examples of critical thinking in physical education

Physical Education Research Digest

Critical Thinking: Creating Meaning in Physical Education (PE) by Denise Dewar and Sue Weir

Denise and Sue are seconded teaching fellows at the University of Edinburgh. While working in schools, they both encountered initiatives aimed at the development of thinking skills. These experiences evolved into a project about ‘critical thinking’ and exploring how these ways of working could be fostered in PE settings and beyond. This blog reports on key insights from their collective self-study that has tracked the impact of their efforts to introduce critical thinking to undergraduate PE students. As part of the PERF’s Practitioner Inquiry (PINQ) Project, their research has been guided by LaBoskey’s key elements for self-study (2004).

Critical Thinking: Creating Meaning in Physical Education (PE)

Critical thinking is an amorphous term (Tan, 2017). It has numerous interpretations on both its definition and on the processes involved in developing critical thinking.  Most definitions highlight the connections to the upper three levels of Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy: analysis, synthesis and evaluation. These forms of thinking skills have been associated with a number of ‘Critical thinking’ learner dispositions including; open and fair mindedness, flexibility of thought, inquisitiveness and willingness to take risks (Lai, 2011).

Within the PE literature, critical thinking is a term first popularised by McBride (1992). He viewed PE as an ideal setting to develop critical thinking, which he defined as:

Reflective thinking that is used to make reasonable and defensible decisions about movement tasks or challenges (p112)

The short term focus within this quotation can be seen in the way in which any critical thinking is applied to the immediate tasks and challenges within a class situation.  Our own efforts, however, have been geared towards viewing critical thinking from both a short and long term perspective.  As can be seen in the figure below (click on image to enlarge), pupils not only respond to unique movement problems and reflect on and justify the decisions they make in class, but are also encouraged to view PE critically as part of their overall physical activity habits and lifestyle.

One key driver for connecting with these longer term ambitions comes from Dewey’s (1933) work on ‘deep’ learning. He explores the connection between ‘thinking’ and ‘meaning’ to create what he termed ‘profound learning’.  More recent research with a focus on ‘meaning’ has identified personal experience as a central feature. In the PE context, Beni et al (2016) explain how pupils with personalised experiences can feel more ‘meaningful’ connections to learning tasks, which are more likely to commit to a physically active lifestyle.

Our knowledge of critical thinking initially developed through our reading and shared discussions with each other and with critical friends.  Knowledge and understanding was further developed by piloting with the undergraduate PE teachers through lectures, seminars and practical workshops.   Our lecture to second year students was included as a key part of the curriculum course and was followed by a seminar which allowed students to discuss their understanding of critical thinking and explore ideas for their teaching of core PE.  Within practical workshops, fourth year students reflected on their own wider experiences of dance and chose a ‘purpose’ best suited to them, the students created a group performance based on these personal experiences.   They then performed the dance, evaluated the performance collectively and then reflected on the thinking involved in the creative process.

Data were gathered through a mixed methods approach: pre and post workshop questionnaires with students together with our own individual and shared reflections with two experienced teacher educators acting as critical friends throughout the research process.  In both years of the project we were surprised by the decisions students made when presented with choices in the lesson.   This reinforced our belief in offering pupils opportunities to not only make decisions but also justify these decisions to gain more insight into them (McBride, 1992).   Also, in the second year of the project, we felt we were more explicit in teaching thinking skills and dispositions within the workshops and using the language of thinking from the literature.  The importance of reflection time was highlighted in collective reflections, as we felt students needed time to make sense of the task and the thinking process.

Student Experiences

From data collected following the second year of workshops all students were able to identify when they used thinking skills and dispositions within the session.  We felt this indicated a deeper understanding of the concepts and tied in with our own reflections of being better able to ‘model critical thinking’ (McBride, 1992, p 118).

In harmony with our reflections, students also highly valued pupil reflection as a key component of critical thinking, with over half (52%) indicating that this would be an area of their own practice they would like to enhance.

Most students (93%) thought the session was made ‘meaningful’ with most of them connecting this to being given choices throughout the session, being able to express themselves freely and the nature of the session being sociable and enjoyable.

Concluding thoughts

As an ongoing longitudinal study, we have had some valuable findings so far.  The responses from the students have been encouraging, particularly as all students recognise the importance of critical thinking within PE.   In addition, as we have grappled with the key critical thinking concepts, our shared reflections have helped us make more sense of the non-linear nature of the design and enactment process of this type of project.

