thesis statement on self esteem

What is Self-Esteem? A Psychologist Explains

What is the Meaning of Self-Esteem in Psychology? Definition, examples, research, books, tips, facts, tests, TED-talks and more...

“Believe in yourself.”

That is the message that we encounter constantly, in books, television shows, superhero comics, and common myths and legends.

We are told that we can accomplish anything if we believe in ourselves.

Of course, we know that to be untrue; we cannot accomplish anything in the world simply through belief—if that were true, a lot more children would be soaring in the skies above their garage roof instead of lugging around a cast for a few weeks!

However, we know that believing in yourself and accepting yourself for who you are is an important factor in success, relationships, and happiness and that self-esteem plays an important role in living a flourishing life . It provides us with belief in our abilities and the motivation to carry them out, ultimately reaching fulfillment as we navigate life with a positive outlook.

Various studies have confirmed that self-esteem has a direct relationship with our overall wellbeing, and we would do well to keep this fact in mind—both for ourselves and for those around us, particularly the developing children we interact with.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Self-Compassion Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will not only help you show more compassion to yourself but will also give you the tools to enhance the self-compassion of your clients, students or employees and lead them to a healthy sense of self-esteem.

This Article Contains:

What is the Meaning of Self-esteem? A Definition

Self-Esteem and Psychology

Incorporating self-esteem in positive psychology, 22 examples of high self-esteem, 18 surprising statistics and facts about self-esteem, relevant research, can we help boost self-esteem issues with therapy and counseling, the benefits of developing self-esteem with meditation, can you test self-esteem, and what are the problems with assessment, 17 factors that influence self-esteem, the effects of social media, 30 tips & affirmations for enhancing self-esteem, popular books on self-esteem (pdf), ted talks and videos on self-esteem, 15 quotes on self-esteem, a take-home message, what is the meaning of self-esteem.

You probably already have a good idea, but let’s start from the beginning anyway: what is self-esteem?

Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall sense of his or her value or worth. It can be considered a sort of measure of how much a person “values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself” (Adler & Stewart, 2004).

According to self-esteem expert Morris Rosenberg, self-esteem is quite simply one’s attitude toward oneself (1965). He described it as a “favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the self”.

Various factors believed to influence our self-esteem include:

Personality
Life experiences
Social circumstances
The reactions of others
Comparing the self to others

An important note is that self-esteem is not fixed. It is malleable and measurable, meaning we can test for and improve upon it.

Self-esteem and self-acceptance are often confused or even considered identical by most people. Let’s address this misconception by considering some fundamental differences in the nature and consequences of self-esteem and unconditional self-acceptance.

Self-esteem is based on evaluating the self, and rating one’s behaviors and qualities as positive or negative, which results in defining the self as worthy or non-worthy (Ellis, 1994).
Self-acceptance, however, is how the individual relates to the self in a way that allows the self to be as it is. Acceptance is neither positive nor negative; it embraces all aspects and experiences of the self (Ellis, 1976).
Self-esteem relies on comparisons to evaluate the self and ‘decide’ its worth.
Self-acceptance, stems from the realization that there is no objective basis for determining the value of a human being. So with self-acceptance, the individual affirms who they are without any need for comparisons.
Self-esteem is contingent on external factors, such as performance, appearance, or social approval, that form the basis on which the self is evaluated.
With self-acceptance, a person feels satisfied with themselves despite external factors, as this sense of worthiness is not derived from meeting specific standards.
Self-esteem is fragile (Kernis & Lakey, 2010).
Self-acceptance provides a secure and enduring positive relationship with the self (Kernis & Lakey, 2010).
When it comes to the consequences on wellbeing, while self-esteem appears to be associated with some markers of wellbeing, such as high life satisfaction (Myers & Diener, 1995) and less anxiety (Brockner, 1984), there is also a “dark side” of self-esteem, characterized by egotism and narcissism (Crocker & Park, 2003).
Self-acceptance is strongly associated with numerous positive markers of general psychological wellbeing (MacInnes, 2006).

Self-esteem has been a hot topic in psychology for decades, going about as far back as psychology itself. Even Freud , who many consider the founding father of psychology (although he’s a bit of an estranged father at this point), had theories about self-esteem at the heart of his work.

What self-esteem is, how it develops (or fails to develop) and what influences it has kept psychologists busy for a long time, and there’s no sign that we’ll have it all figured out anytime soon!

While there is much we still have to learn about self-esteem, we have at least been able to narrow down what self-esteem is and how it differs from other, similar constructs. Read on to learn what sets self-esteem apart from other self-directed traits and states.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Concept

Self-esteem is not self-concept, although self-esteem may be a part of self-concept. Self-concept is the perception that we have of ourselves, our answer when we ask ourselves the question “Who am I?” It is knowing about one’s own tendencies, thoughts, preferences and habits, hobbies, skills, and areas of weakness.

Put simply, the awareness of who we are is our concept of our self .

Purkey (1988) describes self-concept as:

“the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence”.

According to Carl Rogers, founder of client-centered therapy , self-concept is an overarching construct that self-esteem is one of the components of it (McLeod, 2008).

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Image

Another similar term with a different meaning is self-image; self-image is similar to self-concept in that it is all about how you see yourself (McLeod, 2008). Instead of being based on reality, however, it can be based on false and inaccurate thoughts about ourselves. Our self-image may be close to reality or far from it, but it is generally not completely in line with objective reality or with the way others perceive us.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Worth

Self-esteem is a similar concept to self-worth but with a small (although important) difference: self-esteem is what we think, feel, and believe about ourselves, while self-worth is the more global recognition that we are valuable human beings worthy of love (Hibbert, 2013).

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Confidence

Self-esteem is not self-confidence ; self-confidence is about your trust in yourself and your ability to deal with challenges, solve problems, and engage successfully with the world (Burton, 2015). As you probably noted from this description, self-confidence is based more on external measures of success and value than the internal measures that contribute to self-esteem.

One can have high self-confidence, particularly in a certain area or field, but still lack a healthy sense of overall value or self-esteem.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Efficacy

Similar to self-confidence, self-efficacy is also related to self-esteem but not a proxy for it. Self-efficacy refers to the belief in one’s ability to succeed at certain tasks (Neil, 2005). You could have high self-efficacy when it comes to playing basketball, but low self-efficacy when it comes to succeeding in math class.

Unlike self-esteem, self-efficacy is more specific rather than global, and it is based on external success rather than internal worth.

Self-Esteem vs. Self-Compassion

Finally, self-esteem is also not self-compassion. Self-compassion centers on how we relate to ourselves rather than how we judge or perceive ourselves (Neff, n.d.). Being self-compassionate means we are kind and forgiving to ourselves, and that we avoid being harsh or overly critical of ourselves. Self-compassion can lead us to a healthy sense of self-esteem, but it is not in and of itself self-esteem.

We explore this further in The Science of Self-Acceptance Masterclass© .

Esteem in Maslow’s Theory – The Hierarchy of Needs

The mention of esteem may bring to mind the fourth level of Maslow’s pyramid : esteem needs.

While these needs and the concept of self-esteem are certainly related, Maslow’s esteem needs are more focused on external measures of esteem, such as respect, status, recognition, accomplishment, and prestige (McLeod, 2017).

There is a component of self-esteem within this level of the hierarchy, but Maslow felt that the esteem of others was more important for development and need fulfillment than self-esteem.

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Dr. Martin Seligman has some concerns about openly accepting self-esteem as part of positive psychology . He worries that people live in the world where self-esteem is injected into a person’s identity, not caring in how it is done, as long as the image of “confidence” is obtained. He expressed the following in 2006:

I am not against self-esteem, but I believe that self-esteem is just a meter that reads out the state of the system. It is not an end in itself. When you are doing well in school or work, when you are doing well with the people you love, when you are doing well in play, the meter will register high. When you are doing badly, it will register low. (p. v)

Seligman makes a great point, as it is important to take his words into consideration when looking at self-esteem. Self-esteem and positive psychology may not marry quite yet, so it is important to look at what research tells us about self-esteem before we construct a rationale for it as positive psychology researcher, coach, or practitioner.

Examples of these characteristics are being open to criticism, acknowledging mistakes, being comfortable with giving and receiving compliments, and displaying a harmony between what one says, does, looks, sounds, and moves.

People with high self-esteem are unafraid to show their curiosity, discuss their experiences, ideas, and opportunities. They can also enjoy the humorous aspects of their lives and are comfortable with social or personal assertiveness (Branden, 1992).

Although low self-esteem has received more attention than high self-esteem, the positive psychology movement has brought high self-esteem into the spotlight. We now know more about what high self-esteem looks like and how it can be cultivated.

We know that people with high self-esteem:

Appreciate themselves and other people.
Enjoy growing as a person and finding fulfillment and meaning in their lives.
Are able to dig deep within themselves and be creative.
Make their own decisions and conform to what others tell them to be and do only when they agree.
See the word in realistic terms, accepting other people the way they are while pushing them toward greater confidence and a more positive direction.
Can easily concentrate on solving problems in their lives.
Have loving and respectful relationships.
Know what their values are and live their lives accordingly.
Speak up and tell others their opinions, calmly and kindly, and share their wants and needs with others.
Endeavor to make a constructive difference in other people’s lives (Smith & Harte, n.d.).

We also know that there are some simple ways to tell if you have high self-esteem. For example, you likely have high self-esteem if you:

Act assertively without experiencing any guilt, and feel at ease communicating with others.
Avoid dwelling on the past and focus on the present moment.
Believe you are equal to everyone else, no better and no worse.
Reject the attempts of others to manipulate you.
Recognize and accept a wide range of feelings, both positive and negative, and share them within your healthy relationships.
Enjoy a healthy balance of work, play, and relaxation .
Accept challenges and take risks in order to grow, and learn from your mistakes when you fail.
Handle criticism without taking it personally, with the knowledge that you are learning and growing and that your worth is not dependent on the opinions of others.
Value yourself and communicate well with others, without fear of expressing your likes, dislikes, and feelings.
Value others and accept them as they are without trying to change them (Self Esteem Awareness, n.d.).

Based on these characteristics, we can come up with some good examples of what high self-esteem looks like.

Imagine a high-achieving student who takes a difficult exam and earns a failing grade. If she has high self-esteem, she will likely chalk up her failure to factors like not studying hard enough, a particularly difficult set of questions, or simply having an “off” day. What she doesn’t do is conclude that she must be stupid and that she will probably fail all future tests too.

Having a healthy sense of self-esteem guides her toward accepting reality, thinking critically about why she failed, and problem-solving instead of wallowing in self-pity or giving up.

For a second example, think about a young man out on a first date. He really likes the young woman he is going out with, so he is eager to make a good impression and connect with her. Over the course of their discussion on the date, he learns that she is motivated and driven by completely different values and has very different taste in almost everything.

Instead of going along with her expressed opinions on things, he offers up his own views and isn’t afraid to disagree with her. His high self-esteem makes him stay true to his values and allows him to easily communicate with others, even when they don’t agree. To him, it is more important to behave authentically than to focus on getting his date to like him.

23 Examples of Self-Esteem Issues

Here are 23 examples of issues that can manifest from low self-esteem:

You people please
You’re easily angered or irritated
You feel your opinion isn’t important
You hate you
What you do is never good enough
You’re highly sensitive to others opinions
The world doesn’t feel safe
You doubt every decision
You regularly experience the emotions of sadness and worthlessness
You find it hard keeping relationships
You avoid taking risks or trying new things
You engage in addictive avoidance behaviors
You struggle with confidence
You find it difficult creating boundaries
You give more attention to your weaknesses
You are often unsure of who you are
You feel negative experiences are all consuming
You struggle to say no
You find it difficult asking for your needs to be met
You hold a pessimistic or negative outlook on life
You doubt your abilities or chances of success
You frequently experience negative emotions, such as fear, anxiety or depression
You compare yourself with others and often you come in second best

It can be hard to really wrap your mind around self-esteem and why it is so important. To help you out, we’ve gathered a list of some of the most significant and relevant findings about self-esteem and low self-esteem in particular.

Although some of these facts may make sense to you, you will likely find that at least one or two surprise you—specifically those pertaining to the depth and breadth of low self-esteem in people (and particularly young people and girls).

Adolescent boys with high self-esteem are almost two and a half times more likely to initiate sex than boys with low self-esteem, while girls with high self-esteem are three times more likely to delay sex than girls with low self-esteem (Spencer, Zimet, Aalsma, & Orr, 2002).
Low self-esteem is linked to violence, school dropout rates, teenage pregnancy, suicide, and low academic achievement (Misetich & Delis-Abrams, 2003).
About 44% of girls and 15% of boys in high school are attempting to lose weight (Council on Alcoholism and Drug Abuse, n.d.).
Seven in 10 girls believe that they are not good enough or don’t measure up in some way (Dove Self-Esteem Fund, 2008).
A girl’s self-esteem is more strongly related to how she views her own body shape and body weight than how much she actually weighs (Dove Self-Esteem Fund, 2008).
Nearly all women (90%) want to change at least one aspect of their physical appearance (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
The vast majority (81%) of 10-year old girls are afraid of being fat (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
About one in four college-age women have an eating disorder (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
Only 2% of women think they are beautiful (Confidence Coalition, n.d.).
Absent fathers, poverty, and a low-quality home environment have a negative impact on self-esteem (Orth, 2018).

These facts on low self-esteem are alarming and disheartening, but thankfully they don’t represent the whole story. The whole story shows that there are many people with a healthy sense of self-esteem, and they enjoy some great benefits and advantages. For instance, people with healthy self-esteem:

Are less critical of themselves and others.
Are better able to handle stress and avoid the unhealthy side effects of stress.
Are less likely to develop an eating disorder.
Are less likely to feel worthless, guilty, and ashamed .
Are more likely to be assertive about expressing and getting what they want.
Are able to build strong, honest relationships and are more likely to leave unhealthy ones.
Are more confident in their ability to make good decisions.
Are more resilient and able to bounce back when faced with disappointment, failure, and obstacles (Allegiance Health, 2015).

Given the facts on the sad state of self-esteem in society and the positive outcomes associated with high self-esteem, it seems clear that looking into how self-esteem can be built is a worthwhile endeavor.

