq/l).

$\% \mathrm{Na}=\frac{{Na}^{+}+{K}^{+}}{{Ca}^{2+}+{Mg}^{2+}+{Na}^{+}+{K}^{+}} \times 100$        (2)

3.3.3 USSL diagram

Proposed chart for classification of groundwater quality for irrigation purposes. The classification depends on values of SAR and EC [28]. The irrigation water quality is classified as follows (Table 2).

Table 2. Classification of groundwater for irrigation purposes

3.3.4 Wilcox diagram

Proposed chart for classification of groundwater for irrigation purposes. The classification depends on values of %Na and EC [29]. The chart is classified into five categories such as: Excellent to Good, Good to permissible. Permissible to doubtful, Doubtful to unsuitable, and Unsuitable.

4.1 Water quality based on the absolute ions

The concentration of cations in the study region ranges from 179 to 429 mg/l for Ca 2+ , 72 to 283 mg/l for Mg 2+ , 251 to 708 mg/l for Na + , and 4 to 128 mg/l for K + (Table 3). The allowed levels for Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , and K + in irrigation water are 80, 35, 200, and 30 mg/l, respectively [26]. Based on these acceptable levels, 0% of groundwater samples were suitable for Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , and Na + , while 72% were suitable for K + , and 28% were not suitable.

Table 3. Analysis results of water sample

The HCO 3 - and Cl - levels in the groundwater samples ranged from 136 to 543 mg/L and 305 to 811 mg/L, respectively (Table 3). The acceptable limit for HCO 3 - and Cl - in irrigation water is 250 mg/L [26]. Based on these acceptable levels, 0% of groundwater samples were suitable for HCO 3 - , 16% for Cl - , and 84% were not suitable.

4.2 Irrigation water quality assessment depends on pH

The term pH refers to a solution that is either acidic or alkaline. The acidity or basicity of irrigation water is measured by its pH, with a pH below 7.0 being acidic and above 7.0 being basic. The impact of pH on hydraulic conductivity, regardless of SAR, has been proven [30]. Typically, irrigation water has a pH range of 6.5–8.4 [31, 32]. Water with a low pH can be corrosive, while water with a high pH may cause scaling [33]. The pH values of the samples ranged from 7.14 to 7.26, with an average value of 7.19, falling within the typical ranges for irrigation water.

4.3 Irrigation water quality assessment depending on EC values

EC measures the capacity of a material or solution to carry an electric current. The electrical conductivity of groundwater increases as temperature rises and fluctuates with TDS concentration. EC is a valuable indicator of the risk of salinity in agriculture, as it mirrors TDS levels in groundwater. When EC rises, plants have limited access to water [34].

The EC of samples ranges from 2470 µS/cm to 6720 µS/cm, with an average value of 4645 µS/cm as shown in Table 3. According to the results in Table 4, all groundwater samples are classified as very high salinity and cannot be used for watering.

Table 4. EC classification of groundwater [35]

4.4 Irrigation water quality assessment depends on Total Dissolved Solid values

TDS refers to the solids remaining in a filtered water sample after evaporation. These solids include minerals, nutrients, and important ions such as Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , K + , Na + , HCO 3 -, SO 4 2- , Cl - , etc., found in natural water. TDS levels below 450 mg/l are ideal for irrigation, while levels between 450 and 2000 mg/l are considered moderate. TDS concentrations over 2000 mg/l are not suitable for agricultural purposes [36]. In the study area, groundwater samples had TDS levels ranging from 1600 mg/l to 4370 mg/l, with an average of 3014.72 mg/l. According to Carroll's (1962) classification shown in Table 5, the groundwater in the research area is considered brackish water.

Table 5. Groundwater Classification based on TDS Carroll's (1962) classification

4 .5 Irrigation water quality assessment depends on SAR

Table 6. Water quality indexes

SAR is an important measure of groundwater quality for irrigation. High concentrations of sodium ions can reduce soil permeability, decrease water and air content, and disrupt soil structure by displacing calcium and magnesium ions. The SAR values of groundwater samples ranged from (2.7 to 9.52) meq/l as shown in Table 6. Based on the SAR classification in Table 7, all groundwater samples are classified as excellent and suitable for most crops and soil types, except those sensitive to sodium.

Table 7. Classification of groundwater samples based on sodium adsorption ratio SAR [37]

4.6 Irrigation water quality assessment depends on %Na

Sodium is an essential ion for plant growth at low concentrations, but it can be toxic to crops at high concentrations. The recommended ranges for sodium ion concentration in irrigation water are as follows: below 20% (excellent), 20–40% (good), 40–60% (permissible), 60–80% (doubtful), and greater than 80% (unsuitable). In the present study, the percentage of sodium in the samples as shown in Table 6 ranged from 46.49% to 69.04%. According to Table 8, 28% of the groundwater samples are classified as good, while 61% are permissible, and 11% are doubtful.

