essay about salvation history

The Bible and Salvation History, A Whole Bible Biblical Theology

• Greg Strand

D. A. Carson, the general editor of the NIV Zondervan Study Bible , has given oversight to the whole project and also written the study notes on John and a few other essays. One of those, which follows from his article on “The Bible and Theology,” is “A Biblical-Theological Overview of the Bible” (2637-2639).

In this essay Carson addresses the importance of salvation history. This is foundational to the discipline of biblical theology. I include excerpts from some of the key sections of the essay.

What Is Salvation History?

Although the word “history” sometimes refers to what has taken place, it more commonly refers to the story or account of what has taken place. No human account of what has taken place can ever be exhaustive; we simply do not and cannot know enough. . . . Salvation history is thus the history of salvation – i.e., the history of events that focus on the salvation of human beings and issues involving the new heaven and the new earth. . . . at least in part it is the account of what God has done, of the events and explanations he has brought about in order to save lost human beings. (Even what salvation means, what it means to be “saved,” is disclosed in this history.) From this, four things follow:

• Salvation history is part of world history. It may tell of some events that other historians are not interested in, but it so describes real events that it necessarily overlaps with other histories.
• Salvation history is real history. It depicts events that really did take place.
• Salvation history includes not only events caused by other events that take place in the natural world but also events caused directly by God. Sometimes, of course, God works in providential ways through the natural order. . . . But when God raises Jesus from the dead, there is nothing natural about God’s action: this is the direct intervention of God, displaying his might in contravention of nature. Nevertheless, Jesus’ resurrection happened ; it took place in history .
• Although the Bible contains a good deal of salvation history, it contains things other than salvation history. For example, it includes wisdom literature, lament, law, prophecy, and much more. But even these disparate kinds of literature that make up the Bible are written at discrete points along the Bible’s story line. In other words, salvation history provides the backbone to which all the parts of the Bible are connected.

When addressing The Shape of Salvation History , the broadest way to summarize it is through creation, fall, redemption and consummation. There is, of course, much more to say under each of those major epochs in redemptive history. The key to remember is that the convergence, culmination and turning point of all of salvation history is “the birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus the Messiah.”

Carson concludes this essay by making five statements that highlight the importance of salvation history.

The Significance of Salvation History

• The story line of the Bible, the sweep of salvation history, provides the framework on which so much else in the Bible depends. For example, it would be impossible to trace such themes as the tabernacle/temple, the priestly ministry, the Davidic dynasty, and the Messianic hope apart from the salvation-historical framework in which these themes are embedded. Thus, the discipline of biblical theology is grounded on the appropriate grasp of salvation history.
• The Bible’s salvation history largely establishes the direction of its movement. . . . Salvation-history is cohesive and discloses God’s purposes in the direction in which the narrative unfolds.
• The trajectories that run through and are part of the history of redemption gradually point to the future and become predictive voices. For example, the promise of a Davidic dynasty (2 Sam 7:11b-16), a promise made about 1,000 years before Jesus, a dynasty that endures forever, is fleshed out in Ps 2, given new and rich associations in the eighth-century BC prophecies of Isaiah (Isa 9), and provided with further images in the sixth-century BC ministry of Ezekiel (Ezek 34). One this trajectory is established, thoughtful readers look along this trajectory and cannot fail to discern ways in which the depictions of Davidic kings point forward to the ultimate Davidic king.
• Very often these trajectories (or ‘typologies,’ as they are often called) in the history of redemption become intertwined to form rich tapestries. For example, although it is possible to follow the themes of tabernacle/temple, Jerusalem, and the Davidic dynasty as separate trajectories . . . they come together in 2 Sam 6-7: the ark is brought to Jerusalem and the groundwork is laid for the temple, David’s dynasty is established, and Jerusalem, now the capital of Israel, is becoming the city of the great King. From this point forward these themes repeatedly wrap around each other, so that mention of one often pulls in one or both of the others.
• Above all, salvation history provides the locus in which God has disclosed himself in events and in the words that explain them. As salvation history is the framework of the Bible’s story line, so it is the locus of the revelation of the living God, the Lord of history.

This approach to reading and understanding the Scriptures has had a profound effect on me. It has transformed my reading, understanding and teaching the Bible. It has opened my eyes to understand the Old Testament, including Leviticus!, in ways that are true and faithful to God’s redemptive intent, through their ultimate fulfillment in Jesus Christ. It has enabled me to affirm joyfully that Christians affirm two testaments and one Bible, and, through the various ways and means of God’s revelation through words and events, Jesus Christ is the center and focus of it all. This is truly a Christian reading of Scripture!

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What Is Salvation History?

• D. A. Carson Theologian
• Updated Sep 12, 2018

Although the word “history” sometimes refers to what has taken place, it more commonly refers to the story or account of what has taken place. No human account of what has taken place can ever be exhaustive: we simply do not and cannot know enough. For example, a history of the Roman Empire cannot possibly tell us everything that took place within the Roman Empire during the centuries the empire existed. Any history of the Roman Empire will necessarily be selective. A history will be judged as excellent or poor on the basis of how representative it is, how the parts are made to cohere, how evidence has been handled, and the like. However the history is organized, it involves sequence (keeping an eye on time), cause and effect, trends, and evaluation of significance.

1. Salvation history is part of world history.

It may tell of some events that other historians are not interested in, but it so describes real events that it necessarily overlaps with other histories. The Bible tells of some events bound up with Tiglath-Pileser ( 2 Kgs 15:29 ), Nebuchadnezzar ( Jer 39 ), and Pilate ( Matt 27:11 – 26 ), but we also know of these men from sources with no connection to the Bible.

2. Salvation history is real history.

3. salvation history includes not only events caused by other events that take place in the natural world but also events caused directly by god..

Sometimes, of course, God works in providential ways through the natural order. For example, although biblical authors know about the water cycle — water evaporates from oceans and seas to form clouds that send their precipitation back to earth to run in rivulets and streams and rivers back to the sea ( Eccl 1:7 ) — they generally prefer to say that God sends the rain (e.g., Matt 5:45 ). Thus, God works through the natural order. But when God raises Jesus from the dead, there is nothing natural about God’s action: this is the direct intervention of God, displaying his might in contravention of nature. Nevertheless, Jesus’ resurrection happened; it took place in history. This must be strongly asserted against those who say that genuinely “historical” events are those that have natural causes. Such a stance rules out what the Bible makes obvious: God can and does directly intervene in history beyond his providential reign that utilizes natural causes. Salvation history includes events like Jesus’ resurrection, events that take place but that are caused directly by God.

4. Although the Bible contains a good deal of salvation history, it contains things other than salvation history.

For example, it includes wisdom literature, lament, law, prophecy, and much more. But even these disparate kinds of literature that make up the Bible are written at discrete points along the Bible’s story line. In other words, salvation history provides the backbone to which all the parts of the Bible are connected.

THE SHAPE OF SALVATION HISTORY

One might summarize salvation history in four words:

• Consummation

Of course, one might then further refine the details of this history. For example, one might specify David’s seven-year rule in Hebron over two tribes before he captures Jerusalem, makes it his capital, and simultaneously becomes king over the twelve tribes. In discussing the Davidic dynasty, one might list the various monarchs and what they did for good or ill. One might describe the tabernacle and its function as stipulated in the law of Moses, then trace its history until it is displaced by the temple built by Solomon, observing further the destruction of the temple under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BC, and the building of another temple under the ministry of prophets like Haggai. Likewise, one might expand the discussion of the exile to distinguish the onset of the exile of Israel in 722 BC by the Assyrians from the onset of the exile of Judah in 586 BC by the Babylonians. The distinction between these two dates is of more than antiquarian interest; e.g., the prophets build on the fact that Israel is taken off to captivity long before her “sister” Judah to argue that Judah ought to learn some lessons from the wretched experience of Israel, while in fact she learns nothing and seems committed to duplicating all Israel’s sins, with far less excuse (e.g., Jer 3:6 — 4:31 ). And so far nothing has been said of the salvation-historical contributions of, e.g., Ruth, Esther, Daniel, and Nehemiah.

All these historical details, many of them significant historical turning points, make up the history of redemption. And all of them, rightly configured, draw lines toward the greatest turning point of all in salvation history: the birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus the Messiah.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SALVATION HISTORY

Five things might usefully be mentioned.

1. The story line of the Bible, the sweep of salvation history, provides the framework on which so much else in the Bible depends. For example, it would be impossible to trace such themes as the tabernacle/temple, the priestly ministry, the Davidic dynasty, and the Messianic hope apart from the salvation-historical framework in which these themes are embedded. Thus, the discipline of biblical theology is grounded on an appropriate grasp of salvation history.

3. The trajectories that run through and are part of the history of redemption gradually point to the future and become predictive voices. For example, the promise of a Davidic dynasty ( 2 Sam 7:11b – 16 ), a promise made about 1,000 years before Jesus, a dynasty that endures forever, is fleshed out in Ps 2, given new and rich associations in the eighth-century BC prophecies of Isaiah ( Isa 9 ), and provided with further images in the sixth-century BC ministry of Ezekiel ( Ezek 34 ). Once this trajectory is established, thoughtful readers look along this trajectory and cannot fail to discern ways in which the depictions of Davidic kings point forward to the ultimate Davidic king. Similar things can be said of many other trajectories that run through salvation history. For example, the theme of the exodus is picked up and developed in the return of the people to the promised land after the exile and culminates in the new exodus theme in the NT (see “Exile and Exodus,” pg. 2347).

4. Very often these trajectories (or "typologies," as they are often called) in the history of redemption become intertwined to form rich tapestries. For example, although it is possible to follow the themes of tabernacle/temple, Jerusalem, and the Davidic dynasty as separate trajectories (these are teased out in various articles in this study Bible), they come together in 2 Sam 6 – 7 : the ark is brought to Jerusalem and the groundwork is laid for the temple, David’s dynasty is established, and Jerusalem, now the capital of Israel, is becoming the city of the great King. From this point forward these themes repeatedly wrap around each other, so that mention of one often pulls in one or both of the others. The destruction of Jerusalem at the onset of the Bab ylonian exile means the destruction of the temple and the suspension of the Davidic monarchy. Eventually Jesus is hailed as the Messianic King as he rides into Jerusalem ( Matt 21:1 – 11 ), cleans out the temple ( Matt 21:12 – 17 ), and is crucified as the king who reigns from the cross ( Matt 27:27 – 37 ), providing the atonement long anticipated by the rites in the temple ( Heb 9:1 — 10:4 ) and pointing the way forward to the Jerusalem that is above ( Gal 4:26; Heb 12:22 ).

D. A. Carson talks Biblical Theology Study Bible from ThomasNelsonZondervan on Vimeo .

D. A. Carson is Research Professor of New Testament at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School in Deerfield, Illinois. He is the president and a founding member of The Gospel Coalition, an influential network of evangelical pastors and churches. Carson has served as assistant pastor and pastor and has done itinerant ministry around the world. He is a sought-after preacher, author, and an active guest lecturer in academic and church settings worldwide. Carson received a Master of Divinity from Central Baptist Seminary in Toronto and the Doctor of Philosophy in New Testament from the University of Cambridge. He has written or edited nearly 60 books, many of which have been translated into other languages.

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• What is Salvation History: A Catholic Definition

It’s how God has loved and cherished mankind since the beginning of time.

It’s how mankind has journeyed from Godly riches to rags and back again.

It’s how the hero-king, the rescuer Jesus Christ, came down from his throne to share his life and deliver mankind from captivity.

Quite literally, salvation history is the story of how we are saved–our redemption in Jesus Christ. But it’s actually much more than that. It’s the vehicle to understand who you are in this world and what you’re meant to be.

Salvation is real history

Salvation history comes primarily from the Bible.

The Bible is a collection of stories that have different literary genres. These include poetry, prophecy, wisdom/proverbs, epistles (letters), and history.

The historical books tell a story that unfolds over thousands of years. It can be hard to understand how it all fits together, but it does.

This is a true account. The historical narrative of the Bible is not a fairy tale or made up. It really happened.

God writes the world like men write books. He orchestrated events so that what happened, from the dawn of time, is like his own book.

He writes in actual events the same way you or I would write in words. Therefore, history is really “His-Story,” God’s story.

What is the story?

The story of salvation history begins with creation , Adam and Eve, and the story of the Fall.

At the center is Christ. He the interpretive key because all of salvation history is grounded in Christ and the Cross. Everything before leads to him. Everything after emanates from him.

But actually there’s a back story. Salvation history is much older than creation, and you can’t understand it without one more essential piece–the Trinity.

Before time and creation, God lived and loved in a union of Persons so perfect and wonderful, words can’t even describe it.

God created us to live in this union with him. Hence, everything God “wrote” in history is for that purpose–the union of mankind to himself.

Why is salvation history important?

In a sense salvation history is past history, but it’s also present.

The story of salvation isn’t over. This plan of God envelops us, and we are actively a part of it.

Knowledge of God’s saving plan is not just nice to know information. Understanding God’s actions in history, his dealings with mankind, reveal the inner truth of who God is. Conversely, understanding who God is sheds light on what he’s done in salvation history.

Consequently, salvation history forms the foundation of the whole supernatural work and mission of the Church. It directly influences our life and mission within the Church.

Catechetical takeaway

The truths of salvation history are some of the highest truths we can know, and the most practical. Catholic spirituality and ministry depend on them.

The history of salvation is, in itself, evangelizing.  It is the gospel, the good news of God’s saving actions.

It is essential to understand who we were in the beginning and what we will be at the end of time because this sheds a clarifying light on the mystery of the human condition.

Salvation history is the answer to who we are as human persons. The answer to why we have these longings that we don’t understand. The answer to how we can fill the restlessness in our hearts.

Most noteworthy to you as a catechist, if you don’t understand salvation history, you can’t effectively convey who Jesus Christ is to your students and what he means for their lives.

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About the author 

Marc Cardaronella

I'm passionate about the most effective ways to transmit the Catholic Faith and spread the Gospel to the world. Join me? You can find me on Facebook , Twitter for the catechetical ramblings of the day.

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THis year, I am supplementing our 8th grade CCD class with Dr. John Bergsma “Bible Basics for Catholics”. It is so important for our young Catholics understand where we come from, where they fit in the story, and where we are going. Understanding how Mother Church fits in the story is so important!

That is really cool Rich! I think that’s an awesome thing to do in 8th grade. It sort of puts a cap on everything they’ve learned so far and integrates it into a system.

I love that book too. I just spoke with Dr. Bergsma today. I’m going to write about him in my next post for the Support a Catholic Speaker Month. I think he does a great job of presenting salvation history and covenant theology in an accessible way. Especially with those drawings. Those are excellent. And they seem easy to do.

Stay tuned here because I’m working on some stuff for presenting salvation history that will blow your socks off. Really simple to understand and easy to implement.

I like this post because it help me to understand my origin well it is good and i need to know more about salvation in order to write my A/L in religion studies in cameroon with Mr NGENGER VICTOR.

Glad you liked it. Hope it helps!

Very good article

Can you suggest any books that discusses the theology of salvation history, rather than the bible itself . Thanks and God bless

The book mentioned in these comments, “Bible Basics for Catholics,” is a very good book on the biblical theology of salvation history. The classic book is “A Father Who Keeps His Promises” by Scott Hahn. That’s an excellent book too. If you want to get way more in depth, there’s a 24-week video series from Ascension Press called “The Bible Timeline” that’s really good.

Where do get this book.thank you

Hi Maria, you can get it on Amazon or perhaps some other online Catholic bookstores like The Catholic Company (catholiccompany.com).

Salvation History should be a life long study. The Bible Timeline and Ascension Press Great Adventure Study is great and God Keeps His Promises, and Walking with God are also excellent resources.

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Salvation History: A Bible Study, Beginning with Adam & Eve

May 15, 2024.

Welcome to session one of the seven-part Salvation History Bible Study, led by our founder, Curtis Martin , alongside Dr. Edward Sri , theologian and Senior Vice President of Apostolic Outreach at FOCUS, with special guest Fr. Mike Schmitz , host of “The Bible in a Year” podcast !

We’re excited to walk with you through the story of salvation–the most exciting and important story in the world!

Session 1: The Beginning of Salvation History

What will you learn in this bible study, discussion questions.

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Additional Resources

What is Salvation History? In this Bible study, we will follow the key moments where God establishes a covenant relationship with leaders from Adam and Noah to Abraham, Moses, David, and finally, with Jesus.

God’s covenant family expands and grows with each relationship, prefiguring God’s ultimate plan to establish a universal family—a Catholic family! (That’s what the word “Catholic” means: a gathering of all of humanity into one covenant family of God.)

In this first session, we will begin our journey with Genesis 2:15, exploring God’s command to Adam regarding the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Together, we will unravel the hidden insights and significance of this command, revealing it as a testament to God’s love and concern for humanity’s spiritual journey.

This first Bible study will look closely at the decision to eat from the forbidden tree, ultimately leading to the fall of humanity. In Adam and Eve’s rejection of God’s authority, they wounded the relationship between humanity and its Creator.

Yet, despite the gravity of The Fall, there is hope. Amidst punishment and consequence, God promises redemption through the Protoevangelium , which is the first gospel message found in Genesis 3:15. This promise foretells the coming of a savior who will conquer sin and restore humanity’s relationship with God.

With what started as a universal family with Adam and Eve broken by sin, we’ll watch how God the Father reaches into human history to reestablish his fatherhood with each of us through the Church.

Key Highlights from the Discussion:

• God’s love for humanity: An understanding of God’s concern for humanity through His commandments.
• Adam and Eve’s disobedience: The fall of humanity, and the promise of redemption found in the Protoevangelium. 
• The themes found in the story: Trust in God’s guidance, the nature of sin, and the hope of salvation.
• The Bible and contemporary life: A discovery of how Biblical narratives offer timeless wisdom relevant to contemporary life.
• Guidance on navigating faith: Applying insights from Scripture to daily challenges and experiences.

Join Curtis Martin, Dr. Edward Sri, and Fr. Mike Schmitz as they uncover profound truths and timeless lessons from the pages of the Bible in this engaging and insightful discussion.

Searching for the best Catholic Bible studies? FOCUS offers an array of Bible studies, as well as a comprehensive guide on how to lead your best Bible study. 

Session one: adam.

Small Group Discussion Guide Genesis 2:15-17; 3:1-6:4

Discussion Questions:

• How is the creation story a “counter-cultural” message? Do you think it is still counter-cultural today? Why or why not?
• What is so significant about being made in God’s image and likeness? How does that change the way we live?
• Why does the enemy tempt us into believing that God isn’t good? How have you experienced that in your life?
• In what ways do you find God’s laws challenging? How can we come to see His laws in light of His great love for us?
• Why is it so significant that God promised salvation immediately after the fall?

Download Discussion Questions — PDF

What’s next in the salvation history bible study series.

Don’t miss out on the next session!  Join as we dive into Noah’s covenant with God in Genesis, Chapters 6 – 9.  Follow along every day this week for new insights and revelations.

Fr. Mike Schmitz hosts a podcast exploring the Bible, The Bible in a Year . Send your study participants this episode  exploring The Fall.

For deeper learning, head over to FOCUS Equip to discover more resources such as Catholic Bible studies, video series, and more.

For even more great Catholic resources, you can also check out our podcast with talks from our SEEK conference and our YouTube channel for videos, and more!

Fr. Mike Schmitz: What is NFP?

Fica com deus: my mission trip in brazil, i was a catholic missionary at the olympics.

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The Sacraments and the History of Salvation

by Cardinal Jean Danielou, S.J.

Description

This essay considers the relationship of the actions that make up sacred history in the Scriptures to the actions that are the Sacraments of the Church.

Larger Work

The Liturgy and the Word of God

Publisher & Date

The Liturgical Press, 1959

O God, as Thy Spirit hovered over the waters at the very beginning of the world, so that even then by their very nature they might have the power of sanctification. . . . O God, as Thou didst wash away by water the crimes of the guilty world, and so by the flood didst give us an image of the new birth; for it was the same element that signified the destruction of sin and the beginning of virtue . . . . I bless you, O water, creature of God, by the living God, who caused you to flow from the fountain of paradise and commanded you to flow out in four rivers and water the whole earth; who changed you in the desert to a water fit to drink and caused you to flow from the rock to quench the people's thirst . . . . I bless you through Jesus Christ, who in the wonderful miracle at Cana changed you by His power into wine . . .; who was baptized in you by John at the Jordan; who caused you to flow from His side together with His blood. . . .

This item 681 digitally provided courtesy of CatholicCulture.org

Free eBook:

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Triperspectival Theology for the Church

Notes on the History of Salvation in the Old Testament from the ESV Study Bible: Preparing the Way for Christ

January 11, 2020 By Vern Poythress

This material is taken from the ESV Study Bible , ©2008 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. This resource is provided for personal use only. Permission requests for further distribution should be directed to Crossway .

From Dr. Poythress:

Sometimes notes attach more to a whole paragraph or chapter than to one verse. I have nevertheless supplied a verse number in every case. The one exception is with a note that I want at the beginning of each book of the Bible, giving an overview of the History of Salvation in that particular book.

History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ

Genesis. After God creates a world of fruitfulness and blessing, Adam’s fall disrupts the harmony. God purposes to renew fruitfulness and blessing through the offspring of the woman (Gen. 3:15). Christ is the ultimate offspring (Gal. 3:16) who brings climactic victory (Heb. 2:14-15). Genesis traces the beginning of a line of godly offspring, through Seth, Enoch, Noah, and then God’s choice of Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:2-3, 7; 13:14-17; 15:4-5; 17:1-14; 18:18; 22:16-18; 26:2-5; 28:13-15).

Gen. 1:1. God’s act of creation is the foundation for all the subsequent historical developments. A considerable number of passages refer back to creation (for example, Psalms 8; 104; 148; John 1:1-3; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:15-17; Heb. 1:2; 11:3; 1 John 1:5-7). All the rest of the Bible depends indirectly on it.

Gen. 1:3. God speaks, and it is done. The centrality of the word of God in the acts of creation anticipates the deeper truth given in John 1:1, that the Second Person of the Trinity is the Word.

Gen. 1:3. God created physical light. The Bible also says that God is light in a moral and spiritual sense (1 John 1:5). By God’s design the physical aspects of creation can serve as vehicles for developing themes about God and his salvation. Jesus is “the light of the world” (see note on John 8:12; also John 9:5; 1:4).

Gen. 1:26. The divine Son is “the image of the invisible God” (Col. 1:15). Man was created in a way that reflects the imaging relation among the Persons of the Trinity. The redemption of man from the fall and sin includes re-creation (2 Cor. 5:17), his being “created after the likeness of God in true righteousness and holiness,” in the image of Christ (Eph. 4:24).

Gen. 1:28. God created a permanent order of creation. But he also intended a development in which man would play a central role. Because Adam failed and fell into sin, Christ came as the last Adam to achieve dominion (see 1 Cor. 15:45-49; 15:22; Eph. 1:21-22).

Gen. 1:31. Sin is a later intrusion into an originally good creation. It is not inherent in the world, and so it can be completely removed when God achieves his purposes in the consummation (Rev. 22:3-5).

Gen. 2:2. God rested from his works of creation. But he continues to work in providence and (after sin enters) in redemption. See John 5:17. As human beings we look forward to entering into God’s consummation rest (Heb. 4:4, 9-11).

Gen. 2:3. Man imitates the pattern of God’s work and rest in the sabbath cycle of days (Ex. 20:8-11) and years (Lev. 25). The sabbath points forward to the rest that Christ achieved with his resurrection and ascension (Heb. 10:12-13), and which will be fully manifested in the consummation (Rev. 22:4-5).

Gen. 2:7. God has life in himself, and imparts life to creatures. The impartation of physical life anticipates the impartation of spiritual life (John 1:4; see 1 Cor. 15:45). Life is in the Son (John 5:21, 26; 1 John 5:12), and comes to us through the Spirit (John 3:5).

Gen. 2:8. The garden of Eden and paradise are referred to in the Bible to remind us of what we have lost (Joel 2:3), but also of what will yet be renewed in the world to come (Isa. 51:3; Rev. 22:1-3).

Gen. 2:9. After the fall, the tree of life was barred to man (Gen. 3:24). But God promises fruitfulness to those who know him (Psalm 1:3) and to those who obtain wisdom (Prov. 3:18). Eternal life is obtained in Christ (John 5:24), and free access to the tree of life reappears in the consummation (Rev. 22:2).

Gen. 2:24. Divorce is a deviation from God’s design in creation (Matt. 19:4). The creation of woman and the marriage relation anticipates the relation of Christ to the church (Eph. 5:22-33). See the introductory essay, Overview of the Bible, concerning Christ as the last Adam.

Gen. 3:1. Later Scripture indicates that Satan was behind the serpent (Isa. 27:1; Rev. 12:9). He was defeated by Christ’s work on the cross (Heb. 2:14-15), and will be utterly defeated in the events leading to the consummation (Rev. 20:7-10).

Gen. 3:4. Throughout history Satan is engaged in deceiving (2 Thess. 2:9-12; Rev. 12:9) and casting doubt on the word of God. When tempted by Satan, Christ rejected his lies (Matt. 4:1-11). In spite of Satan’s attacks, the word of God will stand forever (Ps. 119:89; Matt. 24:35).

Gen. 3:8. God appears to judge Adam and Eve, anticipating the final day of judgment in Christ (John 5:22). Because of the sacrificial work of Christ, judgment can be tempered with mercy on those who belong to Christ.

Gen. 3:15. The offspring of the woman who inflicts decisive defeat on the serpent is Christ (Heb. 2:14). But earlier in time, within the Old Testament, there are partial defeats through people who prefigure Christ and foreshadow the final conflict. (See the introductory essay, Overview of the Bible.)

Gen. 3:24. When Christ opens the way to eternal life, the barring of the way to life is removed (John 14:6; Heb. 10:19-22; Rev. 22:2).

Gen. 4:26. The line of Seth appears to be a more godly line, corresponding to the promise of the offspring of the woman (Gen. 3:15), while Cain and his descendants correspond more to the offspring of the serpent. The line of Seth ultimately leads to Christ (Luke 3:38).

Gen. 5:5. Death is a repeated, grim occurrence, reminding us of the reality of the curse (Gen. 2:17; 3:19) and the need for God in mercy to provide a final remedy for death through Christ (John 11:25-26; Rev. 1:18; 21:4).

Gen. 5:24. Enoch’s walk with God makes him an early example of faith (Heb. 11:5-6), and his being taken by God without dying anticipates the eternal resurrection life that Christ gives (Rom. 8:11).

Gen. 6:9. For Noah’s faith, see Heb. 11:7. Noah by his righteousness saved not only himself but his family, prefiguring the righteousness of Christ by which Christ saved his spiritual family.

Gen. 6:18. God promises in a covenant (see the introductory essay, Overview of the Bible) to save Noah, prefiguring the new covenant in Christ by which we receive eternal salvation (1 Cor. 11:25; Heb. 10:15-18).

Gen. 7:23. The flood brought a whole world to an end (2 Pet. 2:5; 3:6). It prefigures the final judgment, which ends the present heavens and earth and brings a new world (Rev. 21:1). God preserves those who belong to Christ, the final Noah.

Gen. 8:13. The emerging of a new world prefigures the creation of the new heaven and the new earth (Rev. 21:1-4; see 2 Pet. 3:5-7).

Gen. 9:6. God repeats the command given to man in Gen. 1:28. Noah is a new head or representative for humanity, prefiguring Christ, who will be the final head of the new humanity (1 Cor. 15:45-48). All those descending from Noah are privileged for his sake.

Gen. 9:11. In a covenant God guarantees to all mankind blessings that come through Noah. He shows mercy, based on sacrifice (8:21), pointing forward ultimately to the mercy that comes through the sacrifice of Christ (Heb. 10:12).

Gen. 10:32. All the nations of the world are encompassed in the plan of God. He chooses Abram alone (Gen. 12:1-3), but eventually “all the nations of the earth shall be blessed in him” (Gen. 18:18; see 12:3; Rev. 5:9).

Gen. 11:4. Babel, and later Babylon (Rev. 17-18), is the quintessential worldly city, where man tries to exalt himself to the position of a god. It contrasts with the holy city of God’s people, whose name is made great not through their prideful self-exaltation but by the power of God (Gen. 12:2; Rev. 21:2).

Gen. 12:1. God will give Abram a great name, in contrast to the self-exalting desire in Babel (11:4). The choice of Abram narrows down the line of the offspring of the woman (Gen. 3:15) to Abram’s offspring. Ultimately, Abraham is great as a progenitor of Christ (Rom. 9:5).