Luckily, there are many researchers who have tackled this topic. Numerous studies have shown us that it is possible to build self-esteem, especially in children and young people.

How? There are many ways!

Recent research found a correlation between self-esteem and optimism with university students from Brazil (Bastianello, Pacico & Hutz & 2014). One of the most interesting results came from a cross-cultural research on life satisfaction and self-esteem, which was conducted in 31 countries.

They found differences in self-esteem between collective and individualistic cultures with self-esteem being lower in collectivist cultures. Expressing personal emotions, attitudes, and cognitive thoughts are highly associated with self-esteem, collectivist cultures seem to have a drop in self-esteem because of a lack of those characteristics (Diener & Diener 1995).

China, a collectivist culture, found that self-esteem was a significant predictor of life satisfaction (Chen, Cheung, Bond & Leung, 2006). They found that similar to other collectivist cultures, self-esteem also had an effect on resilience with teenagers. Teenagers with low self-esteem had a higher sense of hopelessness and had low resilience (Karatas, 2011).

In more individualistic cultures, teenagers who were taught to depend on their beliefs, behaviors, and felt open to expressing their opinion had more resilience and higher self-esteem (Dumont & Provost, 1999).

School-based programs that pair students with mentors and focus on relationships, building, self-esteem enhancements, goal setting , and academic assistance have been proven to enhance students’ self-esteem, improve relationships with others, reduce depression and bullying behaviors (King, Vidourek, Davis, & McClellan, 2009).

Similarly, elementary school programs that focus on improving self-esteem through short, classroom-based sessions also have a positive impact on students’ self-esteem, as well as reducing problem behaviors and strengthening connections between peers (Park & Park, 2014).

However, the potential to boost your self-esteem and reap the benefits is not limited to students! Adults can get in on this endeavour as well, although the onus will be on them to make the changes necessary.

Self-esteem researcher and expert Dr. John M. Grohol outlined six practical tips on how to increase your sense of self-esteem, which include:

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6 Practical Tips on How to Increase Self-Esteem

1. take a self-esteem inventory to give yourself a baseline..

It can be as simple as writing down 10 of your strengths and 10 of your weaknesses. This will help you to begin developing an honest and realistic conception of yourself.

2. Set realistic expectations.

It’s important to set small, reachable goals that are within your power. For example, setting an extremely high expectation or an expectation that someone else will change their behavior is virtually guaranteed to make you feel like a failure, through no fault of your own.

3. Stop being a perfectionist.

Acknowledge both your accomplishments and mistakes. Nobody is perfect, and trying to be will only lead to disappointment. Acknowledging your accomplishments and recognizing your mistakes is the way to keep a positive outlook while learning and growing from your mistakes.

4. Explore yourself.

The importance of knowing yourself and being at peace with who you are cannot be overstated. This can take some trial and error, and you will constantly learn new things about yourself, but it is a journey that should be undertaken with purpose and zeal.

5. Be willing to adjust your self-image.

We all change as we age and grow, and we must keep up with our ever-changing selves if we want to set and achieve meaningful goals.

6. Stop comparing yourself to others.

Comparing ourselves to others is a trap that is extremely easy to fall into, especially today with social media and the ability to project a polished, perfected appearance. The only person you should compare yourself to is you (Grohol, 2011).

The Positivity Blog also offers some helpful tips on enhancing your self-esteem, including:

Say “stop” to your inner critic.
Use healthier motivation habits.
Take a 2-minute self-appreciation break.
Write down 3 things in the evening that you can appreciate about yourself.
Do the right thing.
Replace the perfectionism.
Handle mistakes and failures in a more positive way.
Be kinder towards other people .
Try something new.
Stop falling into the comparison trap.
Spend more time with supportive people (and less time with destructive people).
Remember the “whys” of high self-esteem (Edberg, 2017).

Another list of specific, practical things you can do to develop and maintain a good sense of self-esteem comes from the Entrepreneur website:

Use distancing pronouns. When you are experiencing stress or negative self-talk, try putting it in more distant terms (e.g., instead of saying “I am feeling ashamed,” try saying “Courtney is feeling ashamed.”). This can help you to see the situation as a challenge rather than a threat.
Remind yourself of your achievements. The best way to overcome imposter syndrome—the belief that, despite all of your accomplishments, you are a failure and a fraud—is to list all of your personal successes. You might be able to explain a couple of them away as a chance, but they can’t all be due to luck!
Move more! This can be as simple as a short walk or as intense as a several-mile run, as quick as striking a “power pose” or as long as a two-hour yoga session; it doesn’t matter exactly what you do, just that you get more in touch with your body and improve both your health and your confidence.
Use the “five-second” rule. No, not the one about food that is dropped on the ground! This five-second rule is about following up good thoughts and inspiring ideas with action. Do something to make that great idea happen within five seconds.
Practice visualizing your success. Close your eyes and take a few minutes to imagine the scenario in which you have reached your goals, using all five senses and paying attention to the details.
Be prepared—for whatever situation you are about to encounter. If you are going into a job interview, make sure you have practiced, know about the company, and have some good questions ready to ask. If you are going on a date, take some time to boost your confidence, dress well, and have a plan A and a plan B (and maybe even a plan C!) to make sure it goes well.
Limit your usage of social media. Spend less time looking at a screen and more time experiencing the world around you.
Meditate. Establish a regular meditation practice to inspect your thoughts, observe them, and separate yourself from them. Cultivating a sense of inner peace will go a long way towards developing healthy self-esteem.
Keep your goals a secret. You don’t need to keep all of your hopes and dreams to yourself, but make sure you save some of your goal striving and success for just you—it can make you more likely to meet them and also more satisfied when you do.
Practice affirmations (like the ones listed later in this piece). Make time to regularly say positive things about yourself and situations in which you often feel uncertain.
Build your confidence through failure. Use failure as an opportunity to learn and grow, and seek out failure by trying new things and taking calculated risks (Laurinavicius, 2017).

Now that we have a good idea of how to improve self-esteem , there is an important caveat to the topic: many of the characteristics and factors that we believe result from self-esteem may also influence one’s sense of self-esteem, and vice versa.

For example, although we recommend improving self-esteem to positively impact grades or work performance, success in these areas is at least somewhat dependent on self-esteem as well.

Similarly, those who have a healthy level of self-esteem are more likely to have positive relationships, but those with positive relationships are also more likely to have healthy self-esteem, likely because the relationship works in both directions.

While there is nothing wrong with boosting your self-esteem, keep in mind that in some cases you may be putting the cart before the horse, and commit to developing yourself in several areas rather than just working on enhancing your self-esteem.

Can We Help Boost Self-Esteem Issues with Therapy and Counseling?

Based on research like that described above, we have learned that there are many ways therapy and counseling can help clients to improve their self-esteem.

If done correctly, therapy can be an excellent method of enhancing self-esteem, especially if it’s low to begin with.

Here are some of the ways therapy and counseling can a client’s boost self-esteem:

When a client shares their inner thoughts and feelings with the therapist, and the therapist responds with acceptance and compassion rather than judgment or correction, this can build the foundations of healthy self-esteem for the client.
This continued acceptance and unconditional positive regard encourage the client to re-think some of their assumptions, and come to the conclusion that “Maybe there’s nothing wrong with me after all!”
The therapist can explain that self-esteem is a belief rather than a fact and that beliefs are based on our experiences; this can help the client understand that he could be exactly the same person as he is right now and have high self-esteem instead of low, if he had different experiences that cultivated a sense of high self-esteem instead of low self-esteem.
The therapist can offer the client new experiences upon which to base this new belief about herself, experiences in which the client is “basically acceptable” instead of “basically wrong.” The therapist’s acceptance of the client can act as a model for the client of how she can accept herself.
Most importantly, the therapist can accept the client for who he is and affirm his thoughts and feelings as acceptable rather than criticizing him for them. The therapist does not need to approve of each and every action taken by the client, but showing acceptance and approval of who he is at the deepest level will have an extremely positive impact on his own belief in his worth and value as a person (Gilbertson, 2016).

Following these guidelines will encourage your client to develop a better sense of self-love , self-worth, self-acceptance , and self-esteem, as well as discouraging “needless shame” and learning how to separate herself from her behavior (Gilbertson, 2016).

One of these methods is meditation—yes, you can add yet another benefit of meditation to the list! However, not only can we develop self-esteem through meditation , we also gain some other important benefits.

When we meditate, we cultivate our ability to let go and to keep our thoughts and feelings in perspective. We learn to simply observe instead of actively participate in every little experience that pops into our head. In other words, we are “loosening the grip we have on our sense of self” (Puddicombe, 2015).

While this may sound counterintuitive to developing and maintaining a positive sense of self, it is actually a great way to approach it. Through meditation, we gain the ability to become aware of our inner experiences without over-identifying with them, letting our thoughts pass by without judgment or a strong emotional response.

As meditation expert Andy Puddicombe notes, low self-esteem can be understood as the result of over-identification with the self. When we get overly wrapped up in our sense of self, whether that occurs with a focus on the positive (I’m the BEST) or the negative (I’m the WORST), we place too much importance on it. We may even get obsessive about the self, going over every little word, thought, or feeling that enters our mind.

A regular meditation practice can boost your self-esteem by helping you to let go of your preoccupation with your self, freeing you from being controlled by the thoughts and feelings your self-experiences.

When you have the ability to step back and observe a disturbing or self-deprecating thought, it suddenly doesn’t have as much power over you as it used to; this deidentification with the negative thoughts you have about yourself results in less negative talk over time and freedom from your overly critical inner voice (Puddicombe, 2015).

Self-esteem is the topic of many a psychological scale and assessment, and many of them are valid, reliable, and very popular among researchers; however, these assessments are not perfect. There are a few problems and considerations you should take into account if you want to measure self-esteem, including:

Lack of consensus on the definition (Demo, 1985).
Overall gender differences in self-esteem (Bingham, 1983).
Too many instruments for assessing self-esteem, and low correlations between them (Demo, 1985).
The unexplained variance between self-reports and inferred measures such as ratings by others (Demo, 1985).

Although these issues are certainly not unique to the measurement of self-esteem, one should approach the assessment of self-esteem with multiple measurement methods in hand, with the appropriate level of caution, or both.

Still, even though there are various issues with the measurement of self-esteem, avoiding the measurement is not an option! If you are looking to measure self-esteem and worried about finding a validated scale, look no further than one of the foundations of self-esteem research: Rosenberg’s scale.

Measuring Self-Esteem with the Rosenberg Scale

The most common scale of self-esteem is Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (also called the RSE and sometimes the SES). This scale was developed by Rosenberg and presented in his 1965 book Society and the Adolescent Self-Image.

It contains 10 items rated on a scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Some of the items are reverse-scored, and the total score can be calculated by summing up the total points for an overall measure of self-esteem (although it can also be scored in a different, more complex manner—see page 61 of this PDF for instructions).

The 10 items are:

1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. 2. At times I think I am no good at all. 3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. 5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 6. I certainly feel useless at times. 7. I feel that I’m a person of worth. 8. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 9. All in all, I am inclined to think that I am a failure. 10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.

As you likely figured out already, items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9 are reverse-scored, while the other items are scored normally. This creates a single score of between 10 and 40 points, with lower scores indicating higher self-esteem. Put another way, higher scores indicate a strong sense of low self-esteem.

The scale is considered highly consistent and reliable, and scores correlate highly with other measures of self-esteem and negatively with measures of depression and anxiety. It has been used by thousands of researchers throughout the years and is still in use today, making it one of the most-cited scales ever developed.

The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (1967/1981)

The second most commonly used reliable and valid measure for self-esteem is The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Within this test, 50 items are included to measure the test-takes attitudes towards themselves, by responding to statements with the selection of “like me” or “not like me” (Robinson, Shaver & Wrightsman, 2010).

Initially created to test the self-esteem of children, it was later altered by Ryden (1978) and now two separate versions exist; one for children and one for adults.

Find out more about taking this test here .

It might be quicker to list what factors don’t influence self-esteem than to identify which factors do influence it! As you might expect, self-esteem is a complex construct and there are many factors that contribute to it, whether positively or negatively.

For a quick sample of some of the many factors that are known to influence self-esteem, check out this list:

Commitment to the worker, spouse, and parental role are positively linked to self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 1994).
Worker identity meaning is positively related to self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 2006).
Being married and older is linked to lower self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 2006).
Higher education and higher income are related to higher self-esteem (Reitzes & Mutran, 2006).
Low socioeconomic status and low self-esteem are related (von Soest, Wagner, Hansen, & Gerstorf, 2018).
Living alone (without a significant other) is linked to low self-esteem (van Soest et al., 2018).
Unemployment and disability contribute to lower self-esteem (van Soest et al., 2018).
A more mature personality and emotional stability are linked to higher self-esteem (van Soest et al., 2018).
Social norms (the importance of friends’ and family members’ opinions) about one’s body and exercise habits are negatively linked to self-esteem, while exercise self-efficacy and self-fulfillment are positively linked to self-esteem (Chang & Suttikun, 2017).

If you’re thinking that an important technological factor is missing, go on to the next section and see if you’re right!

Although you may have found some of the findings on self-esteem covered earlier surprising, you will most likely expect this one: studies suggest that social media usage negatively impacts self-esteem (Friedlander, 2016).

This effect is easy to understand. Humans are social creatures and need interaction with others to stay healthy and happy; however, we also use those around us as comparisons to measure and track our own progress in work, relationships, and life in general. Social media makes these comparisons easier than ever, but they give this tendency to compare a dark twist.

What we see on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter is not representative of real life. It is often carefully curated and painstakingly presented to give the best possible impression.

We rarely see the sadness, the failure, and the disappointment that accompanies everyday human life; instead, we see a perfect picture, a timeline full of only good news, and short blurbs about achievements, accomplishments, and happiness .

Although this social comparison with unattainable standards is clearly a bad habit to get into, social media is not necessarily a death knell for your self-esteem. Moderate social media usage complemented by frequent self-reminders that we are often only seeing the very best in others can allow us to use social media posts as inspiration and motivation rather than unhealthy comparison.

You don’t need to give up social media for good in order to maintain a healthy sense of self-esteem—just use it mindfully and keep it in the right perspective!

By viewing self-esteem as a muscle to grow we establish a world of new opportunities. No longer do we have to view ourselves in the same light.