In the future, we will continue to integrate key components of critical thinking in the gymnastics element of curriculum and pedagogy course for year 2 and will reflect individually and collectively on the enactment process.  In addition, we will continue to share our critical thinking journey with other practitioners as part of the PINQ project and more widely.

Beni, S, Fletcher T and Ni Chronin, D (2016) Meaningful Experiences in Physical Education and Youth Sport: A review of literature, Quest, DOI: 10.1080/00336297.2016.1224192

LaBoskey, V. K. (2004). The methodology of self-study and its theoretical underpinnings. In J. J. Loughran, M. L. Hamilton, V. K. LaBoskey & T. Russell (Eds.), International handbook of self-study of teaching and teacher education practices (Vol. 2, pp. 817-869). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Lai, E.R. (2011) Critical thinking: a literature review. Research report. Pearson.

McBride, R. 1992. Critical thinking—An overview with implications for physical education.  Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 11: 112–125.

Tan, C (2017) Teaching Critical thinking: Cultural challenges and strategies in Singapore. British Educational research journal, 43:5 988-1002

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As a PE teacher, effective questioning technique is an essential skill which serves numerous purposes. These include:

• developing listening skills;
• challenging and focusing thinking;
• communicating expectations;
• developing interest and curiosity;
• assessing knowledge and understanding;
• redefining tasks for pupils of differing abilities; and
• helping pupils learn subject-specific terminology in PE [ 1-4 ]

In PE literature the topic of questioning has generally focused on the categorization of convergent and divergent questions and the use of Bloom’s taxonomy for promoting higher-order thinking skills in students. Convergent (or closed) questions generally only have one correct answer which the students should have been taught e.g., “What is a backcourt violation?”. Whereas, divergent (or open) questions allow for more variable and detailed responses e.g., “How could you improve your performance?” [ 1-5 ].

Examples of convergent (closed) and divergent (open) questions

In terms of cognitive complexity, convergent questions usually require lower-order thinking skills whilst divergent questions can stimulate higher-order thinking [ 1 ]. Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives provide a useful framework for planning questions which promote higher-order thinking skills (table 1) [ 6 ].

Table 1: Bloom’s taxonomy of higher-order thinking skills used for questioning

It is important as a PE teacher to plan for both convergent and divergent questions, as lower-order questions encourage students to recall factual knowledge such as recalling the location of muscles or specific teaching points. Whilst higher-order thinking questions might ask students to design a series of exercises that uses the specified muscle [ 1, 7 ]. It is worth noting that you should avoid asking too many divergent questions as they will slow the pace of the lesson [ 2 ]. Therefore, an effective strategy is to focus on the lesson objectives and plan a combination of questions (i.e., 2 closed, 1 open ) which scaffold upon each other [ 8 ].

When asking such questions, Muijs and Reynolds (2011), suggests giving pupils at least 3 seconds thinking time for convergent/closed questions , and 15 seconds for divergent/open questions . One simple strategy to help engage pupils in questioning is 'Think, Pair, Share' - the teacher poses the question and gives pupils thinking time. Students then share their answers with a partner. Teacher then selects students to share answers with the class.

No matter how experienced or inexperienced you are as a teacher, asking effective questions is a skill that can be developed and fine-tuned throughout your teaching career [ 2 ]. If this is a skill that you wish to develop, we recommend that you include relevant questions in your lesson plans and familiarize yourself with the strategies and common mistakes below.

Table 2. Strategies for effective questioning and common mistakes [ 2, 3, 4 ]

Questions can be asked at any stage during the lesson and doesn’t always have to be in front of the whole-class. A more beneficial approach is to circulate the group and ask individuals and small groups questions to serve a particular purpose, this may be: to focus attention; to invite inquiry; to assess knowledge and understanding; develop self- and peer-assessment; or to lead pupils to be mindful [ 4 ]. Bailey (2001) related question type to the various stages of the lesson (table 3).

Table 3: Types of questions related to stage of the lesson

Therefore, in order to skillfully use and ask pertinent questions in Physical Education lessons it is important that you understand and plan a combination of open- and closed- questions which promote the appropriate level of thinking for the different abilities in your class. Print and laminate some of the tables and info above and place them on the wall behind your desk, and try spending 3-minutes thinking about and writing some questions for your lesson. Do this for a handful of lessons in a week and you will be surprised how much better your questioning becomes. But remember to keep it short and punchy!