Gen. 12:2. God’s promise is reiterated and expanded as time passes (Gen. 13:14-17; 15:4-5; 17:1-14; 18:18; 22:16-18; 26:2-5; 28:13-15; 35:10-12).

Gen. 12:3. The inclusion of all the families of the earth anticipates the spread of the gospel and salvation in Christ to the ends of the earth (Gal. 3:8; Acts 1:8; Matt. 28:18-20).

Gen. 12:7. God’s promise has a short-range fulfillment when the nation of Israel conquers Canaan under Joshua (Josh. 21:43; see 1 Kings 4:21). Ultimately the offspring narrows down to Christ (Gal. 3:16), whose dominion extends not only over the land of Canaan but over all the world (Matt. 28:18). The land of Canaan prefigures the eternal inheritance of the world in Christ (Heb. 11:10, 13-16; 4:1-11). In Christ believers are the offspring of Abraham (Gal. 3:29, 7).

Gen. 13:15. God confirms and expands his promise to Abram (see notes on 12:1, 2, and 7).

Gen. 14:18. Melchizedek, a priest and king, prefigures Christ’s priesthood (Heb. 7:1-8:6).

Gen. 15:6. Abram’s trust in God is the model for Christians’ trust in God’s promises in Christ (Gal. 3:6-9). Righteousness is “counted” or reckoned, not on the basis of our achievement, but because in faith we look to God who supplies righteousness in Christ (Rom. 4:5-9; Gal. 3:6; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Gen. 15:17. The flame, symbolizing God, passes between the pieces, symbolizing that God himself will bear the penalty if the promise is broken. Ultimately, Christ bears the penalty for our disobedience.

Gen. 16:10. Because of the line of chosen offspring, leading to Christ (Gal. 3:16), some blessings overflow and extend even to the collateral descendants like Ishmael.

Gen. 16:13. Hagar perceives that the LORD has spoken to her, which implies that “the angel of the LORD” is divine. Some think that this is a pre-incarnate appearance of Christ. Christ is the final, divine messenger of the covenant (Mal. 3:1) who is anticipated in this scene.

Gen. 17:4. The multiplication of the nation of Israel represents the proximate fulfillment of God’s promise (Ex. 1:7). Those who place their trust in Christ, the offspring of Abraham (Gal. 3:16) , now become sons of Abraham (Gal. 3:6-9), so that ultimately all the multitude of the saved (Rev. 5:9) have Abraham as father (Rom. 4:17-18).

Gen. 17:10. Circumcision symbolizes the covenant relation to God, which demands holiness. It is fulfilled in Christ’s purification of believers (Col. 2:11).

Gen. 18:2. Two of the “men” turn out to be angels (19:1), while the third is the LORD (18:22). The appearance of God in human form anticipates the incarnation of the Son (John 1:1-18).

Gen. 18:10. The miraculous birth of a son according to the power of God’s word anticipates later instances where God’s word overcomes a “dead” womb and brings new life: Gen. 25:21; 30:22; 1 Sam. 1:20; Isa. 54:1. The pattern culminates in the virgin birth of Christ (Luke 1:35), and has relevance for understanding God’s sovereignty in election (Rom. 9:8-9).

Gen. 18:24. Abraham’s limited intercession fails to spare Sodom. Christ’s perfect intercession always succeeds (Heb. 7:23-25).

Gen. 19:16. Though Lot is a mixed character, God saves him and his family, prefiguring his mercy in eternal salvation (2 Pet. 2:7-9).

Gen. 19:24. The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah prefigures eternal judgment (2 Pet. 2:6, 9-10; Rev. 14:10-11).

Gen. 20:6. Even though Abraham sinfully compromises, God in mercy preserves Sarah, who embodies the line of holy offspring leading to Christ.

Gen. 21:2. The miraculous birth of Isaac, the special offspring of promise, prefigures the coming eventually of the birth of Christ, in accordance with all the promises of God.

Gen. 21:4. Circumcision represents purification and holiness, anticipating the purity of Christ (Luke 2:21; 3:22; Col. 2:11; see Gen. 17:10).

Gen. 21:10. The distinction between the miraculous son of promise and the son from human planning prefigures the distinction between the church and natural descendants of Abraham (Gal. 4:30).

Gen. 22:3. Abraham demonstrates the reality of his faith in action, serving as a model for how our good works demonstrate our faith (James 2:18-24).

Gen. 22:8. Isaac the offspring of promise comes near to being sacrificed. But ultimately God will provide, as he does by sacrificing his only Son, who is the offspring of promise (Gal. 3:16; 3:13). Isaac prefigures the sacrifice of Christ.

Gen. 22:16. Abraham’s willingness leads to great blessing to his offspring. God’s sacrifice of his only Son leads to even greater blessings to Christ’s spiritual offspring (Rom. 5:8-11; Heb. 6:13-14).

Gen. 23:19. Abraham takes care about Sarah’s burial, expressing thereby his faith in God’s promise that he will possess the land. Yet it does not happen during Sarah’s or Abraham’s earthly life, which points forward to the resurrection of the dead (Heb. 11:13-16).

Gen. 24:4. The marriage of Isaac is important, because he is the offspring of promise through whose offspring the world will be blessed. The special provision of a wife for Isaac prefigures God’s action in creating the church as the bride of Christ (Rev. 19:7).

Gen. 25:23. Jacob the chosen one and Esau the one not chosen prefigure the age-long struggle between the chosen race and its adversaries (Mal. 1:2-3; Rom. 9:10-13). The principle applies in the OT to Israel and in the NT to the church.

Gen. 26:28. Abimelech’s respect for Isaac prefigures the salvation of the nations through Abraham’s offspring in Christ (Gen. 18:18).

Gen. 27:35. God carries out his sovereign purpose of confirming Jacob as the chosen line of the offspring of Abraham (Gen. 12:7; 25:23), in spite of Isaac’s attempt to prefer Esau and in spite of the sinfulness in Jacob’s deceit.

Gen. 28:12. The opening of access to heaven anticipates Christ, who opens access permanently (John 1:51; Heb. 10:19-20).

Gen. 29:25. Even in the midst of trickery God sovereignly works to give Jacob wives, through whom he will fulfill the promise to multiply Abraham’s offspring (Gen. 15:5).

Gen. 30:1. In the midst of sordid competition between Leah and Rachel, God sovereignly fulfills the first stage of his promise to multiply Abraham’s offspring (Gen. 12:2; 15:5; 17:5; 26:4; 28:14).

Gen. 31:24. God protects Jacob, fulfilling his earlier promise (Gen. 28:13-15) and protecting the line of chosen offspring leading to Christ (Gal. 3:16).

Gen. 32:24. God appears in human form, anticipating the incarnation of Christ.

Gen. 33:4. God delivers Jacob and his family from a feared attack by Esau, fulfilling his promise to Jacob and his offspring (Gen. 28:14-15) and protecting the offspring leading to Christ.

Gen. 34:9. Though Simeon and Levi are later criticized for their deceit and violence (Gen. 49:5-7), God uses them in preserving the line of holy offspring from intermarriage (see Deut. 7:3), thus protecting the line until the coming of Christ the final offspring (Gal. 3:16).

Gen. 35:10. God confirms earlier promises to Abraham and his offspring (see note on 12:2).

Gen. 36:1. The record of collateral, rejected offspring (Gen. 25:23) is given before continuing with the record of the line leading to Christ (Gal. 3:16).

Gen. 37:7. Prophetic dreams concerning God’s plan for the offspring of promise foreshadow the final prophetic unveiling of God’s purposes through Christ.

Gen. 37:20. Joseph, who is to be the key deliverer of God’s people, has a scrape with death, and is finally glorified (Gen. 41:41), foreshadowing the suffering and glorification of Christ the final deliverer.

Gen. 38:29. In spite of unrighteous sexual behavior by several males, God brings about his own purpose of continuing the offspring leading to Christ (Matt. 1:3).

Gen. 39:9. Joseph, in contrast to Adam and Eve, firmly rejected temptation, anticipating Christ’s rejection of temptation (Matt. 4:1-11; 16:23).

Gen. 40:23. The trials of Joseph, testing his faith, anticipate the trials that come to Christ as man (Matt. 4:1-11), and that come to disciples of Christ (Acts 14:22; 1 Thess. 3:4).

Gen. 41:36. Through prophetic gifts given by God, Joseph is able to save from famine not only Jacob and his family, but Egypt. He foreshadows Christ, whose prophetic teaching and suffering bring eternal salvation both to Jews and to Gentiles. (See Gen. 18:18.)

Gen. 42:9. God works according to his plan, which was already revealed in Joseph’s dreams (Gen. 37:5-9). God cares for the line of offspring leading to Christ (Gen. 3:15; Gal. 3:16).

Gen. 43:9. Judah offers himself as a substitute, prefiguring the substitution of Christ the offspring of Judah.

Gen. 44:33. See note on 43:9.

Gen. 44:29. Salvation through Joseph includes not only rescue from famine, but a change of heart in the brothers, compared to their earlier envy and violence toward Joseph. The change prefigures the change of heart that Christ works through the Spirit (John 3:3-8).

Gen. 45:15. Reconciliation springs from forgiveness, prefiguring God’s reconciliation and forgiveness in Christ.

Gen. 46:4. God delivers the entire family from famine and promises permanent care, anticipating both the exodus from Egypt (Ex. 1-14) and the subsequent generations leading to Christ.

Gen. 47:6. Through Joseph’s deliverance abundant blessings come to his family, prefiguring the blessings of deliverance in Christ.

Gen. 48:5. The transformation of one tribe (Joseph) into two further illustrates the fruitfulness of blessing to the line of offspring that God has chosen and blessed.

Gen. 49:10. At this early point God already reveals that through Judah will come a line of kings, leading finally to Christ the great, eternal king (Matt. 1:1-16).

Gen. 50:20. God uses even evil to work out his good purposes, foreshadowing the time when he will bring the supreme good, namely eternal salvation, out of the wicked actions of the men who condemned and crucified Jesus (Acts 2:23; 4:25-28).

Gen. 50:24. God’s promises stand firm through generations (Gen. 12:7; 15:13-14). His faithfulness is expressed climactically in Christ (2 Cor. 1:20).

History of Salvation

Notes on exodus.

Exodus. Through Moses God redeems his people from slavery in Egypt, prefiguring Christ’s eternal redemption of his people from slavery to sin.

Ex. 1:7. The multiplication of the people fulfills God’s promise to multiply Abraham’s descendants (Gen. 15:5).

Ex. 1:13. Bitter suffering precedes release, symbolizing that suffering under sin precedes the deliverance from sin in Christ.

Ex. 2:10. Moses, the special agent for God’s deliverance, has his life preserved, anticipating the rescue of baby Jesus from Herod’s murders (Matt. 2:13).

Ex. 2:15. God brings deliverance through his power and in his way, through the weakness of the cross, not through merely human impulses for justice (1 Cor. 1:25).

Ex. 3:5. The overwhelming holiness of the presence of God anticipates the presence of God in Christ’s incarnation.

Ex. 3:12. The commissioning of Moses by God’s word and God’s power prefigures the commissioning of Christ for his work (Matt. 3:17).

Ex. 3:14. The name “I am” anticipates the “I am” sayings of Jesus (see John 8:58), which show his deity.

Ex. 4:13. Moses’ reluctance points forward ultimately to the need for a divine deliverer, Jesus Christ.

Ex. 5:2. Pharaoh’s refusal to recognize the true God prefigures the resistance of people to Christ’s claims, even though miracles supported his claims.

Ex. 6:8. The mention of the patriarchs (see Gen. 12:7) shows the faithfulness of God and the continuity of his purposes over time. This faithfulness comes to ultimate fruition with the sending of the Son.

Ex. 7:17. The plagues on Egypt foreshadow the plagues preceding the Second Coming (Rev. 11:6).

Ex. 9:16. God uses even those who resist his will, prefiguring his use of Herod and Pilate (Acts 2:23; see Rom. 9:17).

Ex. 10:4. The locusts prefigure the judgments associated with the day of the Lord (Joel 1-2; Rev. 9:1-11).

Ex. 11:5. The plague of death reminds us that the wages of sin is death (Rom. 6:23). Only through the death of God’s Son are we delivered.

Ex. 12:6. Deliverance through the blood of a lamb prefigures the coming of the Lamb of God to obtain final salvation through his death (John 1:29).

Ex. 12:46. Because Jesus is the fulfillment of the passover lamb (1 Cor. 5:7), it is fitting that none of Jesus’ bones were broken (John 19:36).

Ex. 13:3. We now look back to the final passover in which Christ brought eternal salvation from sin (1 Cor. 5:7), and remember it in the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 11:23-26).

Ex. 14:19. God’s special presence in the cloud prefigures his presence in Christ, who is our protection and refuge against all the attacks of Satan.

Ex. 14:22. The people go down symbolically into death and come up alive, prefiguring the reception of resurrection life through Christ (see 1 Cor. 10:2; Rom. 6:4).

Ex. 14:30. The death of Egyptians prefigures that final destruction of all God’s enemies (Rev. 20:15: 21:8).

Ex. 15:2. Praise for God’s salvation anticipates the songs of praise for Christ’s final work of salvation (Rev. 15:3; 5:9-14).

Ex. 15:17. The conquest of Canaan prefigures the entrance into the final sanctuary of God’s presence, mediated by Christ (Heb. 10:19-20; Rev. 21:22).

Ex. 16:4. Manna prefigures Christ the bread of heaven, who gives eternal life (John 6:31-35).

Ex. 16:18. The sufficiency of the manna prefigures the sufficiency of God’s supply for the church (2 Cor. 8:15).

Ex. 17:6. God providing water after striking the rock prefigures Christ who is stricken to provide the water of eternal life (John 4:14; 19:34).

Ex. 18:18. The limitations of Moses prefigure the need for Christ, the divine judge, and Christ’s appointment of shepherds under him (elders) to carry out his will (1 Pet. 5:1-4).

Ex. 19:6. The privileges of Israel prefigure the higher privileges of the NT church (1 Pet. 2:9-10).

Ex. 19:12. The threat of death illustrates the impossibility of sinful people approaching a holy God. The impossibility is overcome only through the sacrifice and mediation of Christ (Heb. 10:19-20).

Ex. 20:2. Christians now obey God’s commandments because he has brought us out of sin and death (Col. 1:13; Rev. 1:5-6; Rom. 13:9).

Ex. 20:11. The celebration of the Sabbath looks back to creation (see notes on Gen. 2:2 and 2:3), back to redemption from Egyptian slavery (Deut. 5:15) and forward to final rest (Heb. 4:1-11).

Ex. 20:13. The Ten Commandments are deepened through Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 5:17-48), and fulfilled in Jesus’ perfect righteousness (Heb. 4:15; 5:9).

Ex. 21:2. The ordinances concerning slavery anticipate our being freed from slavery to sin, and becoming slaves to Christ (Rom. 6:20-22; 1 Cor. 7:22).

Ex. 21:12. The principles of retribution and restitution, though they hedge in sin and give partial remedies, do not bring a perfect kingdom, but look forward to the perfection of the kingdom of Christ (Isa. 9:6-7; Matt. 5:38-48).

Ex. 23:1. The truthfulness of God, coming to its climax in Christ, is to be reflected in truthfulness displayed to fellow human beings, and the compassion and justice of God is to be reflected in treatment of fellow humans.

Ex. 24:8. Consecration through blood prefigures consecration through the blood of Christ (Heb. 9:18-26).

Ex. 24:11. Fellowship with God prefigures our seeing God in the face of Jesus Christ (John 14:9). Christians enjoy fellowship with God in Christ, who is the food of eternal life (John 6:53-58), symbolized in the Lord’s Supper and consummated in the final feast (Rev. 19:9; 22:4).

Ex. 25:8. The making of a dwelling place anticipates Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 6), and prefigures God’s dwelling with us in Christ (John 2:19-21; Matt. 1:23; Rev. 21:22), in the church (1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:19-22), in the individual Christian (1 Cor. 6:19), and in the consummation (Rev. 21:3, 22-27). The actual construction of the Tabernacle is described in Ex. 36-39.

Ex. 25:22. God’s meeting with and speaking to his people prefigures his intimacy and communication in Christ.

Ex. 25:30. Bread expressing fellowship with God prefigures Jesus feeding us as the bread of life (John 6:35, 52-58.

Ex. 25:37. The provision of light in the presence of God prefigures Jesus as the light of the world (John 8:12; 9:5; 1:4-9; 3:19-21).

Ex. 25:40. The tabernacle is a shadow or copy of the heavenly, final dwelling of God, as indicated in Heb. 8:5. The symbolism in the tabernacle therefore consistently prefigures Christ and the church (see note on 25:8).

Ex. 26:33. The curtain bars access to all except the specially qualified high priest (Lev. 16), prefiguring that only Christ can open the way to God (Heb. 9:7-14; 10:20).

Ex. 27:1. Access to God is only through sacrifice on the altar (Lev. 4:10), prefiguring the necessity of the sacrifice of Christ (Heb. 9:12-14).

Ex. 27:9. The hangings of the court erect one more barrier to approaching God, thereby emphasizing his holiness. See note on Ex. 26:33.

Ex. 28:2. The external holiness and beauty of the priest prefigures the perfect holiness of Christ (Heb. 7:23-8:6).

Ex. 29:1. The priests, being sinful, need atoning sacrifice for themselves, contrasting with the perfection of Christ’s priesthood (Heb. 7:26-28).

Ex. 30:1. Burning incense represents intercessory prayer (Rev. 5:8), prefiguring Christ’s intercession (Heb. 7:25).

Ex. 30:16. Atonement money prefigures Christ’s buying us at the price of his own blood (1 Pet. 1:18-19).

Ex. 30:20. Washing prefigures cleansing from sin in Christ (1 Cor. 6:11; Zech 13:1).

Ex. 31:3. The giving of the Spirit prefigures Christ’s building the church through Spirit (Matt. 16:18; Eph. 2:20-22; 1 Cor. 14:12). The building of the church is based on the Christ’s resurrection through the Spirit (Rom. 8:11; John 2:19-21). See note on 1 Kings 7:14.

Ex. 32:12. Moses’s intercession prefigures the intercessary prayers of Christ (Heb. 7:25).

Ex. 32:32. Moses offers himself as a substitute, prefiguring Christ’s substitutionary death (Heb. 10:10).

Ex. 33:19. God as sovereign works his will in election (Rom. 9:15).

Ex. 33:22. Moses as sinful must be shielded from the full weight of God’s holiness, prefiguring Christ’s shielding us from the wrath of God (Rom. 5:9-11).

Ex. 34:9. God’s mercy prefigures the mercy given in Christ (Rom. 4:8).

Ex. 35:21. The willingness of the people prefigures the willingness of Christ’s self-giving (John 10:8), and then the willingness that he works in us (Rom. 12:1; 2 Cor. 8:9-15; 9:7; 9:13-15).

Ex. 36:10. The construction exactly according to God’s design (Ex. 26:1-6; see 39:42) prefigures the construction of the church according to God’s design (Eph. 4:11-16), and the construction of the new world (Rev. 21:2).2

Ex. 37:1. The construction matches 25:10-22. See note on 25:22.

Ex. 37:10. The construction matches 25:23-30. See note on 25:30.

Ex. 37:17. The construction matches 25:31-39. See note on 25:37.

Ex. 37:25. The construction matches 30:1-10. See note on 30:1.

Ex. 38:1. The construction matches 27:1-8. See note on 27:1.

Ex. 38:8. The construction matches 30:17-21. See note on 30:20.

Ex. 38:9. The construction matches 27:9-19. See note on 27:9.

Ex. 39:1. The garments match 28:1-43. See note on 28:2.

Ex. 40:34. See the parallel in 1 Kings 8:10-11. The coming of God’s presence prefigures the fullness of the Spirit on Christ (Matt. 3:16-17; John 3:34-35; 1:14) and on the church (Acts 2:3-4; 1 Cor. 3:16).

Leviticus. The requirement of holiness points to the holiness of Christ (Heb. 7:26-28). The sacrifices prefigure the sacrifice of Christ (Heb. 10:1-10).

Lev. 1:9. The offering of the whole sacrifice to God prefigures Christ’s giving of his whole self (Heb. 10:5-10). The whole ascends in smoke, prefiguring the ascension of Christ (Heb. 9:24).

Lev. 2:1. The offering of the fruitfulness of the land prefigures the honor given to God through the fruitfulness of Christ (1 Cor. 15:23; John 13:31-32).

Lev. 3:1. Most of the peace offering is eaten by the worshiper (Lev. 7:15-16), signifying fellowship with and blessing from God. It is fulfilled in Christ’s reconciliation and giving himself as food (Rom. 5:9-11; John 6:52-57).

Lev. 4:1. The promise of forgiveness is fulfilled in Christ’s giving himself as a sacrifice for sin (Rom. 8:3; Heb. 10:1-10).

Lev. 4:12. The position outside the camp prefigures Christ’s crucifixion outside Jerusalem (Heb. 13:11-14).

Lev. 5:1. Sins of falsehood and sins against holiness are forgiven in anticipation of Christ’s work in holiness (Heb. 9:23-26; 10:11-20).

Lev. 6:13. The continuation indicates the insufficiency of repeated sacrifices (Heb. 10:1-4), and the sufficiency of Christ’s sacrifice (Heb. 10:10) and intercession (Heb. 7:25).

Lev. 7:20. Fellowship with God and with the things of God requires holiness, prefiguring the holiness of Christ purifying us (Heb. 12:14; 10:10).

Lev. 8:1. For the instructions for consecration, see Ex. 29.

Lev. 8:30. Consecration through oil and blood prefigures purification from sin through the Spirit and the blood of Christ (Heb. 9:19-26; 1 Pet. 1:2).

Lev. 9:24. The Lord’s acceptance of the offering prefigures his acceptance of the sacrifice of Christ (Heb. 9:13-14).

Lev. 10:2. The rejection of human inventions prefigures the fact that Christ is the only way to God (John 14:6; Acts 4:12).

Lev. 11:45. Separation from uncleanness symbolizes separation from sin, in order to be intimate with God. It prefigures Christ’s work bringing holiness (Heb. 7:26; 10:10).

Lev. 12:7. Human birth is contaminated with sin ever since Adam. The remedy is in new birth (John 3:3-8) through Christ (Rom. 5:15-21).

Lev. 13:46. Skin disease symbolizes the contagion of sin, which alienates us from God and man.

Lev. 14:2. Cleansing prefigures Christ’s work of cleansing from sin (Luke 5:12-14; Heb. 9:9-14).

Lev. 15:1. Disorders of the body symbolize the disorder of sin, to be cleansed by Christ (Heb. 9:9-14).

Lev. 16:16. Symbolical atonement prefigures Christ’s final atonement (Heb. 9:7-14).

Lev. 17:11. The blood symbolizing life prefigures the blood of Christ, whose poured-out life brings atonement for sin (Rom. 3:25; Heb. 9:12-14; 9:18-26).

Lev. 17:14. In the superior blessing of the New Covenant we drink the blood of Christ as the source of spiritual life (John 6:53-56).

Lev. 18:3. Separation from pagan practices is part of holiness with God, prefiguring the holiness of Christ (Heb. 7:26) and his people (2 Cor. 6:14-18).

Lev. 18:5. Ultimately, the holiness of God requires perfect obedience, which is found in Christ (2 Cor. 5:21). Sinful man cannot keep the law (Gal. 3:12-14; Rom. 10:5).

Lev. 19:2. Loyalty to God requires a life of holiness (1 Pet. 1:15-22).

Lev. 19:18. The love commandment finds fulfillment in Christ and in those who are his (1 John 3:11-18; 4:7-21; Matt. 22:39; Rom. 13:9; Gal. 5:14; James 2:8).

Lev. 20:2. Sin has consequences in curse and death, prefiguring both the death of Christ as sin-bearer (1 Pet. 2:24) and eternal death in hell (Rev. 20:14-15).

Lev. 21:1. Holiness requires separation from death, which symbolizes sin. The priests prefigure the priesthood of Christ (Heb. 7:26-28) and of his people (1 Pet. 2:5,9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10).

Lev. 22:3. Sin, symbolized by uncleanness, disqualifies us from heavenly things, and must be cleansed by Christ (Heb. 9:8-13).

Lev. 23:5. See Deut. 16:1-8. The passover prefigures the Last Supper and Christ’s death (Matt. 26:19,2-28; 1 Cor. 5:7).

Lev. 23:16. See Deut. 16:9-12. This is the feast of “Pentecost,” fulfilled in Acts when the firstfruits from the nations are gathered into the church (Acts 2:1-11).

Lev. 23:28. The day of atonement, an annual day described in Lev. 16, prefigures the once-for-all atonement of Christ (Heb. 9:7-14; 10:3-5).

Lev. 24:2. Continual light prefigures Jesus as the light of the world (John 8:12; 9:5; 1:4-9; 3:19-21).

Lev. 24:8. Continual bread prefigures Jesus as the bread of life (John 6:35, 48-51).

Lev. 25:4. The rest given to the land prefigures the final rest given in the consummation (Heb. 4:9-11; Rev. 21:1-22:5). See notes on Gen. 2:2 and 2:3.

Lev. 25:10. The year of liberty prefigures the liberty given by Christ (Isa. 61:1-2; Luke 4:18-21).

Lev. 26:14. Sin leads to curse, anticipating Christ’s sin bearing (Gal. 3:13-14) and hell (Rev. 20:14-15).

Lev. 27:10. The permanence of holiness prefigures the permanence of redemption (John 10:28-29) and of the new world (Rev. 22:5).

Numbers. The journey through the wilderness prefigures the Christian journey through this world to the new world (Heb. 4:3-10; 1 Cor. 10:1-11).

Num. 1:3. Readiness for war prefigures spiritual war (Eph. 6:13).

Num. 2:17. The people of God are to be organized with God at the center (Eph. 4:4-6).

Num. 3:12. The Levites as a holy substitute prefigure Christ as priest, representative, and substitute (Heb. 7:23-28).

Num. 4:15. The penalty of death for approaching God’s holiness indicates the need for perfect mediation through Christ (Heb. 9:23-26).

Num. 5:20. The need for faithfulness in marriage prefigures the faithfulness of the church to Christ (Eph. 5:25-27; 2 Cor. 11:2-4).

Num. 6:5. The special holiness of the Nazirite prefigures the holiness of Christ (Heb. 7:26).

Num. 7:5. Holy service prefigures the service of Christ (Heb. 7:23-8:2) and his people (Rom. 12:1-2).

Num. 8:16. Christ substitutes for us and represents us before God (Heb. 7:23-28).

Num. 9:10. Being clean for the passover prefigures moral purity in the church (1 Cor. 5:7-8).

Num. 10:2. Summoning prefigures God’s instruction to the church (1 Thess. 4:1-3; Eph. 4:1).

Num. 11:17. The distribution of the Spirit foreshadows the wider distribution at Pentecost (11:29; Joel 2:28; Acts 2:16-18; 2:4).

Num. 12:8. Rejection of Moses prefigures the seriousness of rejecting Christ’s unique prophetic ministry (John 3:32-36; 5:23).

Num. 13:31. The unbelief of Israel contrasts both with the faithfulness of Christ (Matt. 4:1-10) and the faith of Christians (Heb. 3:7-4:3).

Num. 14:35. Death indicates judgment on unbelief (Heb. 3:16-19).

Num. 15:30. Cutting off prefigures apostasy from Christ (Heb. 10:26-31).

Num. 16:2. Rebellion prefigures false teaching in the church (Jude 10-13).

Num. 17:5. The choice of Aaron alone prefigures Christ as the one way (John 14:6).

Num. 18:5. The priests turn away wrath, prefiguring Christ’s propitiation (Rom. 3:23-25).

Num. 19:9. Purification prefigures the purification of Christ’s work (Heb. 9:13-14).

Num. 20:24. The failures in the priests point to the need for the greater priesthood of Christ (Heb. 7:23-25).

Num. 21:9. Looking at the serpent prefigures faith in Christ who is lifted up (John 3:14-16).

Num. 22:12. God overrules all plots against his purposes (Eph. 1:11-12; Acts 2:23).

Num. 24:17. Partial fulfillments in David’s and Solomon’s rule anticipate Christ’s rule over his enemies (Eph. 1:20-22; 1 Cor. 15:24-27).

Num. 25:3. Idolatry leads to chastisement and death (1 Cor. 10:20; Rev. 14:9-11).

Num. 27:4. Inheritance of the land anticipates eternal inheritance of the new world (Heb. 11:13-16).