Use these 10 tips to strengthen the attitudes towards yourself:

1. Spend time with people who lift you up 2. Giveback by helping others 3. Celebrate your achievements, no matter the size 4. Do what makes you happy 5. Change what you can – and let go of what you can’t 6. Let go of perfectionism ideals 7. Speak to yourself like a friend 8. Get involved in extra-curricula’s 9. Own your uniqueness 10. Create a positive self-dialogue.

Influential American author, Jack Canfield explains “Daily affirmations are to the mind what exercise is to the body.” (watch this YouTube clip).

Affirmations are a great way to boost your self-esteem and, in turn, your overall wellbeing. There are tons of examples of affirmations you can use for this purpose, including these 17 from Develop Good Habits :

Mistakes are a stepping stone to success. They are the path I must tread to achieve my dreams.
I will continue to learn and grow.
Mistakes are just an apprenticeship to achievement.
I deserve to be happy and successful.
I deserve a good life. I deny any need for suffering and misery.
I am competent, smart, and able.
I am growing and changing for the better.
I love the person I am becoming.
I believe in my skills and abilities.
I have great ideas. I make useful contributions.
I acknowledge my own self-worth; my self-confidence is rising.
I am worthy of all the good things that happen in my life.
I am confident with my life plan and the way things are going.
I deserve the love I am given.
I let go of the negative feelings about myself and accept all that is good.
I will stand by my decisions. They are sound and reasoned.
I have, or can quickly get, all the knowledge I need to succeed.

If none of these leap out and inspire you, you can always create your own! Just keep in mind these three simple rules for creating effective affirmations:

The affirmations should be in the present tense. They must affirm your value and worth right here, right now (e.g., not “I will do better tomorrow” but “I am doing great today.”).
The affirmations should be positively worded. They should not deny or reject anything (i.e., “I am not a loser.”), but make a firm statement (e.g., “I am a worthy person.”).
The affirmations should make you feel good and put you in a positive light. They should not be empty words and they should be relevant to your life (e.g., “I am a world-class skier” is relevant if you ski, but is not a good affirmation if you don’t ski.).

Use these three rules to put together some positive, uplifting, and encouraging affirmations that you can repeat as often as needed—but aim for at least once a day.

There are many, many books available on self-esteem: what it is, what influences it, how it can be developed, and how it can be encouraged in others (particularly children). Here is just a sample of some of the most popular and well-received books on self-esteem :

Self-Esteem: A Proven Program of Cognitive Techniques for Assessing, Improving, and Maintaining Your Self-Esteem by Matthew McKay, PhD ( Amazon )
The Self-Esteem Guided Journal by Matthew McKay & C. Sutker ( Amazon )
Ten Days to Self-Esteem by David D. Burns, MD ( Amazon )
The Six Pillars of Self-Esteem: The Definitive Work on Self-Esteem by the Leading Pioneer in the Field by Nathanial Branden (if you’re not a big reader, check out the animated book review video below) ( Amazon )
The Self-Esteem Workbook by Glenn R. Schiraldi, PhD ( Amazon )
The Self-Esteem Workbook for Teens: Activities to Help You Build Confidence and Achieve Your Goals by Lisa M. Schab, LCSW ( Amazon )
Believing in Myself by E Larsen & C Hegarty. ( Amazon )
Being Me: A Kid’s Guide to Boosting Confidence and Self-Esteem by Wendy L. Moss, PhD ( Amazon )
Healing Your Emotional Self: A Powerful Program to Help You Raise Your Self-Esteem, Quiet Your Inner Critic, and Overcome Your Shame by Beverly Engel ( Amazon )

Plus, here’s a bonus—a free PDF version of Nathaniel Branden’s The Psychology of Self-Esteem: A Revolutionary Approach to Self-Understanding That Launched a New Era in Modern Psychology .

If reading is not a preferred method of learning more, fear not! There are some great YouTube videos and TED Talks on self-esteem. A few of the most popular and most impactful are included here.

Why Thinking You’re Ugly is Bad for You by Meaghan Ramsey

This TED talk is all about the importance of self-esteem and the impact of negative self-esteem, especially on young people and girls. Ramsey notes that low self-esteem impacts physical as well as mental health, the work we do, and our overall finances as we chase the perfect body, the perfect face, or the perfect hair. She ends by outlining the six areas addressed by effective self-esteem programs:

The influence of family, friends, and relationships
The media and celebrity culture
How to handle teasing and bullying
The way we compete and compare ourselves with others
The way we talk about appearance
The foundations of respecting and caring for yourself

Meet Yourself: A User’s Guide to Building Self-Esteem by Niko Everett

Another great TEDx Talk comes from the founder of the Girls for Change organization, Niko Everett. In this talk, she goes over the power of self-knowledge, self-acceptance, and self-love. She highlights the importance of the thoughts we have about ourselves and the impact they have on our self-esteem and shares some techniques to help both children and adults enhance their self-esteem.

Self-Esteem – Understanding & Fixing Low Self-Esteem by Actualized.org

This video from Leo Gura at Actualized.org defines self-esteem, describes the elements of self-esteem, and the factors that influence self-esteem. He shares why self-esteem is important and how it can be developed and enhanced.

How to Build Self Esteem – The Six Pillars of Self-Esteem by Nathaniel Branden Animated Book Review by FightMediocrity

This quick, 6-minute video on self-esteem outlines what author Nathaniel Branden sees as the “Six Pillars” of self-esteem:

The practice of living consciously Be aware of your daily activities and relationship with others, insecure reflections, and also personal priorities.
The practice of self-acceptance This includes becoming aware and accepting the best and the worst parts of you and also the disowned parts of ourselves.
The practice of self-responsibility This implies realizing that you are responsible for your choices and actions.
The practice of self-assertiveness Act through your real convictions and feelings as much as possible.
The practice of living purposefully Achieve personal goals that energize your existence.
The practice of personal integrity Don’t compensate your ideals, beliefs, and behaviors for a result that leads to incongruence. When your behaviors are congruent with your ideals, integrity will appear.

The speaker provides a definition and example of each of the six pillars and finishes the video by emphasizing the first two words of each pillar: “The Practice.” These words highlight that the effort applied to building self-esteem is, in fact, the most important factor in developing self-esteem.

Sometimes all you need to get to work on bettering yourself is an inspirational quote. The value of quotes is subjective, so these may not all resonate with you, but hopefully, you will find that at least one or two lights that spark within you!

“You yourself, as much as anybody in the entire universe, deserve your love and affection.”

Sharon Salzberg

“The greatest thing in the world is to know how to belong to oneself.”

Michel de Montaigne

“The man who does not value himself, cannot value anything or anyone.”

“Dare to love yourself as if you were a rainbow with gold at both ends.”

“As long as you look for someone else to validate who you are by seeking their approval, you are setting yourself up for disaster. You have to be whole and complete in yourself. No one can give you that. You have to know who you are—what others say is irrelevant.”

“I don’t want everyone to like me; I should think less of myself if some people did.”

Henry James

“Remember, you have been criticizing yourself for years and it hasn’t worked. Try approving of yourself and see what happens.”

Louise L. Hay

“Our deepest fear is not that we are inadequate. Our deepest fear is that we are powerful beyond measure. It is our light, not our darkness that most frightens us. We ask ourselves, Who am I to be brilliant, gorgeous, talented, fabulous? Actually, who are you not to be?”

Marianne Williamson

“I don’t entirely approve of some of the things I have done, or am, or have been. But I’m me. God knows, I’m me.”

“To me, self-esteem is not self-love. It is self-acknowledgement, as in recognizing and accepting who you are.”

Amity Gaige

“Self-esteem is as important to our well-being as legs are to a table. It is essential for physical and mental health and for happiness.”

Louise Hart

“Self-esteem is made up primarily of two things: feeling lovable and feeling capable. Lovable means I feel people want to be with me. They invite me to parties; they affirm I have the qualities necessary to be included. Feeling capable is knowing that I can produce a result. It’s knowing I can handle anything that life hands me.”

Jack Canfield

“You can’t let someone else lower your self-esteem, because that’s what it is—self-esteem. You need to first love yourself before you have anybody else love you.”

Winnie Harlow

“A man cannot be comfortable without his own approval.”

“Our self-respect tracks our choices. Every time we act in harmony with our authentic self and our heart, we earn our respect. It is that simple. Every choice matters.” Dan Coppersmith

17 Exercises To Foster Self-Acceptance and Compassion

Help your clients develop a kinder, more accepting relationship with themselves using these 17 Self-Compassion Exercises [PDF] that promote self-care and self-compassion.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

We hope you enjoyed this opportunity to learn about self-esteem! If you take only one important lesson away from this piece, make sure it’s this one: you absolutely can build your own self-esteem, and you can have a big impact on the self-esteem of those you love.

Self-esteem is not a panacea—it will not fix all of your problems or help you sail smoothly through a life free of struggle and suffering—but it will help you find the courage to try new things, build the resilience to bounce back from failure, and make you more susceptible to success.

It is something we have to continually work towards, but it’s absolutely achievable.

Stay committed.

Keep aware of your internal thoughts and external surroundings. Keep focused on your personal goals and all that is possible when self-doubt isn’t holding you back.

What are your thoughts on self-esteem in psychology? Should we be encouraging it more? Less? Is there an “ideal amount” of self-esteem? We’d love to hear from you! Leave your thoughts in the comments below.

You can read more about self-esteem worksheets and exercises for adults and teens here .

Thanks for reading!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Self Compassion Exercises for free .

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Interesting, and clear and quite precise in this definitions…..definitions are the most important.

Extremely good article addressing the prevalence of low self-esteem in Western society and how to overcome it. But did it consider the possibility self-esteem could ever be too high? I am still influenced by my old-school upbringing, where being labeled as “conceited” was a a thing. I was told that’s only an attempt to compensate for low self esteem, along with “egomania” and other disorders, but perhaps related to the driven personalities that have influenced much of history.

Excellent, Elaborative, Enduring and Eloquent ESSAY 🙂 Loved this article, very clear, very informative, very useful and practically implementable if determined to improve the quality of one’s life. THANK YOU is a small word for the author of this article.

thak you for this good article

Very helpful. Thank you very much

Thanks for sharing it. I’m happy after reading it , please keep continue to enlighten people

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106 Ideas, Examples, and Topics on Self Esteem

🏆 best research title about self esteem, 💡 interesting self-esteem topics for discussion, 📌 good self-esteem research topics, 🔎 simple & easy research titles about low self-esteem, ❓ research questions about self-esteem.

