thesis title about parenting style

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298 Parenting Essay Topics & Creative Research Titles + Examples

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Are you looking for the most important parenting topics for discussion? You’ve come to the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of current and controversial ideas to write about. On this page, you’ll find:

• Should Parents Be Responsible for Children’s Crimes?
• Children’s Education and Role of Parents
• A Good Parent: Definition and Traits
• Childhood Obesity: The Parents’ Responsibility
• Parents Should Limit the Usage of Screen Time for Their Children
• Overindulgent Parenting Style and Its Harm to Children
• Teenage Parenting: Problems of Children and Parent
• Women Are Better Parents Then Men Many people believe that women make better parents than men and that is why they have the greater role in raising children in most societies
• Parenting Styles’ Impact on Child’s Development This paper presents the examination of the four main parenting styles and discusses the effects different approaches can have on a child’s development.
• Good and Bad Parenting’s Impact on Children Bad parenting is the parent’s fault, and parents must ensure good parenting for the overall development of their children and their future.
• Divorce and Single-Parent Families Families across the world face different challenges. One such challenge is marital instability, which in a significant number of families, lead to divorce.
• Teenage Rebellion Against Parents The transformations have significant impacts on the teen and may result in commotion and bewilderment for the teen and parent.
• Why Filipino Parents Choose Their Children’s Careers In the Philippines, parents actively participate in their children’s lives to enhance their well-being in all spheres, including education.
• Parenting Styles: Indifferent, Indulgent, Authoritarian, and Authoritative The paper will analyze four main styles, namely indifferent, indulgent, authoritarian, and authoritative parenting styles.
• Parents Are Not to Blame for Obesity in Children This paper discusses the issue of childhood and adolescent obesity and argues that parents should not be blamed for this problem.
• Parent-Child Conflict Resolution: Communication Problem The psychological view upon the problem of the parent-child conflict covers many aspects explaining the nature of generations’ contradictions.
• Parenting in Modern Society: Key Challenges Today, to be a good parent, not only are parenting traditions, feelings, and intuition needed, but also planning careful preparation and thinking through the educational process.
• The Challenges of Being a Parent Parenting is a wonderful but complex social role. The main point is to create an open environment for dialogue and not to be afraid of mistakes.
• Parenting Styles – Case Study Analysis This work contains several examples from the lives of children and parents, situations that are described. For each of the cases, explain what this parenting style is and why.
• Child Behavior in Relation to Parenting Although parenting influences all affiliations within a family, its impact on parent-children relationships is vital as it may affect the children’s future negatively.
• Benefits of Good Parent-Child Relationships The benefits of productive parent-child relationships are mutual – children affect their parents almost as much as their parents affect them.
• Why Parents Should Vaccinate Their Children Modern vaccines are complex, and a few antigens administered to children spur the production of antibodies that prevent future infections.
• Role Played by Parents in Education This paper looks at the way parents are involved in education and gives a lengthy argument on the contribution of the letter to the overall education success.
• Deontological Ethics and Principles for Parenting Deontology is an ethical science based on the teaching of moral issues. The focus of deontological ethics is on duties and obligations to be followed.
• Personal Experience of Child: Parenting Styles The current essay reflects my own childhood experience regarding the parenting style my parents tend to follow, how it affected me.
• Parental Involvement in Education One of the main purposes of society nowadays is to guarantee stable development for children and make education affordable and efficient.
• Adult Children Should Support Elderly Parents Taking care of the parents by the children remains the best as compared to institutionalizing them. The parents are denied the family bonds they have always enjoyed in the family.
• Application of Chronic Sorrow Theory to Parents with Children Diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy Cerebral palsy is among the most widespread physical disabilities affecting millions of children and adults around the world.
• Single Parenting: Difficulties and Challenges Studies show that single motherhood is normally linked with a lot of unconstructive social, behavioral and psychological impacts on the child being brought up.
• Parental Divorce: Influence on Children Divorce may affect a child’s development by making them engage in risk-taking behaviors, experience divorce-related stress, and significantly lower their self-esteem.
• Single-Parent College Students Struggling to Graduate The rise of single-student parents in colleges presents an opportunity to learn about the experiences of such students and compare them with other regular nonparent learners.
• Parent-Child Relationship and Its Effect on Adolescents The importance of parent-child relationships stems from an incredible level of interdependence that many families display when it comes to addressing family needs.
• Most Typical Problems Parents Face There are many problems that parents face today. It is sometimes difficult to deal with children who forget very fast.
• Some of the Problems that Parents Face Today Contemporary parenting is even more challenging owing to the changing civilization alongside the new emerging trends on family values and practices.
• Parenting Styles by Diana Baumrind This paper describes advantages and disadvantages of parenting styles generated by Diana Baumrind and its characteristics as well as the consequences for children.
• Effects of Single Parenting on Children Children have a right of being brought up by both parents. Kids who grew up seeing a father and mother have higher chances of becoming more stable in life.
• Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: Pros and Cons In this presentation, attention will be paid to the benefits and shortages of parental involvement in children’s education.
• The Uninvolved Parenting Style and Its Effect on the Psychological Development of a Child Approaches to parenting and child care can vary significantly based on the parents’ characteristics and their preferred style.
• Impact of Generalized Anxiety Disorder on Single Parents This paper focuses on the impact of generalized anxiety disorder on single parents and the most significant aspects of their lives.
• Single Parenting Benefits and Disadvantages There are not only drawbacks but also some benefits for mothers who live without husbands and raise their children themselves.
• Parent-Child Relationships in the Novels “Lolita” by Vladimir Nabokov and “Sula” by Toni Morrison The problem of parent-child relationships is one of the most examined and actual eternal questions. This question concerns the problems of love and hatred.
• Complicated Relationships between Parents and Children One can agree that family relationships are vital for the proper development of kids and the establishment of adequate morals and values.
• The Role of Parents in Acts of Theft and Vandalism by Minor Children Parents are to blame for their children’s acts of crime such as theft or vandalism, except when the children are suffering from mental health issues.
• Problems Experienced by Children Raised by Homo Parents The intention to write this paper is to throw the light on the affects of homosexual parents on their children.
• Juvenile Delinquents and Parental Divorce: What Is the Connection? Reasons that cause the increase in the number of juvenile delinquents. Connection with the rise in the number of juvenile delinquents and the increase in the number of divorce rates.
• Parents Are to Blame for Youth Violence Violence among youth has drastically increased in recent times. This problem of violence has become a global phenomenon whereby youth from all walks of life are engaged in violence.
• Parenting Styles: Values and Standards Transmission Numerous observations of children show that major developmental changes mostly occur during early childhood. It may be perceived by the parents in the form of imitation and observation.
• Consequences of Divorce of Parents for Children Divorces represent a sensitive topic in the US, and it is scientifically interesting to research how these events affect children.
• Proximal and Distal Parenting Proximal parenting implies close body contact and stimulation, while the distal parenting style is characterized by communication through the distant senses.
• Should Parents Have the Right to Choose Their Children Based on Genetics? The right to intervene in the human genome must be reviewed from multiple perspectives, as the future of parenthood and social institutions will depend highly on agreements.
• “Not Under My Roof: Parents, Teens, and the Culture of Sex” by Schalet The purpose of the paper is to provide a summary of the book and present its analysis and valuation of its weak and strong points.
• Should Parents Spank Their Children? Spanking or striking children as a method to correct bad behavior has been widely used by parents in many cultures as a primary means of discipline.
• The Film “We Bought a Zoo” and Single Parenting Issues We Bought a Zoo is a 2011 comedy-drama film that follows the life of a single-parent family aiming to start a new life after the passing of the mother.
• Single-Parent Family Health Assessment The current family development stage is ‘a family with school-aged children’, and the family managed to accomplish the tasks of previous stages rather well.
• School Communication and Involvement of Parents in the School Activities Different families have different work schedules, and accordingly different preferred communication methods, accommodating which might be a challenge.
• Meetings between Parents and Teachers: Ted Talk Discussion When building a good relationship between both parties, sharing contacts like e-mail, mobile numbers, or messenger profiles can have a positive effect.
• Parental Involvement in Schools When parents are not invested in their children’s future and education, their offspring may experience poor student achievements and growth in various ways.
• Pride: Parents Who Teach Their Kids About Self-Worth The most important lesson any mother or father can teach is to give the child a great example of how to deal with difficulties.
• Parental Influence on a Child’s Life Outcomes The environment, especially the close ones, such as the family, decisions made, and various events, forms a particular path-dependency of one’s life with a corresponding outcome.
• Parenting Styles Overview and Analysis This essay aims to describe parenting styles, reflect on the impact of my family’s upbringing approaches, and discuss how I plan to raise my children.
• Impact of Parenting on Child Learning The complexity of child development as a multi-dimensional process makes it complicated to suggest for sure that parenting styles influence learning.
• Parental Positive and Negative Behaviors The paper aims to investigate parental positive and negative behaviors. It describes the effects of parent’s behavior on the life of their children.
• Non-Parental Child Care This paper focuses on the types of non-parent childcare and its effects on the child’s development in psychological, social and cognitive development.
• Infant-Parent Attachment Relationship The quality of the attachment relationship between a parent and an infant will affect the child’s social, emotional, and cognitive development.
• Financial Implications of Single Parenting The paper states that in the modern world when everything is getting more expensive each day, it is challenging to manage to be a single parent.
• Parenting and Harm of Unrealistic Expectations Parenting should be based on realistic expectations that are connected with the specific child, but not on the illusion that upbringing can change the child’s behavior.
• Parents Music Resource Center in the United States Parents Music Resource Center was a group created by four women in 1985. The aim of this group was to control the music that was released.
• Parenting Advice and Its Quality While most parenting advice is likely to be well-meaning, a number of online recommendations offered to parents are highly questionable due to their subjectivity.
• Theology of Family Life, Marriage and Parenting Religious marriage is possible when a ceremony is conducted (simultaneously or separately, depending on religion) with the couple being wed in the eyes of God.
• Parents’ Role in Young Adult Literature David Levithan’s Boy Meets Boy, James Janeway’s A Token for Children, and Catherine Sinclair’s Holiday House exemplify young adult literature from different periods.
• Child Abuse or a Parental Discipline According to the state laws within the United States, physical discipline is recommended if it is solely for discipline and does not lead to the injury of a child.
• Parent’s Education and Child’s Dental Health The essay argues there is a vivid relation between the mother’s health education and her child’s dental health.
• Types of Parenting Styles in a “Parenthood” by Howard The plot of the film is a small live segment of one huge family, which includes five generations. The filmmakers tried to give us a simple recipe for a happy life.
• Parents’ Experiences of Caring for a Child with ASD Literature Review Autism spectrum disorder is a serious developmental disorder that affects one throughout the lifespan in terms of social interaction, social communication, and social imagination.
• Bullying and Parenting Styles There are many positive and negative outcomes of parenting on children. This paper aims at investigating the connection between several types of parenting and bullying behaviors.
• Role of Parental Involvement in the Modern Era Recent research revealed that students are affected by a myriad of factors that can be subdivided into four categories: academic, social, cultural, and financial.
• Intelligence: Are We Smarter Than Our Parents? The Flynn effect states that the levels of intelligence quotient (IQ) have been rising over time and increasing among the consequent generations.
• Lack of Parental Support Forces Teenagers ‘Run Away’ From Home This paper describes how lack of attention and inability of parents to understand the problems faced by their teenage children results in “run away” from home.
• Parental Divorce and Consequences for Children Divorces are a common occurrence in the modern world, and most people are accustomed to the idea of a separated family.
• Migrating Parents’ Motives and Impact on Children One aspect that often lacks proper attention from the authorities and the general public is the children of immigrants who are left in their home countries.
• American and British Parenting Styles In this paper, parenting from the point of view of Americans and Britons will be evaluated to show their differences or similarities.
• Parenting and Choice of Child-Rearing Style The child-rearing style applied to a child has an impact on the child’s growth and development. The style employed by the parents can predict the future character of the child.
• Views on Raising Children: Tasks of Parents The most challenging task of parents is to make the right decisions. It requires analyzing the behavior of children and finding their personalities.
• Parental Engagement in Special Education While the teaching methods must vary among students with special needs, parents should also engage in an educational process to give children an understanding of its importance.
• The Influence of Confucianism on Chinese Parenting The influence of Confucianism led to the establishment of distinct approaches to parenting styles, notably high parental expectations in the academic field.
• Parents With Pediatric Terminal Patients: Stress Management Certain family-centered care principles should be used by healthcare providers in order to mitigate parental stress in the situations where their child battles terminal illness.
• Parental Substance Abuse: Negative Impact on Child Development The researchers focus on the negative impact of parental substance abuse on child development, leading to addiction problems when these children become teenagers or young adults.
• Parenting Styles and Children’s Social Competence The social competence of children is usually associated with authoritative parenting of all parenting styles, in which parents balance the demands of the child and responsiveness.
• Different Perceptions of the Responsibility of Children to Their Parents A family is a place where a special bond is established between relatives and an ideal relationship model has no room for anger, aggression, or other negative feelings.
• “Fall or Fly”: Parents’ Problems in Foster Care One of the issues that foster parents will have to contend with is the wide range of parenting styles, environments, and circumstances that they are exposed to.
• Parental Deployment: Action Plan The current case study involves a child with emotional issues who is six years old from a middle-class socioeconomic status background.
• Parental Stress and Its Effects on Children In the current paper, the author analyses literature dedicated to parental stress and child development and behavior and tests the previously mentioned hypothesis.
• Parents, Children, and Guns In this article, the author expresses his opinion on the prosecution of parents whose children have gained access to weapons.
• Parent and Child Perspectives on Adaptation to Childhood Chronic Illness The findings of the article and team critique can be used in the nursing practice to deal with the challenges that chronically ill children and their families.
• Liberal Stance on Child Care for Working Parents Adoption of universal child care must become the government’s priority, childcare benefits have to be introduced to counter present problems.
• Single Parent Culture and Student Behavior Some researchers have argued that shortcomings or low earnings in father-lacking families explain the effects of one-parent families.
• Why Do Parents Abuse Their Children: Discussion Most of the instances of child abuse happen while the child is at home and it is also prevalent in lesser frequency in schools, communities and institutions that the child may engage with.
• Parent Monitoring of Children in Public Places Parents-children relations may be characterized as the complex interconnection of different issues, which are the main patterns in the upbringing process.