Num. 28:3. Repeated, scheduled offerings anticipate one final offering by Christ (Heb. 10:1-10).

Num. 30:3. The authority of a man anticipates the authority of Christ over the church (Eph. 5:21-24).

Num. 31:16. The war prefigures holy war against sin (Eph. 6:11; 1 Pet. 2:11).

Num. 32:17. The 2 1/2 tribes receive their inheritance in Josh. 13:8-33. The tribes’ commitment to the whole nation prefigures cooperative work in the church (1 Cor. 12).

Num. 33:2. The names of the locations record God’s faithfulness to his promise to bring them to the land (Gen. 12:7; Ex. 6:4), prefiguring the record of his faithfulness in Christ (2 Cor. 1:20).

Num. 34:13. The inheritance is distributed in Josh. 14-19. The allotment of this land prefigures allotment to each of Christ’s people of an eternal inheritance (Eph. 1:11; Col. 1:12).

Num. 35:11. See Josh. 20. Deliverance from death prefigures Christ becoming a refuge from death for his people (Heb. 2:14; 6:18; John 8:51).

Num. 36:2. See note on Num. 27:4.

Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy. The righteousness and wisdom of the law of God prefigure the righteousness of Christ, which is given to his people. The anticipation of entering the promised land prefigures Christians’ hope for the new heaven and the new earth (Rev. 21:1-22:5).

Deut. 1:32. The people’s unbelief (see Num. 14) contrasts with faith for entering God’s rest (Heb. 3:7-4:11).

Deut. 2:24. God, not human strength, gives victory (3:22), prefiguring victory in Christ (Heb. 2:14-15).

Deut. 3:12. Moses recalls Numbers 32; see note on Num. 32:17.

Deut. 3:26. The insufficiency of Moses contrasts with the sufficiency of Christ, who has entered the eternal inheritance on our behalf (Heb. 9:23-26; 10:19-22).

Deut. 4:6. Israel by obeying would have been a light to the nations. Christ in his obedience is the light that Israel failed to be (Isa. 42:6; John 1:4-9).

Deut. 5:2. The covenant at Horeb (Sinai) anticipates the new covenant, where obedience will spring from the heart (Heb. 8:8-13), because of Christ’s purification (Heb. 10:14).

Deut. 6:5. Love for God is the greatest commandment (Matt. 22:37-38). One’ relation to God himself is central to life, and true love for God and reconciliation to God are possible only in Christ (John 14:6; Rom. 5:1-10).

Deut. 6:14. Holiness before God avoids compromise with evil, prefiguring the holiness of Christ (Heb. 7:26) and his people (1 Pet. 1:15-16; 2:11).

Deut. 8:18. Gratitude rather than pride characterizes the people of God (1 Cor. 1:28-31; 2 Cor. 9:15).

Deut. 9:19. Moses’ intercession prefigures Christ’s intercession (Heb. 7:23-25).

Deut. 10:16. Circumcision of the heart comes from renewal through the Spirit of Christ (Col. 2:11; Heb. 8:8-13; Rom. 8:9-13).

Deut. 11:9. Obedience is the basis for life, prefiguring Christ’s resurrection life as the reward for his obedience (Phil. 2:8-11).

Deut. 12:5. Access to God at a single location (Jerusalem, 1 Kings 8:16; Ps. 122:4) prefigures access through Christ alone (John 14:6).

Deut. 13:2. False prophets prefigure the danger of false teachings drawing people away from serving God through Christ (2 Pet. 2:1).

Deut. 14:2. Refraining from unclean foods symbolizes separation from sin (2 Cor. 6:17).

Deut. 15:2. Release of debtors anticipates the great release from sin in Christ (Luke 4:18-19).

Deut. 16:1. The great feasts (see Lev. 23) prefigure the celebration of Christ’s deliverance (1 Cor. 5:7).

Deut. 17:7. The purging of evil prefigures the purging of evil from the church (1 Cor. 5:13) and from the consummation (Rev. 21:8).

Deut. 17:15. Kings prefigure the righteousness of Christ the perfect king (Isa. 9:6-7; Matt. 27:37; Rev. 19:16).

Deut. 18:18. Prophets anticipate Christ, the final prophet (Acts 3:22-26).

Deut. 19:4. The provision for justice prefigures the justice of Christ’s rule (Isa. 9:6-7).

Deut. 20:4. God fights in anticipation of Christ’s fight against evil during his earthly life (Matt. 12:28-29), in his death (Heb. 2:14-15), and in his Second Coming (Rev. 19:15-21).

Deut. 21:9. Provisions for purity and justice anticipate final purification and justice in Christ (Heb. 9:23-28).

Deut. 21:23. The curse anticipates Christ bearing the curse of God on our behalf when he is crucified (hanged on a tree) (Gal. 3:13).

Deut. 22:22. Provisions for sexual purity anticipate the purity of the church as bride (Eph. 5:25-27; Rev. 19:7-8).

Deut. 23:9. God’s presence in the camp for war (20:4) requires holiness, prefiguring holy war in Christ (Rev. 19:14-16).

Deut. 24:1. Provisions for divorce are due to hardness of heart, and are inferior to God’s design (Matt. 19:3-9), which is to be fulfilled in Christ (Eph. 5:22-33).

Deut. 25:4. Provision for the ox is an illustration of a larger principle of provision for labor in the church (1 Cor. 9:9-11; 1 Tim. 5:18).

Deut. 25:5. Provision for a continuing name and inheritance prefigures God’s promise and provision for our name (Rev. 2:17) and our inheritance (1 Pet. 1:4-5; Eph. 1:13-14). It also prefigures Christ, who as younger “brother” to Adam raises up spiritually alive children (Heb. 2:13). 1

Deut. 26:8. Thanksgiving for redemption prefigures Christian thanksgiving for redemption in Christ (Heb. 13:15-16).

Deut. 27:26. All are subject to curse, and can escape only through Christ’s taking the curse on himself (Gal. 3:10-14).

Deut. 28:1. Eternal blessings of salvation come in Christ (Gal. 3:14), who removed the curse we deserved (Gal. 3:13).

Deut. 29:4. Renewal of the heart is to come in Christ (Heb. 8:8-13; Rom. 11:8).

Deut. 30:12. Christ brings power to obey God from the heart (Rom. 10:6-8).

Deut. 31:26. God makes provision for the preservation of the law for future generations, including us (Rom. 15:4; 1 Cor. 10:11).

Deut. 32:5. Israel’s rebellion contrasts with the faithfulness that is to characterize God’s children (Phil. 2:15).

Deut. 32:6. God’s care for Israel prefigures his care for Christ’s people (Rom. 8:15-17).

Deut. 32:21. The apostasy of Israel anticipates the rejection of the gospel (Rom. 10:19).

Deut. 34:10. The uniqueness of Moses anticipates the uniqueness of Christ (Acts 3:22-26).

Joshua. The conquest through Joshua prefigures Christ conquering his enemies, both Satan (Heb. 2:14-15) and rebellious human beings. The conquest takes place both through the gospel (Matt. 28:18-20) and in the destruction at the Second Coming (Rev. 19:11-21).

Josh. 1:6. Joshua’s role prefigures Jesus empowering his disciples (Matt. 28:18-20; Acts 1:8).

Josh. 2:9. Rahab in her faith anticipates the salvation of Gentiles through faith (Heb. 11:31; James 2:25; Gal. 3:6-9).

Josh. 3:11. God’s presence brings the people through the waters of death into the land, prefiguring Christ leading us to eternal life (John 11:25-26).

Josh. 4:6. Memorials of God’s faithfulness look forward to the message of Christ’s salvation.

Josh. 5:14. The divine commander anticipates Christ, who is the commander in climactic spiritual war (Matt. 11:28-29; Heb. 2:14-15; Rev. 19:11-21).

Josh. 6:2. The fall of Jericho prefigures the fall of Babylon and the end of the world (Rev. 18:2).

Josh. 7:11. Israel’s suffering for unholiness prefigures the need for holiness in the church (1 Cor. 5:1-13).

Josh. 8:32. A permanent record and a recital of the covenant fulfill the instructions given under Moses (Deut. 27:2-8). Intimacy with God through the covenant looks forward to the new covenant in Christ (Heb. 8:8-13).

Josh. 9:3. Though Israel fails in not consulting the Lord (9:14), the result prefigures the time when through the gospel people from many nations will come to recognize the God of Israel (Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8; Rev. 5:9-10).

Josh. 10:14. The great display of God’s power on behalf of his people prefigures the power of Christ’s resurrection and God’s commitment to save those who belong to Christ (Eph. 1:19-23).

Josh. 11:23. The whole conquest takes place according to the plan and promise of God (Deut. 7, etc.), illustrating God’s commitment in love to Israel and anticipating his commitment in Christ (Eph. 1:3-14).

Josh. 12:1. The list of defeated kings prefigures the triumph of Christ over all nations (Eph. 1:22; Rev. 5:9-10; 19:11-21; 20:8-9).

Josh. 13:8. Inheritance takes place according to plan (Num. 32), prefiguring God’s faithfulness with respect to the eternal inheritance in the new heaven and the new earth (Eph. 1:11, 14; 2:18; 1 Pet. 1:4; 2 Pet. 3:13).

Josh. 14:2. See Num. 32-35, especially 33:54; 34:17; 32:33; 35:2. Inheritance takes place according to the plan of God, anticipating eternal inheritance.

Josh. 14:6. See Num. 14. Caleb is a special example showing that inheritance comes to those who have faith in God and his promises. He prefigures eternal inheritance by faith (Rom. 4:13-16; Gal. 3:7, 18).

Josh. 15:1. Detailed specification of boundaries underlines for future generations their participation in the promise. It prefigures the detailed care and provision that God makes for each of us, anticipating the full inheritance in the new heaven and the new earth (1 Pet. 1:4; 2 Pet. 3:13; Rev. 21:1).

Josh. 16:1. Each of the tribes is provided for (Num. 33:54), and with it each of the members of the tribes, prefiguring God’s provision for each follower of Christ (John 10:3, 14; John 6:39).

Josh. 18:4. The situation is reminiscent of the spying of the land in Num. 13. But this time the result is more favorable, prefiguring the even greater blessings that God has in store when he works obedience in the heart in the new covenant (Heb. 8:8-13).

Josh. 19:1. See note on Josh. 15:1.

Josh. 20:1. The selection of cities of refuge fulfills the instructions through Moses (Num. 35; Deut. 19:1-13). It makes provision for refuge from death, prefiguring the coming of Christ as final refuge and solution to death (Rev. 1:18; Heb. 2:14-15).

Josh. 21:2. The distribution of the Levites among the tribes fulfills Gen. 49:7 and Num. 35:1-8, and provides all the tribes with people to teach the law (Mal. 2:5-9; Lev. 10:11). Their teaching prefigures the knowledge of God from the heart in the new covenant (Heb. 8:8-13).

Josh. 22:27. The altar confirming participation in God’s promises prefigures the Holy Spirit sealing participation in Christ (Eph. 1:13; 2 Cor. 1:22).

Josh. 23:6. The call to loyalty to the Mosaic covenant prefigures the call to faith in Christ (Matt. 28:18-20; Heb. 3:12-14).

Josh. 24:15. God must be served with exclusive loyalty (Deut. 5:7), prefiguring the exclusivity of commitment to Christ as the one way of salvation (Matt. 6:24; 10:34-39; John 14:6; Acts 4:12; 1 Cor. 10:21-22).

Judges. The judges save Israel, thus prefiguring Christ. But the judges have flaws or failures, and Israel repeatedly slips back into idolatry (Judg. 2:19), spiraling downward to chaos. They need a king (Judg. 21:25), and not only a king but a perfect king, the Messiah (Isa. 9:6-7).

Judg. 1:2. The leading role of Judah anticipates the rise of kings from the line of Judah (Gen. 49:10), beginning with king David and culminating in Jesus Christ (Matt. 1:1-16).

Judg. 2:18. God raises judges to save the people, prefiguring the sending of Christ. But the judges’s help is only temporary (2:19).

Judg. 3:20. The surprise prefigures the surprising character of salvation in Christ, which seems to the world to be weakness (1 Cor. 1:25).

Judg. 4:9. The glory goes ultimately to God, not to human strength or courage, prefiguring the divine glory through human weakness in the cross of Christ (1 Cor. 1:25).

Judg. 5:4. God’s present and future triumphs display the same power and glory as at Sinai.

Judg. 6:15. God again chooses to save Israel through a weak and timid person (compare 4:9), prefiguring the triumph of divine glory through human weakness in Christ (1 Cor. 1:25; 2 Cor. 13:4).

Judg. 7:2. God reduces the number of troops, prefiguring his work of eternal salvation through a single person, Jesus Christ.

Judg. 8:16. Those who despise the work of God through a small number prefigure those who despise the work of God in Christ (1 Cor. 1:18-31).

Judg. 9:8. The horrors due to Abimelech give evidence for the need for a king, thus looking forward to the coming of David and his descendants, above all Jesus Christ the son of David and final king.

Judg. 10:6. Disobedience and idolatry further multiply (see Judg. 2:19), giving further evidence for the need of permanent salvation through the coming line of king David.

Judg. 11:2. Jephthah is a more flawed judge, because of his ancestry, because of his appointment by the elders rather than a direct call from God (Judg. 11:6), and because of his foolish vow (Judg. 11:30). He makes evident the need for permanent salvation through the coming line of king David.

Judg. 12:4. The failure in the fighting among Israelites shows the need for a king in the coming line of David who will bring unity to the people.

Judg. 13:5. Samson is to be a Nazirite (see Num. 6) and especially holy. He shows great promise as a savior of Israel prefiguring Christ.

Judg. 13:22. The “man of God,” “the angel of the Lord,” is God himself, anticipating the incarnation of Christ.

Judg. 14:3. Israel is told not to intermarry with the Canaanites (Deut. 7:3). In Samson’s case the Lord uses it for good (Judg. 14:4), but it ultimately becomes Samson’s downfall (Judg. 16), indicating the need for a perfect savior to deliver people from their spiritual “marriage” to idolatry.

Judg. 15:14. Samson triumphs after being delivered as a captive over to the enemies, prefiguring Christ’s victory after being delivered to his enemies.

Judg. 16:30. Samson, though sinful. delivers Israel through his death, prefiguring Christ the sinless one delivering his people.

Judg. 17:2. Sin is compounded, in stealing, making an idol, partly backing down from a vow (17:4), and making a false priesthood (17:5). This shows further descent into sinfulness and the need for the coming king in the line of David.

Judg. 18:19. The multiplication of sin shows the need for salvation through the coming king in the line of David.

Judg. 19:30. Gibeah has become like Sodom (Gen. 19), showing the depths of sin and the need for salvation.

Judg. 20:14. Division and war, rather than unity in righteousness, show the need for salvation through the coming king in the line of David.

Judg. 21:10. The tribe of Benjamin is saved from utter annihilation, but only through further disunity, slaughter, and disorder. The disaster shows the need for permanent salvation through the king.

Ruth. The line of offspring leading to Christ goes through Judah to Boaz to David (Ruth 4:18-22; Matt. 1:5-6). Boaz the redeemer (Ruth 2:20), prefiguring Christ, enables Naomi’s disgrace to be removed and Ruth, a foreigner, to be included in God’s people (prefiguring the inclusion of the Gentiles, Gal. 3:7-9, 14-18, 29).

Ruth 1:16. Ruth expresses faith in the God of Israel, as well as love for Naomi, anticipating the role of faith when Christ comes to bring salvation.

Ruth 1:20. Naomi’s transition from bitterness to blessedness prefigures the participation of God’s people in Christ’s death and resurrection (Phil. 3:10).

Ruth 2:20. The kindness and protection of Boaz prefigure the work of Christ the redeemer.

Ruth 3:9. Christ spreads his protection over the church, his bride (Eph. 5:25-27; 2 Cor. 11:2).

Ruth 4:11. The blessing of fruitfulness has a near fulfillment in the birth of Obed (4:13), but points ultimately to Christ and his fruitfulness (Heb. 2:10).

1 Samuel. David, the king after God’s heart (1 Sam. 16:7; Acts 13:22), prefigures Christ, in contrast to Saul, who is the kind of king that the people want (1 Sam. 8:5, 19-20). Saul’s persecution of David prefigures worldly people’s persecution of Christ and of Christ’s people.

1 Sam. 1:11. By his power to bring life out of barrenness God raises up Samuel as his representative, prefiguring the raising of Christ.

1 Sam. 2:7. The raising of the downtrodden that Hannah experiences prefigures the reversal in Christ (Luke 1:48-53).

1 Sam. 3:20. Samuel’s calling at an early age prefigures the intimacy with God that Christ as the Son enjoys with the Father from all eternity.

1 Sam. 4:11. The death of the priests and the capture of the ark, which symbolizes God himself, is a kind of “humiliation” of God’s name, prefiguring the humiliation of Christ is his crucifixion. But it all takes place in accordance with God’s sovereign purpose (1 Sam. 2:34-35; Acts 2:23; 4:25-28).

1 Sam. 5:4. God executes judgment, prefiguring the judgment in Christ against all idols and idol worship.

1 Sam. 6:12. By miraculous power God delivers the ark, the symbol of his name, prefiguring the resurrection of Christ as deliverance from death.

1 Sam. 7:8. Samuel acts as a faithful judge (1 Sam. 7:15; compare Judg. 13:5), prophet (1 Sam. 3:19-20), and priest (1 Sam. 7:8-9), prefiguring the work of Christ as king, prophet, and priest (Heb. 1:1-3).

1 Sam. 8:5. A king like the nations contrasts with God’s kingship (8:7). God intends Israel to have a king (Deut. 17:14-20), but the people’s desires and the kings themselves fall short. Saul’s failures contrast with David. But eventually David too fails (2 Sam. 11). The failure of merely human kings points to the need for the perfect king, Christ, who will be divine and human (Isa. 9:6-7).

1 Sam. 8:7. The people’s rejection of God’s ways prefigures the rejection of Christ (Acts 3:13-15; 7:51-53).

1 Sam. 9:16. God indicates his sovereignty over the appointment of kings, prefiguring the appointment of Christ as king over all (Ps. 2:6; Phil. 2:9-11; Eph. 1:20-22).

1 Sam. 10:1. The oil prefigures the coming of the Holy Spirit to empower. Saul’s later failures show that he is only a shadow of the greater anointing that comes to David (16:13) and climactically to Christ (Luke 4:18; John 3:34), and then to those who belong to Christ (2 Cor. 1:21-22).

1 Sam. 11:15. Saul is initially successful, receiving the benefits of God’s favor. This temporary favor contrasts with the lasting favor on David and his offspring, supremely on Christ (Matt. 3:17).

1 Sam. 12:14. King and people belong together. Their failures show the need for the coming of Christ the perfect king, who is able to change the hearts of his people.

1 Sam. 13:12. Saul knew that sacrifice was supposed to be offered only by the priests (Num. 18:7). Saul’s sins lead to his replacement by David (13:14; 16:7), prefiguring the need for Christ the perfect king.

1 Sam. 14:6. Ultimate salvation comes through one man, Christ Jesus (1 Tim. 2:5), who willingly dies for us.

1 Sam. 15:22. Sinners replace real obedience with outward tokens (see Micah 6:6-8). Full obedience from the heart is found in Christ (Heb. 10:5-10).

1 Sam. 16:7. The choice of David contrasts with people’s looking on outward appearance (1 Sam. 10:23-24). The contrast prefigures people’s rejection of Christ’s humiliation and suffering (Isa. 53:3; 1 Cor. 1:18-31).

1 Sam. 17:47. God’s working national deliverance through David prefigures international salvation through Christ, who defeats Satan (Heb. 2:14-15).

1 Sam. 18:3. Despite Saul’s antagonism, Saul’s son Jonathan and daughter Michal go over to David’s side. David prefigures the spiritual attraction of Jesus Christ, who is the final David (Matt. 4:18-22; 8:9-13).

1 Sam. 19:10. Saul’s repeated persecution of David in his innocence prefigures the repeated persecution of Christ (John 8:44-47).

1 Sam. 20:33. The conflict with Jonathan prefigures the conflict within households over loyalty to Christ (Matt. 10:34-39).

1 Sam. 21:5. The exception made for David prefigures the exceptional role of Christ in his holiness as the Son of Man (Matt. 12:3-4, 8).

1 Sam. 22:16. As Saul continues to pursue David, his sins multiply, prefiguring the progressive enslavement to sin on the part of those who refuse to come to Christ.

1 Sam. 23:2. Directions from God repeatedly help David to choose a path forward, prefiguring the direction from God through Christ to the road to eternal life (Matt. 7:24-27; John 5:24).

1 Sam. 24:6. David respects God’s sovereign choice (see John 19:11), and shows mercy to Saul, prefiguring the mercy of Christ even toward those who have opposed him (1 Tim. 1:13-16).

1 Sam. 25:24. Abigail offers herself as a guilt-bearer for her worthless husband, prefiguring the gracious guilt-bearing of Christ (1 Pet. 2:23-25).

1 Sam. 25:29. Vengeance belongs to the Lord (Rom. 12:19). In recalling this, David prefigures Christ’s willingness to leave vengeance in God’s hands (1 Pet. 2:23).

1 Sam. 26:9. See the note in 1 Sam. 24:6.

1 Sam. 27:1. Though David loses heart, God continues to protect David in fulfillment of his purpose to make David king (1 Sam. 16:1). God’s faithfulness even to an imperfect man magnifies his faithfulness in the case of Christ, the perfect king.

1 Sam. 28:19. By consulting a medium, Saul makes a further step into wickedness, further contrasting his life with the righteousness of David, and the climactic righteousness of the Messiah.

1 Sam. 29:11. God continues faithfulness to David by removing him from involvement in the death of Saul and Jonathan (1 Sam. 31:2) and enabling him to return to Ziklag in time to rescue the wives and children (1 Sam. 30:1-31). See note on 1 Sam. 27:1.

1 Sam. 30:6. David through the strength of God acts as deliverer, prefiguring Christ the deliverer of captives (Luke 4:18-19).

1 Sam. 31:6. God fulfills his word against Saul (28:19), showing that sin in a ruler brings suffering and death not only on himself but on others under his care. The failure of Saul shows by contrast the need for a perfect ruler in the line of David (Isa. 9:6-7).

2 Samuel. David as a model king brings blessing to the nation until he falls into sin with Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11). Though he repents, the remainder of his reign is mixed, pointing to the need for the coming of Christ the perfect messianic king.

2 Sam. 1:23. David mentions nothing of Saul’s failures and sins, prefiguring the grace and forgiveness of Christ.

2 Sam. 2:10. Judah and Israel (the northern kingdom) are eventually united under David and Solomon (2 Sam. 5:1-5; 1 Kings 4:20), but division reappears under Rehoboam and his successors (1 Kings 11:11-13; 12:16-24). The strife points to the need of permanent union, which will be achieved only through Christ the king.

2 Sam. 3:37. David’s graciousness and respect for Abner, in contrast to Joab’s vengeance, display the qualities of a godly king, prefiguring the graciousness of Christ.

2 Sam. 4:11. David’s respect for Ishbosheth, like his respect for Abner, shows the desire for reconciliation and forgiveness, prefiguring Christ’s reconciliation.

2 Sam. 5:2. David unites Israel and Judah under one head, fulfilling God’s prophetic purpose (1 Sam. 16:1) and prefiguring the greater unity of God’s people to be accomplished in Christ (Eph. 4:1-16; 1 Cor. 12).

2 Sam. 6:7. Only the Levites were to carry the ark, touching only its poles (Num. 4:15; Ex. 25:14). God in his holiness destroys sinners who approach him unauthorized, but his presence can also bring blessing (6:12). The tension is resolved only when the way to approach God is opened through Christ’s work of purification (Heb. 10:19-22).

2 Sam. 7:12. God’s covenant with David has a proximate fulfillment with Solomon (1 Kings 1:46; 8:15-21). But Solomon fails (1 Kings 11:1-10). God preserves the line of offspring (1 Kings 11:12, 36; 15:4; 2 Kings 8:19) until Christ the everlasting king comes (Matt. 1:1-16).

2 Sam. 7:14. God is father to Solomon in a subordinate sense. Solomon prefigures Christ the eternal Son (Heb. 1:5, 2).

2 Sam. 8:15. David as model king subdues enemies and brings justice, prefiguring the work of Christ the king (Isa. 9:6-7).

2 Sam. 9:1. David’s graciousness toward the house of Saul fulfills his earlier promise to Saul (1 Sam. 24:21-22) and Jonathan (1 Sam. 20:15-17) and prefigures the graciousness of Christ the king.

2 Sam. 10:2. Willingly or unwillingly Ammon comes to acknowledge David’s rule, prefiguring the willing or unwilling submission of all nations to Christ’s rule (Ps. 2).

2 Sam. 11:4. David later repents (2 Sam. 12:13). But David and his house and his rule over the whole nation suffer various consequences for the rest of his life. The devastation from one sin points to the need for Christ the perfect, sinless king (Isa. 42:1-4).

2 Sam. 12:13. God is gracious to forgive, ultimately for the sake of Christ (1 John 1:9). But sin still brings consequences (12:10-12, 14). See note on 2 Sam. 11:4.

2 Sam. 13:22. The sin of Amnon, in its similarity to David’s sin (2 Sam. 11:4), begins a series of devastating consequences for David’s house (2 Sam. 12:10-12), including not only Absalom’s actions but David’s neglect of discipline and justice toward Amnon and Absalom. See note on 2 Sam. 11:4.

2 Sam. 14:1. David’s love for Absalom prefigures Christ’s love for sinners. But David falls short of Christ by neglecting justice: murder deserves death (Num. 35:31-34).

2 Sam. 15:1. Absalom’s betrayal of his father prefigures Judas’s betrayal of Jesus (John 13:18), and more broadly the treachery of all who rebel against God the Father and Christ.

2 Sam. 15:30. David’s sorrow prefigures the sorrow of Christ as he leaves Jerusalem and prays in Gethsemane (Matt. 26:30, 36-46).

2 Sam. 16:12. David leaves vengeance to God, prefiguring the patience of Christ before his enemies (1 Pet. 2:23).

2 Sam. 16:22. Absalom’s sordid behavior fulfills God’s prophecy in 2 Sam. 12:11-12, further illustrating the devastation of sin and the need for a perfect redeemer king.

2 Sam. 17:5. Through Hushai and other circumstances, God shows mercy to David and answers David’s need expressed in 2 Sam. 15:31-37. The turning back of the effects of sin, and David’s rescue from death, look forward to final redemption in Christ.

2 Sam. 18:33. David’s grief, though flawed (19:2, 5-7), prefigures the willingness of the Son of God to die in place of sinners (Rom. 5:8).

2 Sam. 19:22. Forgiveness under the reestablished kingship prefigures forgiveness for former rebels under Christ’s kingship (1 Tim. 1:12-16).

2 Sam. 20:1. Divisiveness continues to rear its head after Absalom’s death, partly because of David’s preference for Judah in 19:11-15, leading to the anger in 19:43. The kingdom continues to suffer indirect consequences from David’s sin with Bathsheba, underlining the need for Christ the perfect king. See note on 2 Sam. 11:4.

2 Sam. 20:10. Though David is reconciled to Amasa (20:4), Joab kills him, probably because of his role in Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sam. 17:25). See note on 2 Sam. 20:1.

2 Sam. 21:3. Atonement and blessing are needed, but David’s solution (21:6) does not give ultimate satisfaction (Deut. 24:16). Full resolution of justice requires Christ the divine king with infinite wisdom, and the coming of resurrection from the dead (Rev. 20:11-15).

2 Sam. 22:1. This song is included in the Psalter in Ps. 18, indicating that it is to be sung by the people of God as well as David. See note on 1 Chron. 15:16.

2 Sam. 22:50. The spread of praise among the nations anticipates the spread of the gospel (Acts 1:8; Rom. 15:9).

2 Sam. 22:51. God’s salvation for David prefigures his salvation through Christ the king.

2 Sam. 23:8. The list of mighty men prefigures the might in the army of God under Christ the king (Rev. 19:11-14).

2 Sam. 24:1. Out of the need for atonement comes the designation of the site for the temple of Solomon (1 Chron. 21:28-22:1), which prefigures Christ as the final temple where atonement is accomplished (John 2:19-21). See note on 1 Chon 22:1.

2 Sam. 24:17. The suffering of the sheep for the sin of their king is reversed when Christ suffers for the sins of the sheep (John 10:15). Christ’s suffering answers David’s request that God’s hand would be against “my father’s house,” the line leading to Christ.