Instagram Addiction and Impact on Self-Esteem The effect of social media use is reported to have a mixed effect on the user. First, social media addiction may have a varying effect on self-esteem depending on the type of use.
Self Concept and Self Esteem in Interpersonal Communication Low self-esteem is associated with a person’s emotional response to self-perception and social expectation. Low-self esteem is associated with the feeling of failure to meet social expectation.
Instagram Addiction and Self-Esteem in Kuwaiti High School Students Besides, the study will explore the impact of social media and reveal the possible ways to resolve the social media addiction issues affecting the youth.
The Increasing of Self-Esteem Importance This is part of a consciousness process in which one goes beyond what comes to be recognized as the illusion of separate selfhood.
Self Esteem and Culture in a Learning Environment Reflectively, the conceptual idea of this treatise is an in-depth analysis of the aspects of social environment and objective and their influence on quality of learning, self-evaluation, goal setting, decision making, and inclusive education as […]
High Self-Esteem Development Towards Self-Image People’s health and appearance have to be satisfactory and correspond to people’s idea of ‘a norm’ as it has been proven that the better a person’s health is the higher self-esteem he/she has.
Self-Esteem and Students’ Health More so, life satisfaction is closely connected with the concept of self-esteem, and mental health also depends on proper development of self-esteem. It is also necessary to remember that a number of factors influence development […]
Instagram Addiction and Self-Esteem in High School Students To test the relationship between social media Instagram addiction and self-esteem in American high school students, a descriptive survey where students will be enrolled in an online, blinded survey will apply.
Child Neglect Might Affect a Child’s Self-Esteem in Adulthood Three situations in different locations are to be thoroughly discussed to illustrate the issue of the research. Indeed, the observation at the chosen playground seemed to be fruitful because of children of different ages.
Self-Handicapping, Self-Esteem, and Self-Compassion The higher the level of stress tolerance, the more successfully a person copes with anxiety, and, on the contrary, the lower the level, the more challenging it is for one to handle an unusual situation. […]
Promoting Self-Esteem in School-Age Children During the early school-age period, self-esteem concerns the way children accomplish set academic tasks and their performance in extracurricular activities.
The Relationship Between Polygamy and Self-Esteem in Children in Saudi Arabia Family cohesion in polygamous families is crucial for exploring in the context of this study because it directly involves the psychological well-being of children as well as the subsequent development of their self-esteem and adaptation […]
The Role of Self-Esteem in Education Speaking about practice, it is also possible to note the ambiguous nature of schools that promote self-esteeming by constantly saying to children that they can do anything, while teachers manipulate them by means of rewards […]
Psychology. “Self-Esteem” Book by Dr. Matthew McKay Self-Esteem: A Proven Program of Cognitive Techniques for Assessing, Improving, and Maintaining Your Self-Esteem is the book which teach people to live in piece with our society and with oneself.
The Self Esteem: Scientific Approach In this respect the reliability of the research props up against the analysis of what is known at the time. The thing is that it is really the better predictor of high results compared to […]
Concept of the Self and Self-Esteem Among the most common and widely used ways of self, the approach is self-esteem and self-concept.self-esteem refers to how an individual views himself from an emotional or affective aspect.
Concept Analysis of Loneliness, Depression, Self-esteem The purpose of this direct study was to look at levels of depression, self-esteem, loneliness, and communal support, and the relationships stuck between these variables, in the middle of teenage mothers participating in the New […]
Evaluating the Self-Esteem of the Homeless The mission statement of the program indicates the central role played by the agency to the welfare of the society.”The Doe Fund’s mission is to develop and implement cost-effective, holistic programs that meet the needs […]
Self-Esteem and Rejection: It Is Not Personal Taking things personally is problematic for many reasons, one of which is the bias connected to the perception of a situation.
Striving for Self-Esteem in Business The learning points from these articles are that self-assessment is only possible in the latter stages of business development and not the beginning, all businesses must go through ISO 9000 certification series and excellence models […]
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Mean Self-Esteem Scores for Boys and Girls The aim of this study was to determine if there was any difference in mean self-esteem scores for boys and girls.
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The Link Between Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy In explaining the dynamics of how self-esteem affects self-efficacy, it is important to note that low sense of self-worth will incapacitate the ability of an employee to succeed in specific situations due to lack of […]
Effects on Psychological Growth and Self-Esteem In 2007, approximately 794,000 cases of child maltreatment and abuse were reported in the US, translating to a maltreatment rate of 11 in every 1000 children.
Psychology Issues: Self-Esteem and Violence In my opinion, the argument by Boden, Fergusson, and Horwood is sociological since its main aim is to test the link between our self-esteem and later hostility and violent behavior.
Effects of Self-Esteem and Gender on Goal Choice The paper contains a discussion about the relationship between self esteem and gender to the type of goals that people make. Therefore, there is a link between high self-esteem and the behavior to make difficult […]
Concept of Self, Self-Esteem, and Behavior The concept of the self According to McLeod self concept is the perception that an individual holds about him or herself.
Women, Alcohol, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem: A Qualitative Study of the Experience of Person-Centred Counselling This essay discusses the research setting and sample, the selection of the setting and the data collection procedure to be used during the project.
Raising a Child With High Self Esteem A good illustration of this is can be observed early on in babyhood growth of children who act in response and connect themselves to the adults or caregivers who show utmost love and care and […]
Social Networks and Self-Esteem Due to this fact, the main aim of this paper it to determine the impacts that social networks have on people and the role they play in the determination of the self-esteem of an individual.
The Effects of the Media on Creativity and Self-Esteem The controversy surrounding British sprinter Linford Christie and the British tabloid press in the mid nineties illustrates a crucial and heart breaking example of the media’s might in the area of self esteem.
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Low and Decreasing Self-Esteem During Adolescence
Using Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem
Authenticity and Its Influence on Psychological Well-Being and Contingent Self-Esteem of Leaders
Womanhood and Failures Through the Burden of Self-Esteem
Understanding Children’s Self-Esteem Development
Boost Your Self-Esteem With Acne Treatment
The Cause and Effects of Low Self-Esteem
Anxiety and Self-Esteem Among Undergraduate Students
The Factors That Affect the Self-Esteem of Women
Why Women Have Lower Self-Esteem
Linking of The Collective Self-Esteem and Social Identity Theory
Self Esteem Among Working and Non Working Woman
Self-Esteem: How It Is Built and Different Influencing Factors
The Connection Between Body Image, Self-Esteem, and the Fashion Industry
The Dark Side: Inflated Self-Esteem Is the Culprit of Negative Results
The Connection Between Low Self-Esteem and Depression in the Elderly
The Differences Between the Self-Esteem of Boys and Girls During Puberty
Discussion About Self-Esteem, It’s Differences and Relation to Sociology
Achieving Increased Self-Esteem Through Adaptive Sports
Building Self-Esteem in Children and Adolescents
The Different Causes and Effects of Low Self-Esteem
Impact of Makeup on the Self-Esteem of Young Girls
The Benefits and Importance of Boosting Self-Esteem in Children
The Adolescent’s Search for Self-Esteem and the Role of Professors in the Search
Social Phobia and Low Self-Esteem as Factors Behind Unhealthy Eating Behavior
How Do Bad Habits Affect People’s Self-Esteem and Self-Worth?
What Are Some Tips and Tools for Building Your Self-Esteem?
Can Positive Self-Esteem Lead to Positive Interactions and Connections with Others?
Does Divorce Cause Low Self-Esteem in Children?
What Is the Relationship Between Self-Reinforcement and Self-Esteem?
Are Media Images Harmful to Young People’s Bodies and Self-Esteem?
Does Yoga Increase Subjective Energy and Self-Esteem?
What Are the Causes and Consequences of Low Self-Esteem?
Is Self-Esteem or Self-Confidence More Important?
What Are the Differences Between Happiness and Self-Esteem?
How Do Peers and Media Influence the Development of Body Satisfaction and Self-Esteem?
What Is the Interrelated Role of Self-Esteem and Interpersonal Stressors in Predicting Adolescent Depression?
Do Social Phobia and Low Self-Esteem Cause Unhealthy Eating Behaviors?
Is There a Relationship Between Adolescent Plastic Surgery and Self-Esteem?
What Is the Correlation Between Self-Esteem and Competition for Grades?
Does Social Media Reduce the Self-Esteem of Young Girls?
What Are the Differences Between Boys’ and Girls’ Self-Esteem During Puberty?
How Does Our Self-Esteem Affect Interpersonal Communication?
Is There a Link Between Low Self-Esteem and Depression?
How Does Self-Esteem Relate to Our Level of Confidence?
Do School Uniform Policies Increase Student Self-Esteem and Improve Learning?
What Factors Contribute to Low Self-Esteem?
Has the Self-Esteem Movement Caused Young People to Overestimate Their True Skills and Disillusioned Many of Them?
Are Self-Esteem and Satisfaction in Romantic Relationships Related?
What Can Trigger Depression and Low Self-Esteem?
Does Physical Activity Affect Self-Esteem?
Are Self-Esteem and Impulsive Buying Behavior Related?
How Do Fashion Magazines and Television Affect Girls’ Self-Esteem?
Critical Thinking Essay Ideas
Mental Illness Research Topics
Personal Growth Research Ideas
Moral Development Essay Topics
Narcissism Essay Titles
Personal Identity Paper Topics
Personality Development Ideas
Self-Awareness Research Topics
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

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Financial Thesis

Varieties of studies about social relationships mainly focus on the cultures or the peer group but do not look into the effects of the interaction between the women and their cultures. The aim of this paper is to investigate the similarities and differences between the self esteem of Saudi women and that of British women in terms of attachment and well being to their cultures. The peer attachments and cultural interactions are important to the lives of women as they provide emotional adjustments especially for the every woman in the world.

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9.1 Developing a Strong, Clear Thesis Statement

Learning objectives.

Develop a strong, clear thesis statement with the proper elements.
Revise your thesis statement.

Have you ever known a person who was not very good at telling stories? You probably had trouble following his train of thought as he jumped around from point to point, either being too brief in places that needed further explanation or providing too many details on a meaningless element. Maybe he told the end of the story first, then moved to the beginning and later added details to the middle. His ideas were probably scattered, and the story did not flow very well. When the story was over, you probably had many questions.

Just as a personal anecdote can be a disorganized mess, an essay can fall into the same trap of being out of order and confusing. That is why writers need a thesis statement A sentence that presents the controlling idea of an essay. A thesis statement is often one sentence long and states the writer’s point of view. to provide a specific focus for their essay and to organize what they are about to discuss in the body.

Just like a topic sentence summarizes a single paragraph, the thesis statement summarizes an entire essay. It tells the reader the point you want to make in your essay, while the essay itself supports that point. It is like a signpost that signals the essay’s destination. You should form your thesis before you begin to organize an essay, but you may find that it needs revision as the essay develops.

Elements of a Thesis Statement

For every essay you write, you must focus on a central idea. This idea stems from a topic you have chosen or been assigned or from a question your teacher has asked. It is not enough merely to discuss a general topic or simply answer a question with a yes or no. You have to form a specific opinion, and then articulate that into a controlling idea The main idea that guides the content of an essay; the idea upon which a thesis statement is built. —the main idea upon which you build your thesis.

Remember that a thesis is not the topic itself, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, “What do I want to say about it?” Asking and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful and confident.

A thesis is one sentence long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on one to three points of a single idea—points that are able to be demonstrated in the body. It forecasts the content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it.

A Strong Thesis Statement

A strong thesis statement contains the following qualities.

Specificity. A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall, the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health care coverage.

Precision. A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to remain focused on the topic. If the specific topic is options for individuals without health care coverage, then your precise thesis statement must make an exact claim about it, such as that limited options exist for those who are uninsured by their employers. You must further pinpoint what you are going to discuss regarding these limited effects, such as whom they affect and what the cause is.

Ability to be argued. A thesis statement must present a relevant and specific argument. A factual statement often is not considered arguable. Be sure your thesis statement contains a point of view that can be supported with evidence.

Ability to be demonstrated. For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by examples and details.

Forcefulness. A thesis statement that is forceful shows readers that you are, in fact, making an argument. The tone is assertive and takes a stance that others might oppose.

Confidence. In addition to using force in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your claim. Phrases such as I feel or I believe actually weaken the readers’ sense of your confidence because these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers to have faith in your argument and open their minds to what you have to say.

Even in a personal essay that allows the use of first person, your thesis should not contain phrases such as in my opinion or I believe . These statements reduce your credibility and weaken your argument. Your opinion is more convincing when you use a firm attitude.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a thesis statement for each of the following topics. Remember to make each statement specific, precise, demonstrable, forceful and confident.

Texting while driving
The legal drinking age in the United States
Steroid use among professional athletes

Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements

Each of the following thesis statements meets several of the following requirements:

Specificity
Ability to be argued
Ability to be demonstrated
Forcefulness
The societal and personal struggles of Troy Maxon in the play Fences symbolize the challenge of black males who lived through segregation and integration in the United States.
Closing all American borders for a period of five years is one solution that will tackle illegal immigration.
Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet spoils the outcome for the audience and weakens the plot.
J. D. Salinger’s character in Catcher in the Rye , Holden Caulfield, is a confused rebel who voices his disgust with phonies, yet in an effort to protect himself, he acts like a phony on many occasions.
Compared to an absolute divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer settlements, and reflects a more realistic view of the causes for marital breakdown.
Exposing children from an early age to the dangers of drug abuse is a sure method of preventing future drug addicts.
In today’s crumbling job market, a high school diploma is not significant enough education to land a stable, lucrative job.

You can find thesis statements in many places, such as in the news; in the opinions of friends, coworkers or teachers; and even in songs you hear on the radio. Become aware of thesis statements in everyday life by paying attention to people’s opinions and their reasons for those opinions. Pay attention to your own everyday thesis statements as well, as these can become material for future essays.

Now that you have read about the contents of a good thesis statement and have seen examples, take a look at the pitfalls to avoid when composing your own thesis:

A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss in your essay.

Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge.

A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side.

Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical beliefs by banning required high school books.

A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides a dead end.

Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products.

A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad.

Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging.

Read the following thesis statements. On a separate piece of paper, identify each as weak or strong. For those that are weak, list the reasons why. Then revise the weak statements so that they conform to the requirements of a strong thesis.

The subject of this paper is my experience with ferrets as pets.
The government must expand its funding for research on renewable energy resources in order to prepare for the impending end of oil.
Edgar Allan Poe was a poet who lived in Baltimore during the nineteenth century.
In this essay, I will give you lots of reasons why slot machines should not be legalized in Baltimore.
Despite his promises during his campaign, President Kennedy took few executive measures to support civil rights legislation.
Because many children’s toys have potential safety hazards that could lead to injury, it is clear that not all children’s toys are safe.
My experience with young children has taught me that I want to be a disciplinary parent because I believe that a child without discipline can be a parent’s worst nightmare.

Writing at Work

Often in your career, you will need to ask your boss for something through an e-mail. Just as a thesis statement organizes an essay, it can also organize your e-mail request. While your e-mail will be shorter than an essay, using a thesis statement in your first paragraph quickly lets your boss know what you are asking for, why it is necessary, and what the benefits are. In short body paragraphs, you can provide the essential information needed to expand upon your request.

Thesis Statement Revision

Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay. Remember from Chapter 8 "The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?" that your thesis statement begins as a working thesis statement An indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing. , an indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing.

Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper.

The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement.

Ways to Revise Your Thesis

You can cut down on irrelevant aspects and revise your thesis by taking the following steps:

Pinpoint and replace all nonspecific words, such as people , everything , society , or life , with more precise words in order to reduce any vagueness.

Working thesis: Young people have to work hard to succeed in life.

Revised thesis: Recent college graduates must have discipline and persistence in order to find and maintain a stable job in which they can use and be appreciated for their talents.

The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard. The original includes too broad a range of people and does not define exactly what success entails. By replacing those general words like people and work hard , the writer can better focus his or her research and gain more direction in his or her writing.

Clarify ideas that need explanation by asking yourself questions that narrow your thesis.

Working thesis: The welfare system is a joke.

Revised thesis: The welfare system keeps a socioeconomic class from gaining employment by alluring members of that class with unearned income, instead of programs to improve their education and skill sets.

A joke means many things to many people. Readers bring all sorts of backgrounds and perspectives to the reading process and would need clarification for a word so vague. This expression may also be too informal for the selected audience. By asking questions, the writer can devise a more precise and appropriate explanation for joke . The writer should ask himself or herself questions similar to the 5WH questions. (See Chapter 8 "The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?" for more information on the 5WH questions.) By incorporating the answers to these questions into a thesis statement, the writer more accurately defines his or her stance, which will better guide the writing of the essay.

Replace any linking verbs A verb that connects or links the subject of a sentence to a noun or adjective. with action verbs. Linking verbs are forms of the verb to be , a verb that simply states that a situation exists.

Working thesis: Kansas City schoolteachers are not paid enough.

Revised thesis: The Kansas City legislature cannot afford to pay its educators, resulting in job cuts and resignations in a district that sorely needs highly qualified and dedicated teachers.

The linking verb in this working thesis statement is the word are . Linking verbs often make thesis statements weak because they do not express action. Rather, they connect words and phrases to the second half of the sentence. Readers might wonder, “Why are they not paid enough?” But this statement does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that takes a more definitive stance on the issue:

Who is not paying the teachers enough?
What is considered “enough”?
What is the problem?
What are the results

Omit any general claims that are hard to support.

Working thesis: Today’s teenage girls are too sexualized.

Revised thesis: Teenage girls who are captivated by the sexual images on MTV are conditioned to believe that a woman’s worth depends on her sensuality, a feeling that harms their self-esteem and behavior.

It is true that some young women in today’s society are more sexualized than in the past, but that is not true for all girls. Many girls have strict parents, dress appropriately, and do not engage in sexual activity while in middle school and high school. The writer of this thesis should ask the following questions:

Which teenage girls?
What constitutes “too” sexualized?
Why are they behaving that way?
Where does this behavior show up?
What are the repercussions?