• Being a Mother: Challenges Facing Parents With Young Children A mother is a social or biological parent. In mammals like human beings, biological mother is one that gestates fertilized ovum called an embryo at the beginning which later becomes fetus.
• Parental Refusal of Medical Treatment for Children Refusing medical treatment for children by parents undermines the functioning of the healthcare system and the relations between patients and caregivers.
• Single African American Parents: Literature Review Parenting among single African American women poses serious challenges. This paper reviews existing literature to understand what other scholars have found out in this field.
• Air Pollution Threats: Parent Education The purpose of this pamphlet is to educate parents on the dangers of air pollution and suggest preventive strategies to keep their children safe.
• Parents’ Education in Childhood Obesity Prevention It can be extremely important to compare and contrast the role of parent education and common methods of treatment in childhood obesity prevention.
• Impact of Single Parent Culture on Students’ Behavior Many scholars in education agree that a student’s performance is not dependent on intellectual ability alone but also in other factors such as behavior.
• Childhood Obesity and Parent Education Work studies the relations between overweight and parental education, child overweight and physical activity, and the domestic co-occurrence of overweight on a country-wide scale.
• Parental Education for Preventing Pneumonia in Children Vaccinations have led to the prevention of many childhood illnesses. Prior to the introduction of vaccines many of these illnesses ranked as the leading cause of death in children.
• Psychology Issues: Childhood Development and Positive Parenting Each stage of an individual’s development is important. However, childhood can be regarded as one of the most important periods in a person’s life.
• Understanding and Preventing Prenatal Alcohol Exposure Learn about the detrimental effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on fetal development and discover effective interventions to prevent PAE and support affected.
• Parental Education to Overcome Childhood Obesity Parental education plays a crucial role in addressing childhood obesity by influencing children’s behaviors and habits. Encouraging healthy eating, and promoting physical activity.
• How Immigrant Parents Affect Their Kids in School The paper explores the quality of the relationship between immigrant parents’ involvement in their children’s education and their academic performance.
• Parent Engagement in Vick Elementary School In this paper, parent engagement and actions that should be taken for its improvement are discussed on the basis of Vick Elementary School meetings and parental involvement agenda.
• Parental Addiction’s Impact on Children In a family where one or both of the parents suffer from addictions, the child develops in a psychologically traumatic environment.
• Living with Parents with Problematic Substance Use Growing is often associated with a high risk of instability. For example, young people subsequently find it difficult to resolve issues with housing.
• Parents’ Views on Their Children’s Engagement with Electronic Games The paper will discuss how gaming affects children and how it can benefit them in specific ways, such as giving them an outlet for their emotions.
• Parenting: Adoption of Homosexual Couples The paper states that good parenting is determined by the ability of the parent to establish a loving family, which does not depend on if they are homosexual.
• The Worth of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education Today, much attention is paid to improving the quality of childhood education, and the worth of parental involvement is currently discussed and recommended.
• Parenting Styles’ Impact on Children Parenting style plays a significant role in a child’s life. Each selected technique may have predetermined outcomes.
• Kids of Helicopter Parents Are Sputtering Out by Lythcott-Haims In the article “Kids of Helicopter Parents Are Sputtering Out,” Julie Lythcott-Haims talks about how parents instruct their children on what to do.
• Parenting Styles: Infancy and Early Childhood Generally, a child’s behavior is directly linked to the parenting approach being used by the respective parent. Each technique used has a corresponding impact on the well-being.
• Parenting Experience of a Mother of Two Children Although being a parent is a privilege that most adults look forward to, without proper planning, it can become a burden that leaves a person feeling caged and insufficient.
• Latino Culture: The Social Interaction Between Children and Parents The main focus is the social interaction between children and parents and its specificity in the context of Latino culture.
• Parenting: Influences and Standards This article is important because it supports the idea that parents should raise their children in a way that fits their child’s personalities.
• Liability of Bullies’ Parents for Children’s Activities Parents of bullies should be liable for their children’s activities because besides being highly influential, they possess the power to prevent bullying.
• Effects of Parent-Based Teaching of Alcohol Use The approach significantly impacts the struggle to prevent alcohol abuse but requires being informed on the appropriate mechanisms to employ.
• Parenting in a Pandemic: Tips to Keep the Calm at Home The article ​“Parenting in a Pandemic: Tips to Keep the Calm at Home” provides a set of recommendations for parents regarding managing children’s behaviors during the pandemic.
• Should Parents with Children under 12 Have Dogs as Pets Even though dogs can be great protectors, kids can be overly aggressive with dogs; children are more vulnerable to diseases carried by dogs, etc.
• The Parent-Teacher-Youth Mediation Program The Parent-Teacher-Youth Mediation Program is designed to build relationships between family members from different generations.
• Operant Conditioning in Learning and Parenting Operant conditioning relies on a relatively simple premise – actions followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and thus are more probable to be repeated in the future.
• How Parental Involvement Influences the Life of the Individual The paper demonstrates how parental involvement influences the academic and social life of the individual from the perspective of several theoretical notions.
• Parenting Peculiarities in Queer (LGBT) Families An examination of LGBT marriages has shown that same-sex partners have varied parenting desires, intentions, and child-rearing experiences.
• Parental Divorce’s Negative Impact on Children Children from divorced families have more behavioral problems, and marital upheavals leading up to parental divorce threaten future learning ability.
• Mental Health of Children of Incarcerated Parents This paper aims to discuss the impact of parental incarceration on children’s mental health and the risk of adverse childhood experiences.
• Nature vs. Nurture Parenting Styles in Psychology This research analyzes the nature vs. nurture parenting styles and recommends the best style that must be applied to ensure children grow to be responsible adults.
• Psychology of Children with Incarcerated Parents The relationship between the risks of the development of psychological problems among children and the incarcerated parent status is direct.
• Parental Alcohol Abuse as a Family Issue Parental alcohol abuse is a serious problem in the community that impacts not only one individual but spreads to different social units.
• The Parent-Child Relationship in Sports The promotion of a parent-child relationship in sports is similar to the coordination of individuals within a group.
• Youth Self-Reported Health and Their Experience of Parental Incarceration The study utilizes data from the Minnesota Student Survey, which was conducted every three years and included questions on health behaviors, dietary habits, and sleep patterns.
• Should Parents Be Held Accountable if Their Children Misbehave? This paper discusses whether parents should be held accountable if their children misbehave, commit crimes, or generally turn out to be a “bad seed”.
• The Effects of Homelessness on Single-Parent Families in Black Community The paper states that single-parent families can be adversely impacted by homelessness, especially during the current COVID-19 pandemic.
• Evaluation of Training Program for Incoming Foster Parents A training program has been proposed which will instill vital skills in foster parents through a six-session program, each one lasting at least three hours.
• Surviving the Death of a Parent “The Death of a Parent Affects Even Grown Children Psychologically and Physically,” explains how parental loss affects adults.
• Two Parenting Approaches: Authoritative and Authoritarian This paper considers two parenting approaches: authoritative and authoritarian. The authoritative parenting style is one of the best, while the authoritarian is one of the worst.
• Aspects of Parenting and Gender Roles For children to develop a healthy understanding of gender roles, it is essential that parents choose the right approach to their formation.
• Single-Parent Households Issues In preindustrial societies, kinship systems were the main form of social organization that provided members cooperated by marriage.
• Issues We Face While Taking Care of Aging Parents The trend of adult children becoming caregivers for their parents is one of the most widespread in American society.
• Parental Caregiving Assumptions and Best Practices The right start and the proper introduction and guidance to the appeared challenges contribute in a positive way to providing parents with the proper care.
• Parenting: The Family Resource Guide The guide in the current paper will help parents understand their role in their child’s development and help them in different situations.
• Perfect Family Myths on Divorce and Parenting This paper discussed four myths about family. These myths target the issue of divorce, family structure, and the responsibilities of parents.
• Diana Baumrind Theory of Parenting Styles Children exhibit behavioural characteristics depending on their upbringing. Diana Baumrind developed four parenting styles explaining children’s behaviour in specific situations.
• Parenting Assessment and Interventions The purpose of this assessment is to evaluate the effect of parenting styles on decisions and children’s behavior. In particular, it focuses on difficulties.
• The Problem-Solving Process in Parenting The problem-solving process on teaching the child responsibility by letting him complete his school assignments in his own way and stating borders of parent’s help.
• Differences in Parenting Styles in the East (China) and the West (America) The article discusses introduction in the essay “Differences in parenting styles in the East (China) and the West (America)” and argues that is short and straightforward.
• “Parenting and SES: Relative Values or Enduring Principles?” by Roubinov Parenting is one of the most critical aspects of social dynamics, where children’s development and growth are affected by the choices their parents make along the given process.
• Bullying: A Guide for the Parents The first way for parents to assist the kid in coming up with bullies is to teach them a set of responses, which they can use in case someone is picking on them.
• Parental Listening, Encouraging, and Trusting Parents who know how to listen, encourage, and trust their kids can positively influence their children’s emotional stability and social success.
• Parental Incarceration’s Impact on a Child Parental incarceration is a significant issue, and though it is addressed on multiple levels, there are still some related imperfections that complicate children’s lives.
• The Gender-Neutral Conceptualization of Parenting Society should apply gender-neutral conceptualization of parenting because a parent’s gender was found to have little impact on the child’s development.
• Tort of Negligence and Parents-Drivers’ Responsibility The negligence lawsuit is an important part of the law system that considers crimes that are committed by persons who failed to use reasonable vigilance and caution.
• Parenting Philosophy in “Where the Wild Things Are” Parenting philosophy described in the story “Where the Wild Things Are” is an uninvolved parenting style with an emotionally unavailable mother.
• Parents and Children’s E-Safety Education During the Pandemic When it comes to children’s education from a Constructivist perspective, parents are to engage with the children’s activities online to make sense of the Internet knowledge.
• Parenting Styles and Aggressive Adolescents Researchers have identified parenting styles that influence children’s growth and development. Parenting styles include authoritative, permissive, negligent, and authoritarian.
• Ethical Principles: Parents’ Vaccination Concerns This case study reviews the ethical and moral choices of doctors who aim to convince parents to vaccinate their children.
• Childhood Attachment and Parenting Styles In social sciences and psychology, the term emotional attachment may refer to the process of understanding the expressive closeness.
• A Parent’s Right on Their Child Medication The rights of parents towards their children are spelled out in different acts of parliament regarding the lawful authority they have in given areas.
• The Relationship Between Parenting Styles This paper provides an analysis of data pertaining to the relationship between parenting styles employed by a child’s parent.
• Theoretical Approaches to Child Parenting Parenting is a discipline that includes branches from theories of the early stages of a child’s awareness of reality to future place in the world.
• Parenting Techniques Analysis The current paper divides parenting into four styles according to the level of parental responsiveness and demandingness.
• Remarriages and Step-Parenting
• Tax Research Problem Parent Corporation
• Study of a Parent-Child Relationship
• Family Law: Parent’s Right to Travel
• Adolescent Adjustment to Parental Divorce
• Types of Parenting Styles Analysis
• Effect of Parenting on Child’s Health Development
• Caregiver Burden for Adult Children Whose Parent Has Alzheimer’s Disease
• The Lived Experiences of Native American Women Parenting on and off Reservations
• Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy in Parents
• Single-Parent Families: Source Analysis
• The Article: “Parental Perception of Child Weight: a Concept Analysis”
• Program to Build Parenting Skills in Teenage Parents
• Dominant Parenting Styles: Gender-Differentiated Parenting Revisited
• Parenting in Lapine’s Play Into the Wood
• Reasons to Become Parents in Middle Adulthood
• Parenting Styles Exemplified by the Molly Family
• The Adaptation to Childhood Chronic Illnesses: Parental and Child Perspectives
• Romantic Relationships and Parenting
• New Parent Guide: Breastfeeding and Attachment
• Negative Media Effects Mitigation: Parents’ Role
• Helping and Supporting Single-Parent Families
• The Influence of Parents in the Development of the Baby
• Infant’s Temperament Influences on the Parents Treat
• Understanding of Motherhood and Parenting Role
• The Five Biggest Ideas in Parenting
• “Superpowers for Parents” by Dr. Stephen Briers
• Native American Women and Parenting
• Substance Use by Parents and the Effect on Kids
• How Can Parents Produce Important Behaviors in Disabled Family Members?
• Grand Parents Custody Rights Analysis
• Problems Experienced by Children That Are Reared by Heterosexual Parents
• Alcoholic Parents’ Effect on Adult Children
• The Impact of Absent Parents Gears More Towards Absent Fathers
• The Role of Parents Within the Education System
• The Issues of Gay Parents
• Sociological Research Evaluation: Effects of Parental Imprisonment on Children’s Social and Moral Aspects
• Parents’ Responsibilities: Child Support Obligations
• Self-Control Theory: Are Our Parents to Blame?
• Critique of Articles on Parenting, ADHD, Child Psychology, and Development
• Parental Involvement in Urban School District
• The Impact of Parent’s Educational Level on College Students
• Applied Ethics: Moral Standards of Alcoholic Parents
• Medical and Christian Ethics: Ill Child and Parents
• When Parents Refuse to Give Up: Yusef Camp’s Case
• Gay and Single-Parent Families: Functionalist View
• Childhood Obesity: Medication and Parent Education
• Postsecondary Enrolment and Parental Income
• Counseling for Healthy Relationships With Parents
• Parenting Style and Bullying Among Children
• Parents Shape Early Adolescents’ Eating Behaviors
• Are Parents Responsible for Their Children’s Crimes?
• The Issues of Childhood Obesity: Overweight and Parent Education
• Childhood Obesity and Parent Education: Ethical Issues
• Authoritative Parenting in Comparison to Other Styles
• Authoritarian Parenting Impact on Children’s Health
• Children’s Early Literacy Achievement and Parents’ Role
• Gadgets’ Impact on Parent-Child Relationships
• Parenting Styles in Situational Examples
• Homeschooling Disadvantages for Students and Parents
• Same-Sex Parenting Impact on Children’s Behavior
• Childhood Obesity, Medical and Parental Education
• Adolescent Obesity and Parental Education Study
• Single Afro-Americans Parenting Their Adolescents
• Parents’ Incomes and Children’s Camp Expenses
• Childhood Obesity: Parental Education vs. Medicaments
• Childhood Obesity: The Relationships Between Overweight and Parental Education
• Violence: Community Center for Children and Parents
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Parents’ Gender Roles and Children’s Aspirations
• Parenting Styles Researching: Analytical Techniques
• Positive Parenting and Child Externalizing Behavior
• Gender Stereotypes in Families: Parental Influence on an Adolescent’s Career Choice
• Children With Asthma: Risks Created by Smoking Parents
• Systematic Training for Effective Parenting
• Diagnosis Disclosure and Child-Parent Relationship
• Eight Steps of Effective Parent Participation
• Parenting: Open Versus Closed Adoption
• Childhood Obesity and Independent Variable in Parents
• Family-Based Childhood Obesity and Parental Weight
• Parenting Style Comparison: Positive and Negative Impacts
• The Father’s Role in Parenting
• The Impact of Relationships With Parents on the Future
• Parental Exposure and Underage Drinking – Psychology
• The Parent-Child Relationships Theories
• Raising Children in Single Families: Single-Parent Families’ Problems
• Te Single-Parent Homes Problems
• Developmental Psychology: Aggression Between Parents
• Parents Bear Responsibility for the Recreational Rioter – Psychology
• Families: Single Parent Controversy
• Parents Need Help: Restricting Access to Video Games
• Corporal Punishment and Parents Position
• Vaccines: Should Parents Avoid Vaccinating Their Children?
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Thesis Topics for Parenting Styles