1 Kings. The reign of Solomon fulfills the first stage of God’s promise to David to establish the kingdom of his offspring (2 Sam. 7:12). Solomon in some ways is a model king, prefiguring Christ. But his decline into sin (1 Kings 11), the sins of his offspring, the division and strife between Israel and Judah, and the continual problems with false worship indicate the need for a perfect king and an everlasting kingdom (Isa. 9:6-7) surpassing the entire period of the monarchy. Many passages in 1 Kings have parallels in 2 Chronicles.

1 Kings 1:13. David’s purpose prefigures the purpose of God to establish Christ as king, when many prefer alternatives (Ps. 2; Acts 13:33).

1 Kings 2:6. Solomon’s wisdom is tested in dealing with unfinished business from the reign of David. Solomon’s wisdom prefigures the wisdom of Christ (Matt. 12:42; Col. 2:3). The combination of mercy and justice characterizes David and Solomon in anticipation of Christ.

1 Kings 3:9. See note on 1 Kings 2:6. God promises wisdom in 1 Kings 3:12, and fulfillment is seen in 3:28 and 4:29-34.

1 Kings 4:1. The blessings of order, peace, justice, and prosperity in Solomon’s reign prefigure the blessings of Christ’s reign.

1 Kings 4:34. The attraction of Solomon’s wisdom prefigures all nations hearing the wisdom of Christ (Acts 1:8).

1 Kings 5:5. Solomon’s building of the temple fulfills God’s promise in 2 Sam. 7:13 (1 Chr 17:12), and prefigures the building of an everlasting temple. Christ resurrection body is an everlasting temple (John 2:19-22), and then Christ builds the church as a temple (Matt. 16:18; 1 Cor. 3:16).

1 Kings 5:8. The aid in building from Hiram, a Gentile, prefigures the inclusion of the Gentiles in the building of the church as a temple (Eph. 2:19-22).

1 Kings 6:2. The temple is like the tabernacle of Moses (Ex. 25-27; see note on Ex. 25:8), but larger and more magnificent, symbolizing an expansion and a further stage in God’s purpose to dwell with his people. Still further development takes place with Ezekiel’s vision of a new temple (Ezek. 40-43), with the church (Eph. 2:19-22), and with the new Jerusalem in the consummation (Rev. 21:3, 10-22:5).

1 Kings 7:14. See note on 1 Kings 5:8. Hiram’s God-given wisdom is like that of Bezalel and Oholiab, who supervised the construction of the Tabernacle (Ex. 31:1-6). It prefigures the wisdom of Christ and of his servants in the building of the church (Eph. 2:19-22).

1 Kings 7:23. The sea greatly enlarges the basin for washing that was in the tabernacle (Ex. 30:17-21). See note on Ex. 30:20.

1 Kings 7:27. The stands with their basins (7:38) represent small, mobile versions of the sea (7:23-26), further underlining the abundance of water (see note on 7:23). The multiplication of water, compared with the single basin for washing in Ex. 30:17-21, anticipates the even greater abundance when the water provided by God becomes a river of life (Ezek. 47:1-12; Rev. 22:1-2; John 4:10-14; 19:34).

1 Kings 8:11. See Ex. 40:34-35. The glory of the Lord later departs, because of the apostasy of the people (Ezek. 10). The coming of God’s presence prefigures the fullness of the Spirit on Christ (Matt. 3:16-17; John 3:34-35; 1:14) and on the church (Acts 2:3-4; 1 Cor. 3:16).

1 Kings 8:24. The promise to David is in 2 Sam. 7:13. The temple anticipates the greater fulfillment in the dwelling of God with man through Christ. See notes on 1 Kings 5:5 and 6:2.

1 Kings 8:30. The key role of the temple in prayer prefigures the role of Christ, through whose name we have access to God (Heb. 10:19-22; John 14:13-14).

1 Kings 9:8. The desolation comes to pass in 2 Kings 25:9-11, indicating the need for true obedience and a greater temple that is to come in Christ (John 2:19-21; 1:14).

1 Kings 10:1. The queen of Sheba’s coming to hear wisdom, mentioned in Matt. 12:42, prefigures the coming of the nations to Christ (Acts 1:8; Col. 2:3).

1 Kings 11:2. Solomon’s disobedience leads to disastrous judgment (11:9-11), anticipating the judgments on later idolatries among God’s people. Solomon’s failure indicates the need for Christ the perfect king in the line of David (Matt. 1:1-16).

1 Kings 12:15. God’s prophecy in 1 Kings 11:29-39, 11-13 begins to be fulfilled, and God’s people split into two kingdoms. Both Rehoboam’s failure and the resulting disunity and strife among God’s people show the need for Christ the perfect king as the unifier of his people (1 Cor. 12; Eph. 4:1-6).

1 Kings 13:2. A striking prophecy, fulfilled in 2 Kings 23:15-17, shows the power of God’s word even in the midst of sin, corruption of worship, and chaos. The power of the prophetic word prefigures the power of Christ, the final prophet (Heb. 1:1-2; Acts 3:22-26).

1 Kings 13:34. See the description of Jeroboam’s sin in 1 Kings 12:26-33. Judgment for sin is prophesied in 1 Kings 14:9-12, and falls in 1 Kings 14:17-18, 15:29-30. Jeroboam’s sin continues with his successors (15:34; 16:2, 7, 19, 26, 22:53; 2 Kings 3:3; 10:29, 31; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28), ultimately leading to the exile of the northern kingdom (2 Kings 17:21-23). The judgments on false worship show the need for true worship, prefiguring Christ as the one way to God (John 14:6).

1 Kings 14:10. See note on 1 Kings 13:34. The power of God’s word is seen when the judgment falls in 1 Kings 14:17-18 and 15:29-30.

1 Kings 14:22. Just as in the northern kingdom (14:9), false worship in the southern kingdom eventually leads to exile (2 Kings 23:26-27; 25:1-21; see note on 1 Kings 13:34).

1 Kings 15:4. In spite of sin God is faithful to the promise to David (2 Sam. 7:5-17), and maintains the line of David (11:12, 32, 34, 36; 2 Kings 8:19; 19:34) down through a list of kings of Judah leading to Christ (Matt. 1:1-16).

1 Kings 15:18. In contrast to the kings of Israel (15:26, 34), Asa is a good king (15:11), prefiguring the righteousness of Christ his descendant. Yet in this case he fails to rely on God (see 2 Chron. 16:7-12), underlining the need for perfect righteousness in the king.

1 Kings 15:29-30. The killing fulfills the prophecy in 1 Kings 14:9-11 (see note on 1 Kings 13:34). The wiping out of the king’s line of descent contrasts with God’s faithfulness in maintaining the line of David leading to Christ (see note on 1 Kings 15:4).

1 Kings 16:3. See 1 Kings 15:29-30. Judgments on the northern kingdom show the consistency of God’s word and his holiness (see note on 1 Kings 13:34).

1 Kings 17:1. The power of the prophetic word prefigures the power of Christ’s word (Heb. 1:1-3).

1 Kings 17:14. The miraculous supply of food through the power of God’s word prefigures the power of Christ to multiply bread (Matt. 14:13-21; Mark 8:1-9) and to be himself the bread of heaven (John 6:26-51).

1 Kings 17:21. Impartation of life prefigures Christ’s resurrection of Jairus’s daughter (Matt. 9:18-25), his resurrection of Lazarus (John 11:38-44), his own resurrection (John 10:18), and his role as “the resurrection and the life” (John 11:25-26) who gives spiritual life to us in anticipation of the resurrection of the body (John 5:28-29).

1 Kings 18:39. Miraculous power anticipates the resurrection of Christ, which displays the power of God and draws the nations to acknowledge him (John 12:32).

1 Kings 19:2. Jezebel’s opposition undermines Elijah’s previous work, seeming to lead to failure (19:4). But God’s purpose through his prophetic word stands (19:12, 15-18), prefiguring the victory when Christ fulfills prophecy.

1 Kings 19:16. See 19:19. Elijah is not the end, but one of a succession of prophets leading to Christ the final prophet (Heb. 1:1-2).

1 Kings 19:18. The 7000 illustrate the concept of a remnant, to be fulfilled in the Jews who believe in Christ (Rom. 11:3-10; see note on Isa. 6:13).

1 Kings 20:28. God to magnify his glory enables Ahab to defeat Benhadad twice (see 20:19-21). The victory in battle prefigures the final victory of Christ and his army (Rev. 19:11-21).

1 Kings 20:42. Ahab’s failure contrasts with the complete elimination of enemies in the final battle led by Christ (Rev. 19:11-21).

1 Kings 21:19. The prophecy is fulfilled in 2 Kings 9:25-26, 36-37, 10:10-11, 17, showing the power of God’s word in judgment. This power prefigures the power of Christ’s word (Rev. 19:15, 21; Heb. 1:1-2; 4:12-13).

1 Kings 22:19. The superiority of God to all earthly thrones is shown when Micaiah’s prophecy (22:23, 28) is fulfilled (22:34-36). The power of God and of his word anticipates the power shown in the resurrection of Christ (Eph. 1:20-22) and in the spread of the gospel, which confounds worldly authorities (1 Cor. 2:6-9).

2 Kings. Following on the history in 1 Kings (see note at the beginning of 1 Kings), Israel and Judah continue to decline in their false worship and disobedience, leading to exile (2 Kings 17; 25). Some good kings (notably Hezekiah and Josiah, 2 Kings 18-20; 22:1-23:30) prefigure the need for Christ the perfect king, while Elisha prefigures the need for Christ the final prophet (Heb. 1:1-3). Many passages in 2 Kings have parallels in 2 Chronicles.

2 Kings 1:4. The prophecy is fulfilled in 1:17. The triumph of God’s word over all opposition prefigures the triumph of Christ and of the gospel.

2 Kings 2:11. Elijah’s ascent prefigures the triumph of Christ over death and his ascension (Luke 24:51; Acts 1:9.

2 Kings 2:14. The dividing of the waters, reminiscent of Moses at the Red Sea (Ex. 14:21-22), Joshua at the Jordan (Josh. 3:7-17), and Elijah at the Jordan (2 Kings 2:8), confirms that Elisha has received the prophetic succession from Elijah (2:9). The power over the waters, as a symbol of death and chaos, prefigures the resurrection of Christ.

2 Kings 3:17. The provision of water, like the provision under Moses (Ex. 17:6; 20:8-11), prefigures Christ as the giver of the water of eternal life (John 4:10, 13-14; Rev. 22:1).

2 Kings 4:34. The giving of life, like the instance with Elijah (1 Kings 17:17-24), prefigures the resurrection of Christ and the life he gives to us through union with him (Rom. 6:4, 8-11; 8:10-11; Col. 3:1-4).

2 Kings 5:14. Cleansing from leprosy (see Lev. 14) prefigures cleansing from sin through the power of Christ (Luke 5:12-14). The inclusion of Naaman, a Syrian, prefigures the inclusion of the Gentiles in God’s salvation (Luke 24:47).

2 Kings 6:17. The vision of God’s angelic army indicates dimensions of spiritual warfare. It anticipates the spiritual war with the coming of Christ (Matt. 12:28-29; Luke 10:18-19; John 12:31; Rev. 19:11-21).

2 Kings 7:1. The provision of food in spite of unbelief (see Ex. 16:1-21) prefigures Christ giving himself as the bread of heaven (John 6:35, 47-51).

2 Kings 8:15. Hazael’s fulfillment of earlier prophetic words (1 Kings 19:15; 2 Kings 8:10) shows the power of God’s word in judgment. (See 2 Kings 10:32.) This power anticipates the power of Christ’s words (John 12:48; Heb. 1:1-2; 4:12-13; Rev. 1:16).

2 Kings 9:25. Jehu fulfills earlier prophecy (1 Kings 19:16-17; 21:19-24), underlying the power of God’s word in bringing judgment. See notes on 1 Kings 21:19 and 2 Kings 8:15.

2 Kings 10:10. Jehu fulfills God’s prophetic words of judgment against Ahab’s house, and wipes out the worship of Baal introduced by Jezebel (1 Kings 16:31-33), showing God’s power in judgment, and anticipating the day of judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). See note on 1 Kings 21:19.

2 Kings 11:2. The rescue of Joash prefigures the rescue of Jesus from Herod (Matt. 2:13-15). God preserves the line of David, for the sake of his promise (2 Sam. 7:16) and to carry out his purpose of salvation through the work of Christ (Rev. 12:4-5).

2 Kings 12:9. The attention to the temple prefigures the importance of building the church (Matt. 16:18; Eph. 2:20-22; 1 Cor. 14:12).

2 Kings 13:23. God’s compassion even toward a sinful people prefigures his compassion in Christ toward sinners (Matt. 9:13; Luke 5:32).

2 Kings 14:10. A single act of pride from Amaziah brings disaster on the people, indicating the need for Christ as the perfect, humble king (Zech 9:9).

2 Kings 15:9. See note on 1 Kings 13:34. The northern kingdom goes downhill toward the exile in 17:6-23. The degeneration points to the need for perfect kingship and redemption from the heart, both of which await the coming of Christ.

2 Kings 16:3. Under Ahaz the southern kingdom also suffers serious spiritual degeneration, pointing to the need for perfect kingship in Christ.

2 Kings 17:7. The exile is God’s judgment on sin (see note on 1 Kings 13:34), prefiguring the judgment on sin that Christ bore as a substitute (1 Pet. 2:21-24) and the final judgment at the consummation (Rev. 20:11-15).

2 Kings 18:5. Hezekiah as a faithful king prefigures the faithfulness and righteousness of Christ (Isa. 9:6-7; 42:1-4), and its fruits in the lives of Christ’s people. See the parallel passages in Isa. 36-38 and 2 Chron. 32.

2 Kings 18:30. Rabshakeh symbolizes the voice of Satan, who deceives and attacks the faith of God’s people (Gen. 3:4-5; Matt. 4:1-10; Eph. 6:16; Rev. 12:9).

2 Kings 19:22. God vindicates his name against all slanders, prefiguring the vindication of his name in the resurrection of Christ (John 13:31-32).

2 Kings 20:5. God mercifully hears prayer, anticipating his mercy in Christ through whom he hears our prayers (John 14:13-14; 15:16; 16:26-27).

2 Kings 21:8. Manasseh directly affronts God’s command and his holiness, which leads to a prophecy of judgment (21:12-15), and illustrates the pattern of rebellion leading to exile (24:2-4). Manasseh’s evil points by contrast to the need for Christ as the perfect king.

2 Kings 22:2. Josiah as a righteous king prefigures Christ.

2 Kings 22:13. Words of prophecy, not only from Elijah and Elisha but from Moses (Deut. 11:26-28), show that God judges in accordance with his purpose and his righteousness. This righteousness is supremely manifested in Christ, both when in his innocence he bears sin (2 Cor. 5:21), and when he comes to judge the world (Acts 17:31).

2 Kings 22:20. See 23:30. Because of his righteousness and humility, Josiah receives blessing. But unlike Christ (Gal. 3:13-14), he is unable to reverse the impending curse and punishment that will come to his people (see 23:26-27).

2 Kings 24:2. See notes on 2 Kings 21:8 and 22:13.

2 Kings 25:9. God’s righteous judgment falls because of accumulated sins (24:2-4; 23:26-27). The judgment also destroys God’s own house, prefiguring the judgment that will fall on Christ, whose body is the temple (John 2:19-21; Gal. 3:13-14).

2 Kings 25:27. The provision for the king of Judah, in the line of David, indicates that God still remembers his promise to David (2 Sam. 7:16), and anticipates the eventual coming of Jesus the Messiah through the line of Jehoiachin (also called Jeconiah, 1 Chron. 3:16; Matt. 1:11-12).

1 Chronicles

1 Chronicles. David as the righteous leader and king prefigures Christ the king, not only in his rule over the people of God but in his role in preparing to build the temple. 1 Chronicles looks back on the faithfulness of God to his people in the entire period from Adam (1:1) to David (3:1) and even beyond (3:10-24; 9:1-34), indicating the steadfastness of God’s purpose in preparing for the coming of the Messiah as the offspring of Adam (1:1; Gen. 3:15; Luke 3:38), offspring of Abraham (1 Chron. 1:28; Gal. 3:16), and offspring of David (1 Chron. 3:1; Acts 13:23; 1 Chron. 17:11, 14; Luke 3:23-38).

1 Chron. 1:1. God promises victory over Satan by the offspring of the woman (Gen. 3:15), the offspring of Abraham (Gen. 17:7; seen notes on Gen. 3:15 and 12:1). The line of chosen offspring goes from Adam through Seth and Noah (1 Chron. 1:4) to Abraham (1:27-28), Isaac (1:34), and Israel (1:34; 2:1; earlier called Jacob (Gen. 32:27-28). It will culminate in Christ (Matt. 1:1-16; Gal. 3:16).

1 Chron. 2:1. The line of chosen offspring goes from Israel to David, and includes the blessing of multiplication of offspring in the form of the twelve tribes (see Gen. 13:16; 15:5). See note on 1:1.

1 Chron. 3:1. The line of the Messiah comes through king David (Matt. 1:1, 6; 2 Sam. 7:16; see note on 1 Chron. 1:1).

1 Chron. 3:10. Solomon and his offspring are a stage in the fulfillment of the promise to David for his offspring (2 Sam. 7:16). The offspring ultimately lead to Christ (Matt. 1:1-16; see note on 1 Chron. 1:1).

1 Chron. 4:1. After recording the Messianic line of David, which will lead to Christ (see note on 3:10), Chronicles gives the record for Judah, the tribe of David. The recording of individual names and families underlines their inclusion in the promise to Abraham concerning blessing, land, and fellowship with God (Gen. 17:4-8). It prefigures the blessing (Gal. 3:14), land (Rom. 4:13; Heb. 11:16; 12:22; Rev. 21:1), and fellowship with God (Gal. 3:26-29; Rom. 5:1) that come from union with Christ the greater David. God has enrolled our names in his book of life (Rev. 13:8; 17:8; 20:15; see Eph. 1:4; John 10:3, 14).

1 Chron. 5:1. The record of Reuben, Gad (5:11), and Manasseh (5:23) indicates their continued inclusion among God’s people as offspring of Abraham and Israel (2:1-2). It answers doubts that might rise because of the location of their land east of the Jordan (Num. 32; Josh. 13:8-32; 22:24-29). The reassurance prefigures the guarantee give to Christians (Eph. 1:13-14; 2 Cor. 1:22). See note on 1 Chron. 4:1.

1 Chron. 6:49. The special list for Aaron the priest and for the tribe of Levi, which indicates some of their priestly privileges before God, prefigures the priestly privileges given to Christians through Christ the final high priest (Heb. 7:23-8:2; 10:19-22).

1 Chron. 7:1. Other tribes descending from Israel (2:1-2) are briefly listed. See note on 4:1.

1 Chron. 8:33. Special focus is given to Saul, because he was king of Israel (10:14; 1 Sam. 10:1). But he was superseded by David (1 Chron. 10:13-14; 17:13; 1 Sam. 16:1, 12; 2 Sam. 7:15), whose line of kings leads forward to Christ the king (Matt. 1:6-16).

1 Chron. 9:2. The enrollment of names of returned exiles indicates God’s continued faithfulness to the offspring of Israel. It prefigures God’s enrollment and faithfulness to those who belong to Christ the Israelite (Gal. 3:14, 16, 28-29: see note on 1 Chron. 4:1).

1 Chron. 10:14. The movement of kingship to David is the beginning of the line of kingly offspring leading to Christ (1 Chron. 17:11, 14; Matt. 1:6-16).

1 Chron. 11:3. David is established as king in fulfillment of God’s purpose (11:2), prefiguring the establishment of Christ the son of David as the final king (Ps. 2:6-12; Acts 13:33; Eph. 1:20-22).

1 Chron. 12:23. The unification of God’s people under David, and their strength for war, prefigures the unification and spiritual strength under Christ the king (Eph. 4:1-16; 6:10-20).

1 Chron. 13:10. See note on 2 Sam. 6:7. When the Levites take the appropriate role (15:2, 13-15; Num. 4:15; Ex. 25:14), the ark is brought up safely (15:26).

1 Chron. 13:12. The supreme holiness of God, and his reaction to the approach of sinners, produces fear. The resolution comes through Christ’s propitiation, which permanently answers God’s wrath (Rom. 3:20-26; 5:1).

1 Chron. 14:15. God fights with David against Israel’s enemies, prefiguring Christ defeating Satan and his hosts (Matt. 12:28-29; Luke 10:18-19; John 12:31; Rev. 19:11-21; 20:7-10).

1 Chron. 15:2. Unlike Uzzah (13:10), the Levites bring up the ark safely, because they are following God’s instructions (Num. 4:15; Ex. 25:14). The importance of following God’s way prefigures the one way to God opened through Christ (John 14:6; Heb. 10:19-22).

1 Chron. 15:16. David and the singers are involved in writing and singing many of the Psalms (see 1 Chron. 16:8-36 and parallels in the Psalms Ps. 105:1-15; 96:1-13; 106:47-48). They prefigure the role of Christ in leading his people in singing praise to God for climactic salvation (Heb. 2:12; 13:15; Rev. 19:6-8).

1 Chron. 16:4. See note on 15:16.

1 Chron. 16:8. See Ps. 105:1-15. Songs of praise are to be sung repeatedly, not only to give praise to God, but to remind people of his excellence and to anticipate the surpassing display of his excellence when Christ comes. See note on 1 Chron. 15:16.

1 Chron. 16:23. See Ps. 96:1-13 and note on 1 Chron. 16:8.

1 Chron. 16:35. See Ps. 106:47-48 and note on 1 Chron. 16:8.

1 Chron. 17:4. To underline the importance of Davidic kingship as leading to Christ, Chronicles records the all-important covenant with David given in 2 Sam. 7:5-16. See note on 2 Sam. 7:12.

1 Chron. 17:16. David’s marveling over God’s grace prefigures the marveling over the grace that has come in Christ (John 1:16; Eph. 2:7-9).

1 Chron. 18:6. The subduing of Israel’s enemies prefigures Christ winning victory over Satan and his hosts (see note on 1 Chron. 14:15).

1 Chron. 18:14. The coming of justice prefigures the justice of the Messiah (Isa. 9:6-7; 42:1-4; 2 Cor. 5:10; Rev. 20:11-15).

1 Chron. 19:2. See note on 2 Sam. 10:2.

1 Chron. 20:1. Chronicles, unlike the parallel in 2 Sam. 11, omits mention of David’s sin with Bathsheba, in order more effectively to highlight ways in which David’s kingship points positively forward to the triumphs of Christ as final king.

1 Chron. 20:8. David’s victory over Goliath in 1 Sam. 17 is one of a series of victories that destroy terrifying enemies of God’s people. The victories prefigure the victory of Christ and his people (Matt. 12:28-29; Luke 10:18-19; John 12:31; Rev. 19:11-21; 20:7-10; 2:7, 11, 17, 26; 12:11).

1 Chron. 21:7. See note on 2 Sam. 24:1.

1 Chron. 21:17. See note on 2 Sam. 24:17.

1 Chron. 22:1. The selection of the site for Solomon’s temple takes place according to God’s word through Gad the prophet (21:18). Once the temple is built, it will be the exclusive place for atonement and approach to God (Deut. 12), prefiguring Christ as the final one who brings atonement and opens the way to God (John 14:6; Heb. 10:19-22).

1 Chron. 22:9. Solomon prefigures Christ as prince of peace, who opens the way to peace with God (Rom. 5:1-10).

1 Chron. 23:26. See Num. 4:5-15. God inspires David to make a change in the duties of the Levites, corresponding to the change in the house of God. The service of the Levites prefigures the service of Christ as high priest to God (Heb. 7:23-8:6), and subordinately the service of Christians (Rom. 12:1; Heb. 13:15; Eph. 4:1-16).

1 Chron. 24:7. The priests are a special group within the tribe of Levi, chosen to minister in the sanctuary (Num. 18). The priesthood prefigures Christ the great high priest (Heb. 7:23-8:6). The duties rotate to the different divisions (see Luke 1:5, 8), indicating that no one priest is permanent, until the coming of Christ the everlasting priest (Heb. 7:23-24).

1 Chron. 25:1. See note on 1 Chron. 15:16. The attention to arrangements for singing prefigures the ordering of the church’s worship through the power of the Holy Spirit (Eph. 5:18-21; 2:22; 1 Cor. 12).

1 Chron. 26:1. The gatekeepers protect access to the presence of God in the temple (Num. 18:7, 22), prefiguring the one way of access to God through Christ (John 10:7; 14:6). Church discipline, exercised under the authority of Christ (1 Cor. 5:4-5), warns the unrepentant of their danger.

1 Chron. 26:20. The care for God’s gifts prefigures the guarantee of the inheritance of eternal life in Christ (1 Pet. 1:4-5), and the advice to lay up treasure in heaven (Matt. 6:19-34; see 2 Cor. 9:6-15). Money given for the needs of God’s people is to be carefully handled (2 Cor. 8:20-21).

1 Chron. 27:1. Arrangements for the military prefigure the spiritual war fought under Christ’s command (Eph. 6:10-20; see note on 1 Chron. 14:15).

1 Chron. 28:6. See the promise to David in 1 Chron. 17:11-14, now being fulfilled. See note on 2 Sam. 7:12.

1 Chron. 28:19. The temple is built in accordance with God’s instructions, just as the tabernacle was (see note on Ex. 36:10).

1 Chron. 28:20. The empowering of God is essential, prefiguring the centrality of God’s power in building the church, the new temple (1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:20-22).

1 Chron. 28:21. The previous arrangements of various divisions of the Levites and the people (1 Chron. 23-27) have all been for the purpose of aiding in the service of the house of God . They prefigure God’s planning for the building of the church as temple (1 Cor. 3:16e; Eph. 2:20-22) and the new Jerusalem as final temple (Rev. 21:22-27).

1 Chron. 29:6. The generous offering is like that for the Tabernacle (Ex. 35:4-36:7). It prefigures the generosity of Christ (see note on Ex. 35:21).

1 Chron. 29:18. Whole-hearted commitment comes ultimately with the perfection of Christ (Heb. 10:7-10), and the change of the heart that he works in us in the new covenant (Heb. 10:16-17).

2 Chronicles

2 Chronicles. Solomon as a wise king and temple-builder prefigures Christ the king and temple-builder. After Solomon the line of Davidic kings continues, leading forward to Christ the great descendant of David (Matt. 1:6-16). But many of the later kings go astray from God, and they and the people suffer for it, showing the need for Christ as the perfect king. Hezekiah (29-32) and Josiah (34-35) as righteous kings prefigure Christ. 2 Chronicles has parallels in 1-2 Kings, but focuses on the southern kingdom (Judah) and the line of David, and shows focused concern for the temple and its worship, anticipating the fulfillment of temple and worship with the coming of Christ (John 2:19-21; 4:20-26; Eph. 2:20-22; Rev. 21:22-22:5).

2 Chron. 1:10. See note on 1 Kings 3:9. Wisdom is needed to build the temple (1 Chron. 29:1; 2 Chron. 2:6, 12).

2 Chron. 2:3. See note on 1 Kings 5:8.

2 Chron. 2:13. See note on 1 Kings 7:14.

2 Chron. 3:1. See note on 1 Kings 6:2. [Note to the editor. Perhaps the entire note should be reproduced here, in view of its importance and its relevance to all of 2 Chron. 3-7).] The location for the temple was appointed in 1 Chron. 22:1 (see note for 22:1).

2 Chron. 4:1. The altar is twice as large as the one for the tabernacle (Ex. 27:1-8), indicating the more abundant provision for atonement. See note on Ex. 27:1.

2 Chron. 4:7. There are ten lampstands instead of the one in the tabernacle (Ex. 25:31-39), indicating the more abundant provision of light. See notes on Ex. 25:37 and 1 Kings 6:2.

2 Chron. 5:14. See note on 1 Kings 8:11.

2 Chron. 6:6. The selection of Jerusalem fulfills the plan given through Moses in Deut. 12. It prefigures the appointment of Christ as the one way of salvation (John 14:6; Heb. 5:5-10).

2 Chron. 6:15. See note on 1 Kings 8:24.

2 Chron. 6:21. See note on 1 Kings 8:30.

2 Chron. 7:1. The miraculous approval by God is like what happens with Elijah in 1 Kings 18:39 (see note there).

2 Chron. 7:2. The glory of the Lord signifies the magnificence of his presence, prefiguring Christ’s presence. See 2 Chron. 5:14 and note on 1 Kings 8:11.