In the first section of Chapter 8 "The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?" , you determined your purpose for writing and your audience. You then completed a freewriting exercise about an event you recently experienced and chose a general topic to write about. Using that general topic, you then narrowed it down by answering the 5WH questions. After you answered these questions, you chose one of the three methods of prewriting and gathered possible supporting points for your working thesis statement.

Now, on a separate sheet of paper, write down your working thesis statement. Identify any weaknesses in this sentence and revise the statement to reflect the elements of a strong thesis statement. Make sure it is specific, precise, arguable, demonstrable, forceful, and confident.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

In your career you may have to write a project proposal that focuses on a particular problem in your company, such as reinforcing the tardiness policy. The proposal would aim to fix the problem; using a thesis statement would clearly state the boundaries of the problem and tell the goals of the project. After writing the proposal, you may find that the thesis needs revision to reflect exactly what is expressed in the body. Using the techniques from this chapter would apply to revising that thesis.

Key Takeaways

Proper essays require a thesis statement to provide a specific focus and suggest how the essay will be organized.
A thesis statement is your interpretation of the subject, not the topic itself.
A strong thesis is specific, precise, forceful, confident, and is able to be demonstrated.
A strong thesis challenges readers with a point of view that can be debated and can be supported with evidence.
A weak thesis is simply a declaration of your topic or contains an obvious fact that cannot be argued.
Depending on your topic, it may or may not be appropriate to use first person point of view.
Revise your thesis by ensuring all words are specific, all ideas are exact, and all verbs express action.

Building Self-Esteem

13 February, 2020

8 minutes read

Author: Donna Moores

Evidently, self-esteem is seen as a personal trait which tends to be enduring and stable, the one that encompasses within itself a host of beliefs about oneself. In reality, self-esteem means different things to diverse people. To some it means feeling good and loving yourself unconditionally. To others it is a feeling which is at the center of one's being of self-confidence, self-worth and respect. Therefore, it is vital for one to have high self-esteem since it paves the way for love and success in life (Bruceeisner, 2012).

Certainly, people often overlook the importance for individuals to have a healthy or positive self-esteem. On the very basic level, a positive self-esteem is delineated by various qualities. They include being able to accept responsibilities for one’s own actions, respect and tolerance for others, being able to handle criticisms, and of course, being able to take charge of one’s own life. Also, it’s about taking a great pride in your own achievements, possessing a great level of integrity and loving others while being loved. The majority of people in the community, especially those in the business and entrepreneurial sectors, believe that possessing a healthy or positive self-esteem will aid in being a successful professional in your field of work.

In the medical field of the economy, for example, doctors, nurses and other people working in the medical community have a belief that possessing a positive self-esteem is very crucial in the maintenance of a healthy life by individuals. In contrast to the thought that a positive or healthy self-esteem is vital in an individual’s professional life, it also plays a very important role in alleviating psychological disorders.

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What Are the Effects of Underappreciation?

When an individual possesses a low self-esteem, he or she tries to impress others or prove others a focal point in their lives. However, this is deemed to be a total waste of one’s time and energy and can even result in psychological issues. In particular, a person without a healthy or positive self-esteem tends to have contempt towards people and usually acts arrogantly. They usually blame themselves for their actions and failures, lack confidence in themselves and mostly doubt their acceptability and self-worth (Reasoner, 2012).

These elements do not only show the negative part of an individual’s life. They are also quite unhealthy to the emotional well-being of an individual. This is because an unhealthy or negative self-esteem is damaging to an individual’s emotional health. This backs the fact that a healthy or positive self-esteem indeed can aid in alleviating psychological disorders.

The Relation of Self-Esteem to Science

One of the peculiar psychological disorders that are mostly stroked by self-esteem is known as Borderline Personality Disorder. Individuals are not willing to validate their feelings for other people or trust others when they usually do not feel well about themselves. People who suffer from borderline personality disorder coupled with a poor self-esteem can exasperate the anger which is mostly present in this type of psychological issue. More often than not, a burst of angry tirade is as a result of a lot of unresolved matters which have been posponed for later. Hence, the only way a person with borderline personality can assert his or her feelings or thoughts is through anger. In addition, having a healthy or positive self-esteem can help alleviate this issue and curtail the feeling of anger associated with borderline personality.

In particular, an individual who experiences borderline personality psychological disorder most often associates some form of suspicion to people who want to be their friends. A person with this kind of issue has a feeling that their friendship with others will end as the time goes on. This is because they think they have nothing to offer in the new friendship, which is actually wrong. Therefore, possessing a healthy or positive self-esteem can aid an individual who has a psychological disorder like the borderline personality to comprehend the fact that they deserve to be happy and achieve success in everything they do. Specifically, this is linked to their professional life or personal life, and also to the sense of self-worth.

A typical example of it is when an individual gets a job that he or she has always wanted, let say a dream job. A person possessing a psychological disorder like borderline personality will position himself or herself for failure. Meanwhile, the staff may use the opportunity given a mistake and can even flare up at the employer for placing them in a position to fail. On the other hand, an individual with a healthy or positive self-esteem will realize that he or she indeed deserves the job. In addition, they’ll recognize and appreciate the opportunity given to him or her to achieve success. A person with a healthy self-esteem will thank and respect the one who gave him that opportunity.

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The Importance of Rational Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is significant to an individual’s well-being and mental health since it has the capability of leading him or her to a more deserving social behavior and better health. Obviously, low self-esteem is often characterized with a range of broad social problems and mental disorders like eating disorders, depression, suicidal tendencies and anxiety. Notably, some schools of thought in the field of medicine, most often in the field of psychological disorders, believe that healthy physical and mental health are a result of comprehending the development of self-esteem and its outcomes.

Self-esteem can, therefore, be explained as the sum of a person’s knowledge and beliefs about his or her personal qualities and attributes. It is a cognitive composition that combines the concrete and abstract views about oneself and also controls the possession of information of self-relevance. Moreover, an individual who possesses suicidal tendencies has the urge or feeling of hurting himself or herself as he/she is feeling unhappy and unworthy.

Consequently, having a healthy or positive self-esteem alleviates any negative emotions and feelings an individual with any form of suicidal tendencies might go through. In addition, research has proven that self-esteem is a crucial psychological factor which contributes to quality and healthy life. It has also been proven with research that subjective well-being extremely corresponds with high self-esteem (Zimmerman, 2000). Therefore, it plays a major role in the mental well-being and happiness of individuals.

Overall, self-esteem and mental well-being of an individual are directly related. Any alteration in a person’s self-esteem, be it high self-esteem or low self-esteem, will affect the psychology of that person. Likewise, a healthy or positive self-esteem definitely helps in alleviating psychological disorders and puts an individual on the pedestal of high belief and confidence in him or herself.

Bruceeisner, D. (2012). Meaning of Self-Esteem. Squidoo Journal Website Retrieved from: http://www.squidoo.com/self_esteem
Reasoner, R. (2012). The True Meaning of Self-Esteem. National Association for Self-Esteem Website Retrieved from:http://www.self-esteem-nase.org/what.php
Zimmerman, S.L. (2000). Self-Esteem, Personal Control and Optimism. Midwestern University. Dissertation Abstract. Retrieved from:http://her.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/4/357.full#ref-123

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Self-esteem and academic engagement among adolescents: a moderated mediation model.

1 Mental Health Education Center, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
2 School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
3 School of Education, Hengshui University, Hengshui, China
4 School of Psychology, Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China

As an important predictor of academic achievement and an effective indicator of learning quality, academic engagement has attracted the attention of researchers. The present study explores the relationship among adolescent self-esteem and academic engagement, the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy, and the moderating effect of perceived social support. Four-hundred and eighty adolescents ( M age = 14.92) from the Hebei Province of China were recruited to complete anonymous questionnaires. The results show that self-esteem positively predicted adolescent academic engagement through the indirect mediating role of academic self-efficacy, and the percentage of this mediation effect of the total effect was 73.91%. As a second-stage moderator, perceived social support moderated the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy. Specifically, when students felt more perceived social support, the impact of academic self-efficacy on their academic engagement was greater. Our findings suggest that adolescent self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, and perceived social support are key factors that should be considered together to improve adolescent academic engagement. Therefore, parents and school educators should actively guide adolescents to improve their self-esteem and academic self-efficacy. Parents and educators should also construct an effective social support system to improve students’ perceived social support and enhance their academic engagement.

Introduction

With the development of positive psychology, human strengths and positive psychological qualities have received widespread attention. Researchers have focused on the positive opposite of burnout – “engagement” – which is defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind, characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption ( Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004 ). Academic engagement extends the concept of engagement, and it refers to the degree to which students engage in educational learning tasks (such as school-related coursework and learning activities) in the process of formal education ( George, 2009 ). Existing literature suggests that high academic engagement promotes academic achievement ( Johnson and Sinatra, 2013 ), improves physical and mental health ( Wefald and Downey, 2009 ), enhances students’ school adjustment ability ( Wang and Fredricks, 2014 ), and reduces students’ dropout decisions ( Fan and Williams, 2010 ). On the contrary, low academic engagement among adolescents can lead to academic failure, dropping out of school, drug abuse, juvenile crime, and the increase of negative emotions such as anxiety and depression ( Leslie et al., 2010 ; Li and Lerner, 2011 ).

Adolescence is a sensitive and critical period of development ( Blackwell et al., 2007 ), during which adolescents bear heavy schoolwork pressure while also adapting to significant physical and psychological changes. Some adolescents often experience recurring negative emotions such as anxiety and depression ( Sahin, 2014 ). In the Chinese education system, the phenomenon of examination-oriented education is serious. The standard of educational evaluation is single which takes score as only standard and much utilitarian awareness on violating nature of education exists in current education ( Wang, 2004 ). Adolescents’ academic performance is regarded as a critical indicator of their ability to learn ( Christenson et al., 2012 ). Researchers have explored the psychological factors (other than classroom teaching and learning methods) that affect academic performance, and this scholarship has concluded that academic engagement can effectively predict students’ current academic performance ( Hershberger and Jones, 2018 ) and also influence their future functional growth ( Fredricks et al., 2016 ).

However, we reviewed the relevant literature and found that the research on academic engagement has focused generally on college students. Specifically, it has focused on the characteristics of the class environment, such as the teacher-student relationship ( Yang and Lamb, 2014 ) and peer relationships ( Fredricks et al., 2004 ), and the characteristics of the family environment, such as family socioeconomic status ( Randolph et al., 2006 ) and family support ( Blondal and Adalbjarnardottir, 2014 ). There has been little research focus on the relationship between individual characteristics and academic engagement ( Li and Li, 2021 ). Self-esteem and self-efficacy have been confirmed to have an impact on academic engagement, but there is no research to confirm the respective contributions of these two factors, or on their combined impact on academic engagement. Moreover, research on the regulating mechanism of academic engagement is sparse. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the influence of the psychological factors that regulate or intervene in the academic engagement of adolescents; to fully consider the supportive resources of family, school, and society; and to put forward a plan to improve adolescent academic engagement that helps adolescents navigate the sensitive and critical period of adolescence more smoothly.

Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement

Self-esteem is the evaluation of an individual’s beliefs and attitudes toward his or her abilities and values ( Rosenberg, 1965 ). Self-esteem during adolescence tends to be unstable, because of the many changes that occur in the adolescents’ roles and responsibilities. Self-esteem tends to decline in early adolescence and recover in the middle and later stages of adolescence ( Trzesniewski et al., 2003 ). Adolescents with high levels of self-esteem tend to experience positive self-experiences ( Peng et al., 2019 ), high-quality interpersonal relationships ( Cameron and Granger, 2019 ), and better physical and mental health ( Li et al., 2010 ).

As a basic psychological structure, self-esteem can serve as a motivator for academic engagement ( Lim and Lee, 2017 ). Expectancy-value theory suggests that individuals’ positive self-evaluation can predict academic outcomes, such as academic engagement ( Fang, 2016 ). A study by Sirin and Rogers-Sirin (2015) showed that self-esteem affected the fields related to academic engagement, and that there was a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and academic engagement. The research data of Filippello et al. (2019) found that self-esteem can predict a person’s level of academic engagement. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: Self-esteem positively predicts adolescent academic engagement.

Academic Self-Efficacy, Self-Esteem, and Academic Engagement

Another term related to academic engagement that has also attracted widespread research attention is academic self-efficacy. Schunk (2003) defined this term as a student’s judgment of his or her ability to complete an academic task. Alivernini and Lucidi (2011) posited that academic self-efficacy reflected students’ cognitive ability in their academic fields and predicted academic achievement. Many studies have shown that academic self-efficacy has an impact on students’ academic engagement ( Uçar and Sungur, 2017 ; Liu et al., 2020 ). On the one hand, academic self-efficacy affects students’ academic efforts and persistence. Compared with students with low levels of academic self-efficacy, students with high levels of academic self-efficacy commit to higher goals and academic expectations, have stronger resistance to frustration, and demonstrate greater persistence when facing difficulties ( Wright et al., 2012 ). On the other hand, students’ confidence in their academic ability can influence their participation in school activities and learning tasks ( Eccles and Wigfield, 2002 ). Students who are confident in their academic abilities will put more effort into academic tasks, while those who lack self-confidence will be less engaged in their studies and are more likely to give up.

As mentioned in section “Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement,” self-esteem has a significant impact on academic engagement. However, it remains to be further explored how self-esteem influences academic engagement and what internal mechanism drives this relationship. Self-efficacy theory posits that academic self-efficacy is a motivational factor that can induce and maintain adaptive learning behaviors ( Ruzek et al., 2016 ). Whether self-esteem can affect adolescents’ academic engagement through academic self-efficacy is worthy of in-depth discussion.

Self-esteem and self-efficacy are connected but different concepts ( Judge and Bono, 2001 ). Self-esteem is a positive evaluation of one’s value and importance; that is, an individual’s evaluation of “being a person.” Self-efficacy is the speculation and judgment about whether a person can complete a certain task, and it is the evaluation of the individual’s ability to “do things,” based on experiences in specific activities. Previous literature has shown a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and academic self-efficacy ( Batool et al., 2017 ). Students with positive self-esteem have higher levels of academic self-efficacy ( Pahlavani et al., 2015 ). Both self-esteem and academic self-efficacy affect individual academic engagement, and self-esteem is closely related to academic self-efficacy; therefore, we can reasonably assume that academic self-efficacy is likely to play a mediating role between self-esteem and academic engagement. Thus, we hypothesize the following:

H2: Academic self-efficacy mediates the association between self-esteem and adolescent academic engagement.