• Newton, A. & Bowler, M. (2015) Assessment for and of learning in PE, In Capel, S. & Whitehead, M (Ed) Learning to Teach Physical Education in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. 4th Edition. London: Routledge.
• Zwozdiak-Myers, P.N. (2015) Teacher as a researcher/reflective practitioner. In Capel, S. & Whitehead, M (Ed) Learning to Teach Physical Education in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. 4th Edition. London: Routledge.
• Grout, H. & Long, G. (2009) Improving Teaching & Learning in Physical Education. Berkshire: Open University Press
• Bailey, R. (2001) Teaching Physical Education: A handbook for Primary and Secondary School Teachers. London: Kogan Page
• Torrance, H. & Pryor, J. (2001) Developing formative assessment in the classroom: using action research to explore and modify theory. British Educational Research Journal, 27(5): 615-31.
• Bloom, B., Englehart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hil, W.H. and Krathwohl, D.R. (eds) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: D.McKay.
• Good, T.L. & Brophy, J.E.(1991) Looking at Classrooms, Harper Collins: New York.
• Mawer, M (1995) The Effective Teaching of Physical Education, Harlow: Pearson Education.
• Muijs, D. & Reynolds, D. (2011) Effective Teaching: Evidence and Practice. 3rd Edition. London: Sage.

Activities for Critical Thinking in P.E.

Michael e carpenter.

Critical thinking covers many aspects of thought including planning, reasoning, logic and reflection. Physical education class, or P.E., can incorporate all the aspects of critical thinking in many activities. It is the job of the teacher to make students think about the lessons they are being taught to utilize critical thinking skills.

Explore this article

• Ball in the Bucket
• Sink the Ship
• Cross the Sea
• Capture the Flag

1 Ball in the Bucket

In this activity, break the students into groups of four. Provide the students with one ball and place a bucket at the opposite end of the gym. Have the students design the most creative ways to get the ball into the bucket in four moves. Tell the students that the ball may be kicked, thrown, bounced or hit in any original and creative way. Let the students have some time to plan on how they will accomplish this. After they have come up with a plan, allow some practice time for each group. Let each group rework their plan if necessary. Have the entire class vote on which group had the most creative plan.

2 Sink the Ship

Place mats around the gym at equal distances from each other. Break the students into groups of four. Each team must designate a gopher and three people to stay on the mat. Place four bowling pins around the mats and give each group one to two small balls to start. The goal is to knock off all the pins to "sink" the ship. The three students on the mat must protect the pins while also attacking the other ships. The gophers collect the balls the students on the mats cannot get. The students must work as a team and develop strategies to protect and knock down the other team's pins.

3 Cross the Sea

Break students into groups of five or six. Provide each group with two gym mats. Tell the students that they are on a tropical island and they must cross the gym to return to safety. The gym mats are the boats. The students must work the gym mats across the gym without any of the students falling off the mat. If any student steps off the map the entire group must go back to the start and try again.

4 Capture the Flag

Divide the students into two teams. Give each team a flag and tell them to place it in one corner of the gym. The center line of the gym will divide the two teams. When a player is on their team's side of the line they are safe. When they cross the line they can be tagged and placed in "jail." The jail can be the sidelines or opposite corner of the gym. The students should devise a strategy to take the other team's flag while protecting their own flag at the same time. The team that captures the other team's flag and returns it to their own side is the winner.

• 1 PE Central: Sink the Ship
• 2 The Educator's Reference Desk: Voyage Across the Ocean
• 3 Teacher Vision: Capture the Flag

About the Author

Michael Carpenter has been writing blogs since 2007. He is a mortgage specialist with over 12 years of experience as well as an expert in financing, credit, budgeting and real estate. Michael holds licenses in both real estate and life and health insurance.

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Critical Inquiry and Problem Solving in Physical Education

DOI link for Critical Inquiry and Problem Solving in Physical Education

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Critical inquiry, critical thinking and problem-solving are key concepts in contemporary physical education. But how do physical educators actually do critical inquiry and critical thinking?

Critical Inquiry and Problem-Solving in Physical Education explains the principles and assumptions underpinning these concepts and provides detailed examples of how they can be used in the teaching of physical education for different age groups and in a range of different contexts.

Topics covered include:

• sport education and critical thinking
• dance as critical inquiry
• media analysis
• understanding cultural perspectives
• student-led research and curriculum
• reflective coaching practice.