2 Chron. 7:20. See note on 1 Kings 9:8.

2 Chon 8:5. Solomon takes care to provide security against foreign enemies, performing one of the important duties of ancient kings and prefiguring the spiritual security given through Christ the king (John 10:28-29; see Rev. 21:24-27; 22:3).

2 Chron. 8:14. David’s instructions are found in 1 Chron. 23-27. See the note on 1 Chron. 28:21.

2 Chron. 9:1. See note on 1 Kings 10:1.

2 Chron. 9:22. Solomon’s riches and wisdom prefigure the riches and wisdom of Christ the king (Eph. 1:18; Col. 2:3; 1 Cor. 1:30).

2 Chron. 10:15. See note on 1 Kings 12:15.

2 Chron. 11:14. The Levites were distributed among the tribes (Josh. 20-21; see note on Josh. 21:22). But Jeroboam’s false worship (see 1 Kings 12:25-13:5) forces them and others who follow God to join Judah. The conflict over worship prefigures the conflict over the exclusive claims of Christ (see note on 1 Kings 13:34).

2 Chron. 12:6. Rebellion against the Lord leads to disaster, but repentance brings relief. The pattern anticipates God’s final judgment on rebellion (Rev. 20:11-15), and relief through repentance and faith in Christ (Rev. 20:15; John 5:24).

2 Chron. 13:9. For Jeroboam’s promotion of false worship, see 1 Kings 12:25-33 and note on 1 Kings 13:34. The blessing on true worshipers prefigures the blessing on worship in spirit and truth that Christ brings (John 4:20-24).

2 Chron. 14:7. Blessings come from following God’s way, prefiguring the blessings through Christ the final way (John 14:6; Eph. 1:3-14).

2 Chron. 15:8. Asa continues to work for true worship according to the law (Ex. 27:1-8; Deut. 12; 11:28), prefiguring Christ’s establishment of true worship (John 4:20-24; Matt. 21:12-16).

2 Chron. 16:9. God’s judgment takes place within history, as well as at the consummation (Rev. 20:11-15). Judgment comes climactically when Christ as a substitute takes judgment on himself, and then in his resurrection receives the reward for his blamelessness (Phil. 2:10-11). See note on 1 Kings 15:18.

2 Chron. 17:5. See note on 2 Chron. 14:7.

2 Chron. 18:18. See note on 1 Kings 22:19.

2 Chron. 19:7. Mosaic instructions for judgeship are in Ex. 23:8; Deut. 16:18-20. Promoting justice is one of the duty of the king, prefiguring the justice of Christ the king (Isa. 9:6-7; 42:1-4).

2 Chron. 20:22. God honors those who trust in him, anticipating the giving of honor to Christ in his resurrection (Phil. 2:10-11) and the blessing to Christians who trust in Christ (Gal. 3).

2 Chron. 21:7. The line of David is nearly, but not quite, wiped out, prefiguring the attack by Herod (Matt. 2:13-18) and God’s faithfulness to Christ the offspring of David. See note on 1 Kings 15:4.

2 Chron. 22:11. See note on 2 Kings 11:2.

2 Chron. 23:11. The establishment of the true king, in spite of all opposition, prefigures the establishment of Christ as king (Ps. 2:7-12; Acts 13:33).

2 Chron. 24:4. See note on 2 Kings 12:9.

2 Chron. 24:20. See note on 2 Chron. 12:6.

2 Chron. 25:16. Prophetic warning gives opportunity for repentance, but Amaziah hardens himself instead. Amaziah’s failure points to the need for a perfect king (Matt. 21:5). The call to repentance prefigures the call to repentance and faith in the NT. See note on 2 Chron. 12:6.

2 Chron. 25:19. See note on 2 Kings 14:10.

2 Chron. 26:16. Uzziah’s sin and its consequences point to the need for a perfect king (Matt. 21:5).

2 Chron. 27:6. See note on 2 Chron. 14:7.

2 Chron. 28:3. See note on 2 Kings 16:3.

2 Chron. 28:15. The unusual kindness shows God’s mercy (28:9), and anticipates the love that Jesus embodies (Matt. 8:14-17; Luke 7:21-22; 1 John 3:16; 4:7-12), that he teaches (Luke 10:25-37), and that he creates in his followers (John 13:34-35; 1 John 4:17-21).

2 Chron. 29:8. Judgments against false worship (predicted in Deut. 11:28) are reversed by Hezekiah, prefiguring Christ the king coming to remove the curse on sin (Gal. 3:13-14).

2 Chron. 30:9. The theme of mercy and repentance looks forward to God’s mercy in Christ to those who repent and turn to him (Luke 18:13). See notes on 2 Chron. 12:6 and 25:16.

2 Chron. 30:19. The desire of the heart is of greater importance than mere external conformity (1 Sam. 15:22; Hos. 6:6; Micah 6:6-8; Matt. 9:13; 25:25-28), anticipating the centrality of renewal of the heart in Christ’s work (Heb. 8:10).

2 Chron. 30:26. The contrast between Hezekiah and the past shows the difference that a good leader can make, prefiguring the climactic renewal with the coming of Christ (Heb. 8:8-12).

2 Chron. 31:2. Hezekiah restores the temple service as specified by Moses (Num. 18) and David (1 Chron. 23-26). His obedience prefigures Christ’s obedience and the obedience of those who follow Christ (Eph. 4:1-16). See note on 2 Kings 18:5.

2 Chron. 32:8. Trusting the Lord to fight prefigures trust in Christ as the victor against the kingdom of evil (Col. 1:13; 2:15; Heb. 2:14-15).

2 Chron. 32:15. See note on 2 Kings 18:30.

2 Chron. 32:17. See note on 2 Kings 19:22.

2 Chron. 33:7. See note on 2 Kings 21:8.

2 Chron. 33:12. See note on 2 Chron. 12:6.

2 Chron. 34:2. Josiah as a righteous king prefigures Christ.

2 Chron. 34:21. See note on 2 Kings 22:13.

2 Chron. 35:1. The keeping of the Passover is another high point in serving God (see note on 30:26).

2 Chron. 35:4. See note on 31:2.

2 Chron. 36:16. God shows his righteous judgment against sin, prefiguring the even greater manifestations of righteousness in the death and resurrection of Christ and in the final judgment (Rev. 20;11-15). See notes on 16:9; 12:6; and 2 Kings 25:9.

2 Chron. 36:21. The judgment confirms God’s faithfulness to his word, anticipating his faithfulness in Christ. It also gives the land rest in accordance with Lev. 25, prefiguring final rest (see note on Lev. 25:4).

2 Chron. 36:23. Cyrus’s proclamation, prophesied in Isa. 44:28 and recorded in Ezra 1:1-4, shows that God has not forgotten his people (Rom. 11:1). His continued faithfulness and repeated acts of mercy and salvation look forward to the coming of Christ as the climax of faithfulness and mercy.

Ezra. The restoration and rebuilding after the exile, in fulfillment of prophecy (1:1), prefigure Christ’s salvation (Col. 1:13) and the building of the church (Matt. 16:18; Eph. 2:20-22). They also look forward to the consummation of salvation in the new heaven and new earth (Rev. 21:1).

Ezra 1:1. God’s raising of Cyrus prefigures his raising of Christ, who in the gospel sends out the proclamation to build the new people of God (Isa. 44:28-45:1).

Ezra 1:5. It is God who empowers the restoration in the people as well as in Cyrus, prefiguring the empowering of his people through the Spirit (Acts 1:8; 2:1-4; Rom. 8:10-11).

Ezra 2:1. The detailed record of people shows God’s knowledge of individuals and families, symbolizing his detailed knowledge of those chosen for salvation (Rev. 13:8; 17:8; Eph. 1:4; see note on 1 Chron. 4:1).

Ezra 3:2. Restoration of true worship of God is central to the restoration as a whole. Sacrificial worship prefigures the sacrifice of Christ (Heb. 10:1-10).

Ezra 3:10. Temple building, analogous to what Solomon did (2 Chron. 3), prefigures Christ’s body as temple (John 2:19-21), the church as temple (Matt. 16:18; 1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:20-22), and the new Jerusalem as temple (Rev. 21:9-22:5). See Haggai and Zechariah for prophecy relating to the restoration.

Ezra 3:11. The singing, using the refrain of Ps. 136 and 1 Chron. 16:34, follows the pattern in 1 Chron. 25, and looks forward to the praise offered by Christ (Heb. 2:12) and his people (Heb. 13:15).

Ezra 4:1. The adversaries, incited ultimately by Satan, symbolize opposition to God’s purposes for his people, and prefigure opposition to Christ and his people (Matt. 4:1-11; 3:7; 23; Rev. 12:3-4, 7-17).

Ezra 5:1. Directives both from prophets and from Cyrus (1:1-4) have a key role in the restoration, prefiguring the role of God’s word in building the church (Eph. 4:6-16; 2:20-22)

Ezra 6:6. God reverses the plans of the opponents and uses Darius to favor the restoration, prefiguring God’s work in blessing the church (Rom. 8:28; Acts 4:29-31; 8:4).

Ezra 7:27. Through Ezra and Artaxerxes God shows his providential blessing on the restoration, prefiguring his willingness to supply our needs (2 Cor. 9:6-12).

Ezra 8:31. God provides protection, prefiguring his protection to those in Christ (John 10:27-29).

Ezra 9:1. Intermarriage was forbidden in Deut. 7:3-4 because it led to idolatry (see Ezra 9:11-14). Separation prefigures the need for uncompromising allegiance to Christ (Matt. 10:34-39; Luke 14:26-33; 2 Cor. 6:14-7:1).

Ezra 10:2. See note on 2 Chron. 12:6.

Ezra 10:3. Families are put away for the sake of holiness, to eliminate compromise with idolatry (Deut. 7:3-4; see note on Ezra 9:1). The superior power of Christ’s holiness is such that, in the NT, a Christian may remain in an unbelieving family with the hope that others may come to know Christ (1 Cor. 7:12-16).

Nehemiah. The restoration and rebuilding after the exile prefigure Christ’s salvation (Col. 1:13) and the building of the church (Matt. 16:18; Eph. 2:20-22).

Neh. 1:11. Nehemiah’s intercession for the people prefigures Christ’s intercession for us before God the Father (Heb. 7:25).

Neh. 2:18. Rebuilding Jerusalem prefigures building the church (Matt. 16:18; Eph. 2:20-22; 1 Cor. 14:4-5, 12; 1 Cor. 3:12-15; Gal. 4:26).

Neh. 3:1. God records the names of the builders, indicating his knowledge of each contribution. The division of labor prefigures the cooperation in the body of Christ (1 Cor. 12; Rom. 12:3-8; Eph. 4:1-16).

Neh. 4:1. Opposition to building prefigures opposition to the church and to Christians (John 15:18-20).

Neh. 5:7. God’s law through Moses forbids exacting interest from a fellow Israelite (Ex. 22:25; Lev. 25:36). The help to the poor anticipates the church’s helping the poor (Acts 2:44-45; 4:32-37; 2 Cor. 9:6-15), on the basis of God’s generosity in Christ (2 Cor. 9:15; 8:9).

Neh. 6:2. Opposition includes deceit as well as mocking and threats (see note on Neh. 4:1). This deceit manifests the deceitfulness of Satan the great enemy (John 8:44; 2 Thess. 2:9-10; Rev. 12:9; 20:3).

Neh. 7:6. See note on Ezra 2:1.

Neh. 8:3. Instruction from God’s word plays a key role in building up the people of God. It prefigures the role of Christ as the Word of God (John 1:1; Rev. 19:13), the role of the gospel (1 Pet. 1:23; Rom. 1:16-17; 1 Thess. 2:13), and the role of Scripture (2 Tim. 3:16-17; 1 Tim. 3:13; see Ps. 119).

Neh. 9:8. God’s faithfulness is displayed in fulfilling the promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-17; 15:4, 13-21; 17:1-14). His faithfulness to his promises is supremely manifested in Christ (2 Cor. 1:20-22), who has brought everlasting blessings to God’s people (Eph. 1:3-14).

Neh. 9:38. The names indicate the personal commitment of individuals and families, prefiguring personal commitment to Christ (Acts 2:38-41; see note on Ezra 2:1).

Neh. 10:29. Obedience to the law anticipates the obligation of disciples of Christ to follow him in everything (Matt. 10:37-39; Luke 14:25-33; John 14:15, 23). Christ alone is perfectly obedient to God (Heb. 4:15).

Neh. 11:1. Jerusalem has a key role as the holy city. In the NT all God’s people are citizens in the heavenly Jerusalem (Gal. 4:26-28; Heb. 12:22-24; Phil. 3:20).

Neh. 11:4. The list of names and numbers indicates God’s knowledge of the details of individuals and and families. See note on Ezra 2:1.

Neh. 12:27. The Levites’ role in singing was established in 1 Chron. 25. The celebration anticipates the celebration and praise to God for the resurrection of Christ (Heb. 13:15; Eph. 5:19-20) and for the consummation (Rev. 19:1-8).

Neh. 13:3. See note on Ezra 9:1.

Neh. 13:15. The people promised to keep the Sabbath in Neh. 10:31. The Sabbath is a sign of the covenant with God (Ex. 31:12-17; 20:8-11), celebrating creation (Ex. 20:11) and redemption (Deut. 5:15). It points forward to Christ, who is Creator (Col. 1:15-16) and Redeemer (Col. 1:18-20), and who has prepared our place of rest (John 14:2-3). See notes on Gen. 2:2 and 2:3.

Neh. 13:23. See note on Ezra 9:1.

Esther. God providentially brings deliverance to his people through Esther, prefiguring final deliverance through Christ.

Est. 1:12. The rejection of Vashti is one step in God’s providential acts to deliver the Jews (see note on 2:15). It introduces the key theme of rejection and selection, by which God prepares the way for salvation.

Est. 2:15. God causes Esther the Jew to be chosen, which will later play a key role in delivering the Jews. Esther in her beauty prefigures the church as the bride of Christ (Rev. 19:7-8; Eph. 5:26-27; 2 Cor. 11:2; see note on Est. 1:12).

Est. 2:22. God’s hand of providence leads to key action from Mordecai, which will later prove important (6:2). God’s providential control illustrates his continual care for his people (Rom. 8:28; Eph. 1:22; John 10:27-29).

Est. 3:1. The conflict between Mordecai and Haman is explained 1 Sam. 15:2-3, 32-33. Haman is an Agagite, an Amalekite, an opponent of Israel and a descendant of the people whom Saul should have wiped out.

Est. 3:6. Haman exemplifies all who oppose God’s people, and especially Satan (see Rev. 12:10-12).

Est. 4:16. Esther is willing to sacrifice her own life, prefiguring the willingness of Christ to die for us (Rom. 5:6-11).

Est. 5:2. The king’s favor toward Esther prefigures the favor resting on Christ as the obedient son of God who redeems us (Matt. 3:17; 2 Pet. 1:17). It is the turning point in the story, prefiguring the resurrection as the turning point in redemption.

Est. 5:11. Pride goes before destruction (Prov. 16:18). Haman typifies the false confidence of those belonging to the kingdom of Satan.

Est. 6:1. A number of seemingly “chance” events show God’s providential control and his power to act secretly on behalf of his people (see note on 2:22).

Est. 7:10. Fitting retribution comes as Haman receives what he would have done to Mordecai (Obad. 15). The retribution prefigures the justice of God’s final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) and the elimination of the enemies of God’s people (Rev. 20:7-10; 21:8, 27).

Est. 8:8. The effects of victory now extend to all the Jews, prefiguring the extending of Christ’s victory to those who are his (Rom. 8:10-11; Col. 3:1-4; 1 Cor. 15:54-57).

Est. 9:1. The reversal anticipates the reversal of positions with Christ’s coming (Luke 1:48-53; 14:11; 18:14), and the justice of God’s final judgment (see note on Est. 7:10).

Est. 10:3. The blessings to the Jews through Esther and Mordecai prefigure the blessings that come to us through Christ (Eph. 1:3-14; see note on Est. 8:8).

Job. Job’s physical suffering, mental anguish, and pain from the accusations of his friends all find relief when God appears. Suffering and relief prefigure the suffering and glory of Christ.

Job 1:1. Job, though not sinlessly perfect, is upright, prefiguring the righteousness of Christ (Heb. 4:16).

Job 1:11. Satan is an accuser of God’s people (Rev. 12:10). Redemption in Christ includes giving a final answer to Satan’s accusations, both by justifying the ungodly (Rom. 4:5) and by making the ungodly into godly people (Rom. 6:4, 15-19; Rev. 19:8; 21:27).

Job 1:21. Job trusts God even though he does not know about Satan’s accusation. He exemplies all who walk by faith and not by sight (2 Cor. 5:7). Christ as man trusted in God perfectly (Heb. 2:13; 5:7-10).

Job 2:6. God uses even the works of Satan for his own glory and for the sanctification of his people. God forbids Satan to take Job’s life. But when Christ comes, he is allowed to die at the hands of sinful men (Acts 2:23). It is the supreme act of trust and of vindication of the name of God, as well as victory over Satan (John 12:31).

Job 3:3. Intense suffering negates all the meaning of life, underlining the fact that both suffering and death are horrible effects from the fall (Gen. 3:19). An answer comes only with the meaningful sufferings of Christ (Phil. 3:10) and his resurrection from the dead, which is the beginning of the end to all suffering (Rev. 21:4).

Job 4:7. Eliphaz speaks as if God’s protection to the righteous were a universal rule. But the mystery of the death of Christ the innocent one shows the superficiality of his reasoning.

Job 4:15. Eliphaz does not realize that he may have seen an evil spirit who, like Satan, accuses God’s people (see note on Job 1:11).

Job 4:17. Yes, a man can be pure, as is demonstrated by the purity of Christ. Moreover, Christ gives his righteousness to his people through justification (Rom. 5:1; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Job 5:13. God catches the wise with the foolishness of the cross, according to 1 Cor. 3:19. Ironically, Eliphaz, who claims to be wise, is himself caught in his speeches (Job 42:7), because he does not know the wisdom of the cross, and its meaning for the suffering of the innocent.

Job 5:18. The statement parallels Hos. 6:1. Eliphaz correctly describes God’s discipline to sinful people. But he does not see that God may discipline the innocent for more mysterious purposes (Job 1:12; 2 Cor. 5:21; see note on Job 4:7).

Job 6:15. Job’s misery is increased by his friends. It anticipates Christ’s betrayal by Judas (John 13:18) and abandonment by the disciples (Matt. 26:31).

Job 7:17. Note similarities with Ps. 8:4 and Heb. 2:6. God has set his heart on man and brought suffering with a view to redemption in Christ, but Job cannot see the full picture yet.

Job 8:3. God is just, but his justice is deeper than straightforward rewards and punishments in this life. The issue of justice points forward to the achievement of justice in the work of Christ (Rom. 3:23-26) and in the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Job 9:2. See note on 4:17.

Job 9:14. Job sees the need for an intercessor, anticipating the intercession of Christ (Heb. 7:25).

Job 9:24. The frustration over injustices finds resolution only in the future, with the coming of final salvation (Rev. 20:11-22:5). In the meantime, the righteous may suffer and the wicked prosper, anticipating the human injustice in the crucifixion of Christ.

Job 9:30. Isa. 1:18 gives hope that God will himself makes us white as snow, which he accomplishes in Christ (Rom. 8:1).

Job 9:33. Christ is both God and man, and will stand in between (1 Tim. 2:5-6; see note on Job 9:14).

Job 10:4. Doubts about whether God sympathizes with man are resolved with Christ’s manifestation of sympathy (Heb. 4:15).

Job 10:11. God’s creation of Job does show care and intimacy (see Ps. 139:13-16), anticipating the love displayed in the incarnation of Christ (John 1:14).

Job 11:17. The life of the righteous will end in bright day (Prov. 4:18), ultimately the day of consummation (Rev. 21:23-22:5). But Zophar underestimates the complexity. The mysteries of God’s providence lead to consummation only through the sufferings of Christ (1 Pet. 2:21-25) and his people (Phil. 2:10-11).

Job 12:3. Job’s anguish is increased by what he knows concerning God’s wisdom and power, because it seems inconsistent with his sufferings. God’s wisdom and power are climactically manifested in the suffering of Christ (1 Cor. 1:18-25).

Job 13:3. See note on 9:14.

Job 13:15. Job’s continued hope anticipates Christ’s trust even to the point of death (Matt. 26:38-39).

Job 14:14. Job sees that resurrection is needed to solve the mystery of suffering. He thereby anticipates the resurrection of Christ (Rom. 4:25) and of Christ’s people (John 5:24-25, 29; 1 Thess. 4:13-18).

Job 14:17. Job anticipates forgiveness, which has now been accomplished in Christ (Rom. 4:7-8; 8:1).

Job 15:9. See note on 12:3.

Job 15:14. See note on 4:17.

Job 16:11. Job’s abandonment prefigures the abandonment of Christ (Matt. 20:18-19).

Job 16:17. See the parallel in the sufferings of Christ in Isa. 53:9.

Job 16:19. Job anticipates the intercession of Christ, who pleads our cause (Rom. 8:34).

Job 16:21. See note on 9:14.

Job 17:6. The despising of Job anticipates the despising of Christ (Ps. 69:11; Isa. 50:6; Matt. 27:30).

Job 18:21. God will judge the wicked (Rev. 20:11-15). But justice is delayed for the sake of salvation (Ps. 73:3; 2 Pet. 3:9).

Job 19:7. See the parallel in Hab. 1:2-4. Faith is necessary in waiting for the justice of Christ.

Job 19:19. Job’s abandonment by friends anticipates the abandonment of Christ on the cross (Ps. 55:13; John 13:18).

Job 19:25. Job anticipates both the vindication of Christ’s justification (Rom. 4:25) and the open manifestation of righteousness at the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-15; 2 Cor. 5:10).

Job 19:26. Seeing God takes place through seeing Christ, both now (John 14:9) and in the consummation (Rev. 22:4). See note on Ex. 33:22.

Job 20:29. See note on 18:21.

Job 21:7. A similar struggle is found in Ps. 73:3. See note on 18:21 and 19:7.

Job 22:8. False accusations imitate those of Satan (1:11; 2:5) and anticipate the false accusations against Christ (Matt. 26:59-60; 27:13; Luke 23:10, 14) and against his people (Rev. 12:10).

Job 23:7. Job’s desire for God and for acquittal anticipates the justification that is found in Christ (Rom. 4:25-5:1; 8:1).

Job 24:12. See Ps. 50:21 and note on Job 9:24.

Job 25:4. See note on 4:17.

Job 26:13. God’s victory over the serpent anticipates the final victory over Satan through Christ (John 12:31; Rev. 20:7-10). Job knows that God’s ways are mysterious, but continues to hope.

Job 27:5. Job’s holding fast to the right anticipates Christ’s steadfastness toward God and our privilege of holding fast to his righteousness (2 Cor. 5:21).

Job 28:12. Job cannot fathom God’s ways, but wisdom is found ultimately in Christ (Col. 2:3; 1 Cor. 1:30).

Job 28:27. Wisdom was with God even in creation, as in Prov. 8:22-31. The association of wisdom with creation anticipates the revelation that Christ the wisdom of God was with God in the beginning and was mediator of creation (John 1:1-3; Col. 1:15-17).

Job 28:28. See Prov. 1:7.

Job 29:3. Job’s time of blessing anticipated the blessings that come through Christ (John 8:12).

Job 30:10. See note on 17:6.

Job 30:20. The unanswered cries anticipate the abandonment of Christ on the cross (Ps. 22:1-2; Matt. 27:46).

Job 31:1. Job’s commitment to God anticipates the integrity of Christ (Heb. 4:15).

Job 32:12. God has put in us a desire for wisdom and understanding that will be satisfied only in Christ (Col. 2:3; 1 Cor. 1:30; see note on 28:12 and 28:27).

Job 33:23. The desire for a mediator anticipates the exclusive mediation of Christ (1 Tim. 2:5-6; see notes on 9:14 and 9:33).

Job 34:11. God’s reward or punishment according to justice is a regular theme (e.g., Ps. 62:12; Prov. 24:12; Rev. 2:23; 20:12-13). But final payment awaits the working out of justice and mercy in Christ (see notes on Job 8:3 and 11:17). God’s justice does not endorse a superficial conclusion about Job’s situation.

Job 35:2. See notes on 34:11 and 8:3.

Job 37:5. The wisdom of God is inaccessible, except through Christ (Col. 2:3; 1 Cor. 1:30; see note on Job 28:12).

Job 37:24. The danger of man-centered wisdom is real, as in Prov. 3:7; Rom. 11:25; 12:16, and holds people back from humbly seeking God and his wisdom in Christ (1 Cor. 1:18-31).

Job 38:4. See note on 28:27.

Job 38:17. Only God has power over death, anticipating the victory of Christ over death (Heb. 2:14-15; Rev. 1:18).

Job 39:9. Both wisdom and power belong to God, but not man (see note on 12:3).

Job 40:8. Man has a God-given sense of justice, but it is inadequate in the face of the depths of God. The depths of God’s justice and mercy and wisdom are to be revealed in Christ (1 Cor. 1:30; see notes on 12:3 and 28:12).

Job 40:14. Job confronts not only the issue of wisdom and justice, but salvation. Salvation ultimately is worked out in Christ (1 Cor. 1:30).

Job 41:1. God has power even over the most untameable creature, and ultimately even over Satan, who is named Leviathan (Isa. 27:1). Christ’s victory over Satan (John 12:31) will ultimately answer all the human frustrations of suffering and injustice (Rev. 21:4).

Job 42:3. Job finds satisfaction in knowing God and his wisdom. Final satisfaction is to be found in Christ (John 17:3; 16:33; Col. 2:3; Rev. 21:4).

Job 42:10. Job’s vindication after his sufferings anticipates the vindication of Christ after his sufferings.

Psalms. By expressing the emotional heights and depths in human response to God, the Psalms provide a permanent treasure for God’s people to use to express their needs and their praises, both corporately and individually. Christ as representative man experienced our human condition, yet without sin, and so the psalms become his prayers to God (see esp. Heb. 2:12; compare Matt. 27:46 with Ps. 22:1). The psalms are thus to be seen as his words, and through our union with him they become ours.

Ps. 1:1. God’s commitment to bless the righteous is supremely shown when he blesses Christ, the perfectly righteous man, by raising him from the dead and enthroning him (Phil. 2:10-11).

Ps. 2:1. The rebellion of the peoples anticipates the rebellion against the message of Christ (Acts 4:25-27).

Ps. 2:6. God uses David and other Israelite kings to protect his people against enemies. These kings prefigure Christ, who is enthroned after his resurrection (Acts 13:33), and now rules on behalf of his people (Eph. 1:20-22).

Ps. 2:8. Christ rules over all nations (Matt. 28:18; Eph. 1:21).

Ps. 2:12. Salvation or damnation depends on one’s relation to the Son (John 3:36).

Ps. 3:1. Protection from earthly enemies prefigures protection from the ultimate evils of Satan, sin, and death (Heb. 2:14-15). God the Father delivered Christ from his enemies in his resurrection (Acts 3:13-15), and that is the basis for our deliverance (Rom. 4:25).

Ps. 3:5. Being preserved through the night anticipates the hope of resurrection after the “sleep” of death (Ps. 13:3; 1 Thess. 4:13-18).

Ps. 4:7. The joy of knowing God anticipates the joy and peace that Christ promises (John 15:11; 16:33).

Ps. 5:4. Sinners cannot stand before God’s holiness. Christ’s perfection allows us to come into God’s presence and for our prayers for deliverance to be heard (Heb. 10:19-22).

Ps. 5:9. See Rom. 3:13 and note on Ps. 14:1.

Ps. 5:12. See note on 1:1.

Ps. 6:2. Sufferings of God’s people ultimately turn out to be analogous, on a lesser level, to the sufferings of Christ (Phil. 3:10; Ps. 22:14).

Ps. 7:8. God’s justice gives hope for vindication when we are in the right. But in the matter of eternal salvation, no one is in the right except Christ alone, and in him we take refuge (Rom. 3:23-26).

Ps. 8:2. Praise from infants anticipates children’s praise of Christ (Matt. 21:16).

Ps. 8:5. God gave Adam a distinguished role (Gen. 1:28-30). But because of the disobedience of Adam and his posterity (Rom. 5:12-21), it is Christ who finds fulfills the role and receives glory and honor in his resurrection and ascension (Heb. 2:5-9).

Ps. 8:6. Dominion is finally achieved through Christ’s reign (Eph. 1:22; 1 Cor. 15:25-28; Heb. 2:5-9).