Perceived Social Support, Academic Self-Efficacy, and Academic Engagement

Although self-esteem may affect adolescents’ academic engagement through academic self-efficacy, this effect varies from person to person. Perceived social support refers to the individual’s feelings and evaluation of the degree of support he or she receives from family, friends, and important others ( Zimet et al., 1988 ). Social learning theory ( Bandura, 1977 ) suggests that others’ guidance, expectations, and support will affect an individual’s self-efficacy. Academic engagement plays an important role in individual development, but it is malleable and does not always occur autonomously. When individuals perceive high levels of external support and expectations, their positive learning motivation can be stimulated ( Gettens et al., 2018 ), and the strength of this learning motivation has an important impact on students’ academic engagement ( Liu et al., 2009 ).

However, the existing literature lacks the exploration of the mechanism of the impact of perceived social support on academic self-efficacy. Existing studies have shown that perceived social support can regulate the relationship between self-efficacy and learning goals ( Bagci, 2016 ): in the case of high levels of perceived social support, students’ self-efficacy can effectively predict learning goals, and the establishment of learning goals is conducive to students’ academic engagement ( King et al., 2013 ). Similar to the studies described above, we expect the following:

H3: Perceived social support moderates the relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic engagement.

To sum up, we proposed a moderated mediation model (see Figure 1 ).

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The testers were trained in advance to ensure that they fully understood the requirements and precautions of the test. In the present study, the method of cluster sampling was used to invite all of the students of the junior high school grades 7, 8, and 9; all of the students of the senior high school grades 10 and 11; and of two schools in Hebei, China to participate in this study. They were asked to complete the questionnaires anonymously after the informed consent was obtained from the schools, teachers, and parents. Oral informed consent was obtained from each participant, and the participants were permitted to refuse to participate in the study. A total of 520 students voluntarily finished the questionnaires, of which 480 provided valid data (92.31%). Among them, 220 (45.8%) were male students, and 260 (54.2%) were female students. In age, participants ranged from 13 to 17 years, with an average age of 14.92 years ( SD = 1.47). One-hundred and nineteen students were from grade 7, accounting for 24.8% of the total; 86 students were from grade 8, accounting for 17.9% of the total; 88 students were from grade 9, accounting for 18.3% of the total; 89 students were from grade 10, accounting for 18.5% of the total; and 98 students were from grade 11, accounting for 20.4% of the total. All materials and procedures were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the corresponding author’s institution.

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem was assessed using the Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965 ). This scale consists of a total of 10 items rated on 4-point scales from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). The total score can range from 10 to 40, with higher scores representing higher self-esteem. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.796, indicating an internally reliable scale.

Academic Engagement

The Chinese version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for Students (UWES-S; Gan et al., 2007 ) was used in this study, and the initial version was developed by Schaufeli et al. (2002) . The UWES-S is a 17-item scale consisting of three factors: Vigor (six items), Dedication (five items), and Absorption (six items). Participants responded to the items on a 7-point scale from never (0) to every day (6), with higher scores representing higher levels of engagement. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the total scale was high (0.943), and the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of the three subscales of Vigor, Dedication, and Absorption were 0.846, 0.843, and 0.862, respectively.

Perceived Social Support

The Chinese version of the Perceived Social Support Scale (PSSS; Yan and Zheng, 2006 ) was used in this study, and the initial version was developed by Zimet et al. (1990) . The PSSS is a 12-item scale that measures an individual’s subjective perception of social support from family, friends, and others. Participants responded on a 7-point scale ranging from complete disagreement (1) to complete agreement (7). The total score of the PSSS ranged from 12 to 84, with the higher scores indicating higher levels of perceived social support. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the PSSS in our study was 0.897.

Academic Self-Efficacy

The Chinese version of the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES; Liang, 2000 ) was used in this study, and the initial version was developed by Pintrich and De Groot (1990) . This scale consists of a total of 22 items rated on a 5-point scale from complete disagreement (1) to complete agreement (5), with higher scores representing greater academic self-efficacy. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.848.

Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using version 22 of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and PROCESS macro 3.3 ( Hayes, 2017 ) in this study. Before the analyses, all continuous variables were mean-centered. First, for all variables, the descriptive statistics and a bivariate correlation analysis were conducted in the SPSS. Then, PROCESS Model 4 ( Hayes, 2017 ) was used to examine the mediating role of academic self-efficacy. Next, regarding the analysis of moderated mediation, a moderated mediation analysis was examined using PROCESS Model 14 ( Hayes, 2017 ). Finally, we conducted a simple slope analysis to test whether the mediation effect of academic self-efficacy was different at different levels of the moderator variable. The dummy coded gender (1 = male and 2 = female) was the control variable in this analysis. Percentile bootstrap confidence intervals were calculated based on 5,000 samples.

Check for Common Method Bias

This study adopts Harman’s one-factor test ( Zhou and Long, 2004 ) to examine common method biases. Unrotated factor analysis showed that 11 factors were generated and could explain 61.46% of the total variance. The first principal factor explained 23.4% of the variance, which is less than 40%, indicating that there was no serious common method bias in this study.

Descriptive Analyses

Table 1 shows the means, SD, and Pearson correlations for all of the variables. Pearson correlation analyses revealed that self-esteem was positively correlated with academic engagement ( r = 0.23, p < 0.01) and academic self-efficacy ( r = 0.36, p < 0.01), and academic engagement was positively correlated with academic self-efficacy ( r = 0.52, p < 0.01).

Table 1 . Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables.

Testing for Mediation

Table 2A shows the mediation analysis results. After controlling for covariates (gender and age), the results showed that in the first step, self-esteem positively predicted academic engagement, β = 0.23, p < 0.001 (Model 1 in Table 2A ). In the second step, self-esteem positively predicted academic self-efficacy, β = 0.36, p < 0.001 (Model 2 in Table 2A ). In the third step, academic self-efficacy positively predicted academic engagement, β = 0.47, p < 0.001 (Model 3 in Table 2A ). Finally, the biased-corrected percentile bootstrap method was used to show that the indirect effect of self-esteem on academic engagement through academic self-efficacy was significant, ab = 0.17, SE = 0.03, and 95% CI = [0.12, 0.23], the direct effect of self-esteem on academic engagement was not significant, c ’ = 0.06, SE = 0.04, and 95% CI = [−0.03, 0.15], as shown in Table 2B . Therefore, academic self-efficacy fully mediated the relationship between self-esteem and academic engagement. The percentage of this mediation effect of the total effect was 73.91%. These results support Hypotheses 1 and 2 (see Tables 2A and 2B ; Figure 1 ).

Table 2A . Mediation effects of academic self-efficacy on the relationship between self-esteem and academic engagement.

Table 2B . The bootstrapping analysis of the mediating effects.

Figure 1 . The proposed moderated mediation model.

Testing for the Moderated Mediation Model

Model 14 of the PROCESS macro ( Hayes, 2017 ) was used to examine the moderating role of perceived social support. Overall testing models are presented in Figure 2 , and the specific indirect effects are presented in Table 3A . The results showed that self-esteem positively predicted academic self-efficacy ( β = 0.36, p < 0.001); academic self-efficacy positively predicted academic engagement ( β = 0.47, p < 0.001); self-esteem and perceived social support did not predict academic engagement ( β = 0.05, p > 0.05; β = −0.01, p > 0.05, respectively); and the interaction effect of academic self-efficacy and perceived social support on academic engagement was significant ( β = 0.09, p < 0.05), and the index of the moderated mediation was 0.03, SE = 0.02, 95% CI = [0.01, 0.07], indicating that the association between academic self-efficacy and academic engagement was moderated by perceived social support.

Figure 2 . Path coefficients of the moderated mediation model. Covariates were included in the model but are not presented for simplicity. * p < 0.05; and *** p < 0.001.

Table 3A . Results of perceived social support moderate the mediation process.

We further conducted a simple slope analysis in SPSS 22.0 to explore the pattern of the moderating effect. Figure 3 presents the perceived social support (M ± SD) as a function of academic self-efficacy and academic engagement. The results indicate that academic self-efficacy was positively correlated with academic engagement for both adolescents with higher perceived social support ( B simple = 0.57, p < 0.001) and also for those with lower perceived social support ( B simple = 0.47, p < 0.001). Moreover, bias-corrected percentile bootstrap analysis revealed that the indirect effect was more significant for adolescents with higher perceived social support – β = 0.21, SE = 0.03, 95% CI = [0.14, 0.27] – than for those with lower perceived social support – β = 0.14, SE = 0.03, 95% CI = [0.07, 0.21], as shown in Table 3B . In sum, these results suggested that perceived social support moderated the relationship between self-esteem and academic engagement via academic self-efficacy, supporting Hypothesis 3.

Figure 3 . Perceived social support as a moderator on the relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic engagement.

Table 3B . Conditional indirect effect of perceived social support when academic self-efficacy mediated between self-esteem and academic engagement.

The present study investigates the relationship between adolescent self-esteem and academic engagement in order to clarify how the potential mechanism of self-esteem might predict academic engagement. As expected, the results demonstrate (1) a positive association between self-esteem and academic engagement, (2) the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy, and (3) the moderating effect of perceived social support. Moreover, the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy was distinguished as being affected by different levels of perceived social support.

Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement of Adolescents

The results show that adolescent self-esteem positively predicts academic engagement. High levels of self-esteem can increase the academic engagement of adolescents; these results support our hypothesis and validate the expectancy-value theory. Individuals with high levels of self-esteem set stricter standards and only consider themselves “good enough” when they met those standards, resulting in positive self-evaluation and increasing academic engagement ( Filippello et al., 2019 ). From another perspective, individuals with high levels of self-esteem can effectively alleviate the negative academic emotions caused by high expectations ( Kort-Butler and Hagewen, 2011 ).

The path coefficient between self-esteem and academic engagement was no longer significant after adding the mediating variable (academic self-efficacy), indicating that the influence of self-esteem on academic engagement was entirely through academic self-efficacy. Achievement motivation theory believes that self-esteem can significantly predict individual achievement motivation ( Accordino et al., 2000 ), but there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between motivation level and behavior performance. Only moderate motivation can make individual behavior performance the best. Therefore, self-esteem may not directly predict adolescents’ academic engagement.

The Mediating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy

This study found that academic self-efficacy played a complete intermediary role between adolescent self-esteem and academic engagement, which verifies our research hypothesis and echoes the research conclusions of other scholars ( Pahlavani et al., 2015 ; Uçar and Sungur, 2017 ).

The self-esteem level and stability of adolescents are relatively low ( Zhang et al., 2010 ), but most previous studies focused on the self-esteem of other ages, and few studies showed how the self-esteem of adolescents affects their academic engagement. This study shows that adolescent self-esteem does not have a direct effect on academic engagement; rather, it indirectly affects academic engagement through the influence of academic self-efficacy. Students with high self-esteem have higher self-cognition and academic self-efficacy. They can better regulate all aspects of available resources ( Ouweneel et al., 2011 ) and thus achieve their academic expectations and ultimately increase their engagement in learning.

The Moderating Role of Perceived Social Support

Consistent with our hypotheses, perceived social support moderated the association between academic self-efficacy and academic engagement. Compared with adolescents with a low level of perceived social support, the academic self-efficacy of those with a high level of perceived social support had a more significant predictive effect on academic engagement. Self-efficacy was a stable predictor of individual behavior, and academic engagement was influenced by perceived social support. The predictive effect of self-efficacy on adolescent academic engagement was changed by perceived social support.

Our findings fit with the hypothesis of the “protection factor-protection factor model” ( Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005 ). Academic self-efficacy and perceived social support are both found to be protective factors, and the two promote and strengthen each other. The higher the level of perceived social support, the greater the predictive effect of academic self-efficacy on academic engagement. The results also validated the academic engagement impact model ( Skinner and Belmont, 1993 ), which proposes that the satisfaction of students’ basic psychological needs (autonomy, relatedness, and competence needs) directly influences their academic engagement, and that an external support system affects students’ behavior by satisfying their basic psychological needs. When students establish harmonious and caring interpersonal relationships with surrounding individuals, their relatedness needs can be satisfied, which further stimulates positive behaviors such as hard work, persistence, and active participation ( Legault et al., 2006 ). Similarly, students in classroom situations are more likely to internalize learning motivation and participate in learning activities autonomously when they feel that their basic psychological needs are supported ( Niemiec and Ryan, 2009 ).

This study considered the effect of perceived social support on the relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic engagement from the perspective of interpersonal relationship; however, according to different psychological theories, there may be other factors affecting academic engagement. Family investment theory believes that family socioeconomic status reflects the situation of economic capital, human capital, and social capital in the family environment comprehensively, and affects the learning attitude of students ( Randolph et al., 2006 ). Family socioeconomic status has an impact on academic self-efficacy ( Artelt et al., 2003 ); therefore, family socioeconomic status may also play a moderating role between academic self-efficacy and academic engagement. To sum up, the factors affecting academic engagement should be systematically investigated from different perspectives.

Limitations and Implications

There are several limitations to this study. First, the cross-sectional survey design used in the present study could not infer or verify the causal relationships among variables; a longitudinal design could be used in future studies. Second, only the self-reporting method was adopted in this study. While our results showed that there was no serious common method deviation, future research should adopt multiple research methods to collect data, such as the interview method and other evaluation methods that involve other actors (teachers, classmates, and parents). Third, due to the limitations of human and financial resources, only students in Hebei Province were selected for the test. Future research will try to sample from all of China and discuss important demographic information about the participants.