S.r. haines.

A college thesis on parenting styles must rely on your original research and ideas. You can build from existing definitions for parenting styles. You can also look for inspiration from theses already published and from evolving news reports and academic research on subjects ranging from “helicopter” moms to gay parents.

Explore this article

• Definitions of Parenting Styles
• Developing Your Approach
• Past Published Theses
• Other Parenting Topics

1 Definitions of Parenting Styles

Psychologist Diana Baumrind’s work on parenting styles published in 1971 and 1991 established the definitions still in use today for the effect that parenting has on children, reports Cornell University. She divided parenting behavior into controlling (managing) or warm (acceptance, responsiveness) behaviors. The four styles of parenting defined by Baumrind are: authoritative (firm, but warm), authoritarian (firm and controlling), permissive (warm, not controlling) and uninvolved (not warm or controlling). Using this foundation, you can choose which style is more appropriate for the focus of your thesis.

2 Developing Your Approach

The Writing Center at Harvard College recommends thinking of yourself as a member of a jury wanting to be persuaded as a way of approaching your topic. A thesis is not a yes-or-no proposition. State your original idea, and then prove it with original research. Like a good lawyer getting ready to present a case, anticipate opposing arguments as you develop your topic and begin your research, suggests the center.

3 Past Published Theses

Perusing past theses on parenting styles will demonstrate how others have approached such topics in the past. Many have been published online. For example, a thesis by a student at the University of Maryland in 2012 focused on “couple distress" and children's perceptions. A thesis by a Louisiana State University student in 2002 focused on how parenting styles influence a child's classroom motivation. A thesis by a University of Wisconsin-Stout student in 2011 looked at the effect of parenting styles on preschool-age children. A thesis by a Western Carolina University student in 2009 focused on the effect of intergenerational parenting styles and values.