Ps. 9:13. Deliverance from death anticipates the resurrection of Christ, and through him the resurrection of his people (Col. 3:1-4; 1 Cor. 15:42-49).

Ps. 10:1. The lack of immediate answers from God frustrates our desire for justice. This frustration finds its climax in the death of Christ, which from a human point of view was supremely unjust (Luke 23:14-16). But God answers in the resurrection (Acts 3:13-16), and therefore we hope for further answers, culminating in the consummation (Rev. 21:4).

Ps. 10:7. The treachery of man contrasts with the righteousness to be found in Christ alone (Rom. 3:14-26; see note on Ps. 14:1)

Ps. 11:4. The Lord’s holiness and power, which are supremely revealed in Christ, guarantee an answer to the distress of his people.

Ps. 12:6. In the midst of lies from man, God’s word is supremely true, anticipating the truthfulness of Christ (John 14:6), who is able to deliver us from lies (John 8:44-47).

Ps. 13:1. See note on 10:1.

Ps. 13:3. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 13:5. Salvation includes both the deliverance of Christ himself from death in his resurrection (Heb. 5:7) and the deliverance of believers through Christ (Col. 1:13).

Ps. 14:1. In ultimate terms, none is righteous except Christ, through whom we may be part of the generation of the righteous (Rom. 3:10-12).

Ps. 15:2. Fellowship with God in his holiness ultimately requires perfection, which we receive through the mediation of Christ the final high priest (Heb. 10:19-22).

Ps. 16:8. God’s mercies to David look forward to the climactic answer when Christ does not remain in the grave but is raised (Acts 2:25-33).

Ps. 17:2. See note on 7:8.

Ps. 17:7. Christ above all others waited for God to deliver him from his adversaries (1 Pet. 2:23; Matt. 26:53; 27:43).

Ps. 17:15. Awaking may mean awaking from sleep, but looks forward ultimately to the new life of the resurrection and seeing God face to face (Rev. 22:4; see note on Ps. 3:5).

Ps. 18:1. David’s song from 1 Sam. 22 has been included in the book of Psalms, indicating its relevance to the people of God as a whole.

Ps. 18:4. See note on Ps. 9:13.

Ps. 18:17. Christ’s resurrection is the ultimate case of deliverance from enemies.

Ps. 18:20. See note on 7:8.

Ps. 18:34. God gives the king effectiveness in war for the sake of defending his people from their enemies in other nations. OT war prefigures Christ’s conquest of all enemies (Matt. 28:18-20; Eph. 1:20-22; Rev. 19:11-21).

Ps. 18:49. See note on 2 Sam. 22:50.

Ps 18:50. Victory to David’s offspring ultimately points to the victory of Christ in his resurrection (Rom. 6:8-10).

Ps. 19:1. Revelation of God through nature leaves man with no excuse (Rom. 1:18-23).

Ps 19:7. The close relation between God’s instruction through creation (19:1-6) and through his law (19:7-14) anticipates the role of Christ as mediator in creation and redemption (Col. 1:15-20).

Ps. 20:6. The key to salvation to all the people is salvation to the anointed king. Christ’s deliverance in his resurrection is the foundation for our salvation (1 Cor. 15:17-22).

Ps. 21:4. The blessing of long life to the king in the line of David anticipates the blessing of eternal resurrection life that Christ possesses as he sits at the right hand of God (Rev. 1:18; John 11:25).

Ps. 21:8. See note on 18:34.

Ps. 22:1. The suffering and abandonment of the psalmist prefigure the suffering of Christ (Matt. 27:46).

Ps. 22:8. The bystanders mock Christ’s trust in Matt. 27:43.

Ps. 22:18. The soldiers around the cross divide Christ’s garments in Matt. 27:35 and John 19:23-24.

Ps. 22:22. Public praise prefigures Christ praising God to his people for the salvation that God has accomplished in him (Heb. 2:12).

Ps. 22:27. The Abrahamic promise of salvation to all nations (Gen. 12:3) will be fulfilled as the message of Christ’s resurrection spreads (Gal. 3:14; Luke 24:47; Matt. 28:18-20).

Ps. 23:1. Jesus is the good shepherd (John 10:11-18, 27-29) who embodies God’s care for his people.

Ps. 23:4. See note on Ps. 9:3.

Ps. 23:6. Dwelling in the presence of God is fulfilled for Christ personally in his ascension (John 16:10; Acts 1:9-11), and for believers in the consummation (Rev. 22:4).

Ps. 24:4. See note on Ps. 15:2.

Ps. 24:7. Heaven is opened to receive Christ in his ascension (Luke 24:51; Heb. 9:24).

Ps. 25:2. See note on 3:1.

Ps. 25:4. Christ perfectly followed the path of the Lord (John 5:36; 14:31). Through Christ and his instruction and through the teaching of the Spirit of Christ believers learn to be disciples and follow his path (John 14:6; 16:13).

Ps. 26:1. The ultimate vindication takes place in Christ (1 Tim. 3:16), who perfectly trusted in the Lord without wavering. In him his people find vindication (Rom. 4:25).

Ps. 26:12. See note on Ps. 22:22.

Ps. 27:1. Christ is the light of the world (Ps. 8:12).

Ps. 27:4. Enjoyment of fellowship with God in his presence anticipates the joy of knowing God through Christ (John 17:3; 15:11; 16:24; Rev. 22:4). Christ opens the way into the heavenly sanctuary (Heb. 10:19-22).

Ps. 27:11. See note on Ps. 25:4.

Ps. 28:8. Salvation to God’s people and salvation to the anointed king go together. Both are fulfilled in Christ the anointed One (Luke 4:18).

Ps. 29:3. God’s word is powerful to save and to destroy, anticipating the power of Christ the Word (John 1:1) and the power of the gospel (Rom. 1:16; 2 Cor. 2:15-17).

Ps. 30:2. God’s healing from physical sickness anticipates rescue from death (29:3) and eternal salvation through the resurrection of Christ (John 5:24; 11:25).

Ps. 31:5. Trust in God for deliverance anticipates Christ’s trust as he dies (Luke 23:46).

Ps. 32:1. Forgiveness of sins anticipates the sacrifice of Christ as the ultimate basis for forgiveness (Rom. 4:7-8).

Ps. 33:6. God’s power and wisdom displayed in creation and in providence encourage praise and encourage hope in his salvation. Instances of temporal salvation look forward to eternal salvation in Christ (see 33:22; Matt. 1:21; Luke 2:30).

Ps. 34:8. Experiencing God’s goodness anticipates the experience of goodness in Christ (1 Pet. 2:3).

Ps. 34:12. Christians now imitate Christ the righteous One (Acts 3:14) in walking in the way of righteousness (1 Pet. 3:10-12).

Ps. 34:20. The OT deliverances of the righteous prefigure the deliverance of Christ (John 19:36).

Ps. 35:3. Small acts of salvation prefigure the climactic salvation in Christ–that Christ is raised from the dead and that through him we are rescued from sin and Satan (Col. 1:13-14).

Ps. 35:4. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 35:18. See note on Ps. 22:22.

Ps. 35:19. Hatred for the righteous prefigures hatred against Christ (John 15:25).

Ps. 36:1. See Rom. 3:18 and note on Ps. 14:1.

Ps. 36:8. Joy in God’s presence anticipates the joy that Christ gives (John 15:11), which is to be fulfilled in the consummation (Rev. 19:6-9).

Ps. 36:11. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 37:9. In the consummation ultimate blessing will come to God’s people, and ultimate overthrow to his enemies (Rev. 20:11-21:8). The first stage of this goal occurs in Christ’s resurrection, where he as our representative inherits the earth (Matt. 28:18) and triumphs over his enemies (Col. 2:15).

Ps. 38:1. Deliverance from God’s wrath comes ultimately through Christ (Rom. 5:1; John 3:36).

Ps. 38:4. See note on Ps. 32:1.

Ps. 39:4. The threat of death hangs over all human existence, and finds relief ultimately only through the resurrection of Christ (1 Cor. 15:12-26, 35-58).

Ps. 40:7. The psalmist’s eagerness to serve God prefigures the perfection of Christ’s willingness, and the perfection of his sacrifice (Heb. 10:5-10).

Ps. 40:9. See note on Ps. 22:22.

Ps. 41:9. The treachery against the psalmist prefigures Judas’s treachery against Christ (John 13:18).

Ps. 41:12. The eternal enjoyment of God’s presence anticipates the resurrection of Christ (Heb. 9:24).

Ps. 42:7. The waters of suffering threaten death (see Jonah 2:3). Such suffering according to God’s will anticipates the suffering and death of Christ, and the hope for deliverance anticipates his resurrection.

Ps. 43:1. See note on Ps. 26:1.

Ps. 43:3. Coming into the presence of God prefigures Christ as our representative coming into heaven (Heb. 9:12).

Ps. 44:22. Victory based on Christ’s resurrection sustains God’s people in the midst of oppression (Rom. 8:36).

Ps. 45:6. The kings in the line of David prefigure the reign of God the king through the reign of the divine Son (Heb. 1:8-9).

Ps. 45:11. The marriage of the Davidic king prefigures the marriage of Christ to the church (Eph. 5:25-27).

Ps. 46:5. The dwelling of God with his people anticipates his coming to dwell with us in Christ (John 1:14; 2:19-21; Eph. 2:20-22).

Ps. 47:9. The promise of God’s subduing the nations is fulfilled in Christ (Eph. 1:20-22; Matt. 28:18-20; Luke 24:47; Rev. 5:9-10).

Ps. 48:1. Jerusalem as the holy city prefigures the heavenly Jerusalem (Gal. 4:26; Heb. 12:22-24; Rev. 21:2, 9-10), both as a present reality in Christ and as a future hope.

Ps. 49:7. Reliance on God is the only solution to death. Such reliance anticipates faith in Christ’s resurrection (Rom. 10:9) and the hope for our future resurrection (1 Thess. 4:13-18; 1 Cor. 15:42-57).

Ps. 50:4. God acts to judge, both in preliminary ways and climactically in the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Ps. 50:15. True reliance on God is fulfilled both in Christ’s trust in God (see note on 31:5) and in our faith in Christ (Rom. 10:9).

Ps. 51:1. See note on 32:1.

Ps. 51:7. Hyssop alludes to cleansing ceremonies (Lev 14:4; Num 19:18) that point forward to the final cleansing from sin through the work of Christ (Heb. 9:19-28).

Ps. 52:5. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 52:8. Enjoyment of the house of God in the OT prefigures eternal enjoyment of the presence of God in Christ, both in this life (John 15:11-16) and in the consummation (Rev. 22:2-4).

Ps. 53:1. This psalm is very similar to Ps. 14. See note on 14:1.

Ps. 54:1. The role of the name of God in salvation anticipates the fact that salvation is in the name of Christ alone (Acts 4:12).

Ps. 54:4. God’s upholding life prefigures the giving of eternal life in the resurrection of Christ (Col. 3:1-4; 1 Cor. 15:42-57).

Ps. 54:5. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 55:3. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 55:13. The treachery of friends anticipates Judas’s betrayal of Christ (John 13:18).

Ps. 56:1. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 56:3. The psalmist’s trust in God anticipates both Christ’s trust in the Father during his earthly life (Heb. 2:13; see note on Ps. 31:5), and Christians’ trust in Christ (Acts 16:31).

Ps. 56:13. Deliverance from death anticipates the resurrection (see note on Ps. 9:13).

Ps. 52:7. God’s acts of salvation work out his plan and purpose from all eternity (Eph. 1:3-4, 11).

Ps. 57:9. The spread of the message of salvation among the nations anticipates the spread of the gospel message (Luke 24:47; see note on Ps. 22:27).

Ps. 58:2. Distress over injustice will be satisfied when God brings righteous judgment (58:11). The longing for justice anticipates the justice accomplished in the resurrection of Christ (Rom. 4:25) and in the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-21:8). See note on Ps. 10:1.

Ps. 59:1. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 59:8. As in Ps. 2:4, God will triumph over the rebellious nations through his anointed, the Messiah (Ps. 2:6-7; Acts 13:33).

Ps. 60:12. Earthly foes prefigure the ultimate foes of sin, death and Satan, which are subdued by Christ (Eph. 1:20-22; 1 Cor. 15:25-28; Heb. 2:14-15; see note on Ps. 3:1).

Ps. 61:7. Blessing to the king is a key to the salvation of God’s people as a whole. The king in the line of David anticipates Christ the king (Matt. 1:1-16).

Ps. 62:1. Salvation comes from God, not man, anticipating the fact that Christ who brings salvation is God incarnate (John 1:14; 10:30).

Ps. 63:2. True satisfaction is to be found in God alone, anticipating the satisfaction and blessing in Christ (John 15:11; Eph. 1:3-14; Rev. 22:3-5).

Ps. 63:11. See note on 61:7.

Ps. 64:2. Wickedness can be all the more dangerous when it is secret and deceitful. The deceit anticipates Satan’s deceitfulness (Rev. 12:9). See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 65:4. Salvation means enjoying the presence of God. It is accomplished through Christ, the unique one whom God chooses to come near as our representative (Heb. 10:19-22; Luke 9:35), and through whom we can come near and be blessed (Eph. 1:3-14).

Ps. 65:9. The prosperity of the land, which is a blessing to its people, anticipates the prosperity of the consummation (Rev. 22:1-5).

Ps. 66:6. God’s salvation in the exodus produces hope for further acts of salvation, culminating in salvation in Christ (Col. 1;13).

Ps. 67:2. Salvation is to be made known among the nations, anticipating the spread of the gospel to the nations (Luke 24:47).

Ps. 68:1. God’s arising against his enemies anticipates the resurrection of Christ as a triumph over demonic enemies (Col. 2:15; Heb. 2:14-15).

Ps. 68:18. God’s ascending to reign anticipates the resurrection and ascension of Christ, through which enemies are subdued and his people delivered (Eph. 4:8-16).

Ps. 68:26. Praise is the appropriate response to God’s salvation (Eph. 5:19-20; Heb. 13:15; see note on Ps. 22:22).

Ps. 69:2. See note on 42:7.

Ps. 69:9. The zeal of the psalmist prefigures the zeal of Christ for the honor of God’s name and his house (John 2:17; Rom. 15:3).

Ps. 69:21. The mercilessness of enemies prefigures the action of the enemies of Christ when he was on the cross (Matt. 27:48).

Ps. 69:22. The desire for judgment on God’s enemies finds one fulfillment in Rom. 11:9-10.

Ps. 69:25. Retribution for the wicked has an notable fulfillment in the fate of Judas (Acts 1:20).

Ps. 70:4. Praise and admiration for God’s salvation anticipates the praise for the salvation in Christ (Eph. 1:3-14; 5:19-20).

Ps. 71:6. The psalmist’s trust in God prefigures Christ’s trust in the Father (Ps. 22:8-9), and is also a model for our trust in Christ (see note on Ps. 56:3).

Ps. 71:11. The enemies prefigure Christ’s enemies, who imagine that they have won when Christ is on the cross.

Ps. 71:14. See notes on Ps. 22:22 and 68:26.

Ps. 72:1. The king in the line of David has a key role in bringing justice. Justice is climactically achieved through Christ the king (Matt. 1:1-16; Rom. 3:24-26; 4:25).

Ps. 72:8. Dominion for the Davidic king is fulfilled in the universal reign of Christ (Isa. 9:6-7; Eph. 1:20-21; 1 Cor. 15:24-28).

Ps. 72:19. The filling of the earth with God’s glory will be fulfilled in the consummation (Rev. 21:22-27).

Ps. 73:3. See note on 10:1.

Ps. 73:17. In the presence of God in the sanctuary one finds an answer to frustration. His presence anticipates God’s presence in Christ (John 1:14; 2:19-21; 14:9-10).

Ps. 74:3. The destruction of the sanctuary, the place of God’s presence, prefigures the destruction of Christ in death. But God answers and fulfills his promises in Christ’s resurrection (2 Cor. 1:20). In union with Christ we participate in his death and resurrection (Phil. 3:10-11; 2 Cor. 4:7-15).

Ps. 74:10. See note on 10:1.

Ps. 74:13. God’s dividing the sea in the exodus symbolizes his power over chaos and his power to deliver his people from death. His victory in the exodus anticipates Christ’s victory over death and Satan (Heb. 2:14-15).

Ps. 75:7. God’s providential control of rulers, and his preliminary judgments within history, give us hope for climactic judgment. And the climactic judgment has begun when God lifted up Christ from death to the highest position (Phil. 2:10-11; 1 Cor. 15:20-28).

Ps. 75:8. See note on Ps. 3:1.

Ps. 76:3. The establishment of peace in God’s dwelling place prefigures the peace that Christ brings (John 16:33), first in reconciling us to God (Rom. 5:1-10), but also in reconciliation with one another (Matt. 18:15-20; 1 Cor. 12).

Ps. 76:9. See note on 50:4.

Ps. 77:11. Remembrance of God’s past acts of salvation, like the exodus (77:19), strengthen the hope for present and future salvation. Now we look back on the climactic salvation in the death and resurrection of Christ (Rom. 4:25; Acts 2:29-41).

Ps. 78:2. The expounding of the deeper meaning of God’s past acts of salvation anticipates the role of Christ is expounding the meaning of God’s ways (Matt. 13:34-35).

Ps. 78:4. See note on 77:11.

Ps. 78:17. The rebellious hearts in Israel are ultimately overcome only through the renewal in the heart that takes place in the new covenant in Christ (Heb. 8:8-13).

Ps. 78:72. The rebellion in Israel points up the need for a shepherd-king who will guide them. David is a preliminary fulfillment (78:70) pointing forward to Christ as the final shepherd (John 10:11, 14; Ezek. 34:23-24).

Ps. 79:1. See note on 74:3.

Ps. 79:9. Ultimate salvation and the glorification of God’s name come through Christ (John 13:31-32; 17:1-5).

Ps. 80:1. Christ is the true shepherd (John 10:11, 14).

Ps. 80:17. The “son of man,” the key representative for the people of God, is ultimately Christ (Matt. 26:64; see note on Ps. 61:7).

Ps. 81:1. Praise is the appropriate response to God’s salvation (see note on 68:26).

Ps. 81:13. See note on 78:17.

Ps. 82:2. The failure of judges to bring justice point up the need for God’s ultimate judgment. He has brought justice in Christ (Rom. 4:25), and will bring ultimate judgment in the consummation (Rev. 20:11-21:8).

Ps. 82:6. Judges reflecting God’s authority (Rom. 13:1) foreshadow Christ who is the exact image of God (Heb. 1:3) and is God himself (John 10:34-36).

Ps. 83:1. See note on 10:1.

Ps. 83:9. The destrunction of Israel’s enemies prefigures the destruction of the ultimate enemies, sin, death, and Satan (Heb. 2:14-15; Rev. 21:4; see note on 3:1).

Ps. 84:1. God’s dwelling place in the OT prefigures Christ as the dwelling place of God (John 1:14; 2:19-21), the church as dwelling place through the Spirit (1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:20-22), and the new Jerusalem as final dwelling place (Rev. 21:2-3, 21:22-22:5). See notes on Ps. 23:6 and 27:4.

Ps. 85:4. Forgiveness to Israel in the OT anticipates the permanent forgiveness in Christ (Col. 1:13-14).

Ps. 86:2. See note on 35:3.

Ps. 86:9. The coming of the nations to worship is fulfilled in Christ (Luke 24:47; see note on Ps. 57:9).

Ps. 86:11. See note on 25:4.

Ps. 87:4. The incorporation of other nations into the holy city is fulfilled as the nations come to Christ (Luke 24:47; Rev. 5:9-10; 21:24-26).

Ps. 88:3. The miseries of the psalmist prefigure the sufferings of Christ (Luke 24:26-27; see note on Ps. 22:1).

Ps. 89:4. The promise concerning offspring is ultimately fulfilled in Christ (Matt. 1:1-16). But victory is preceded by suffering, abandonment, and apparent failure of the promise, all anticipating the sufferings of Christ.

Ps. 89:48. In the resurrection of Christ is the ultimate answer to death (Heb. 2:14-15; 1 Cor. 15:50-57).

Ps. 90:3. See note on 89:48.

Ps. 90:17. Despite the threat of death, work has meaning now that Christ has been raised and guarantees victory (1 Cor. 15:58).

Ps. 91:1. God is our ultimate dwelling place and protection, prefiguring Christ as dwelling place and protection (John 1:14; 10:27-30).

Ps. 92:1. See note on 68:26.

Ps. 92:13. Fruitfulness is found in the presence of God (see 1:3). Fruitfulness prefigures the fruitfulness of Christ (Isa. 53:10) and of his people (John 15:1-16).

Ps. 93:1. See note on 11:4.

Ps. 93:4. The Lord’s power is greater than the threat of overwhelming waters. The power over waters threatening death prefigures the power in Christ’s resurrection (Eph. 1:19-22; see note on Ps. 42:7).

Ps. 94:2. See notes on 50:4 and 58:2.

Ps. 94:3. See note on 10:1.

Ps. 94:11. The limitations of human thinking contrast with the wisdom of God, which is to be found in Christ (Col. 2:3; 1 Cor. 3:20).

Ps. 94:15. Final justice, accomplished in Christ, will have benefits for all who are his (1 Cor. 15:42-49).

Ps. 95:1. See note on 68:26.

Ps. 95:8. Israel’s rebellion (Num. 14; Deut. 32:5) serves as a negative example for all time (Heb. 4:7-12). Faith in God, culminating in faith in Christ, is the proper response to God (Heb. 4:2).

Ps. 96:1. See note on 68:26.

Ps. 96:3. The declaration to the nations anticipates the spread of the gospel (Acts 1:8; Luke 24:47; see note on Ps. 22:27).

Ps. 97:2. See note on 7:8.

Ps. 97:8. God’s people can rejoice in judgment, ultimately because Christ has taken away the negative judgment against their sins, and they may receive blessing in him (2 Cor. 5:21).

Ps. 98:1. See Psalm 96 and note on 68:26.

Ps. 98:7. Ultimate salvation in Christ includes blessing to all nations (see note on 22:27) and renewal of the world itself (Rev. 21:1; 2 Pet. 3:13).

Ps. 99:3. See note on 11:4.

Ps. 99:4. The experience of the benefits of justice make us long for ultimate justice, which is to be found in Christ and his justification (Rom. 3:23-26; 4:25-5:1). Justice includes both the vindication of God’s people and the removal of enemies. The ultimate enemies are sin, death, and Satan (see note on Ps. 3:1).

Ps. 100:4. Entering the presence of God has been made possible through Christ who opened the way (John 14:6; Heb. 10:19-22).

Ps. 101:5. The zeal of the Davidic king to remove wickedness prefigures the power of Christ in triumphing over all evil and making people new (Eph. 4:20-24; John 13:10).

Ps. 102:3. See note on 6:2.

Ps. 102:15. See note on 22:27.

Ps. 102:16. God appears in his glory climactically in Christ (John 1:14; 13:31-32; 17:1-5).

Ps. 102:26. Through Christ the abiding character of God benefits us (Heb. 1:10-12).

Ps. 103:4. Earlier redemptions look forward to the climactic redemption in Christ.

Ps. 104:2. God’s people are to praise God for his works of creation and providence, seeing in them displays of God’s power and goodness. His power and goodness and blessing are supremely manifested in Christ (John 1:14; Eph. 1:3-14).

Ps. 105:5. The faithfulness of God in past generations encourages Israel to respond in faithfulness. Christians look back not only on God’s acts of salvation in the OT, but on the climactic salvation in Christ, which gives the ultimate basis for our trust.

Ps. 106:6. The unfaithfulness of Israel in response to God is answered by Christ’s obedience, and then the obedience of God’s people who follow Christ (John 14:15; Eph. 2:10).

Ps. 107:2. God’s acts of redemption in the OT prefigure final redemption in Christ (Col. 1:13-14).

Ps. 108:6. See note on 35:3.

Ps. 108:7. God is committed to subduing his enemies, and this commitment is fulfilled climactically in Christ, both in his resurrection (Heb. 2:14-15) and in his Second Coming (Rev. 19:11-21).

Ps. 109:8. Judas is a chief example of the enemies whom God judges (Acts 1:20; see note on Ps. 69:25).

Ps. 109:31. Christ, having been himself saved from death in his resurrection, is able to save us from death (Heb. 2:14-15; Rev. 1:18; John 11:25).

Ps. 110:1. The Messiah is superior even to David, and exercises universal rule (Matt 22:44-45; Acts 2:34-36; Eph. 1:22; 1 Cor. 15:25-28; Heb. 1:13).

Ps. 110:4. The Messiah has an eternal priesthood superior to Aaron (Heb. 7:21-8:2; 5:6).

Ps. 111:1. See note on 22:22.

Ps. 111:9. Final redemption and final fulfillment of God’s covenant is accomplished in Christ (Heb. 7:25; 8:6-13; 2 Cor. 1:20).

Ps. 112:1. Christ is the supremely righteous man (Acts 3:14), and in him we too receive the reward for righteousness (Eph. 1:3-14). See note on Ps. 1:1.

Ps. 112:9. The principle of generosity continues in the NT (2 Cor. 9:9).

Ps. 113:7. Attentiveness to the needy is supremely manifested in Christ (Luke 1:48-55; 6:20).

Ps. 114:3. The crossing of the Red Sea (Ex. 14-15) and of the Jordan River (Josh. 3) are acts of salvation and symbolic triumphs over death that anticipate the triumph of Christ (John 11:25; 10:18; Rev. 1:18; 21:4).

Ps. 115:1. God is supremely glorified and his faithfulness manifested in Christ’s work (John 13:31-32; 17:1-5).

Ps. 116:3. See notes on 9:13 and 13:5.

Ps. 116:13. See note on 68:26.

Ps. 116:15. God continues to care for his saints even after death, hinting at the hope for the resurrection (John 11:25; 1 Thess. 4:13-18).

Ps. 117:1. All nations will come to praise God as a result of his salvation in Christ (Rom. 15:11), fulfilling the promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:3; see note on Ps. 22:27).

Ps. 118:5. See note on 35:3.

Ps. 118:6. God has expressed his commitment in Christ, giving us all the more reason to trust him (Heb. 13:6).

Ps. 118:22. The Lord’s exaltation of the one rejected by man is fulfilled in the exaltation of Christ (Matt 21:42; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11-12; Eph. 2:20-22; 1 Pet. 2:4-7).

Ps. 118:26. Israel ought to recognize Jesus as one who brings the salvation of God (Matt 23:39).

Ps. 119:1. People with renewed hearts delight to obey God and learn from his word, which guides them. Christ was perfectly obedient to God (Heb. 10:7-10), and through his Spirit we are transformed into his image (2 Cor. 3:18; Rom. 8:9-17) and become obedient servants of God. Delight in God’s word anticipates delight in Christ, who is the Word of God (John 1:1).

Ps. 119:11. Having God’s word in the heart anticipates the new covenant (Heb. 10:16-18; 8:10-13).

Ps. 120:1. See note on 35:3.

Ps. 120:2. Deliverance from deceit anticipates the purity of God’s word and God’s work of deliverance from Satanic deceit through Christ (Rev. 12:9; see note on 64:2).

Ps. 121:2. Salvation comes from God alone, anticipating the fact that Christ is the divine Savior.

Ps. 122:1. Joy in experiencing the presence of God in his house anticipates the joy of the presence of God in Christ (John 1:14; 15:11; see note on Ps. 27:4).

Ps. 122:6. Jerusalem as the city of God prefigures the heavenly Jerusalem (Gal. 4:26-28; Heb. 12:22-24) of which we are citizens (Phil. 3:20). Christ has given peace to his people (John 16:33; Eph. 4:3; Col. 3:15).

Ps. 123:2. Mercy is received ultimately through Christ (Eph. 2:4; see note on 121:2).

Ps. 124:4. See note on 42:7.

Ps. 125:1. Trust in the Lord anticipates trust in Christ (Acts 16:31), who has supremely manifested God’s faithfulness.

Ps. 126:1. Relief from misfortune prefigures the great salvation in Christ (John 16:20-22).

Ps. 127:1. The necessity of the Lord’s power for temporal achievements anticipates the necessity for God, and him alone, to accomplish eternal salvation through Christ (John 15:4-5; Acts 4:12).

Ps. 128:1. See note on 112:1.

Ps. 128:2. Temporal blessings prefigure the eternal blessings in Christ (Eph. 1:3-14; Rev. 21:1-4).

Ps. 129:1. See note on 6:2.

Ps. 129:5. See note on 60:12.

Ps. 130:4. Forgiveness is ultimately accomplished in Christ (Col. 1:13-14; see note on Ps. 32:1).