Table 8. Classification of groundwater samples based on sodium adsorption ratio %Na [38]

4.7 Irrigation water quality assessment based on the Wilcox diagram

Based on the Wilcox diagram, 83% of water samples were classified as unsuitable for irrigation purposes, and 17% of water samples were classified as doubtful to unsuitable for crop irrigation as Figure 3.

Figure 3. Wilcox diagram to classify ground water quality for irrigation

4.8 Irrigation water quality assessment based on the USSL diagram

Based on Figure 4, the results show that 4 of the samples belong to the (C4S3) class, indicating very high saltiness with high sodium content. Additionally, 11 of the samples from the study region belong to the (C4S2) class, suggesting very high saltiness with medium sodium content. Furthermore, 3 of the samples in the study region are categorized under the (C4S1) class, indicating very high salinity with low sodium content. This implies that the samples are unsuitable for irrigation purposes.

4.9 The potential impact of high salinity and sodium levels on crop yield and soil health

The quality of water is significantly affected by the type and amount of dissolved salts present. Elevated levels of salt in irrigation water can lead to salt deposition in the root region, causing salinity issues and reducing the amount of water available for root absorption [39]. If the soil isn't flushed with low-salt water, the excessive levels of salt in irrigation water can avert plant growth and cause wilting [31]. Salinity damage is a very important aspect in choosing the satisfactory water used for crop watering as a result of its influence on the osmotic strain of the soil [40]. Soil permeability is primarily prompted by the aid of soil salinity and the SAR [41]. High ranges of sodium in water, can impact soil shape and texture. Sodium can disrupt soil aggregates and disperse first-class particles, leading to the clogging of soil pores [41]. The presence of sure ions which include sodium and chloride in high concentrations in irrigation water can result in toxicity issues in vegetation, resulting in reduced boom and output. The quantity of toxicity relies upon the plant range and its rate of absorption.

Figure 4. USSL diagram to classify Groundwater quality for irrigation

4 .10 Comparison with similar studies

The permeability and water filtration in the soil are mainly influenced by salinity and SAR. In the study area, Table 3 shows a high EC value ranging between 2470-6720 µS/cm. These values are higher than those obtained by Hussain et al. [42] in their study of the groundwater of the Dammam aquifer in the western part of Iraq, which ranged between 1531-3460 µS/cm. The increased values EC is most likely owing to the study area's geological formations, which contain evaporated salts, gypsum, and dolomite. This deteriorates the water quality that travels through it. Table 6 reveals that SAR values in the research region were between (2.7-9.52) meq/l, which is consistent with the findings reported by Hussain et al. [42] in their investigation of groundwater in the Dammam aquifer in western Iraq, which ranged between (3.10 - 6.43) meq/l. These comparatively low results are the result of increased calcium and magnesium ion concentrations in the research region.

GIS is a specialized tool to generate spatial distribution maps that indicate acceptable and unsuitable zones based on water quality metrics [43]. This study created spatial distribution maps for EC, pH, TDS, SAR, and %Na.

Figure 5. Spatial distribution map of pH

The spatial distribution map of pH shown in Figure 5 indicates that each study area falls within the permissible limits for irrigation. It also shows that the largest part of the study area has a pH ranging from 7.16-7.20.

Figure 6. Spatial distribution map of EC

The spatial distribution map of EC is shown in Figure 6. This indicates that all study areas have high salinity. It also shows that the largest part of the study area has an EC ranging from 4001-5000 ms/cm.

The spatial distribution map shown in Figure 7 indicates that the TDS in the study area is very high. It also shows that the largest part of the study area has a TDS ranging from 2501-3000 mg/l, and the south part has a TDS ranging from 3501-4000 mg/l.

The spatial distribution map shown in Figure 8 indicates that the SAR in the study area is within the excellent zone. The values SAR ranges between (3.6–9.5) meq/l.

Figure 9 shows the geographical distribution map of %Na, which shows that the eastern half of the research region has very low %Na values when compared to the western sections of the study area.

Figure 7. Spatial distribution map of TDS

Figure 8. Spatial distribution map of SAR

Figure 9. Spatial distribution map of %Na

The use of groundwater is one of the strategic and main solutions in the desert and semi-desert regions such as the Western Desert in Iraq. The surface water quantities decrease significantly, particularly in times of water lack. The current study is a qualitative assessment of groundwater quality in the Al-Wafaa area in western Iraq. In this study, two diagrams were utilized to evaluate the quality of groundwater for irrigation. Below are the summary results of the assessment.