The authors are teachers, teacher educators, policymakers and academics. Each shares a commitment to the notion that school students can do more than learn to move in physical education classes.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part i | 30  pages, locating critical inquiry and problem-solving in physical education, chapter 1 | 13  pages, critical inquiry and problem-solving in physical education, chapter 2 | 15  pages, understanding learning in physical education, part 2 | 113  pages, critical inquiry and problem-solving in the middle years of schooling, chapter 3 | 16  pages, using the tactical games model to develop problem-solvers in physical education, chapter 4 | 13  pages, chapter 5 | 12  pages, problem-solving in teaching sports, chapter 6 | 19  pages, student-centred research, chapter 7 | 12  pages, movement, art and culture, chapter 8 | 15  pages, understanding and investigating cultural perspectives in physical education, chapter 9 | 13  pages, rich tasks, rich learning, chapter 10 | 12  pages, negotiating the curriculum, part 3 | 52  pages, critical inquiry and problem-solving in the senior years of schooling, chapter 11 | 12  pages, reflective practices in teaching and coaching, chapter 12 | 12  pages, biomechanical analyses in physical education, chapter 13 | 12  pages, desperately seeking certainty, chapter 14 | 14  pages, analysing sportsmedia texts, part 4 | 12  pages, the challenges of critical inquiry in physical education, chapter 15 | 10  pages, new practices, new subjects and critical inquiry.

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2nd Edition

Case Studies in Adapted Physical Education Empowering Critical Thinking

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Description

Covering self-contained adapted physical education classes, general physical education programs, and youth sports and community recreation, this book presents a series of case studies of teaching individuals of varied ability and disability in physical activity settings. Outlining realistic scenarios, it encourages an interactive, problem-solving teaching and learning style and the development of critical thinking skills. Now in a fully revised and updated second edition, the book covers a wide range of different professional issues, themes, disabilities, and conditions, from assessment and behavior management processes to working with students with intellectual disabilities, motor difficulties, chronic illness, or obesity. Each case study includes questions that challenge the reader to reflect on the practical issues involved and how to build inclusive teaching strategies. This book is valuable reading for all physical education students, teacher candidates, and novice and experienced teachers looking to deepen their understanding of adapted physical education and to improve their professional practice. It is an essential companion to any adapted physical education or physical activity course.

Table of Contents

Samuel R. Hodge is Professor of Kinesiology in the Department of Human Sciences in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University, USA. Nathan M. Murata is Professor and Dean of the College of Education at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, USA. Martin E. Block is Professor and Director of the Kinesiology for Individuals With Disabilities (KID) Program at the University of Virginia, USA. Lauren J. Lieberman is Distinguished Service Professor and Director of Camp Abilities in the Department of Kinesiology, Sport Studies and Physical Education at The College at Brockport, State University of New York, USA.

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Critical Pedagogy in Physical Education

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• Shrehan Lynch 2 &
• Alan Ovens 3  

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Introduction

The broad aim of critical pedagogy, as it relates to physical education, is to critique the socially constructed nature of human health, physicality, and movement culture and take action to ensure it is socially just, equitable, and inclusive. Human movement culture is full of possibilities for enriching people’s lives. Unfortunately, it is also a site for many discriminatory practices and beliefs that limit every person’s ability to be active, engaged, and achieving their potential. Therefore, critical pedagogy for physical education is about enacting a process of helping students become more aware by going beyond surface meanings and understand the basic causes, ideologies and myths that underpin social conventions and discriminatory practices. Through this awareness, students then become empowered to critique and challenge the status quo. Empowerment leads to social change in the quest for justice, equity, democracy, and human freedom. The “critical” in critical...

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Lynch, S., & Curtner-Smith, M. D. (2019a). “The education system is broken:” The influence of a sociocultural foundations class on the perspectives and practices of physical education preservice teachers. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 38 (4), 377–387.

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Lynch, S., & Curtner-Smith, M. (2019b). ‘You have to find your slant, your groove:’ One physical education teacher’s efforts to employ transformative pedagogy. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 24 (4), 359–372.

Ovens, A. (2016). Chapter 19: Transformative aspirations and realities in physical education teacher education. In C. Ennis (Ed.), Routledge handbook of physical education pedagogies (pp. 295–306). New York: Taylor and Francis.

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Philpot, R., & Ovens, A. (2019). Five principles of transformative pedagogies in PETE. In J. Walton-Fisette, S. Sutherland, & J. Hill (Eds.), Teaching about social justice issues in physical education (pp. 3–12). Information Age Publishing.

Philpot, R., Smith, W., & Ovens, A. (2019). PETE critical pedagogies for a new millennium. Movimento, 25 , e25064. https://doi.org/10.22456/1982-8918.95142 . Porto Alegre.

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Shrehan Lynch

University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

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Institute of Education, University of Winchester, Winchester, UK

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Lynch, S., Ovens, A. (2021). Critical Pedagogy in Physical Education. In: Peters, M.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Teacher Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_417-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_417-1

Received : 04 September 2020

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Published : 14 October 2020

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

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