4 Other Parenting Topics

Other sources for topic ideas include the popular media and and issues ranging from teenage binge drinking to same-sex marriage addressed in research by university professors. The "New York Times" in 2012 reported on how the phrases “tiger mom” and “helicopter parent” have become popular definitions of controlling parents. Brigham Young University in 2012 reported on a study by its professors on how parenting styles affect binge drinking by teenagers. Harvard’s Kennedy School Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy in 2013 compiled a list of studies on the parenting styles of same-sex parents. Among topics listed was a 2013 study on the well-being of children whose parents are gay or lesbian. A study published in 2010 by researchers from California and Netherlands zeroed in on the specific effects of parenting styles of lesbian mothers on 17-year-old sons and daughters.

• 1 University of Maryland: Effects of Differences in Parenting Styles on Couple Distress and Children’s Perceptions of Family Support; Tara Brittney Gogolinski; 2012 Thesis
• 2 University of Wisconsin-Stout: The Effects of Parenting Styles on a Preschool Aged Child’s Social Emotional Development: Brook Berg, 2011 Thesis
• 3 Western Carolina University: Parenting Styles and Values -- Mechanisms of Intergenerational Continuity and Discontinuity: Melissa Florence Littlewood; 2009 Thesis
• 4 New York Times: Raising Successful Children
• 5 Harvard Kennedy School Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy: Same-Sex Marriage and Children’s Well-Being: Research Roundup

About the Author

S.R. Haines is a veteran writer whose work has been published by newspapers, magazines, international news wire services and nonprofit publications on topics ranging from breaking news and politics to travel, parenting, education, business and technology. She earned a Bachelor of Journalism from the University of Texas at Austin.

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Exploring Parenting Styles Patterns and Children’s Socio-Emotional Skills

Aikaterini vasiou.

1 Department of Primary Education, University of Crete, 74100 Rethymno, Greece

Wassilis Kassis

2 Department of Research & Development, School of Education, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland; [email protected] (W.K.); [email protected] (D.A.); [email protected] (C.A.F.)

Anastasia Krasanaki

3 School of Humanities, Hellenic Open University, 26335 Patras, Greece; moc.liamtoh@ikanasarka

Dilan Aksoy

Céline anne favre, spyridon tantaros.

4 Department of Psychology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece; rg.aou.hcysp@natgs

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

In this study, we adopted parenting styles as a multidimensional and latent construct that includes different aspects of parenting, rather than solely focusing on a single parenting style. In a Web-based survey with 1203 Greek parents, we identified parenting styles and their SDQ reports on their children. According to our results by Latent Profile Analysis, we must use a more complex approach concerning parenting styles. We identified a “Highly Authoritative style” profile with high levels of authoritative, low levels of authoritarian and middle levels of permissive parenting styles. We additionally identified a profile called “Relaxed Authoritative style”, with still high but lower levels of authoritative style, low but slightly heightened levels of authoritarian style, and middle levels of permissive style. A further profile, named “Permissive Focused Authoritative style”, had a mix of high levels of authoritative, moderate levels of permissive, and elevated levels of authoritarian parenting styles. Finally, in a profile named “Inconsistent Parenting style”, we identified parents with a blend of still high, but the lowest of all four levels of authoritative and highest levels of permissive and authoritarian parenting styles. When combining the four identified parenting patterns with the SDQ results, we identified the “highly authoritative parenting style” profile to be the least connected to internalizing or externalizing problems of the respective children.

1. Introduction

Bronfenbrenner’s socioecological framework [ 1 ], understanding development as a social process, as a result of the interaction between people and their environment, suggests that, among the proximal (microsystem) socialization agents, parents play the most pivotal role in children’s development [ 2 ]. As such, researchers have conducted numerous empirical investigations which focused on isolating the contribution of parenting styles to children’s and adolescents’ behavior, such as externalizing and internalizing problems and prosocial behavior [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Nevertheless, most studies have adopted variable-centric perspectives to explore the overall strength of associations between the examined variables in a larger population. Additionally, this approach primarily used single parenting styles, such as authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative, to understand the effects of particular parental behavior. This led to the understanding that parents apply a specific and characteristic style. Nevertheless, the use of analytical techniques, such as latent profile analysis, focused on people characteristics, often intervenes with the possibility of developing a fully realized understanding of the predictors and outcomes of within-subject variation in parenting styles [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Consequently, the present study is conducted to identify unique parenting style profiles and considers parenting styles as a multidimensional and latent construct that includes different aspects of parenting, not just a single one. Using latent profile analysis and exploring the possible relationship between the identified profiles and children’s and adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing problems and prosocial behavior, we attempt to develop a more complex and adequate picture of parenting styles and their effects on children’s behavior.

1.1. Parenting Styles

Parenting style is a collection of parents’ attitudes, behaviors, and emotions [ 9 ]. Therefore, we can conceptualize parenting styles as representing general types of child-rearing that characterize parents’ typical strategies and responses [ 10 ]. In particular, parental behavior is established in four specific behavioral dimensions: control, maturity demands, clarity of communication, and nurturance [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Baumrind [ 15 , 16 ], resulting from a blending of these dimensions and not from any single one of them, identified three primary parenting styles: Authoritarian (high levels of control and maturity demands, and low levels of nurturance and clarity of communication), Permissive (high levels of nurturance and clarity of communication, and low levels of control and maturity demand) and Authoritative (control, nurturance, clarity of communication, and maturity demands).

The behavior of authoritarian parents, which is not characterized by parental responsiveness and emotional availability, but by parental control, leads to limiting the independence of the children, valuing blind obedience, as well as adopting aggressive one-way communication [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. In contrast to the authoritarian parenting style, permissive parents encourage responsiveness in the absence of parental control and maturity requirements as well as clear, consistent discipline and communication [ 17 , 19 , 20 ]. Permissive parenting style includes loose or contradictory discipline, indifference to the child’s disobedience, and lack of confidence regarding the parental role [ 18 ]. Permissive parents rarely punish, encourage independence, and offer unconditional support to their children [ 17 , 19 ]. On the other hand, authoritative parents emphasize responsiveness and control. They avoid, however, interacting with their children by being intrusive, criticizing, scolding, and threatening, as authoritarian parents are wont to do [ 17 , 21 ]. In addition, they try to understand the needs of their children. They behave warmly, lovingly, and dialogically. They also provide guidance and direction through suggestions, explanations, and argumentation. In addition, they set developmentally appropriate expectations while demonstrating receptivity and flexibility by offering children opportunities to practice independence and autonomy [ 17 , 22 , 23 ].

1.2. Children’s Behavior Problems

Empirically formulated classifications of child behavior have distinguished social-emotional and behavior problems as externalizing and internalizing [ 24 ]. Externalizing problem behaviors are considered aggressive and dysfunctional conducts aimed at others, while internalizing problem behaviors refer to negative emotions and moods such as depression, anxiety, and guilt [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Both aspects of dysfunction are related to impaired academic, social, and emotional development in children, such as the risk of several poor outcomes, including poor peer relationships, underachievement at school, poor personal adjustment, and poor mental health [ 28 , 29 , 30 ].

In detail, externalizing problems include the most common childhood disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), in which a wide range of cognitive, interpersonal, social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties exist. Its main characteristics are aggression and disobedience, while other Disruptive Behavioral Disorders often coexist [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. In addition, externalizing problems include conduct problems and behavioral disorders, in which the child comes into conflict with the environment, such as aggression, violence, reactivity, disobedience, drug use, and delinquency, problems which are observed when there is a lack of parental support [ 18 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Parental supervision, parental care, and normative parental expectations constitute the three dimensions of parenting that are systematically related to multiple behavioral problems in children and adolescents [ 38 ]. Research found associations between extreme types of control (harsh parenting, physical punishment, psychological control, overprotection, overactive parenting) or lack of control and supervision, and a strong presence of externalizing problems, such as conduct problems [ 33 , 39 ]. It is further considered that ineffective parenting (corporal punishment, inconsistency, poor supervision, and low involvement) and specific personal characteristics, such as sentimentality, also lead to externalizing problems [ 40 ]. Especially for girls, the lack of parental support is an essential factor in developing behavioral problems [ 41 ]. Moreover, the manifestation of externalizing problems leads to peer victimization and vice versa [ 42 ].

Conversely, problems related to depression, anxiety, shyness, irritability, withdrawal, low self-esteem, poor physical health, negative relationships with peers and emotional problems are recognized as internalizing problems [ 18 , 36 , 37 , 43 ], which possibly stem from early experiences of rejection [ 23 ]. Regarding peer relationships, research shows that children without close friends have internalizing problems, while peer rejection and victimization are associated with internalizing and externalizing problems [ 44 ]. The lack of parental supervision regarding their friends is associated with internalizing problems in girls. In contrast, the lack of parental supervision during free time is associated with internalizing problems for both sexes [ 43 ].

1.3. Children’s Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior is the critical component in development that contributes to positive children’s and adolescents’ development and thriving [ 45 ]. Recent decades’ research has shown associations between prosocial behavior and social, emotional, and psychological benefits in children and adolescents, including better relationships with peers and adults [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ], optimal functioning in terms of well-being [ 51 ], academic success [ 47 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ], and positive mental health [ 57 , 58 ].

Prosocial behavior refers to all voluntary behaviors aimed to benefit others [ 57 ]. They are positive social acts that promote the well-being of others and self-motivated behaviors that benefit others, demonstrating the existence of social conscience [ 22 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. Some manifestations of positive social behavior can be caring, comforting, sharing, cooperating, volunteering, donating, and offering physical or emotional help to others [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ]. The demonstration of prosocial behavior by children and adolescents, however, is influenced by factors such as parents, peers, school, teachers, and culture [ 22 , 62 ].

1.4. Parenting Styles and Children’s Behavior

For many years, parenting style’s role in children’s and adolescents’ problem behavior was the main focus of research [ 63 , 64 ]. In particular, studies have examined the role of parenting styles in internalizing and externalizing problem behavior [ 65 ], both during childhood [ 66 , 67 ] and adolescence [ 68 , 69 ]. Prior studies also proposed that parenting styles are associated with adolescents’ prosocial behavior [ 70 , 71 ]. Specifically, warm and supportive parenting reinforces self-regulatory abilities, strengthens prosocial behavior and moral values, and enhances adolescents’ acceptance of others’ needs [ 72 , 73 ].

Regarding the influence of parental factors on children’s social behavior, it is considered that the mother–child relationship and parenting practices play an important role in children’s overall development and the development of externalizing and internalizing problems specifically, regardless of gender, during early adolescence [ 74 , 75 ]. Some research suggests that parental support may predict a reduction in adolescent anxiety and depression in addition to preventing future depressive behavior [ 76 , 77 ], whereas parental support also appears to influence the development of prosocial behavior in children and adolescents [ 78 , 79 ].