Ps. 131:1. The psalmist’s humble trust anticipates the humble trust of Christ in the Father (Matt. 11:29; Heb. 5:7-10) and the trust that Christians are to have in Christ (Acts 16:31).

Ps. 132:12. The promise to David culminates in Christ the offspring of David (Matt. 1:1-16), who is both king in the line of David and priest in God’s heavenly dwelling (Heb. 8:1-2; Ps. 110:2, 4).

Ps. 133:1. Unity among God’s people is produced in Christ and in his Spirit (Eph. 4:1-6).

Ps. 134:1. Praise of God looks forward to the praises offered by Christ (Heb. 2:12), the praises of God’s NT people (Eph. 5:19-20; Heb. 13:15), and the praises of the consummation (Rev. 19:1-10).

Ps. 135:4. God’s acts of grace and salvation to his people in the OT anticipate the climactic salvation accomplished in Christ (Luke 2:30-32; Acts 4:12).

Ps. 136:4. God’s works of creation, providence, and merciful deliverance show the steadfast love that has now been climactically revealed in the salvation in Christ (John 1:14).

Ps. 137:6. Devastation to God’s holy city makes people long for future blessing and destruction to God’s enemies. God’s ultimate answer is found in salvation in Christ and in the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-21:8). Jerusalem prefigures the heavenly Jerusalem (Heb. 12:22-24; Gal. 4:26-27).

Ps. 138:3. See note on 35:3.

Ps. 138:4. See note on 22:27.

Ps. 138:6. Mercy to the lowly comes in Christ (Luke 1:48-55).

Ps. 139:1. Detailed knowledge and care for the psalmist anticipates God’s care for us (John 10:14-16).

Ps. 140:1. Deliverance from enemies prefigures Christ’s deliverance from his enemies, both human and demonic (Matt. 26:46; Col. 2:15), and our deliverance in Christ from sin, death, and Satan (Heb. 2:14-15).

Ps. 140:3. See Rom. 3:13 and note on Ps. 14:1.

Ps. 141:3. The need for wise speech, in prayer as well as in other circumstances, anticipates the purity of Christ’s speech (John 8:43-47) and the purity that we receive from Christ (John 17:17-19). Our prayers are heard because of him (John 14:13-14; 1 John 5:14-15).

Ps. 142:4. See notes on 22:1 and 6:2.

Ps. 142:6. Deliverance from persecutors anticipates the deliverance of Christ from his persecutors, after he was brought low in his crucifixion and death.

Ps. 143:2. Perfect righteousness is found only in Christ, who provides righteousness for those who are his (2 Cor. 5:21; see notes on 7:8 and 14:1.

Ps. 144:1. See note on Ps. 18:34.

Ps. 144:10. Deliverance to David prefigures final deliverance given to Christ the offspring of David. See notes on 2:6 and 18:50.

Ps. 145:1. See note on 68:26.

Ps. 145:8. The Lord’s grace and mercy is climactically poured out in the salvation in Christ (Rom. 8:32).

Ps. 146:3. Mere man cannot save, pointing to the need for Christ to be God as well as man (John 1:14).

Ps. 147:5. God’s greatness and goodness, in both providence and redemption, motivates praise and trust. God’s goodness has now been supremely manifested in Christ (Rom. 8:32).

Ps. 148:3. The created world declares the character of its maker (Ps. 19:1-6), anticipating the final, even more glorious praise in the consummation (Rev. 21:1-4). The creation reflects the glory of the Son, who is mediator of creation (Col. 1:15-17; John 1:1-3).

Ps. 149:4. See note on 68:26.

Ps. 149:7. At Christ’s Second Coming rebellious nations will be subdued (Rev. 19:11-21). In the meantime, gracious subduing comes through the power of the gospel (Matt. 28:18-20).

Ps. 150:2. See note on 68:26. Praise, not a cry of distress, has the final position in the Psalms, anticipating the victory of Christ (Eph. 4:8) and the final abolition of suffering (Rev. 21:4).

Wisdom ultimately comes from God and his instruction, which anticipates the fact that Christ is the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:30; Col. 2:3) and that in him and his instruction we find the way of life and righteousness (John 14:6, 23-24), and then through the Spirit we may walk in the right way (Gal. 5:16-26).

Prov. 1:1. Solomon’s wisdom prefigures the wisdom of his greater descendant, Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 1:30; see note on 1 Kings 2:6).

Prov. 1:7. Wisdom is to be sought from God, anticipating that we seek wisdom from Christ, the incarnate God (Col. 2:3; John 1:14).

Prov. 1:8. Listening to parents is one aspect of honoring them, which is an abiding principle (Ex. 20:12; Eph. 6:1-3). Within the church we are now to have specifically Christian instruction of children (Eph. 6:4). The archetype for this obedient listening is found in the relation of the Son of God to the Father (John 8:28-29).

Prov. 1:18. The principle of just retribution is broad (Obad. 15) and is to be fulfilled ultimately in the consummation (Rev. 20:12-14).

Prov. 1:19. Sin leads to death (Rom. 6:23), but in Christ is life (John 14:6; 1 John 5:12).

Prov. 1:20. The call of wisdom prefigures the call of the gospel, which contains the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:18-25; 2:6-10).

Prov. 2:4. The diligent seeking for wisdom prefigures the need to seek the kingdom of God (Matt. 13:44).

Prov. 2:13. The path of righteousness is ultimately that of Jesus Christ, the perfectly righteous One (John 14:6). All other ways lead to destruction (Matt. 7:13-14; Acts 4:12).

Prov. 2:16. Wisdom involves the avoidance both of literal adultery and of the spiritual adultery of idolatry (Hos. 1:2; 2:1-5; 3:1-3; Ex. 34:16; 2 Cor. 11:3).

Prov. 2:21. Temporal blessings prefigure the blessings of eternal salvation (Eph. 1:3-14).

Prov. 3:2. Length of days prefigures eternal life that comes through fellowship with Christ, who is the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:30).

Prov. 3:5. Trust in the Lord anticipates trust in Christ, who is the Lord’s salvation (Acts 16:31).

Prov. 3:11. Christians as sons of God receive the Lord’s discipline (Heb. 12:5-6).

Prov. 3:18. The possession of the tree of life anticipates the final inheritance in the consummation (Rev. 22:1-2; 2:7).

Prov. 3:34. The call for humility anticipates the role of humility in the NT (James 4:6; 1 Pet. 5:5; Matt. 11:29; see note on Matt. 18:4).

Prov. 4:13. Instruction for the path of life anticipates the instruction of Christ, who is the way and the truth and the life (John 14:6).

Prov. 5:3. See note on 2:16.

Prov. 5:5. Ultimately Christ delivers us from death (John 11:25-26), and as one aspect of deliverance gives wisdom and integrity of heart (1 Cor. 1:30).

Prov. 6:6. Diligent work now has as its deepest motivation the hope of final satisfaction in Christ (1 Cor. 15:58).

Prov. 6:24. See note on 2:16.

Prov. 7:21. Smooth, deceitful talk is linked ultimately to the deceit of Satan (Rev. 12:9; John 8:44-47).

Prov. 8:1. See note on 1:20.

Prov. 8:22. The eternality of wisdom with God anticipates the eternality of the Second Person of the Trinity, who is the Word of God and who mediated creation (John 1:1-3).

Prov. 8:35. Life is obtained ultimately from Christ, who is the life (John 14:6) and the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:30).

Prov. 9:2. The invitation to feasting anticipates the spiritual food of Christ (John 6:52-58) and the future marriage supper of the Lamb (Rev. 19:9).

Prov. 9:18. See note on 1:19.

Prov. 10:1. On Solomon, see notes on 1:1 and 1 Kings 2:6.

Prov. 10:2. Blessings on the righteous anticipate the blessings on Christ, the perfectly righteous man, and the blessings that come to those in Christ (Eph. 1:3-14).

Prov. 10:12. Wisdom transforms relations with others, anticipating the NT transformation through love (John 13:34-35; 1 John 3:16-18; 4:7-21).

Prov. 10:21. The blessing to others anticipates the blessing of gracious words in the church (Eph. 4:14-16; Col. 3:16; 4:6).

Prov. 11:2. The value of humility anticipates the humility of Christ (Matt. 11:29) and of his people (Eph. 4:2; Luke 14:11; see note on Prov. 3:34).

Prov. 11:3. See note on 2:13.

Prov. 11:4. Temporary avoidance of death prefigures the promise of eternal life, based on the righteousness of Christ (John 5:24; Rom. 4:25; see note on Prov. 2:13.

Prov. 12:18. The blessing of wise words anticipates the blessings of the words of Christ (John 6:63) and of his followers (Eph. 4:29; Col. 4:6).

Prov. 13:4. See note on 6:6.

Prov. 13:14. Christ the supremely wise One has the words of eternal life (John 6:68-69).

Prov. 13:24. Christians are to train their children in Christ (Eph. 6:1-4; see note on Prov. 1:8).

Prov. 14:2. True trust in Christ manifests itself in obedience (James 2:14-26; Gal. 5:13-26).

Prov. 15:1. Gentle words anticipate the gentleness of Christ (Matt. 11:29). Gentleness is also to characterize his people (Gal. 5:23; Eph. 4:2, 25-29).

Prov. 16:3. Only through union with Christ can we bear fruit (John 15:1-11).

Prov. 16:12. The duty to kings to bring justice anticipates Christ, who is the great king and the one who brings perfect justice (Rom. 3:26; Rev. 19:11).

Prov. 17:3. The Lord’s discernment is perfect (Heb. 4:12-13), implying the need for purification (Heb. 9:9-14).

Prov. 18:3. Temporal judgments on wickedness prefigure final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15), underlining the need for repentance.

Prov. 19:1. We must be discerning about real value, and seek first the kingdom of God (Matt. 6:33).

Prov. 19:5. See note on 18:3.

Prov. 19:11. Readiness to forgive anticipates the forgiveness of Christ (Col. 1:14) and the practice of forgiving among his people (Col. 3:13; James 1:19).

Prov. 20:8. Authorities have an obligation to punish evildoing (Rom. 13:1-4; Deut. 16:18-20). In this they anticipate the final judgment of God (Rev. 20:11-15).

Prov. 20:22. Vengeance belongs to God (Rom. 12:17-21). Christ himself waited patiently for vindication (1 Pet. 2:21-23).

Prov. 21:3. See Mic. 6:6-8 and 1 Sam. 15:22-23. The requirement for real obedience, and ultimately for perfect obedience, is fulfilled in Christ (Heb. 10:5-10).

Prov. 22:4. See note on 2:21.

Prov. 23:4. Counsel against lust for money anticipates Jesus’ counsel about true riches (Luke 12:22-40; 16:10-13; Eph. 5:5).

Prov. 23:13. See note on Prov. 13:24.

Prov. 23:19. The way of righteousness is found ultimately in Christ (John 14:6). See note on Prov. 1:8.

Prov. 23:30. The warning against drunkenness is repeated in the NT, and complemented by a positive command to be filled with the Spirit (Eph. 5:18).

Prov. 24:3. Human use of wisdom imitates God’s use of wisdom (Prov. 8:22-31) and anticipates Christ, who is the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:30) and who builds the church (Matt. 16:18).

Prov. 24:19. See note on Ps. 10:1.

Prov. 24:30. See note on 6:6.

Prov. 25:7. The principle of humility is further developed in Christ’s teaching and example (Luke 14:7-11).

Prov. 25:11. See notes on 12:18 and 15:1.

Prov. 25:21. The principle of doing good to enemies is further developed in Christ’s example and his teaching (Matt. 5:43-48; Rom. 12:20-21).

Prov. 26:3. The answer to folly and its disasters is found in seeking the wisdom of Christ (1 Cor. 1:30; Col. 2:3).

Prov. 26:11. It is folly to turn back from following Christ (2 Pet. 2:22).

Prov. 26:13. See note on 6:6.

Prov. 26:20. The answer to words of strife is found in Christ’s peace and his empowering of his people to be at peace with one another (Col. 3:13-15).

Prov. 27:3. See note on 26:20.

Prov. 27:11. See note on 13:24.

Prov. 28:1. The boldness of the righteous anticipates the boldness of followers of Christ (2 Cor. 3:12; Phil. 1:28-30).

Prov. 28:2. See note on 16:12.

Prov. 28:9. God desires righteousness and obedience, which are fulfilled in Christ (2 Cor. 5:21; see note on 21:3).

Prov. 29:2. See note on 16:12.

Prov. 29:25. Trust in the Lord anticipate trust in Christ (see 3:5).

Prov. 30:4. The inaccessibility of wisdom to man points up the need for Christ, who comes down from heaven (John 3:12-15; 6:33, 50-51).

Prov. 31:3. See note on 2:16.

Prov. 31:10. The excellent wife prefigures the excellence of the church, the bride of Christ (Eph. 5:25-27; Rev. 19:7-8).

Ecclesiastes

Ecclesiastes. The meaninglessness, frustrations, and injustices of life “under the sun” call out for a solution from God. Christ through his suffering and resurrection provides the first installment (1 Cor. 15:22-23) of meaning, fulfillment, and new life (John 10:10), to be enjoyed fully in the consummation (Rev. 21:1-4).

Eccles. 1:14. The crumbling of human works makes life pointless, unless there is relief in God. Knocking down false ambitions creates a longing for the relief that will come in Christ (Matt. 11:28-30).

Eccles. 2:10. The fading pleasures in this life contrast with the eternal pleasures in God’s presence (Rev. 21:4; Ps. 16:11; John 15:11).

Eccles. 2:14. Wisdom in this world contrasts with the wisdom in Christ that will last forever (1 Cor. 1:30).

Eccles 2:16. What is needed is a remedy for death, and this remedy comes with Christ (1 Cor. 15:54-58).

Eccles. 3:11. Now in the light of revelation we can know that God’s purpose is to unite all things in Christ (Eph. 1:10; 1 Cor. 2:9-10).

Eccles. 3:12. Man need not understand everything, but can live a life of joy as a servant of Christ (John 15:11), trusting that God’s plans are good (Rom. 8:28).

Eccles. 3:17. God will execute final judgment (Rev. 20:11-21:8). But in the meantime we must bear with seeing much injustice (John 16:33).

Eccles. 3:20. See note on 2:16.

Eccles. 4:1. See note on 3:17.

Eccles. 4:9. The virtue of cooperation anticipates the mutual help in the body of Christ (1 Cor. 12).

Eccles. 5:8. See note on 3:17.

Eccles. 5:10. The fleeting character of riches implies that we should invest in God’s kingdom (Matt. 6:33; Luke 12:22-34).

Eccles. 7:2. See notes on 2:10 and 2:16.

Eccles. 7:15. See note on 3:17.

Eccles. 7:18. In the midst of much confusion and frustration about outward circumstances, hold fast to God. God brings ultimate salvation from vanity in Christ (Rev. 21:1-4).

Eccles. 8:14. See note on 3:17.

Eccles. 8:15. See note on 3:12.

Eccles. 9:5. See note on 2:16.

Eccles. 9:7. See note on 3:12.

Eccles. 9:16. The seeking for wisdom ultimately culminates in Christ, who is the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:30; Matt. 12:42).

Eccles. 10:17. Good rulers make a notable difference in the character of a nation. The final, perfect ruler is Christ himself, who brings the kingdom of God and everlasting righteousness (Matt. 12:28; Rev. 21:1-4).

Eccles. 11:1. Work done for Christ will be rewarded (Col. 3:22-25).

Eccles. 12:1. See note on 1:14.

Eccles. 12:7. Reckoning with death leads to abandoning a focus on selfish achievement and pleasure and seeking God (see note on 2:16).

Eccles. 12:14. Reckoning with the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-21:8) changes the orientation of life. We are to follow Christ who delivers us from condemnation (Rom. 8:1) and death (John 11:25-26) and gives meaning to work in fellowship with him (1 Cor. 15:58).

Song of Solomon

Song of Solomon. S.of S. depicts marital love. But after the fall merely human love is always short of God’s ideal, and so we look for God’s remedy in the perfect love of Christ (Eph. 5:22-33; 1 John 3:16; 4:9-10). The connection with Solomon (Song 1:1; 3:7, 9, 11; 8:11) invites us to think especially of the marriage of the king in the line of David (Ps. 45:10-15), and the kings point forward to Christ the great king, who has the church as his bride (Rev. 19:7-9, 21:9).

Song 1:1. The marriage of the Davidic king points forward to Christ (Ps. 45:10-15; compare 45:6-7 with Heb. 1:8-9).

Song 1:2. Perfect love has been demonstrated in Christ (1 John 4:9-10).

Song 1:4. Longing for intimacy prefigures the longing for intimacy with the love of Christ (1 John 4:7-21).

Song 1:15. The beauty of the lovers anticipates the beauty of Christ and his bride (Eph. 5:26-27; Rev. 19:7-8).

Song 2:3. Delight in love prefigures the joy in Christ (John 15:11).

Song 2:16. The possession of the loved one prefigures the possession of Christ and the church.

Song 3:1. See note on 1:4.

Song 3:11. The wedding of Solomon prefigures the wedding of the Messiah (Ps. 45:10-15).

Song 4:1. See note on 1:15.

Song 4:13. Edenic abundance in the “garden” anticipates the abundance and satisfaction and fulfillment of the consummation (Rev. 22:1-5).

Song 5:1. Satisfaction with the loved one contrasts with God’s dissatisfaction with the disobedience and disloyalty of Israel (Isa. 5:1-4), who was supposed to be married to the Lord (Ezek. 16:8-15). The remedy is found in Christ’s salvation (Eph. 2:25-27).

Song 5:8. See note on 1:4.

Song 5:10. See note on 1:15.

Song 6:9. The focus on one person anticipates the uniqueness of God’s love for the church.

Song 7:1. See note on 1:15.

Song 7:6. Delight in the loved one prefigures Christ’s delight in the church (Eph. 5:26-27; Rev. 19:8).

Song 8:6. The abiding character of commitment in love prefigures the abiding character of the new covenant (Heb. 8:8-13; John 10:27-29; Phil. 1:6).

Isaiah. Isaiah prophesies exile because of Israel’s unfaithfulness. But then God will bring back Israel from exile, and this restoration prefigures the climactic salvation in Christ. Christ as Messiah and “servant” of the Lord will cleanse his people from sin, fill them with glory, and extend blessing to the nations. Christ fulfills prophecy both in his first coming and his second coming.

Isa. 1:1. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in 2 Kings 15-20 and 2 Chron. 26-32.

Isa. 1:4. The failures of Israel precipitate the exile, and indicate the need for the Messianic servant of the Lord, who will faithfully obey the Lord (Isa. 42:1-4; 49:1-12).

Isa. 1:9. The Lord preserves a few, a remnant for Israel. The theme of the remnant is fulfilled in Christ, who is the ultimate remnant of one, and then the remnant is expanded to include Christ’s people (see Rom. 9:27-29 and note on Isa. 6:13).

Isa. 1:18. Ultimate cleansing comes through Christ’s sacrifice (Heb. 10:1-10).

Isa. 2:2. Christ himself is the ultimate “house” or dwelling place of God (John 1:14; 2:19-21). Through him the church becomes a temple (1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:20-22), and through Christ’s exaltation the nations are drawn to him (John 12:32; Luke 24:47).

Isa. 2:6. See note on 1:4.

Isa. 2:11. The humbling of human pride takes place in Christ (Luke 1:48-53; Matt. 20:25-28; 1 Cor. 1:31).

Isa. 3:2. The lack of adequate leaders shows the need for the Messiah as the final, perfect leader (Isa. 9:6-7).

Isa. 4:4. Cleansing looks forward to the forgiveness and purification in Christ (Col. 1:13-14; Heb. 10:10-14).

Isa. 5:1. The lack of fruit from Israel contrasts with the fruitfulness of Christ and those in him (Isa. 53:10; John 15:1-6; see also Matt. 21:33-44).

Isa. 6:1. Isaiah’s vision of the glory of God anticipates the glory of God in Christ (John 1:14; 12:41; Rev. 4:2-10).

Isa. 6:9. The resistance of Israel to Isaiah’s message anticipates the resistance to the gospel (Matt. 13:14-15; John 12:40; Acts 28:26-27; Rom. 11:8).

Isa. 6:13. The holy seed, the remnant, are those in Israel who remain faithful to God. Ultimately none is completely faithful except Christ, who is the final remnant (11:1; Gal. 3:16; see note on Isa. 1:9).

Isa. 7:14. The prophecy concerning Immanuel is fulfilled in Jesus Christ (Matt. 1:20-23). It is related to the larger OT theme in which God brings new life and offspring to barren women (see note on Gen. 18:10; also Gen. 3:15).

Isa. 8:13. Treating the Lord as holy culminates in the holiness of Christ (Acts 2:27) and our obligation to holiness (1 Pet. 3:15; 1:15-16).

Isa. 8:14. Being offended by the Lord prefigures the offense of Christ (Rom. 9:32-33; 1 Pet. 2:8; Matt. 21:44).

Isa. 9:1. Jesus brings light by preaching in Galilee (Matt. 4:14-17). He is the light of the world (John 8:12; 9:5; 1:5, 8-9).

Isa. 9:6. The Messiah is both human (from the line of David) and divine (see John 1:14; Col. 2:9).

Isa. 9:7. The Messiah establishes his rule in justice (Rom. 3:26; Eph. 1:20-22) and peace (John 16:33).

Isa. 10:22. In NT times, the remnant consists of those who believe in Christ (Rom. 9:27-28; see note on Isa. 1:9).

Isa. 11:1. The Messiah is from the line of Jesse, the father of David (1 Sam. 16:1). He is filled with the Spirit (Luke 4:18; Matt. 3:16), with wisdom (Col. 2:3), and with justice (Rev. 19:11).

Isa. 11:10. Christ draws the nations to himself (John 12:32; Rom. 15:12; see note on 2:2).

Isa. 12:1. The song of praise for God’s salvation anticipates the praise for God’s salvation in Christ (Heb. 2:12; 13:15; Eph. 5:19-20; Rev. 19:1-8).

Isa. 13:6. The day of the Lord is a day of judgment. Judgments within history, such as the judgment of the exile of Israel, anticipate the final judgment (2 Pet. 3:10-13; Rev. 20:11-21:8; 1 Thess. 5:2-11). Because of Christ’s salvation, the day is a day for which Christians hope (Tit. 2:13).

Isa. 13:9. All sinners will be swept away in the ultimate judgment. We must take refuge in Christ (2 Cor. 5:21).

Isa. 13:10. The darkening is a symbol of judgment, prefiguring judgment at the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45) and at the Second Coming (Matt. 24:29; Rev. 6:12-13; see Rev. 8:12).

Isa. 14:4. The fall of Babylon to the Medes and Persians (Dan. 5:28) prefigures the final fall of Babylon the Great (Rev. 17:15-19:3) and the defeat of Satan (Rev. 12:7-9; 20:10; Luke 10:15), as well as looking back on the fall of Babel (Gen. 11:1-9).

Isa. 15:1. Moab, one of the traditional enemies of Israel (Num 22:1-6), is defeated, prefiguring final judgment on God’s enemies (Rev. 20:11-15) and fulfilling Num 21:29.

Isa. 16:5. Despite her record of enmity, Moab like other hostile nations can find refuge in the Messiah. Christ’s mercy extends to all nations (Acts 1:8; Rev. 5:9-10).

Isa. 17:6. See note on 1:9.

Isa. 17:7. God the Maker is seen in Christ (John 14:9), and will be seen face to face by the pure in heart (Matt. 5:8; Rev. 22:4).

Isa. 18:7. The coming of the nations takes place as Christ draws them (John 12:32; Acts 1:8; Matt. 28:18-20; see note on Isa. 2:2).

Isa. 19:18. Egypt, traditionally an enemy to God’s people, will come to submit to God. Christ calls the nations to himself (Acts 2:10; see notes on 18:7 and 2:2).

Isa. 20:6. The failure of human hopes highlights the need to hope in God through the way that he has provided in Christ (John 14:6; Ps. 146:3-4).

Isa. 21:9. The fall of Babylon prefigures the defeat of all evil and the victory of Christ over evil (Col. 2:15; Heb. 10:14-15; Rev. 14:8; 18:2; see note on Isa. 14:4).

Isa. 22:11. A basic temptation is to trust in man rather than in God (Acts 16:31; 4:12; see note on 20:6).

Isa. 22:13. Abandonment of hope would be appropriate only if God did not provide salvation in Christ (1 Cor. 15:32).

Isa. 22:22. Kingly authority in the right hands provides security. But even Eliakim (22:20) is ultimately not up to the task (22:25). Only the Messiah in the line of David can bear the full weight of responsibility that will bring final salvation (Matt. 1:21; see Rev. 3:7).

Isa. 23:9. After destroying human pride, the Lord brings about blessing and glory to himself (23:18). The reversal of human ambitions takes place preeminently in the death and resurrection of Christ (Phil. 2:6-11; see note on Isa. 2:11).

Isa. 24:6. In fulfillment of the curse from the fall of Adam, all the earth will ultimately be judged (Rev. 20:11-15; 2 Pet. 3:10). But through the work of Christ blessing comes in the final result (Isa. 24:15).

Isa. 25:8. God’s overwhelming victory, resulting in blessing, will come at the consummation (Rev. 21:4; 7:17; 1 Cor. 15:54).

Isa. 26:4. Trusting in God anticipates trusting in Christ, who has accomplished climactic salvation (Phil. 4:7).

Isa. 26:5. See notes on 2:11 and 23:9.

Isa. 26:19. The hope for reversal of death is fulfilled in Christ’s resurrection (John 11:25-26; 1 Cor. 15:46-57; Eph. 5:14).

Isa. 27:1. Satan will be completely defeated (Rev. 20:10; John 12:31).

Isa. 27:6. Fruitfulness is found ultimately in Christ (John 15:1-17).

Isa. 28:1. See note on 2:11.

Isa. 28:11. The foreign tongue is analogous to speaking in tongues in the NT (1 Cor. 14:21).

Isa. 28:16. Christ is the stone, both providing a foundation to those who trust in him (Eph. 2:20-22; 1 Cor. 3:11; 1 Pet. 2:4), and becoming a cause of stumbling to those who reject him (Matt. 21:42-44; Rom. 9:33; 1 Pet. 2:6; see Ps. 118:22).

Isa. 29:10. Spiritual hardness comes to part of Israel in Rom. 11:8 (see note on Isa. 6:9).

Isa. 29:13. The stubbornness and disobedience of God’s people comes to a climax with the opposition to and rejection of Jesus (Matt. 15:8-9; see Col. 2:22).

Isa. 29:14. Human wisdom is confounded by the gospel (1 Cor. 1:19).

Isa. 29:18. Jesus’ healing of the blind and the deaf symbolizes the giving of spiritual light (John 9:39-41).

Isa. 30:2. See note on 22:11.

Isa. 30:20. Christ is the ultimate teacher who instructs us in the way of the Lord (Matt. 23:10) through the Spirit (John 16:12-15).

Isa. 31:1. See note on 22:11.

Isa. 31:5. The protection of Jerusalem prefigures God’s protection of his people in Christ (John 10:27-29; see Isa. 40:11).

Isa. 32:3. See note on 29:18.

Isa. 32:15. The blessings of salvation in Christ come in two stages, in his first coming (Acts 1:8; Eph. 1:3-14) and his second coming (Rev. 21:1-22:5).

Isa. 33:6. See note on 32:15.

Isa. 33:14. Only perfect righteousness will remedy sin. Such righteousness is found in Christ (2 Cor. 5:21; Rom. 3:21-26; Heb. 10:1-14; see Heb. 12:29).

Isa. 34:2. God’s judgment against sin and evil anticipates the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15; see notes on Isa. 13:6, 9, and 15:1).

Isa. 34:4. The skies disappear at the Second Coming (Rev. 6:13-14; 20:11).

Isa. 35:3. The call for strengthening occurs in responding to God’s NT discipline (Heb. 12:12).

Isa. 35:5. Christ gives sight and hearing, symbolizing the giving of spiritual sight and hearing (Luke 7:20-22; Acts 26:18; see note on Isa. 29:18).

Isa. 35:10. The return to Palestine in the restoration prefigures the coming to heavenly Jerusalem and the presence of God in heaven (Heb. 12:22-24; 10:19-23; Rev. 21:4).

Isa. 36:1. The threat from Assyria anticipates the later threat from Babylon (39:6), which in turn illustrates all the attacks of Satan on God’s people. God answers with redemption that prefigures redemption in Christ. See the parallels in 2 Kings 18:13-20:19 and 2 Chron 32.