-The research found that most chemical standards exceeded permissible limits for irrigation. Na, Mg, Ca, and HCO 3 ions exceeded acceptable levels for irrigation, while the chloride ions showed low suitability.

-pH values of the groundwater samples are within the normal levels for irrigation water.

-EC of the groundwater is very high salt, ranging from 2470 to 6720 (ms/cm), with an average of 4645. This suggests that samples are improper for watering and pose a health hazard.

-The high salinity levels may be due to the significant dissolution of rock minerals or ion exchange processes, which introduce chloride (Cl), sodium (Na), and bicarbonate (HCO 3 ) ions into the groundwater in those specific areas. Further studies are required to evaluate the groundwater quality for different purposes.

-The water samples were classified as brackish water due to the values of TDS ranging from 1600 to 4370 mg/l, with a mean of 3014.72 mg/l.

-The Wilcox diagram indicates that most water samples are classified as unsuitable for irrigation, while few water samples are classified as doubtful to unsuitable.

-USSL diagram suggested that the groundwater samples belonged to C4S3, C4S2, and C4S1 categories, indicating high saltiness and high to medium to low sodium hazard. The findings show that the samples are not suitable for crop watering.

-This research recommends conducting multiple studies in the study area to assess the groundwater quality for drinking and domestic use.

-This research recommends conducting multiple studies in the research area to analyze heavy and toxic metals. It also suggests using geographic information systems and modeling techniques to rate the groundwater quality for watering.

-This research suggests growing salt-resistant plant species and utilizing modern scientific methods in irrigation operations.

-The findings of this study can assist policymakers in implementing measures to support sustainable agriculture in the research region.

-The proposed practical steps to address groundwater quality problems in the study area, especially high salinity and sodium levels, include the use of ion exchange filters and reverse osmosis filters. Additionally, chemicals such as sodium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide can be used to remove salts by reacting with them.

The authors are thankful to the University of Anbar College of Engineering – Dams and Water Resources Engineering Department and the general commission for Groundwater Department of Geology in Anbar for their support of this research as well as the people of the Al-Wafaa region who guided us to the sites of the wells water and helped us.

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Comprehensive assessment of current municipal solid waste management in Chennai, India: a critical case study with real-time analysis

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• Published: 29 August 2024

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• R. Shiam Babu 1 ,
• K. Prasanna 1 ,
• P. Senthil Kumar 2 &
• G. Rangasamy 3  

Chennai city has implemented numerous strategies and plans to effectively manage the municipal solid waste by the municipal corporation. One of the prime strategy is the establishment of public–private partnership schemes, which play a crucial role in enhancing waste management practices. This case study focus to assess the conservancy operations carried out by multiple stakeholders in order to identify the strengths and areas for improvement in the waste management system. The study involved a range of strategies, including data collection, interviews, surveys, documentation, quantitative and thematic analysis, triangulation, and validation methods to ensure reliable outcomes. The findings reveal that 12.54% wet waste, 7.42% dry waste, and 0.07% hazardous waste are currently being segregated, while the majority of waste ends up in dumping grounds. Despite of private company’s involvement, waste management practices are not optimized due to inadequate infrastructure, improper placement of facilities, underutilized design capacities, complex routing mechanisms, and outdated waste management plans. To achieve operational excellence and minimize compliance deviations, it is imperative for public sectors to prioritize integration of technological infrastructure and establishing real time regulatory plans and frameworks. As an outcome, full potential of service can be harnessed leading to a more efficient and sustainable waste management system. At the outset, this study emphasizes the need for strategic interventions, improved infrastructure, revised waste management plans, and increased collaboration between public and private sectors to address existing challenges and enhance the waste management practices in Chennai city.

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Acknowledgements

Authors would like to thank SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India for providing the research facilities to carry out this research work in time.

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R. Shiam Babu: Conceptualization; Investigation; Methodology; Validation; Writing original draft. P. Senthil Kumar and K. Prasanna: Conceptualization; Investigation; Methodology; Supervision; Validation. Gayathri Rangasamy: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Visualization.

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Shiam Babu, R., Prasanna, K., Senthil Kumar, P. et al. Comprehensive assessment of current municipal solid waste management in Chennai, India: a critical case study with real-time analysis. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-06009-5

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Received : 12 March 2024

Revised : 07 July 2024

Accepted : 19 August 2024

Published : 29 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-06009-5

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