Regarding the authoritative parenting style, its high responsiveness and demandingness have been scientifically associated with fewer behavioral problems [ 36 ]. In particular, authoritative parents promote the development of social and academic skills during childhood and adolescence [ 80 ]. The authoritative parenting style also has associations with less disobedience, reduced tendency to internalize problems and dangerous behaviors, high ability to regulate behavior, increased self-perception for acceptance by peers, and better adjustment [ 23 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 80 , 81 ]. Moreover, the authoritative parenting style continues to have a positive effect on children’s development from childhood until later adulthood [ 36 , 79 ]. Finally, an authoritative parenting style helps children become more compassionate, helpful, and kind to other people [ 79 ].

Conversely, due to their high responsiveness and low demandingness, permissive parents do not seek control and authority over their children, guide them to regulate their behavior, and let them decide for themselves [ 36 ]. Thus, children of permissive parents learn to be passive and unresponsive in their interactions with others, developing antisocial behavior. As a result, they become dependent and present low levels of cognitive development and self-control, as well as low self-concept for acceptance by peers, especially in girls [ 36 , 80 ]. In addition, a permissive parenting style positively correlates with externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems and delinquency [ 36 ].

Concerning the authoritarian parenting style, which is characterized by low responsiveness and high demandingness, it is significantly positively correlated with reduced ability to regulate behavior, reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, low social skills, adjustment difficulties, depression, delinquency, externalizing and internalizing problems, aggression in boys and hyperactivity in girls, as well as problems in interactions with peers [ 23 , 36 , 80 , 81 ]. Thus, authoritarianism and corporal punishment, especially during childhood, can lead to suicide, depression in adulthood, or problems in the later stages of the child’s life [ 36 ]. Furthermore, regardless of the intramarital conflicts in the family, socioeconomic level, and children’s temperament, harsh punitive discipline predicts child aggression at school [ 82 ]. However, a ten-year longitudinal study [ 83 ] showed no relationship between early parental punitiveness and subsequent aggression. Furthermore, Moore and Eisenberg [ 84 ] found no negative relationship between authoritarian parenting style and children’s positive social development. Finally, according to research, psychologically controlling parenting has detrimental effects on the psychosocial development of adolescents, increasing the risk of externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems [ 85 , 86 ].

1.5. Recent Studies on Parenting Styles Using a Person-Centered Approach

The importance of exploring naturally occurring patterns of parenting styles is increasingly recognized by recent empirical studies. These studies use a person-centered approach, which permits researchers to include multiple parenting types and expand their understanding of the determinants and outcomes of parenting styles. For example, Carpenter and Mendez [ 87 ] examined longitudinal parenting profile differences in children’s behavioral adjustment by measuring aggression and hyperactive behavior of preschool children twice during the academic year. In their study, Bowers et al. [ 6 ], based on latent profiles of youth-reported parenting styles, examined the effect of parenting profiles in promoting positive youth development [ 6 ]. Kim et al. also used latent profile analyses in a three-wave longitudinal study lasting eight years, from early adolescence to emerging adulthood, to identify parenting profiles in Chinese American families and explore their consequences on adolescent adjustment [ 7 ], while Zhang et al. examined subtypes and their stability, and changes in Chinese maternal parenting style during early adolescence [ 88 ]. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, multigroup latent profile analyses showed that the high monitoring–high autonomy support profile yielded the most optimal outcomes on adolescent adjustment, while the low monitoring–high psychological control profile yielded the worst [ 89 ]. More recently, Teuber et al. used longitudinal person-oriented perspectives to examine the stability and possible changes in autonomy-related parenting profiles and to further explore their consequences on adolescents’ academic and psychological functioning [ 8 ].

1.6. The Current Study

In the current study, to investigate children’s and adolescents’ behavior, we used the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) [ 90 ], which is globally the most widely used tool for assessing children’s social, emotional, and behavioral problems and has also been translated into over 60 languages [ 91 ]. The parent version of the scale has interestingly indicated good psychometric properties: validity evidence based on internal structure (i.e., internal consistency), test–retest reliability of the scores, and inter-rater agreement on the scores [ 92 ]. In addition, recent findings from nationally representative data from the United Kingdom (UK) demonstrated that parent SDQ ratings show measurement invariance across the broad developmental period from preschool to adolescence [ 93 , 94 ]. Supportive evidence for measurement invariance of the parent version of the SDQ have also been provided across informants [ 95 , 96 ], community and clinical samples [ 89 ], gender and age of the child [ 97 ] and parent education level [ 98 ]. Specifically, we chose the three-factor model, which makes a broader distinction between prosocial, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors and indicated the best-fitting model in a sample of parents with 4- to 17-years old children in the US [ 99 ]. Recent results [ 100 ] reveal that the parent-version of the SDQ was a suitable tool for use and comparison across different contexts during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In addition, to explore how the dimensions of control, maturity demands, clarity of communication, and nurturance are combined with different parenting profiles, we examined how specific parenting profiles are related to children’s and adolescents’ behavior problems and prosocial behavior, expanding previous research in this area [ 6 , 7 , 88 ]. A review of the existing literature indicates a lack of research that follows a person-centered approach to examine the effects of parenting styles on children’s and adolescents’ behavioral problems and prosocial behavior. Therefore, the current study was designed to address this gap by stiving to isolate unique parental profiles using latent profile analysis. We used the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) [ 101 , 102 , 103 ] which is known as one of the few psychometrically robust scales measuring parenting practices [ 104 ] and has also been used in multiple different cultural groups [ 105 ]. This choice is justified by the idea that parents can engage in practices that align with any parenting style at different moments to different degrees [ 106 ].

Based on prior research using person-centered analytic approaches, we hypothesize that we will identify distinct parental profiles using latent profile analysis (H1). Aiming to define the predictive utility of the identified parental profiles, we also hypothesize that types of parenting profiles will display statistically significant differences in children’s and adolescents’ externalizing/internalizing behavior problems and prosocial behavior (H2). Finally, attempting to isolate personal and demographic characteristics that predict parental profiles, we expected that demographic factors such as parents age [ 107 , 108 ] and education [ 109 , 110 ] would be associated with children’s and adolescents’ externalizing/internalizing behavior problems and prosocial behavior profile membership (H3) and expected that younger and more educated parents would be more authoritative and less authoritarian.

2. Materials and Methods

The study is a web-based survey conducted in Greece via the Internet, in the framework of the third author’s master thesis, which was approved by the Hellenic Open University. Participants were recruited to voluntarily fill in an electronic form questionnaire created on Google Forms and posted in parent groups on social media by the same author. To achieve a sufficient response rate [ 111 ], the questionnaire was distributed multiple times for a period of 1 month; November until December 2019. Participants were instructed through a debrief describing the objective of the study and the confidential nature of their participation. In addition, to remove potential biases, the form elaborated on issues of protection of privacy and ethics and provided contact details for the third author. Participants were asked to confirm that they had read the form and were willing to participate in the study. Upon receipt of this confirmation, they were directed to the measures described below. Participants were asked to respond to all the answers and informed that participation would be anonymous. Participation duration was 15 min.

One of the reasons for choosing this kind of survey is the nature of the characteristics of population support, as groups are frequently established in which personal experiences are shared [ 112 ]. This research method was selected to ensure a diverse group of participants with varying levels of education, social status, and age. Online surveys were chosen for their convenience in reaching potential respondents who may be spread out over a large geographic area [ 113 ].

1203 parents participated in the study; 90.9% were women, while 9.1% were men. A total of 54% were 41–50 years old, 34.8% were 31–40, 9% were 51–60, 2% were 20–30, and 0.2% were over 60 years old. Regarding marital status, 88% were married, 8% were divorced, 1.4% were cohabiting, 1.3% were unmarried, 0.9% were widowed, and 0.4% were separated. Regarding their educational level, 41.8% were University or Applied sciences graduates, 28.4% PhD or master’s degree holders, 16.9% were general or vocational high school graduates, 9.9% were vocational training graduates, 2% were high school or technical school graduates, and 1% students. In terms of their occupational status, 83.3% were employed, and 16.7% were unemployed. Regarding their children’s gender, 47.8% were female. Finally, in regard to their children’ s age, the children were 6–12 (61.3%) and 13–18 (38.7%). By the DETECTANOMALY-procedure in SPSS (IBM, 2021), an option for detecting anomalies, we identified two cases out of 1205, which had to be removed because of their high anomaly index (case 933 = 9.70, respectively, for case 987 = 13.20) regarding the three parenting styles. Due to this, the analyses were performed with N = 1203 participants.

3. Measures

3.1. parenting styles.

The Greek version of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ) by Robinson, Mandleco, Olsen, and Hart [ 101 , 102 , 103 ] was used, adapted to the Greek population by Maridaki-Kassotaki [ 102 ]. It is a self-administered questionnaire, grounded in Baumrind’s model of parental types based on two dimensions of parental behavior: responsiveness and demandingness [ 103 ]. It explores the parent–child relationship, communication, and parenting methods, distinguishing parents into three dominant parental types: the authoritative, the authoritarian, and the permissive types [ 102 ]. The sub-scale “authoritative parenting style” includes 12 statements (e.g., I understand my child’s feelings), the sub-scale “authoritarian parenting style” includes four statements (e.g., I use punishment as a means of discipline), and the sub-scale “permissive parenting style” includes three statements (e.g., I think it is hard to teach my child to discipline). All parenting scales had the same response format: 1 = never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, and 4 = always. Finally, regarding the internal consistency of the three parenting scales, Cronbach’s α was good for the authoritative type at 0.82, for the permissive type 0.75, and just satisfactory for the authoritarian type at 0.68.

3.2. Children’s and Adolescents’ Behavior

The parents’ version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) [ 90 ] was completed by participants, created to assess children’s and adolescents’ behavioral and emotional problems in their everyday life. Specifically, the Greek version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire—SDQ [ 90 ] was used and completed by parents of children and adolescents. The questionnaire has been adapted to the Greek population by Bibou-Nakou et al. [ 114 ]. It includes 25 statements and three answers (not true, somewhat true, and true). The main scale (of 25 statements) is made up of five sub-scales with five items each: 1. Hyperactivity/attention deficit (e.g., (S)He is restless and hyperactive, cannot remain calm, still for long periods of time), 2. Conduct disorder (e.g., (S)He often has tantrums or is irritable), 3. Relationships with peers (e.g., (S)He is rather lonely, tends to play alone), 4. Emotional disorders (e.g., (S)He often complains of headaches, stomach aches, or feeling sick) and 5. Positive social behavior with five items (e.g., (S)He takes into account the feelings of others). The subscales “Hyperactivity/attention deficit” and “Conduct disorder” make up the SDQ-dimension “Externalizing problems”. In contrast, the subscales “Relationships with peers” and “Emotional disorders” make up the SDQ-dimension “Internalizing problems”. The positive social behavior scale makes the SDQ-dimension “prosocial behavior”. As for internal consistency, Cronbach’s α was suitable for all three SDQ-dimensions: for the positive social behavior, 0.70; for externalizing problems, 0.76 and for internalizing problems, 0.71.