Despite the limitations of this study, it has research value and significance. This research explored the relationship among self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, perceived social support, and academic engagement. Previous studies have involved only two or three of these variables; this study used four variables to study and build a reasonable model. This work explored academic self-efficacy plays a mediating role between self-esteem and academic engagement, and it also examines the moderating role of perceived social support, further deepening our understanding of how self-esteem affects academic engagement. The model proposed in this study is helpful for educators to pay more attention to adolescents’ self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, and academic engagement, so as to conduct better psychological intervention for adolescents with insufficient academic engagement.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study takes an important step toward investigating the mechanism of the influence of self-esteem on academic engagement by testing a moderated mediation model. Self-esteem may positively predict adolescent academic engagement indirectly through academic self-efficacy. Perceived social support was found to be a second-stage moderator, and the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy between self-esteem and adolescents’ academic engagement was found to be stronger for adolescents with higher levels of perceived social support.

Given these conclusions, we make the following recommendations. First, attention should be paid to the promotion of adolescent self-esteem and academic self-efficacy. Parents and teachers should encourage adolescents to make a positive self-cognition evaluation; they should assist them in setting reasonable learning goals and guide them to reasonable attributions of success and failure when they encounter setbacks. Second, parents and teachers should create a positive and supportive learning environment in which students feel adequately supported, encouraged, and recognized. Peer support groups that use the encouragement given by peers to make students feel part of a community of trust and support should be established. Third, parents and teachers should pay attention to the state of students’ academic engagement and guide adolescents who have low academic engagement, or who seem to be exhibiting weariness and truancy. The teaching design should be novel and interesting, and the teaching method should be suitable for the needs of the students. Discussion and debate can be used to help full engage the students in the class material.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author Contributions

LZ contributed to conception and design of the study. YZ performed the statistical analysis and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. LZ, CP, and ZZ revised it critically for important intellectual content. ZZ collected the raw data and organized the database. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This research was supported by Hebei Province Education Science Research “13th Five-Year Plan” Project (2003056).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: academic engagement, academic self-efficacy, adolescents, perceived social support, self-esteem

Citation: Zhao Y, Zheng Z, Pan C and Zhou L (2021) Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement Among Adolescents: A Moderated Mediation Model. Front. Psychol . 12:690828. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690828

Received: 04 April 2021; Accepted: 04 May 2021; Published: 03 June 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Zhao, Zheng, Pan and Zhou. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Lulu Zhou, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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PMC10136102

The Effects of Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement on University Students’ Performance

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The success or failure of a student depends on several factors, including self-esteem, academic engagement, and motivation. Self-esteem and motivation have been found to influence academic engagement, which, in turn, contributes to academic performance. Through a quantitative study, 243 university students were surveyed to analyze the effects of self-esteem and motivation on their academic engagement, which would be reflected in their academic performance. The results show that self-esteem has effects on emotional and behavioral disengagement. Motivation shows greater effects on academic engagement, with metacognitive engagement predicting students’ academic performance. Therefore, promoting metacognitive strategies that help students learn to plan, monitor, and self-regulate their learning will contribute to their performance.

1. Introduction

The success or failure of a student’s learning process includes many factors; the ones that play an essential role include self-esteem, motivation, and academic engagement. System theory states that the mind is divided into three separate systems, which are the motivational, affective, and cognitive systems. The motivational system includes the basic components that make an organism aware of hunger, thirst, and even the need to reproduce in order to survive. The affective system includes emotions, such as cheerful states, enthusiasm, etc. The cognitive system comprises thought-related processes, such as reasoning, memory, and judgment, the basis for understanding the events that occur all over the world [ 1 , 2 ].

In the educational context, the motivational system or academic motivation is defined as an energizing catalyst that starts the action. It is also studied as a variable that is influenced by the context [ 3 ].

Academic engagement, also known as commitment (in this research, both terms are used to refer to the same concept), pushes the student to participate during educational activities [ 4 , 5 ]. The academic engagement level is not only crucial to ensuring that students successfully finish their learning process, but also acts as a shield against the dangers they face as young people [ 6 ]. Academic engagement has been divided into three elements for better analysis: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Analyzing how motivation influences a student’s engagement is crucial in order to determine a student’s involvement level with the learning process, which is then reflected in terms of academic advantage; this is because it has been proven that motivation influences academic engagement, which contributes to academic achievement at the same time [ 10 ].

Self-esteem is another key factor that influences academic performance; it is relevant because it has been closely related to motivation and academic achievement [ 11 ]. Self-esteem refers to the positive or negative perception of a student’s self-worth [ 12 , 13 ], which affects a student’s ability to complete or not complete educational tasks. Therefore, it is essential to include this factor because it has been proven that it is positively associated with performing a task.

It is also very common for academic performance to be evaluated by looking only at the grades that the student obtains while studying, and this is seen as the golden measure of success in education [ 14 ]. It is also known that the psychosocial self-esteem factor influences grades [ 15 , 16 ], and that it is closely related to academic performance through emotions (affective states) and motivation [ 17 ]. Therefore, analyzing the effect of self-esteem on academic involvement will provide empirical evidence that enables the proposal of strategies that encourage appropriate levels of motivation, in order to impact educational performance positively.

Therefore, this research proposes a conceptual model that explores the effects of self-esteem, motivation, and the components of academic engagement as factors that positively influence a student’s performance. This research introduces empirical evidence for how self-esteem can affect a student’s engagement level in learning, which at the same time, is reflected in their academic performance.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. motivation, academic engagement, and self-esteem.

In the educational field, motivation has been studied as a dependent variable that is influenced by the academic context, study field, and the task to be completed [ 3 , 18 ].

Several theories have been proposed in order to study the interrelation between motivation, engagement, and self-esteem, and two of them have received attention. The first one is Pintrich and de Groot’s [ 19 ] expectancy-value theory, which considers the role of motivation in fulfilling goals or tasks. These authors propose two main elements as the basis of this theory. The first one plays a crucial role in the determination of educational performance, and it refers to students’ belief in their capacity to perform educational tasks, as well the sense that they have control over and responsibility for their performance; this element was denoted as expectancy, and involves self-efficacy and students’ beliefs about their control over the learning process, which is also considered in Bandura’s [ 20 ] work. The other element was denoted as value and includes extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation towards the objective, and the value a student assigns to the task.

The second theory is self-determination, proposed by Ryan and Deci [ 21 ]; this states that students possess psychological needs that are provided by the motivational fundament used to prove that they are very committed to their academic activities [ 22 ]. This theory is considered the conceptual basis that explains self-esteem-related components. This theory also proposes a link between engagement, motivation, and academic achievement, and explains how changing to a new level of engagement affects motivation and the learning context.

Researchers such as Skinner and Belmont [ 7 ] and Reschly and Christenson [ 9 ] point out that academic achievement is an established goal that includes emotional, behavioral, and cognitive involvement [ 8 ].

Emotional engagement involves students’ positive and negative affective answers to the learning environment and academic tasks [ 8 ]. It includes positive emotions such as enjoyment, enthusiasm, interest, satisfaction, and vitality. The opposite behavior to involvement is called lack of interest; applied to this concept are synonyms such as disaffection or detachment. When a student is uninterested, that person shows negative emotional states, such as boredom, frustration, depression, anxiety, or even rage. Generally, unhappy students are submissive, and they do not attempt to face challenges [ 7 ].

According to González et al. [ 23 ], behavioral engagement refers to students’ participation in their academic activities, tasks, homework, and the learning environment, as well as the time and attention spent on educational tasks. In addition, Reschly and Christenson [ 9 ] and Reschly [ 24 ] mention that behavioral commitment refers to the degree to which a student participates in academic, social, or extracurricular activities, and it includes behaviors such as starting an action, making an effort to complete it, making attempts, persisting, and working with intensity, attentiveness, concentration, and participation [ 6 ]. On the other hand, behavioral disengagement includes negative behaviors that show a lack of interest in educational activities, such as passiveness, forsaking, distraction, or being mentally disconnected and unprepared [ 6 ].

Cognitive involvement implies students’ psychological investment and effort made in their learning process [ 23 ]. This is when the student moves from using simple cognitive strategies, in which their commitment is low, to using more sophisticated cognitive strategies, such as self-regulation or metacognition [ 25 ]. Metacognitive engagement is the knowledge of knowledge [ 26 ], and is found at a higher level of cognition [ 27 , 28 ]. When students are engaged with metacognitive actions, this leads them to self-regulated learning and to learning to plan, regulate, and monitor their knowledge. Planning helps the student to determine the best way to approach a problem. Monitoring implies being able to understand and comprehend the problem to be studied and, finally, regulating or controlling their learning [ 8 , 29 ].

Studying students’ involvement levels is essential determining their academic performance; this idea has been corroborated by several researchers that have suggested that student engagement is related to academic achievement [ 4 , 6 , 30 ].

Self-esteem is defined as the positive or negative attitude towards oneself. It is also considered a characteristic of liking or disliking oneself [ 13 ]. In the educational environment, it is the students’ positive or negative perception of self-value and capability [ 12 , 13 ]. It is also considered as the level of belief a student has in being able to obtain good grades.

Self-evaluation comprises basic characteristics, such as self-esteem and self-efficacy [ 31 ]; both impact the wellbeing, motivation, behavior, and performance of students in the fields of educational and work [ 17 ]. In the educational environment, both constructs (self-esteem and self-efficacy) are essential characteristics that contribute to explaining individual differences in motivation, attitudes, and academic performance among students.

Self-efficacy is the trust that each individual has in achieving an objective in a particular situation; it is considered a critical element that enables students to achieve their educational goals and face decisions throughout their lifetime [ 32 ].

It has been found that self-esteem, self-efficacy, and expectations are some of the essential components that may influence student engagement, considerably affecting the quality and level of involvement [ 33 ].

Researchers [ 17 ] have found self-esteem to be closely related to affective processes, affective evaluation, or feelings, while self-efficacy has also been associated with motivational processes, motivational belief, or judgement. According to these researchers, students’ motivational and affective states are mediators that influence the relationship between self-esteem and educational performance in a different way. Therefore, self-esteem is related to academic performance through emotions (affective states) and motivation.

2.2. Motivation, Academic Engagement, and Self-Esteem in Academic Performance

The previous research mentioned below has provided empirical evidence of the relationships proposed in the conceptual model shown in Figure 1 .

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Proposed conceptual model.

One of the essential components to understanding the involvement level of a student in educational activities is motivation. Many researchers have analyzed this connection and confirmed the impact of motivation on academic engagement [ 20 , 34 , 35 ]. Self-efficacy is one of the factors that comprises the construct of motivation [ 19 ].

Since academic engagement comprises emotional, behavioral, and cognitive elements, many researchers have analyzed these elements and motivation; for instance, Wang and Eccles [ 36 ] examined the way that motivation influences emotional, behavioral, and cognitive engagement, finding that it impacted all elements. In this way, the effects of motivation on students’ emotional, behavioral, and cognitive involvement were confirmed, as observed in the conceptual model of Figure 1 .

Moreover, the influence of motivation on academic performance has been analyzed; for instance, Sun’s research [ 37 ] showed evidence of a positive connection between a motivation element (self-efficacy) and academic performance. Self-efficacy is a predictor of motivation and academic performance over time in multiple environments and populations [ 38 ].

Likewise, and by analyzing the effects of self-efficacy on academic engagement, the researcher Pellas [ 39 ] found that students who showed higher levels of self-efficacy and intrinsic value were also more likely to use cognitive and self-regulation strategies (a component of metacognitive engagement). Therefore, it is established that there is a relationship between student motivation and the metacognitive engagement involved.

It has also been found that self-efficacy is related to academic engagement, as Salamela-Aro and Upadyaya’s research [ 40 ] showed; they conducted a longitudinal study with adolescents, confirming a positive relationship between self-efficacy and academic commitment. This suggests that perceived self-efficacy influences the degree of commitment and effort a student invests when performing a task [ 20 , 41 ].

2.3. Effects of Self-Esteem in Emotional, Behavioral, Cognitive, and Metacognitive Engagement

According to Griffiths and colleagues [ 33 ], some essential elements that may influence student engagement are self-esteem, self-efficacy, expectations, and relations among peers [ 20 ], all of which substantially affect the quality and level of involvement.

Previous researchers have discovered that self-esteem can predict academic performance [ 15 , 16 ]. Therefore, there is not only a direct relationship, but also a reciprocal connection, meaning that the school grade positively predicts self-esteem [ 42 ].

Pellas’ research [ 39 ] analyzed how computer self-efficacy, metacognitive self-regulation, and self-esteem influenced students’ academic engagement [ 43 ] in online careers at university. His discoveries revealed that self-esteem, computer self-efficacy, and self-regulation were meaningful predictors of students’ cognitive engagement but not of their behavioral engagement, which was negative. The research also showed that students’ self-esteem was not only positively correlated with emotional and cognitive engagement, but also negatively correlated with behavioral engagement elements.

Regarding emotional and behavioral engagement, van der Kaap-Deeder et al. [ 44 ] carried out two studies to determine the relationship between self-esteem, motivation, and engagement. Their results showed a positive relationship between self-esteem and emotional and behavioral engagement, as well as emotional disaffection and anxiety towards exams. Moreover, Zeigler-Hill et al.’s [ 45 ] study showed that unstable self-esteem was related to academic disaffection.

The relation between self-esteem and metacognitive engagement has also been verified, as shown in a study by Du and colleagues [ 46 ], who analyzed how students used self-regulated learning (considered a metacognitive strategy) to solve a specific task. Their results confirmed that self-esteem was a factor influencing students’ ability to self-regulate learning.

A study by Zuffianò et al. [ 47 ] found that self-esteem was not related to academic performance, suggesting that this was because the construct used in their research assessed self-esteem in general, and that, in fact, a more specific construct called academic self-esteem should be proposed.

Regarding behavioral engagement, previous educational research has shown that it significantly affects academic performance [ 8 , 48 , 49 ].

In the same way, studies have shown that emotional engagement has an effect on academic performance [ 50 , 51 ]. For instance, Tze et al. [ 52 ] conducted a meta-analysis that analyzed the relationship between academic boredom, motivation, and academic performance. Their findings showed that boredom in class had more adverse effects on academic performance than boredom while studying.

Some of the literature has analyzed the influence of cognitive engagement on academic performance [ 19 , 53 , 54 ]. For instance, Broadbent’s study [ 54 ] found that students who applied cognitive strategies, such as elaboration and time management, had better educational grades.

On the other hand, the research by Chen and Wu [ 55 ] confirmed that there was a relationship between metacognitive engagement and students’ academic performance.