We performed the multinomial computations of banding scores, enabling us to identify non-clinical or “at risk/clinical” cases. To achieve this, we followed the same criteria employed by Goodman in the original version of the SDQ [ 90 ], supported by empirical research on the detection and prevalence of mental health issues [ 24 , 115 ]. Based on the fact that approximately 10% of children and adolescents exhibit some form of mental health problem, and another 10% have a borderline problem, we designated threshold values as follows: scores above the 80th percentile fall into the “at risk/clinical = 1” range, scores, and scores below the 80th percentile fall into the “non-clinical = 0” category [ 90 , 116 , 117 ]. This categorization was applied to all subscales except for Prosocial behavior, where scores equal to or below the 20th percentile was considered “at risk/clinical = 1” and scores below the 20th percentile were considered “non-clinical = 0”.

3.3. Covariates

Parents Education: To assess parents’ education level, we asked for the following six educational levels: University or Applied sciences graduates, PhD, or master’s degree holders, general or vocational high school graduates, vocational training graduates, high school or technical school graduates, and students.

Parents Age: Parents’ age was assessed by five categories: 20–30 years, 31–40 years, 41–50 years, 51–60 years, and over 60 years old.

4.1. Analytic Strategy

The statistical analysis for this study was conducted in four steps: in step one, sociodemographic differences in the applied measures were examined using t -tests. In step two, because we regrouped the items to the scales, we performed a confirmatory factor analysis to test construct validity. In step three, parents’ parenting style patterns were identified by computing latent profile analyses (LPA) using three classification variables. In step four, we ran a multinomial regression analysis of the identified parenting style patterns related to SDQ to understand children and adolescents’ social behavior. For the conducted confirmatory factor analysis and the LPA, we used Mplus version 8.9 [ 118 ]. For the t -test and multinomial regression, SPSS 28 was used.

4.1.1. Results Analytic Step One: Sociodemographic Differences of All Measures and Intercorrelations

We ran t -tests (see Table 1 ) to analyze for mean differences in the SDQ dimensions and parenting styles by age group of the respective children and adolescents. Referring first to the three introduced SDQ dimensions, we identified only small but still significant effects (displayed Cohen’s d is low) between children and adolescents, with children having higher externalizing problems. When comparing the levels of the three parenting styles, we identified significantly higher levels for younger children than older children for both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles.

Sample Mean Levels (and Standard Deviations) of the SDQ-Dimensions and Parenting Styles by Age Group of the Respective Child.

Note. * = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01, *** = p < 0.001. between younger and older children.

When looking at the connections between the SDQ dimensions and the parenting styles that were found (as shown in Table 2 ), there were low to moderate intercorrelations, which means there was no issue with multicollinearity.

Intercorrelations of the SDQ-Dimensions and Parenting Styles.

Note. *** = p < 0.001.

4.1.2. Results Analytic Step Two: Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for Testing Construct Validity

To test for construct validity and to verify the factor structure we performed a confirmatory factor analysis. CFA allows testing of the assumption that a hypothesized relationship between observed variables and their underlying latent constructs exists. The RMSEA, TLI, and CFI are deemed particularly important for accurately estimating CFAs [ 119 ]. Following Marsh et al. [ 120 ], we established the benchmark for a satisfactory model fit as RMSEA values below 0.08, coupled with CFI and TLI values above 0.90 and SRMR values below 0.08, indicating a strong fit for the model. The fit indices obtained from the confirmatory factor analysis applied were sufficient for the three parenting style scales, as evidenced by the following: (χ 2 (149) = 453.384, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.041 [90% CI = 0.037–0.046]; SRMR = 0.028 CFI = 0.923; TLI = 0.912), as for the five SDQ-parents sub-scales (χ 2 (231) = 587.411, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.036 [90% CI = 0.032–0.039]; SRMR = 0.042 CFI = 0.926; TLI = 0.903). This confirms the construct validity for each scale of the study.

4.1.3. Analysis Step Three: Identifying Parenting Style Patterns by Latent Profile Analysis (LPA)

We utilized three indicators, namely authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative parenting style, to group parents into distinct parenting style classes through the statistical application of Latent Profile Analysis (LPA). This allowed us to examine patterns of latent parenting styles, which encompassed multiple indicators and their interrelationships within the parenting style classes. By employing LPA as a comprehensive method, our objective was to assess the continuity of parenting style levels. The primary goal of this study was to use LPA to examine the proposed conceptualization of parenting styles, considering three aspects of parenting within an overarching latent structure, and to empirically classify latent variables into subgroups based on similar observations.

The models used in this study were non-nested. To determine the best model, different criteria were applied [ 121 ], including the entropy value, as well as information criteria such as the Akaike information criterion (AIC), Bayesian information criterion (BIC), and Sample-Adjusted BIC (ABIC). The smaller values indicate a better fit [ 122 ]. Entropy was also considered, with values above 0.7 deemed sufficient to indicate certainty in the estimation, but with models of entropy of 1.0 being overidentified [ 123 , 124 ]. The final latent profile analysis (LPA) model was chosen based on various statistical indicators and theoretical considerations. Additionally, model fit criteria such as the Vuong-Lo-Mendell-Rubin Likelihood Ration test (LMR-LRT), the Lo-Mendell-Rubin Adjusted Likelihood Ratio test (aLMR-LRT), and the Bootstrapped Likelihood Ratio test (BLRT) were used for the LPA. A significant p -value indicated an improvement to the previous model with k − 1 profiles. The ultimate model for an LPA, which determines the number of profiles, is selected based on a combination of statistical measures and pre-existing theoretical frameworks and the rule of the most parsimonious solution [ 125 ], which means that the interpretability and the additional information provided by a more complex solution has to be established. There are currently no established guidelines for determining the appropriate size of profiles [ 121 ]. Following Nylund [ 124 ], we are arguing against having profile sizes with less than 50 cases or these profiles being less than 5% of the total sample.

The analysis was conducted for a range of two to six latent patterns. Statistical tests of model fit can be found in Table 3 . A model consisting of four profiles was selected, as it had a lower aBIC score than a profile 3 solution, and the entropy was higher. For the comparison between the profile 3 the profile 4 solutions, we additionally applied model fit criteria with significant p -values for profile 3 over the profile two solutions, indicating an improvement to the previous model, but non-significant p -values on LMR-LRT and aLMR-LRT when comparing profile 3 and profile 4 but with still significant p -values on the BLRT, indicating an improvement for the profile 4 to the profile three models. When comparing the profile 4 to the 5 or 6 profile solution, we noticed several criteria decreasing. In comparison to the profile 4 solutions, we detected for profile 5 (aBIC Delta to profile 4 = 777) and 6 (aBIC Delta to profile 5 = 948) solutions a significant drop in aBIC differences, and for both solutions an Entropy of 1.0, which suggested weak evidence [ 126 ] and an overidentification of the model [ 127 ], leading us favoring the profile 4 solution.

Model Fit Indices for Latent Profile Analysis on Parenting Styles, N = 1203.

Note. AIC = Akaike information criterion; BIC = Bayesian information criterion; ABIC = Sample-size adjusted BIC; LMR LR = Vuong-Lo-Mendell-Rubin Likelihood Ratio Test; ALMR LR = Lo-Mendell-Rubin Adjusted LRT Test; BLRT = Bootstrap likelihood ratio test.

For the 5 (one profile with n = 18 participants, 2.3% of the sample) and 6 profile (one profile with n = 49, 3.9% of the sample; one profile with n = 44, 3.6% of the sample; one profile with n = 9, 0.7% of the sample), solutions had far too small sample sizes [ 124 , 128 ]. Additionally, for both the 5 and 6 profile solutions, the new profiles did not offer new theoretical insights. but merely split already existing small profiles. Based on the abovementioned criteria and the principle of favoring more restricted and simple models, the profile 4 solutions were ultimately chosen. Along with empirical measures, the selection of the profile 4 solutions was also influenced by its interpretability and alignment with existing theoretical frameworks.

By the three introduced parenting styles and the consecutive tests on a different number of profiles (two to six profiles), we identified the four-profile solution as the best fitting. Regarding the distribution of the four profiles (see Figure 1 ), we identified a profile (profile 1, 66.6% of the participants) called Highly Authoritative style (HA) with high levels of authoritative, the lowest levels of authoritarian and middle levels of permissive parenting styles. We additionally identified a profile called Relaxed Authoritative style (RA) (profile 2, 16.3% of the participants) with still high but lower levels of authoritative style than in profile 1, low but elevated levels of authoritarian style, and middle levels of permissive style. Profile 4 (12.4% of the participants), named Permissive Focused Authoritative style (PFA), had a mix of the second highest levels of authoritative and middle levels of permissive and slightly higher levels of authoritarian parenting styles. Finally, in profile 3 (4.4% of the participants), named Inconsistent Parenting style (IP), we identified parents with a blend of higher levels of authoritative and middle levels of permissive and authoritarian parenting levels. From the solution chosen, we could detect that parenting styles are a complex mix and multidimensional latent construct encompassing authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles, rather than a distinct single parenting style as commonly assumed.

Diagrammatic Representation of the four identified parenting style profiles by LPA.

We analyzed if there were differences in the patterns concerning parental education and parents’ age to control for any effects caused by these two covariates by using multinomial-regression analysis. Neither for education (Wald chi2(12) = 9.830, p = 0.631) nor for age (Wald chi2(6) = 6.091, p = 0.413) have significant effects been identified.

4.1.4. Analysis Step Four: Multinomial Regression Analysis on the Identified Parenting Patterns Related to the Three SDQ Dimensions to Understand the Social Behavior of the Respective Children

For the three SDQ dimensions (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and prosocial behavior), we identified significantly lower levels of problems when comparing the “highly authoritative style” profile to the other three parenting profiles (see Table 4 ). This was especially the case when comparing the “highly authoritative style” profile to the “permissive focused authoritative style” or the “inconsistent parenting style” profile. No significant differences were identified (see Table 4 ) when comparing the levels of prosocial behavior of the four parenting profiles. In summary, we identified the “highly authoritative parenting style” profile to be the least connected to internalizing or externalizing problems of the respective children when studying the answers by their parents.

Multinomial logistic regression of SDQ-dimensions in the four LPA profiles.

Note: S.E. = Standard Error; OR = Odds Ratio. Reference LPA profile is the profile we called “Highly Authoritative style”. For all three SDQ-dimensions: (0 normal; 1 at risk/clinical).

5. Discussion

Given the lack of studies that capture parenting styles as a heterogeneous construct and therefore solely focus on the individual and the well-known parenting styles, i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive, we pursued the research question as to whether there are distinct parenting style profiles. We conceptualized parenting style as a multidimensional and latent construct encompassing diverse aspects of parenting rather than a single one. We, therefore, defined parenting style as a collection, a mix of parents’ attitudes, behaviors, and emotions [ 9 ].

By using latent profile analysis and examining the association between the identified profiles and adolescents’ externalizing and internalizing behavior problems and prosocial behavior, our study is able to confirm the relevance of presenting the different parenting dimensions in a more complex and appropriate picture of parenting profiles and their influence on adolescents’ socio-emotional skills. Person-centered approaches extend beyond commonly used methods for establishing these parenting styles or profiles, such as the scale-mean or median-split methods, which can be problematic when dealing with multiple dimensions [ 129 ].

The present study adopted a person-oriented method to overcome these limitations and address the complex interplay of multiple dimensions. This approach allowed, following Hypotheses 1, identification of distinct parental profiles using latent profile analysis, for an adequate representation of the combinations of parenting styles. Interestingly, previous studies using person-centered approaches have revealed different combinations of parenting styles but have not confirmed distinct forms of permissive parenting profiles [ 88 , 110 ] or authoritarian profiles [ 130 , 131 ]. Our results supported these findings by considering parenting styles as a multidimensional construct rather than mere forms of distinct parenting styles. These findings build on previous research and demonstrate how person-oriented methods can provide insights that are difficult to achieve with variable-oriented techniques. Detecting the latent profiles used in this study to identify parenting styles would be challenging, if not impossible, to confirm using traditional variable-oriented analyses.

Confirming Hypothesis 1, we found four distinct profiles regarding a mix of all three parenting styles. We could not identify a parenting style that was uniquely focused on authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive styles, demonstrating that parenting styles should be captured as a multidimensional, latent concept. Interestingly, all four patterns were very high in the authoritative style, suggesting that some form of responsiveness and control characterizes all profiles. This finding is in line with other studies [ 87 ], which also found several parenting profiles consisted of authoritative (i.e., adaptive) parenting practices. Additionally, in our research, most parents had middle levels of authoritarian style (i.e., negative features). Specifically, three out of four profiles showed some authoritarian parenting style combined with authoritative and permissive styles. This means that a third of the children and adolescents do experience intrusive, critical, scolding, and threatening behaviors common to authoritarian parents [ 17 , 22 , 23 ], in addition to some levels of warm, loving, and dialogical behaviors [ 17 , 21 ], as well as loose or contradictory discipline [ 18 ].

Notably, analyses of the latent profile frequencies indicated that most parents in our sample perceived their practices as exhibiting a relatively positive parenting style/profile. Given that the concept of equifinality (i.e., different early experiences in life) is helpful for interpreting how parenting styles are associated with adaptive or maladaptive behavioral outcomes over time [ 87 ], the results of the current study extend the research on multiple manifestations of adaptive parenting by Greek parents of children and adolescents. We found it surprising that the permissive style was present to a moderate degree in all four profiles. This means that, although permissiveness alone is negative for socio-emotional development in children and adolescents, our results demonstrate that it was not determinant for profile affiliation in combination with high authoritative and low authoritarian styles.

Confirming Hypothesis 2, the present study demonstrated that the socio-emotional development in childhood and adolescence is strongly linked to the parenting style experienced. Children and adolescents with parents with primarily authoritative parenting styles, characterized by high levels of behavioral control and support and lower levels of psychological control, show a positive developmental status. In contrast, adolescents with affective controlling parents manifest problems in externalizing and internalizing behavior. This aligns with the existing empirical evidence, which consistently shows that the authoritative parenting style is positive for adaptive socio-emotional development, while the others are not [ 132 , 133 , 134 ]. These findings propose that children and adolescents have fewer behavioral problems [ 36 ] and a reduced tendency to internalize problems and dangerous behaviors [ 80 , 81 ].

Although the majority of parenting programs aimed at parents have focused on improving communication with their children, there are limited studies addressing parenting strategies [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Thus, we assume that parents may need more support in coping with their children’s behavioral problems and improving their parenting abilities to decrease the problem behavior. By identifying different patterns of parenting styles, it becomes clear that not all parents have the same needs. Interventions can be tailored to parents’ individual needs and challenges based on their specific profile patterns. This is important because, if parents can learn to create a positive and supportive environment for their children, they can reduce the risk of externalizing and internalizing behavioral problems, especially as parent–child conflict starts early in a child’s life and is very stable over time [ 31 ]. Thus, we adopt Teuber’s et al. [ 8 ] suggestion that the person-oriented results pointed out that it is useful to reinforce parents with guidance on positive parenting skills through parenting programs that focus on adaptive parenting practices, and direct the several maladaptive effects of different forms of dysfunctional practices. Contrary to our expectations regarding prosocial behavior, no significant differences were identified when comparing the levels of prosocial behavior of the four parenting profiles, supposing that our findings are inconsistent with prior findings that indicated that parenting dimensions are related to adolescents’ prosocial behavior [ 70 , 71 ]. Considering that we used SDQ parent reports regarding their children’s prosocial behavior, our study examined prosocial behavior as a global construct, ignoring differentiation between the subtypes of this behavior (e.g., altruistic, compliant, emotional, and public) [ 57 ], as well as between the motivations underlying it.

While our research on Hypotheses 3 challenges the assumption that parents’ age and education are strong determinants of parenting patterns [ 108 , 109 , 110 ], it is essential to note that the existing literature suggests some weak associations. Therefore, it is crucial to interpret our findings with caution. Nonetheless, our study underscores the need for further investigation into the multifaceted factors that influence parenting behaviors and the potential role of intervention programs, such as the newly developed profiles, in shaping these behaviors.

The implications of our findings on Hypothesis 3 are twofold. Firstly, it is suggested that other factors not considered in our research may have a more substantial impact on parenting patterns. It is possible that aspects such as cultural influences, personal values, or individual experiences may play a more significant role in shaping how parents interact with their children. Secondly, the reduced effects of parents’ age and education observed in our study could be attributed to the effectiveness of the newly developed profiles. These profiles might have facilitated a greater homogenization of parenting practices, potentially minimizing the impact of individual characteristics, such as age and education.

6. Limitations

Even if the insights gained by the chosen analytic design clearly expand the previous knowledge on parenting styles, there are a few limitations. As patterns of parental styles are not traits but states, we needed, instead of the chosen cross-sectional approach, a full longitudinal design. In future research, a latent transition analysis (LTA) should be applied to indicate significant differences in the longitudinal classification of the identified parenting patterns. LTA, the longitudinal extension of LCA, is a statistical tool that models possible parenting style pattern transitions over time. Especially. the findings regarding the “highly authoritative parenting style” as the least connected to children’s internalizing or externalizing problems should be approached with caution. There may be other confounding factors not considered in the analysis that could influence these associations, such as autonomy support and controlling parenting [ 135 , 136 ] or child–parent communication [ 137 ]. We also used parents’ self-perceptions of their parenting styles. Including the children’s perceptions of the respective parenting styles would have been interesting. Given that relations with parents play a distinct role in children’s development, the respective qualities of the relationship between parents and children are significant predictors of children’s academic, personal, and social development [ 138 ].

In addition, as our sample only included participants from a specific cultural context (Greek parents), the generalization of the findings to other countries and cultural contexts is rather limited. Furthermore, the sample restrictions and our specific sampling approach via the Internet can be considered another study limitation, even if our sample was large enough to be considered stable against minor deviations. Nevertheless, Mann and Stewart [ 139 ] noticed the risk of losing sight of who responds to online questionnaires. For example, about 90% of mothers answered our questionnaire. Although these surveys do not represent the total population of internet users, non-probability samples can be valuable, as they may be representative of a subgroup of the total population [ 113 ]. Another limitation is that marital status did not indicate if the parents were single mothers or fathers. In a future study, we could ask for this additional information, because it may matter to the chosen parenting styles [ 5 ]. We also did not ask for family income or migration status, both conditions that can also affect parenting styles [ 91 , 140 ].

7. Conclusions

To sum up, our results succeeded in extending parental types beyond the traditional authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative styles. The current study brings to light the person-centered approach in which parenting styles are better expanded into four parenting profiles, with the authoritative style predominating. Given the importance of the finding that one-third of children and adolescents exhibit behavior problems, the socio-emotional development in childhood and adolescence reaffirms the necessity of parenting programs to guide parenting practices.

Funding Statement

This research was supported by The Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) through the SNF-Project 100019_185481 “Understanding the resilience pathways of adolescent students with experience of physical family violence: The interplay of individual, family and school class risk and protective factors”, awarded to WK (University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.V. and W.K.; methodology, A.V., W.K. and A.K.; formal analysis, W.K.; data collection, A.K.; original draft preparation, A.V. and W.K.; writing—review and editing, A.V., W.K., A.K., D.A., C.A.F. and S.T.; funding acquisition, W.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and did not have to be approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hellenic Open University because of the sample (participants’ age) and the topic.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Scripps Senior Theses

Parenting styles and self-esteem.

Lucy C. Driscoll , Scripps College Follow

Graduation Year

Spring 2013

Document Type

Open Access Senior Thesis

Degree Name

Bachelor of Arts

Jennifer Ma

Judith LeMaster

Terms of Use & License Information

Terms of Use for work posted in Scholarship@Claremont .

Rights Information

© 2012 Lucy C. Driscoll

Data from 183 participants were collected through an online survey focusing on the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem across a specific age range. Parenting styles were assessed using a four-factor model while self-esteem was evaluated using two different scales. Multiple analyses were completed to find that self-esteem changed across the age range, and across parenting styles. The study looks at the ways in which these two variables changed. Implications, limitations and future research opportunities are discussed.

Recommended Citation

Driscoll, Lucy C., "Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem" (2013). Scripps Senior Theses . 155. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/155

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Parenting Style and the Development Essay

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Parenting styles of children

Stressors for families and communities, causes of the neglect, effects of the neglect, pablo case study, works cited.

Undoubtedly, parents raise their children differently, but what is important to understand is how those differences affect outcomes for children. There are three parenting styles according to a classical classification: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive (Hamon and Schrodt 151). To compare them, it is necessary to review the effective and ineffective techniques in each style.

First of all, the effectiveness of the authoritative style has been repeatedly confirmed in the relevant literature; in fact, it is now considered to be the most effective of the three styles (Williams et al. 1055). The reason is that the style combines high warmth toward children with high control. The authoritarian style features high levels of limit-setting and intrusiveness of children’s independence, which can be effective in terms of protecting children from bad influences. An effective technique of the permissive style is developing stronger family bonds, which increases children’s responsiveness.