The works described above provide evidence for the relationships proposed in the conceptual model shown in Figure 1 .

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. data collection.

The sample was obtained from 243 university students who were told about the study’s objectives and then decided to participate voluntarily; they were told that they could leave the study at any time, and the students agreed to their answers for each item being be used in this study [ 56 ]. The sample was collected from students undertaking degrees in sciences and social sciences enrolled in either industrial management, computer science or industrial engineering courses at a public university. The sample included students from all semesters. They were surveyed online during the second semester of the 2020 school year. The participants’ ages were between 19 and 21; 108 were male and 134 were female. Their teachers reported the students’ final grades after the last examination, which were used to measure academic performance (AP). The final grade ranged from 1 to 10.

To calculate the causal relations in the theoretical model, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used. SEM analysis was conducted using the partial least squares method, using the software SmartPLS version 3 (SmartPLS GmbH, Oststeinbek, Germany).

The general rule of sample size was considered for calculating the model quality. Wang and Wang [ 57 ] suggest that the sample size depends on the number of indicator variables (items). They mention that five cases per indicator variable are sufficient. The number of students that answered all the items was 243, and 30 was the number of indicator variables in the analysis SEM. Therefore, the sample size was sufficient to reach the quality of the model in this study.

3.2. Instruments

The Rosenberg [ 12 ] self-esteem scale was used in this research, which measures how a person evaluates their worth as a human being. The scale has been widely tested in different studies showing good psychometric characteristics [ 58 ], and has also been validated in the Mexican context [ 59 ]. This scale contains the same number of positive and negative questions. An example of a positive question would be “overall, I am satisfied with myself”; a negative one would be “I feel like I don’t have much to be proud of”. Negative questions were recorded, so that a lower number indicated a higher level on the scale. Items were evaluated using the Likert scale from 1 to 5, used the following rankings: 5 = totally agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 2 = disagree, 1 = totally disagree.

The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) by Pintrich [ 60 ] and Pintrich and de Groot [ 19 ] was used to evaluate the motivational, cognitive, and metacognitive factors of the students, which were estimated using the expectation and value components. The first component included self-efficacy (SE), control learning beliefs (CLB), and test anxiety (TA). The value component included intrinsic goal motivation (IGM), extrinsic goal motivation (EGM), and beliefs about the importance of a task or the task value (TV).

The MSLQ also captured learning strategies that encompassed help-seeking (HS) and peer learning (PL). Cognitive strategies included organization (OR), elaboration (EL), and rehearsal (RE). Metacognitive strategies included self-regulation (SR) and critical thinking (CT). The response to the instrument was answered using a Likert scale between 1 (not at all true of me) and 7 (very true of me). This instrument has been used and validated in the Mexican context [ 27 , 28 , 61 ].

In the same way, Skinner et al.’s [ 6 ] instrument, Student Engagement and Disaffection in school (SED), was used. The scale measures emotional engagement and disengagement, as well as behavioral engagement and disengagement. Emotional engagement included enjoyment (EN), enthusiasm (ET), fun (FU), pride (PR), and interest (IN). Emotional disengagement included boredom (BO), disinterest (DI), frustration (FR), sadness (SA), and anxiety (AN). Behavioral engagement included involvement (IN), effort (EF), and attention (AT). Behavioral disengagement included being distracted (DI), mentally withdrawn (ME), and passive (PA). As with the MSLQ, this instrument has been previously used in studies by [ 27 , 28 , 61 ]. The scale was evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 meant completely disagree, and 5 meant completely agree.

The SED and MSLQ instruments were applied mid-semester, and the self-esteem instrument was applied at the end of the semester.

3.3. Data Analyses

The reliability of the items was verified before using the SEM method. The reliability analysis was measured using Cronbach alpha values; despite there being no minimum value universally accepted, many authors suggest that this must be higher than 0.70 [ 62 , 63 ].

The convergent validity was verified through the composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). Composite reliability values up to 0.7 and 0.5, respectively, are considered acceptable [ 64 ]. Discriminant validity was verified through the Fornell–Larcker [ 65 ] criterion; it was verified when the square root of the AVE values was higher than the correlation among the rest of the constructs.

4.1. Reliability and Validity

After analyzing the theoretical model using the Structural Equation Modeling technique, the validity of the constructs was verified. Therefore, the enthusiasm (ET) and pride (PR) variables were removed from emotional engagement. Test anxiety (TA) was removed from motivation. Table 1 shows the acceptable values using the Cronbach’s alpha, CR, and AVE of the resulting constructs, which shows that the construct validity of the structural model was reached.

CR, AVE, and Cronbach’s alpha of the constructs of the causal model.

Construct	CR	AVE	Cronbach’s Alpha
Self-esteem (SE)	1	1	1
Motivation (MO)	0.932	0.733	0.907
Emotional Engagement (EE)	0.911	0.774	0.854
Emotional Disengagement (ED)	0.921	0.745	0.886
Behavioral Engagement (BE)	0.860	0.673	0.759
Behavioral Disengagement (BD)	0.866	0.684	0.769
Metacognitive Engagement (ME)	0.922	0.856	0.832
Cognitive Engagement (CE)	0.935	0.827	0.896
Learning Engagement (LE)	0.916	0.846	0.821
Academic Performance (AP)	1	1	1

Table 2 shows the discriminant validity values, in which the values below the diagonal are lower than the ones crosswise (in bold); therefore, the discriminant validity of the theoretical model was reached.

Discriminant validity of the constructs of the causal model.

Construct	SE	MO	EE	ED	BE	BD	ME	CE	LE
SE
MO	0.411
EE	0.335	0.335
ED	0.535	0.336	0.382
BE	0.424	0.627	0.694	0.339
BD	0.521	0.438	0.481	0.744	0.525
ME	0.269	0.8	0.578	0.293	0.638	0.456
CE	0.324	0.79	0.596	0.257	0.576	0.435	0.836
LE	0.269	0.525	0.355	0.096	0.496	0.264	0.603	0.53
AP	0.091	0.221	0.128	0.114	0.180	0.167	0.219	0.216	0.082

Self-esteem (SE), Motivation (MO), Emotional Engagement (EE), Emotional Disengagement (ED), Behavioral Engagement (BE), Behavioral Disengagement (BD), Metacognitive Engagement (ME), Cognitive Engagement (CE), Learning Engagement (LE) and Academic Performance (AP). The values in bold are the square-root of AVE of each of the constructs.

Table 2 shows that the correlation between the constructs was lower than the square root of the AVE values; therefore, discriminant validity was reached.

4.2. Causal Model

Figure 2 shows the resulting model, in which the causal relationships that were confirmed from the proposed conceptual model are observed.

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Object name is behavsci-13-00348-g002.jpg

Significant relationships of the causal model *** p < 0.001.

The results revealed a negative relationship between self-esteem and emotional and behavioral disengagement. At the same time, it was notable that motivation played a dominant role in the resulting model by showing effects on emotional, behavioral, cognitive, metacognitive, and learning engagement. Among the elements that comprise motivation, self-efficacy and the task value were the ones that showed higher effects.

Moreover, we discovered the existing positive connection between metacognitive engagement and academic performance; in contrast, self-esteem had no effects on emotional, behavioral, learning, cognitive, and metacognitive engagement, or on academic performance.

5. Discussion

For students, self-esteem is the subjective evaluation of their worth, or the positive or negative attitude they have towards themselves [ 12 ]. This perception can contribute to how much students believe in their own academic ability. The result of this research showed that self-esteem had effects on emotional and behavioral disengagement. This result may be due to the fact that the level of self-esteem observed in the sample was M = 2.49, evaluated on the Likert scale from 1 to 5.

Those students who do not believe in their abilities may experience emotional disengagement, including boredom, frustration, sadness, and anxiety. Moreover, they may manifest behavioral disinterest with attitudes such as distraction, mental detachment, and passivity. This result agreed with the research by Zeigler-Hill et al. [ 45 ], who showed that unstable self-esteem was related to high levels of academic disinterest.

This study revealed no relationship between self-esteem and academic performance, which coincided with other investigations that have found that this may be because other factors affect this relationship [ 66 ] or that the self-esteem construct is a weak predictor [ 16 ].

Students who have a positive evaluation of themselves, that is, high self-esteem, can pour this positive evaluation into their school activities and believe that they can also perform well [ 66 ]. On the contrary, this research found that the students had low levels of self-esteem. This could mean that it had no direct correlation with academic performance, which would coincide with Hyseni Duraku and Hoxha [ 67 ], who proposed that the evidence regarding the effect of self-esteem on academic performance in higher education students is controversial.

This study also found that motivation affected the emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and metacognitive engagement of students, as well as their emotional and behavioral disengagement. This finding coincided with Martin et al. [ 34 ] and Sinatra et al. [ 35 ], who mentioned that motivation was essential in order to explain academic engagement.

The results showed that there was a strong correlation between students’ motivation and emotional commitment, which means that motivated students showed interest and enthusiasm in their classes and even had fun. This relationship was also found in the investigations of Skinner et al. [ 30 ] and Wang and Eccles [ 36 ]. Further, the study by Acosta-Gonzaga and Walet [ 68 ] also showed that fun was an essential factor in learning mathematics through online exams.

In a similar way, it was found that there was a strong relationship between motivation and behavioral engagement, so that committed students paid attention in their class, made an effort, and became involved in their activities [ 30 , 36 , 69 ].

However, it was also found that motivation influenced emotional [ 52 ] and behavioral disengagement. Although its effects were lesser than emotional and behavioral engagement, this result shows that students may feel boredom, frustration, and even anxiety in their classes. They also may display negative behaviors such as distraction or passivity.

Motivation’s effects on cognitive engagement have been proven. Motivated students apply more complex cognitive strategies, such as organization and elaboration, instead of simple strategies [ 70 ], proving the link between motivation and cognitive engagement [ 36 ].

Moreover, this research demonstrated a relationship between motivation and learning strategies. This coincided with Zhang et al.’s [ 71 ] research, which found that learning strategies were mediators between motivation and vocabulary acquirement (educational performance).

The effects of motivation towards metacognitive engagement were also verified; this same relationship was found by Butz et al. [ 72 ], who found that motivation influenced cognitive processes, mentioning that students who reported higher levels of self-efficacy and intrinsic value (motivation factors) also reported high levels of the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies (self-regulation).

In the same way, the relation between metacognitive engagement and academic performance was verified [ 55 ], suggesting that students used metacognitive strategies such as critical thinking and self-regulation, which influenced their academic performance. Therefore, motivated students tend to plan, monitor, and self-regulate their learning process. Planning helps them to determine how to approach the problem. Monitoring implies understanding the topic to be studied, thus regulating their learning [ 8 , 29 ].

The results of this study were consistent with the research by Fredricks et al. [ 8 ], who found that students’ academic performance was enhanced when motivation was involved in emotional, cognitive, and behavioral engagement.

6. Conclusions

Whether or not students achieve their academic goals depends on several personal factors. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of general self-esteem and academic motivation on academic performance. Although controversial results were found in the self-esteem study, it was thought this would reveal effects on cognitive strategies, academic commitment, and academic performance. The results showed effects on the emotional and behavioral disinterest of the student; that is, when students do not fully trust their abilities to perform their academic tasks, they show emotions such as boredom, anxiety, sadness, or frustration, and exhibit behaviors such as passivity, distraction, and mental detachment. This implies that school administrators and teachers could propose actions that help promote the personal worth of the student. For instance, they could recommend successful academic experiences to students, and teachthem how to manage anxiety and stress.

However, it was observed that academic motivation affects the components of school engagement, so it can be assumed that motivated students will be more engaged and have better academic achievement. Motivated students show skills such as self-efficacy and intrinsic worth, and report metacognitive skills such as critical thinking and self-regulation, which influence their academic performance. Teachers could provide master classes to students by giving exceptional examples of success during their learning in order to promote students’ motivation.

6.1. Limitations of the Research

Some limitations are considered. For instance, academic engagement was measured using students’ self-reports, and the sample size was gathered from a single university.

6.2. Future Research

Future work could consider analyzing the academic self-esteem and self-concept constructs in a conceptual model for a comparative study of public and private university students, including a larger sample size.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the Instituto Politécnico Nacional for their support of this research.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by the Instituto Politécnico Nacional, grant number SIP20230418. The APC was funded by the Instituto Politécnico Nacional.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement.

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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THE CORRELATION BETWEEN SELF-ESTEEM AND STUDENT READING ABILITY, READING LEVEL, AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

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What is a great thesis statement for self esteem?

Self-esttem comes only from within, one must work at and accomplish something that they view as worthwhile.

dana hassan ∙

A strong thesis statement on self-esteem could be: "Self-esteem plays a critical role in shaping individuals' mental well-being, social interactions, and overall quality of life. By understanding the factors that contribute to low self-esteem and promoting healthy self-perception, individuals can cultivate a positive sense of self-worth and resilience."

Add your answer:

What is the verb form of the word self-esteem?

The verb form of "self-esteem" is "to esteem oneself."

How do you spell self esteem?

Spell it as you have done in your question but hyphenate the words so that you have self-esteem

How do you write self esteem?

You write it as self-esteem. It is hyphenated.

Is self esteem hyphenated?

Yes, "self-esteem" is hyphenated when used as a compound adjective, such as "low self-esteem."

What is selfesteem?

Self-esteem is the overall subjective evaluation of one's own worth and value as a person. It reflects a person's beliefs about themselves and can influence how they think, feel, and behave in various situations. High self-esteem is associated with positive feelings of self-worth, while low self-esteem can lead to negative self-perception and impact mental health.

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Self-Esteem vs. Self-Worth

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Introduction

Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement

Academic Self-Efficacy, Self-Esteem, and Academic Engagement

Perceived Social Support, Academic Self-Efficacy, and Academic Engagement

Materials and Methods

Self-Esteem

Academic Engagement

Perceived Social Support

Academic Self-Efficacy

Statistical Analysis

Check for Common Method Bias

Descriptive Analyses

Testing for Mediation

Testing for the Moderated Mediation Model

Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement of Adolescents

The Mediating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy

The Moderating Role of Perceived Social Support

Limitations and Implications

Conclusion and Recommendations

Data Availability Statement

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

The Effects of Self-Esteem and Academic Engagement on University Students’ Performance

1. Introduction