However, there are also ineffective techniques. Authoritative parents may try to ineffectively demonstrate “responsiveness and demandingness” (Lin and Billingham 254) in the same situation, which may cause children’s resistance. Authoritarian parents’ ineffective technique is to discipline their children to the extent of minimal autonomy, which negatively affects children’s development. Finally, an ineffective technique in permissive parenting is an indulgence. Failing to practice appropriate control, such parents may overlook or fail to prevent negative outcomes for children.

The three parenting styles have both effective and ineffective techniques. The authoritative style is generally considered the most effective, and the authoritarian one is generally considered the least effective; the permissive style is in between. However, it is acknowledged that certain effectiveness in terms of achieving positive outcomes for children can be found in each style.

Major stressors for families and communities that may cause abuse and neglect include unemployment, “over employment” (in this context: spending too much time at work as opposed to spending it with one’s family), financial problems, substance abuse, and the lack of community support. Unemployment can affect families from various cultures and lifestyles by increasing internal tension, provoking frequent conflicts, and raising child neglect (“Unemployment Triggers Increase in Child Neglect”). Similarly, spending too much time at work makes parents pay less attention to their partners and children, which can cause neglect, and conflicts based on one’s being too busy with work can lead to abuse.

Similarly, if a family experiences financial problems, its members may feel resentment and display aggression. Also, Bulman states that children may blame their parents for financial stress, and such negative events contributing to abuse and neglect can occur in families with different cultural backgrounds. Substance abuse is an especially strong stressor because families that face this problem have to go through a remarkably difficult experience of overcoming addiction. Finally, if a family is not properly supported by its community, it is fertile soil for abuse and neglect (“If You Suspect Child Abuse”). Having to cope with family problems in a closed, unresponsive environment can lead to aggression and violence.

According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway, neglect can be caused by a lack of social skills, inadequately developed emotional relationships, poor time management, and poverty. Parents’ failure to provide for their children’s basic needs may be displayed in children’s changed behavior and worsening performance. Children in low-income families and vulnerable populations are at most risk of being neglected, and financially challenged parents are at most risk to neglect.

Physical abuse can be caused by a high level of unresolved stress and anger and by the lack of positive models. The signs of such abuse may include wounds, injuries, and depressive moods. Children in families living “under pressure” (“Physical Abuse”), including poverty and social vulnerability, are at most risk of being abused, and parents in such families are at most risk of abusing, too.

Sexual abuse can be caused by sadism, psychological problems, inadequate ethical standards, and abusive power and control. The signs in victims include difficulties walking and sitting, venereal diseases, and avoidance behaviors (Child Welfare Information Gateway). Children who are at most risk of sexual abuse are those who are poorly supervised, have disabilities, lack knowledge on sexuality, and are exposed to potential abusers; the latter are usually found to be mentally ill or ethically challenged.

Psychological maltreatment can be caused by unresolved psychological issues. The signs of it primarily include “extremes in behavior, such as overly compliant or demanding behavior, extreme passivity, or aggression” (Child Welfare Information Gateway), and depressive symptoms. Parents with psychological issues and traumas for which they do not seek treatment are at most risk of emotionally maltreating their children, and children in such families are at most risk of being maltreated.

Neglect during pregnancy can cause a child’s poor health, developmental problems, and premature birth. During the age of birth to one year, neglect can undermine healthy development, especially in terms of the child’s feeling of safety. Neglected infants and toddlers can demonstrate delays in motor development and coordination (Child Welfare Pre-Service Training). Neglected four- to eight-year-olds may fail to develop necessary social skills, and neglected eight- to twelve-year-olds may experience conflicts and inability to build adequate relationships with other people. In adolescents, neglect may cause psychological problems, depressive moods, and suicidal thoughts.

Physical abuse during pregnancy can lead to injuries and traumas causing serious medical conditions, inborn diseases, or miscarriage. Abuse during the age of birth to eight years can undermine a child’s growth and physical development; also, psychological development can be compromised, as the child may fail to develop the feeling of security. In later ages, physical abuse (if a child has not experienced it before) may cause acute responses, such as major depressive symptoms or aggression and violent behaviors.

Similar to physical abuse, sexual abuse can lead to dramatic outcomes for an unborn child. In toddlers and infants, such abuse can cause injuries and subsequent diseases. In four- to twelve-year-olds, sexual abuse leads to psychological trauma that later results in anxiety, depression, and inability to build healthy relationships. In adolescence, sexual abuse may cause acute responses similar to the responses to physical abuse.

A psychologically maltreated mother may fail to manage her pregnancy correctly, and the negative outcomes include premature birth, malnutrition, or miscarriage. Among toddlers and infants, such maltreatment may lead to developmental delays manifested in poor social and intimacy-related skills. Emotionally maltreated four- to twelve-year-olds may experience insecurity or display violence. In adolescence, maltreatment of this kind results in aggression, withdrawal, and indifference.

A six-year-old boy named Pablo came to school one morning with disturbing injuries: he had a black eye, a cut lip, and several scratches on his forehead and his neck (“Making a Call”). If I were Pablo’s teacher, I would be deeply concerned about his injuries, and I would have to develop a plan on what to do to ensure that the boy receives all the necessary help and support. My plan should be based on the reporting guidelines provided by the Department of Family and Protective Services (DFPS) and my ethical standards of an educator. This plan will primarily include reporting and supporting positive outcomes.

First of all, I need to report the incident. For this, I need to talk to Pablo first and to ask him to share, in an open and comforting environment, everything he feels he should share about what happened. It can be challenging for a child to tell about being abused, which is why I should be very delicate during the conversation. Further, I need to call the hotline and tell everything I know about the incident and Pablo’s family situation to the DFPS (“Making a Call”). Also, I need to convince all the other professionals who saw the boy’s injuries (including other educators and nurses) to report as well.

Second, I need to maintain confidentiality and support positive outcomes for Pablo and his family. For this, I will refuse to reveal the fact that I was the reporter even if I am confronted by the school administrators or Pablo’s parents. Second, I need to call the hotline again with the call reference I was given to check on the progress of the investigation and measures taken by Child Protective Services. Finally, I need to approach Pablo again during the same day to see how he is doing and to ensure that he does not have to stay at home alone with his presumably abusive father.

I know I would be horrified to meet a child with such injuries who would claim that his father inflicted them. Perhaps I would get very emotional, but I think it would be important for me to try to keep calm and properly report the incident according to the law. If Pablo’s situation was improved due to my intervention, I know I would feel accomplished because I did the right thing.

The highest number of children neglected, physically abused, and sexually abused in the United States from 1990 to 2012 was observed in 1995. I am not sure why the increase happened that year specifically, as I cannot identify any major political or economic turbulence at the time, but based on the causes of abuse described above, it can be assumed that the incidence of abuse is linked to socioeconomic factors. The neglect and abuse statistics show that 1995 was a challenging year in terms of the social environment in the country.

According to the statistics, female children are victims of abuse more often than male children. This can be explained by the fact that girls may be less capable of protecting themselves compared to boys who are more likely to demonstrate aggression and resistance to abuse. Also, it can be argued that girls are more frequently targeted by abusers because the former is perceived by the latter as more vulnerable and less likely to resist or confront their abusers.

The age group in which children were abused and neglected the most was two to five years.

Monica case study

Monica, 7, displays difficulties sitting. Based on the research on abuse presented above, I as an educator should plan how to address Monica’s case. My actions will include talking to the child and reporting my suspicions.

First of all, it is necessary to talk to Monica to find out if she is in pain. In a very delicate manner, I should ask her if anyone hurt her recently. During the conversation, Monica should feel safe and protected, which I can attain by being open and showing genuine care and support.

Whether Monica tells me she was abused or keeps silent, I should report my suspicions of child abuse to the DFPS. According to the law, I will tell everything I know and explicitly explain the extent of my certainty that Monica has been subjected to sexual abuse. Further, I will call the hotline again to find out what measures Child Protective Services took.

I genuinely believe that this is my obligation to report the case. If Monica is sexually abused, I need to ensure that proper measures are taken. If she is not, I will still think that my precautions were justified.

Bulman, May. “ Child Emotional Abuse Reports Surge 200% amid Cuts to Child Protection Services .” Independent , 2017. Web.

Child Welfare Information Gateway. What Is Child Abuse and Neglect? Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms . 2013. Web.

Child Welfare Pre-Service Training. The Effects of Abuse and Neglect on Child Development: Participant Guide . 2011. Web.

Hamon, Jordan D., and Paul Schrodt. “Do Parenting Styles Moderate the Association Between Family Conformity Orientation and Young Adults’ Mental Well-Being?” Journal of Family Communication , vol. 12, no. 2, 2012, pp. 151-166.

“ If You Suspect Child Abuse, Will You Act? ” Editorial. Chicago Tribune . 2017. Web.

Lin, Yi-Ching, and Robert E. Billingham. “Relationship between Parenting Styles and Gender Role Identity in College Students.” Psychological Reports , vol. 114, no. 1, 2014, pp. 250-271.

“ Making the Call: Reporting Abuse/Neglect by Phone .” YouTube , uploaded by Texas DFPS. 2016. Web.

“ Physical Abuse: Who Is Affected .” NSPCC . Web.

“ Unemployment Triggers Increase in Child Neglect, According to New Research .” Medical Xpress . 2017. Web.

Williams, Kathryn E., et al. “Inflexible Parents, Inflexible Kids: A 6-year Longitudinal Study of Parenting Style and the Development of Psychological Flexibility in Adolescents.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence , vol. 41, no. 8, 2012, pp. 1053-1066.

• Parental Investment Theory
• Children's Right to Be Parented by the Best Parent
• Newman’s sermon on the feast of St. Monica in the year 1856
• Utilitarian Permissive Concept for Women's Right to Choose Abortion
• The Three Parenting Styles
• Parenting Styles: China vs. North America
• How to Put a Baby to Bed?
• Working Mothers and Child Development
• Children's Success Requirements in Parents' Views
• Authoritarian vs. Permissive Parenting Styles
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2020, October 13). Parenting Style and the Development. https://ivypanda.com/essays/parenting-style-and-the-development/

"Parenting Style and the Development." IvyPanda , 13 Oct. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/parenting-style-and-the-development/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'Parenting Style and the Development'. 13 October.

IvyPanda . 2020. "Parenting Style and the Development." October 13, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/parenting-style-and-the-development/.

1. IvyPanda . "Parenting Style and the Development." October 13, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/parenting-style-and-the-development/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Parenting Style and the Development." October 13, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/parenting-style-and-the-development/.