Isa. 36:15. See note on 2 Kings 18:30.

Isa. 37:1. God is our refuge in time of distress (Ps. 46:1). We now look to Christ for salvation (Acts 4:12).

Isa. 37:23. See note on 2 Kings 19:22.

Isa. 38:5. See note on 2 Kings 20:5.

Isa. 38:10. The ultimate remedy for death is found in the resurrection of Christ (see note on 26:19).

Isa. 39:6. God’s judgment of exile, which comes on account of sin (2 Kings 23:26-27; 2 Chron 36:15-16), prefigures final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). But through Christ we may escape condemnation (Rom. 8:1).

Isa. 40:1. Comfort to Jerusalem prefigures the comfort that is found in Christ (2 Cor. 1:3-7).

Isa. 40:3. John the Baptist announces the coming of the Lord (Matt. 3:3; John 1:23) in the person of Christ (John 14:9; 10:30).

Isa. 40:5. The glory of the Lord is revealed in Christ (John 1:14; 13:31-32; 17:1-5; Luke 2:32).

Isa. 40:6. The fading of human life contrasts with eternal salvation in Christ (1 Pet. 1:24-25; see James 1:10-11).

Isa. 40:11. Jesus is the good shepherd (John 10:11, 14).

Isa. 41:17. God’s mercy to the poor is manifest in Christ (Luke 4:18-19; 7:22).

Isa. 42:1. The servant, the Messianic king (Isa. 9:6-7), rules with justice and mercy (Matt. 12:17-21; see Matt. 3:17).

Isa. 42:6. Christ the light of the world (John 8:12; 9:5) brings light to the nations (John 12:32; Acts 26:18, 23), fulfilling the promise to Abraham of blessing to the nations (see note on Gen. 12:3).

Isa. 43:25. Forgiveness is found ultimately in Christ (Col. 1:14; Heb. 10:1-18; Mark 2:7).

Isa. 44:3. See note on 32:15.

Isa. 44:28. The restoration under Cyrus (Ezra 1) prefigures the eternal salvation in Christ in the heavenly Jerusalem (Heb. 12:22-24).

Isa. 45:1. Cyrus as anointed by God prefigures the Messiah and his salvation (Luke 4:18-19).

Isa. 45:23. The submission of the nations is accomplished in Christ (Phil. 2:10-11; Rom. 14:11).

Isa. 46:1. The worthlessness of idols is expressive of the principle that only Christ, the one way of salvation that God has established (Acts 4:12; John 14:6), is worthy of trust.

Isa. 47:3. The oppressor of God’s people will be judged (see note on 14:4).

Isa. 47:8. See Rev. 18:7 and note on Isa. 14:4.

Isa. 48:20. Rescue from Babylon prefigures rescue from sin and death (Col. 1:13-14; Rev. 18:4).

Isa. 49:2. The word of God is like a sharp sword in Heb. 4:12; Eph. 6:17; Rev. 1:16; 2:12, 16; 19:15.

Isa. 49:5. The servant is ultimately Christ, who saves both Jews and Gentiles (Rom. 11:30-32).

Isa. 49:6. See Acts 13:47 and 26:23, and note on Isa. 42:6.

Isa. 49:8. Now, subsequent to Christ’s resurrection, is the time of salvation (2 Cor. 6:2).

Isa. 49:10. Protection and blessing ultimately come through the Lamb (Rev. 7:16-17).

Isa. 50:6. The Messianic servant undergoes suffering and humiliation for the sake of accomplishing salvation (Matt. 27:26-31).

Isa. 51:10. God’s redemption in the exodus is analogous to his redemption of his people from Babylonian exile, and both look forward to his climactic redemption in Christ.

Isa. 51:11. See note on 35:10.

Isa. 51:17. Wrath is followed by exaltation, prefiguring the movement from the wrath of Christ’s crucifixion to the exaltation of his resurrection and ascension. On the cup of wrath, see note on Jer. 25:15.

Isa. 52:7. The gospel is the good news of salvation (Rom. 10:15).

Isa. 52:10. The inclusion of the nations fulfills the promise to Abraham concerning blessing to all nations (Gen. 12:3; Luke 2:30-31; see note on Isa. 42:6).

Isa. 52:11. Departure from Babylon prefigures departure from the contamination of the world (2 Cor. 6:17).

Isa. 52:13. Exaltation of the servant, the Messiah, follows his suffering (52:14; 53:3-9; see note on 51:17).

Isa. 52:15. Paul spreads the message of salvation in Christ to those who have not heard (Rom. 15:21).

Isa. 53:1. The message of salvation in Christ often meets an unbelieving response (John 12:38; Rom. 10:16).

Isa. 53:5. The Messianic servant undergoes substitutionary suffering (1 Pet. 2:24-25; Rom. 4:25; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Isa. 53:9. Christ was put to death between two robbers (Matt. 27:38) and buried in the tomb of a rich man, Joseph of Arimathea (Matt. 27:57-60).

Isa. 53:11. Christ’s death and resurrection results in our justification (Rom. 3:23-26; 4:25; 5:19).

Isa. 54:1. The return of inhabitants to Jerusalem prefigures the multiplication of children of God in Christ (Gal. 4:27).

Isa. 54:7. See note on 51:17.

Isa. 54:10. The new covenant results in permanent peace with God (Rom. 5:1) and is secure forever (Heb. 9:12).

Isa. 55:2. God’s offer of food is fulfilled in Christ, who is the food and drink of eternal life (John 6:52-58).

Isa. 56:7. The extension of salvation to the nations takes place in Christ (Acts 1:8; Rev. 5:9; Matt. 21:13).

Isa. 57:3. See notes on 34:2, 1:4, and 12:6.

Isa. 57:19. God gives the invitation of salvation to all, anticipating the spread of the gospel (Acts 2:39; Eph. 2:17).

Isa. 58:1. See note on 1:4.

Isa. 58:2. Israel’s hypocrisy anticipates the hypocrisy and externalism that Christ will confront (Matt. 15:1-10).

Isa. 59:2. See note on 1:4.

Isa. 59:7. See Rom. 3:15-17 and note on Ps. 14:1.

Isa. 59:17. God’s battle anticipates (1) the coming of righteousness and salvation at Christ’s first coming (Rom. 3:23-26), (2) Christians’ battle against evil (Eph. 6:10-20; 1 Thess. 5:8), and (3) the war at Christ’s second coming (Rev. 19:11-21).

Isa. 59:20. The Redeemer is Christ, who saves both Jews and Gentiles (Rom. 11:26-27).

Isa. 60:1. God’s glory is seen in Christ (John 1:14).

Isa. 60:3. Nations come to Christ through the gospel (John 1:32; Acts 1:8; Luke 24:47; Rev. 21:24-25; see notes on Isa. 2:2 and 11:10).

Isa. 60:6. The wise men, representing the nations, bring gold and frankincense and myrrh (Matt. 2:11).

Isa. 60:19. God is the sole light in the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:22-24).

Isa. 61:1. The Spirit equips Christ for his work of salvation (Luke 4:18).

Isa. 61:10. The church as bride is given beautiful clothing (Rev. 19:8; see Eph. 5:25-27).

Isa. 62:1. Righteousness and salvation come in Christ (see note on 9:7).

Isa. 62:4. God’s restoration of Israel prefigures Christ as husband to the church (Eph. 5:25-27; Rev. 19:7-9; 2 Cor. 11:2).

Isa. 63:3. The execution of punishment anticipates final punishment (Rev. 19:15; 14:20).

Isa. 63:4. See notes on 12:6 and 12:9.

Isa. 63:12. Past acts of salvation foreshadow the great future salvation (see note on 51:10).

Isa. 64:1. God comes from heaven both at the first and second coming of Christ (John 6:33, 38, 50; Rev. 19:11).

Isa. 64:11. See note on 51:17.

Isa. 65:1. The resistance and rebellion of Israel fits into the plan of God to extend salvation to the nations (Rom. 10:20-21; 11:11-32).

Isa. 65:9. See note on 1:9.

Isa. 65:17. Ultimate blessing to God’s people comes in the consummation (Rev. 21:1; 2 Pet. 3:13). The new creation has come in its beginnings already in Christ (2 Cor. 5:17).

Isa. 66:1. The inadequacy of a house of stone indicates by contrast the fact that God’s purpose to dwell with man is fulfilled in Christ (Matt. 1:23; John 1:14; 2:19-21; Acts 7:48-50; 17:24).

Isa. 66:8. The restoration of inhabitants to Jerusalem prefigures the multiplication of children of God in the church, the heavenly Jerusalem (Gal. 4:26-27; Isa. 54:1).

Isa. 66:18. On the gathering of the nations, see notes on 2:2 and 11:10.

Isa. 66:24. The picture of unending judgment anticipates the NT teaching about Gehenna, the lake of fire (Mark 9:48; Rev. 20:15; 21:8).

Jeremiah. Jeremiah’s prophetic indictment of Israel is largely rejected, prefiguring the rejection of Christ’s prophetic message to Israel (Luke 11:49-51). God’s judgment on Israel for apostasy prefigures the judgment that Christ bears as substitute for the apostasy of mankind (1 John 2:2). It also prefigures final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). Restoration from exile prefigures final restoration to God through Christ (Heb. 10:19-22).

Jer. 1:2. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in 2 Kings 22-25 and 2 Chron. 34:1-36:20.

Jer. 1:5. God’s care from the womb prefigures the Father’s relation to the Son in the incarnation (Luke 1:35), and also the calling of the Apostle Paul (Gal. 1:15).

Jer. 1:8. God delivers Paul from plots at Corinth (Acts 18:9-11) and elsewhere.

Jer. 1:9. The firmness of the prophet over against opposition prefigures the firmness of Christ in his teaching.

Jer. 1:16. God’s judgment on evil and apostasy (see 2 Chron. 36:15-16) anticipates the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). Christ in the crucifixion bears judgment for our apostasy (1 Pet. 2:24; 1 John 2:2).

Jer. 2:1. Israel in forsaking the Lord is like an adulteress. Her unfaithfulness contrasts with the faithfulness and purity that will be worked out in the church (Eph. 5:25-27; Rev. 19:7-8; 2 Cor. 11:2).

Jer. 2:11. The folly of apostasy prefigures the folly of rejecting Christ who opens the way of salvation (John 14:6; Acts 4:12).

Jer. 2:13. Living water is found in Christ (John 4:10-14).

Jer. 2:21. See Isa. 5:1-4.

Jer. 3:1. See note on 2:1 and the connection with Deut. 24:1-4.

Jer. 3:10. The pretense in Judah illustrates the hypocrisy that can infect religion (Matt. 23:13-36; see note on Isa. 58:2).

Jer. 3:13. Forgiveness comes to those who acknowledge guilt, but not to those who continue to think they are righteous (Luke 18:9-14).

Jer. 3:17. The gathering to Jerusalem anticipates the NT gathering to heavenly Jerusalem (Heb. 12:22-24) and the future gathering to the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:24-26).

Jer. 4:4. Circumcision of the heart comes in Christ (Col. 2:11; Heb. 8:8-13).

Jer. 5:1. The lack of a righteous man is finally remedied in Christ (Acts 3:14).

Jer. 5:9. See note on 1:16.

Jer. 5:14. See note on 1:9.

Jer. 6:1. See note on 1:16.

Jer. 6:14. True peace with God can come only through the definitive overcoming of sin in Christ (John 16:33; Rom. 5:1).

Jer. 7:11. Israel’s hypocrisy anticipates the hypocrisy and corrupt worship that Christ confronts (Matt. 21:13).

Jer. 7:14. Destruction of the temple anticipates the later destruction of Herod’s temple that Christ predicts (Matt. 24:2).

Jer. 8:3. The remedy for death and for sin that leads to death is the resurrection of Christ (1 Cor. 15:42-57).

Jer. 8:11. See note on 6:14.

Jer. 9:1. Apostasy is a deep grief both to Jeremiah and to Christ the final prophet (Luke 19:41-44).

Jer. 9:23. The principle of boasting in God alone is fulfilled in 1 Cor. 1:29-31 (see 2 Cor. 10:17).

Jer. 10:5. Only God, not idols, offers salvation. The uniqueness of God and his way anticipates the unique role of Christ as the way to God (John 14:6; Heb. 10:19-22; see note on Isa. 46:1).

Jer. 11:8. Through Moses God predicts that disasters and exile will result from disobedience (Deut. 28).

Jer. 11:19. The hostility to Jeremiah prefigures the hostility to Christ as prophet (Isa. 53:7; Luke 6:11; Matt. 27:1).

Jer. 12:7. God forsakes his house and his people on account of their sin. It anticipates later judgments on sin, including the forsaking of Christ when he is the sin-bearer (Matt. 27:46).

Jer. 13:9. The pride of God’s people contrasts with the need for people who truly serve him. The need is answered in the new covenant (Jer. 31:31-34) in Christ (Heb. 8:8-13; 10:15-25).

Jer. 14:3. Drought fulfills the curse in Deut. 28:22 that must come when Israel forsakes the Lord. It contrasts with the blessing of living water in Christ (John 4:14; 6:35).

Jer. 14:14. The conflict between true and false prophet anticipates the conflict between Jesus and his opponents, and between true and false teaching in the church (2 Pet. 2:1-3).

Jer. 15:2. Judgments fulfill the prophetic curses in Deut. 28:15-68 (see. Rev. 6:8). God’s wrath against sin anticipates the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15; see note on Jer. 1:16).

Jer. 15:10. Jeremiah as rejected prophet prefigures the rejection of Christ’s prophetic ministry (Luke 11:49-51).

Jer. 16:15. Restoration, prophesied in Deut. 30:1-5, prefigures final salvation in Christ (Isa. 40:1-11).

Jer. 17:8. The blessing promised to the righteous man (Ps. 1:3) is fulfilled in Christ the perfectly righteous man (Acts 3:14) and in those who are righteous in him (2 Cor. 5:21).

Jer. 18:6. God’s power as creator can bring salvation even to the wayward (Rom. 9:20-24; Eph. 2:4-10).

Jer. 18:11. The call to repent anticipates the call to repent from John the Baptist (Matt. 3:2) and in gospel proclamation (Acts 2:38; Luke 24:47).

Jer. 19:3. See note on 1:6.

Jer. 19:9. The specific horror of eating human flesh was prophesied in Deut. 28:53-55. Horror upon horror shows the results of the degradation of sin, and prefigures the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15; seen note on 1:6).

Jer. 20:2. Opposition to Jeremiah the prophet prefigures opposition to Christ the final prophet (Luke 11:49-51). Those who oppose will experience God’s judgment (Matt. 26:64).

Jer. 21:8. Even in the midst of the greatest disaster God in mercy holds open a way of escape. The escape prefigures the escape from sin, death, and destruction through the salvation in Christ (John 11:25-26; 14:6).

Jer. 22:3. The demand for justice from the king fails to be answered. The answer finally comes in Christ the king (Isa. 9:6-7; Rev. 19:11).

Jer. 23:1. The false shepherds contrast with Jesus the true shepherd (John 10:11, 14).

Jer. 23:5. The “Branch,” alluding to Isa. 11:1, is the Messiah in the line of David (see Zech. 6:12; John 15:1-17).

Jer. 23:8. The restoration, which is parallel to the exodus (Ex. 12:33-38), prefigures rescue from sin and the kingdom of Satan (Col. 1:13-14).

Jer. 23:16. See note on 14:14.

Jer. 24:5. The exiles are the remnant to whom God gives favor, illustrating the remnant theme (see notes on 1 Kings 19:18; Isa. 1:9; and 6:13).

Jer. 24:7. The renewal of the heart, already prophesied in Deut. 30:6, is further explained in the promise of the new covenant (Jer. 31:31-34; Heb. 8:8-13; 10:15-25).

Jer. 25:11. Daniel relies on the prophecy of seventy years when he prays for restoration (Dan. 9:2). The seventy years are years of sabbath rest for the land (2 Chron 36:21). The restoration looks forward to final rest in the consummation (Heb. 4:9-10).

Jer. 25:15. The cup of wrath prefigures the wrath of God in final judgment (Rev. 14:10; 16:1, 19). Christ on the cross drank the cup of wrath as our substitute (Matt. 26:39, 42).

Jer. 26:6. See note on 7:14.

Jer. 26:8. The desire for death illustrates a pattern of opposing the prophets, a pattern that culminates in the death of Christ (Luke 11:49-51; Matt. 21:33-41; see note on Jer. 20:2).

Jer. 27:9. See note on 14:14.

Jer. 27:11. To those who listen the service to Babylon becomes a judgment tempered with mercy, prefiguring the mercy in Christ (Heb. 12:5-11; see note on Jer. 21:8).

Jer. 28:9. Peace with God does not come without first dealing with the issue of sin. The answer is to be found in Christ (Col. 1:13-14; see note on 6:14).

Jer. 28:15. See note on 14:14.

Jer. 29:8. See note on 14:14.

Jer. 29:10. See note on 25:11.

Jer. 29:13. See notes on 24:7 and 31:31.

Jer. 29:14. Restoration from exile prefigures the reconciliation with God by which we may be gathered into the presence of God in heaven (Heb. 10:19-22; 12:22-24; Rom. 5:1-10; Gal. 4:26-28; see notes on Jer. 3:17 and 16:15).

Jer. 30:18. The rebuilding of cities prefigures the heavenly Jerusalem (Heb. 12:22-24; Gal. 4:26-28; Rev. 21:9-14).

Jer. 31:1. The promise, “I will be … God, and they shall be my people,” is a repeated refrain in Jeremiah (11:4; 24:7; 30:22; 31:33; 32:38). It builds on the promise to Abraham (Gen. 17:7) and to Israel through Moses (Ex. 19:5-6). It is fulfilled in the new covenant in Christ (Jer. 31:33; Heb. 8:10; see note on Jer. 31:31).

Jer. 31:15. Past devastations to Israel anticipate the devastation when Herod kills the children (Matt. 2:18).

Jer. 31:31. The new covenant is fulfilled in the covenant that Christ makes at the Last Supper (Matt. 26:28; 1 Cor. 11:25; Heb. 8:8-13; 10:15-25; 2 Cor. 3:6), and includes Gentiles as well as Jews through union with Christ (Gal. 3:9, 14, 27-29).

Jer. 32:20. A long history of God’s demonstrations of faithfulness is linked to his faithfulness in Jeremiah’s time and in the climactic salvation in Christ (Rom. 3:3-4).

Jer. 32:40. See notes on 24:7 and 31:31.

Jer. 33:8. Forgiveness is foreshadowed in the restoration from exile, but fully accomplished in Christ (Col. 1:13-14).

Jer. 33:15. See note on 23:5.

Jer. 34:11. The faithlessness of the people concerning the law in Ex. 21:2 and Deut. 15:12 contrasts with the faithfulness of Christ, who brings full and permanent liberty from sin (Luke 4:18-19).

Jer. 35:10. The obedience of the Rechabites contrasts with the disobedience of Israel, and prefigures the obedience of the Christ the Son to his Father (John 8:29).

Jer. 36:2. The triumph of the word of God over opposition prefigures Christ (John 1:10-11) and his triumph over opposition.

Jer. 38:18. The innocent suffering of Jeremiah prefigures the innocent suffering of Christ (Matt. 27:24).

Jer. 37:19. See note on 14:14.

Jer. 38:6. Jeremiah’s brush with death prefigures Christ being put to death (see notes on 11:19 and 15:10).

Jer. 38:17. See note on 21:8.

Jer. 39:1. The prophecies of disaster from Jeremiah and from other prophets (2 Chron. 36:15-16; Jer. 25:4-11) now come to pass, confirming the faithfulness of God in judgment. Judgments in history prefigure the final judgment (see note on 1:16).

Jer. 39:18. See note on 21:8.

Jer. 40:4. God shows mercy to Jeremiah and to those who are left, anticipating the mercy he will show in Christ (Rom. 6:23).

Jer. 41:14. God shows mercy to the captives, anticipating the mercy he will show in Christ (Col. 1:13-14; Rom. 6:23).

Jer. 42:6. After all the rebellion in previous times, the people finally resolve to obey the Lord. But then they prefer their own judgment (43:1-7). Their stubbornness shows the need for renewal of the heart that will come in Christ (31:31-34; see notes on 4:4 and 31:31).

Jer. 44:16. The persistence in rebellion shows the justice of God’s judgment, but also the need for a radical renewal of heart, promised in the new covenant (see. note on 31:31).

Jer. 45:5. Even the righteous suffer as a result of the sins of the people. The righteous suffering prefigures the suffering of Christ as the sin-bearer (1 Pet. 2:22-24; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Jer. 46:2. God as judge of the whole world executes judgment on the nations as well as on his own people, prefiguring final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15; see note on 1:16).

Jer. 46:10. See note on Isa. 13:6.

Jer. 47:1. The destruction of the Philistines, one of the long-time enemies of Israel, prefigures final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15; see note on 1:16; compare the note on Isa. 15:1).

Jer. 48:7. Chemosh, the patron god of Moab, is shown to be worthless. Destruction of false hopes and the punishment for idolatry looks forward both to the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) and to the gospel as a call to worship God in truth (John 14:6; 4:23).

Jer. 48:47. See note on Isa. 16:5.

Jer. 49:2. Deliverance for God’s people includes judgment on their oppressors. Judgments within history look forward to final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). Sin, Satan, and death, as ultimate oppressors, have already been defeated in Christ (Heb. 2:14-15; see note on Jer. 1:16).

Jer. 49:9. Some verses about Edom are similar to Obadiah (Obad. 5).

Jer. 49:12. See note on 25:15.

Jer. 50:1. See note on Isa. 14:4.

Jer. 50:8. The command to flee prefigures the command to flee the final Babylon, the city of sin (Rev. 18:4).

Jer. 50:20. Forgiveness of sins is found ultimately in Christ (Col. 1:14; Heb. 10:1-14). On the remnant, see note on Isa. 6:13.

Jer. 51:9. Judgment on Babylon prefigures final judgment against God’s enemies (Rev. 18:5; see note on Jer. 1:16).

Jer. 51:11. Judgment through the Medes is predicted also in Isa. 13:17 and comes to pass in Dan. 5:31.

Jer. 52:1. See the parallel in 2 Kings 24:18-25:21.

Jer. 52:3. See note on 2 Chron. 36:16.

Jer. 52:7. Jeremiah’s earlier prophecies about destruction (e.g. 7:14; 34:2-4) are here fulfilled, underlining the faithfulness of God and the power of his word. The words of judgment foreshadow Christ’s prophecies about the destruction of Jerusalem (Matt. 24:2; Luke 19:43-44) and the prophecies of final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). See note on 2 Chron. 36:21.

Jer. 52:13. See note on 2 Kings 25:9.

Jer. 52:31. See note on 2 Kings 25:27.

Lamentations

Lamentations. The lament over Jerusalem anticipates Christ’s lamenting over the future fall of Jerusalem (Luke 19:41-44). In both cases, Jerusalem suffers for her own sins. But suffering for sin finds a remedy when Christ suffers as substitute for the sins of his people (1 Pet. 2:22-24; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Lam. 1:5. God shows his justice in judging the sins of Jerusalem. He prefigures the manifestation of justice in the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) and in the work of Christ (Rom. 5:26).

Lam. 2:14. On false prophets, see note on Jer. 14:14.

Lam. 2:17. God’s fulfillment of prophecy underlines his faithfulness and the power of his word. His faithfulness is supremely manifested in the suffering and vindication of Christ (see note on Ps. 105:5).

Lam. 3:14. The sufferings of the prophet prefigure the sufferings of Christ (Matt. 27:27-31, 39-44).

Lam. 3:26. Even in the midst of disaster and pain there is final hope for the salvation of the Lord. This hope has come to fruition in the salvation that Christ has accomplished (Matt. 1:21), and we now wait for its consummation (Rom. 8:18-25).

Lam. 4:11. The pouring out of God’s wrath on Jerusalem prefigures the wrath poured out on Christ as sin-bearer (Gal. 3:13), the wrath on Jerusalem in its second destruction (Luke 21:22-24), and the wrath in the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Lam. 5:21. Restoration is promised to Jerusalem after seventy years of exile (Jer. 25:11-12; 29:10-14). The restoration prefigures final salvation in Christ (Col. 1:13-14; see note on Jer. 29:14).

Ezekiel. God judges Israel’s apostasy through the exile. Israel suffers for her own sin, and in so doing anticipates God’s final judgment against sin (Rev. 20:11-15). But the suffering also anticipates the suffering of Christ for the sins of others. The subsequent blessing in restoration prefigures the blessings of eternal salvation in Christ (Eph. 1:3-14).

Ezek. 1:26. God appears in human form, anticipating the incarnation of Christ and his glory (John 1:14; Rev. 1:12-16).

Ezek. 2:3. The resistance to Ezekiel as a prophet prefigures the resistance to Christ as final prophet (Luke 11:49-51; see note on Jer. 1:9).

Ezek 2:8. The picture of eating, symbolizing an appropriation of the words of God, anticipates Rev. 10:9-11.

Ezek. 3:8. See note on Jer. 1:9.

Ezek. 3:12. The empowering by the Spirit prefigures the role of the Spirit in Christ’s prophetic ministry (Luke 4:18), and then his empowering of gospel proclamation (Acts 1:8).

Ezek. 3:17. Ezekiel has a responsibility for faithfulness analogous to the responsibility in gospel proclamation (2 Cor. 2:14-17; 3:5; 4:2).

Ezek. 4:4. Ezekiel’s identification with the punishment of the people prefigures Christ’s bearing the sins of his people (1 Pet. 2:22-24; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Ezek. 5:1. The prophet’s own body because a symbol for the sinful people. It prefigures Christ’s identification with the sins of his people (2 Cor. 5:21).

Ezek. 5:2. The casting off of much of the hair leaves a remnant, anticipating the remnant in the NT (Rom. 9:27; 11:5; see note on Isa. 6:13).

Ezek. 5:8. Judgment against sin prefigures the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Ezek. 5:13. Knowing that “I am the LORD”–an important theme in Ezekiel–anticipates the deeper knowledge of God given in Christ (John 14:9; 17:1-5).

Ezek. 6:4. God’s judgment makes plain the worthlessness of idols. God destroys false hopes to make plain that Christ is the one, God-ordained way of salvation (John 14:6; Acts 4:12; see notes on Isa. 46:1; Jer. 48:7).

Ezek. 7:2. See note on 5:8.

Ezek. 8:2. See note on 1:26.

Ezek. 8:3. God judges idolatry, making plain that the true God alone is the source of salvation (see note on Ezek. 6:4).

Ezek. 9:4. Mercy comes to those who follow God’s ways, prefiguring the mercy in Christ. The mark prefigures the seal of the Holy Spirit and of the name of God, guaranteeing our salvation (2 Cor. 1:22; Eph. 1:13; Rev. 7:2-8; 14:1-3).

Ezek. 9:8. On the remnant, see notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Ezek. 10:18. The departure of God’s presence from the temple is one aspect of judgment. It contrasts with the dwelling of God in the temple, which prefigures the coming of God to dwell with us in Christ (Matt. 1:23).

Ezek. 11:13. On the remnant, see notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Ezek. 11:19. The promise of a new heart, reiterated in Ezek. 36:25, is connected to the new covenant that will come in Christ (Jer. 31:31-34; Heb. 8:8-13; 10:16-18; see note on Jer. 31:31).

Ezek. 12:11. On the exile as judgment, see note on Isa. 39:6.

Ezek. 13:2. The false prophets prefigure Christ’s opponents and false teachers in the church (2 Pet. 2:1-3; see note on Jer. 14:14).

Ezek. 13:10. The religious leaders opposing Jesus are like whitewashed tombs (Matt. 23:27). On false peace, see note on Jer. 6:14.

Ezek. 14:3. God does not reveal himself to the rebellious. The lack of understanding anticipates the lack of understanding of Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 13:10-17).

Ezek. 14:6. On repentance, see note on Jer. 18:11.

Ezek. 14:9. The deception that falls on the rebellious anticipates the deception on those who refuse the truth of the gospel (2 Thess. 2:10-12).

Ezek. 15:1. Israel is a vine without fruit. See note on Isa. 5:1.

Ezek. 16:8. The faithlessness of Israel contrasts with the faithfulness of the bride of Christ (Eph. 5:25-27; Rev. 19:7-8). The church also is tempted to go astray from her covenant with Christ (2 Cor. 11:2-3). See note on Jer. 2:1.

Ezek. 17:13. The penalty for breaking a covenant with a human king shows by analogy the seriousness of breaking the covenant with God (Heb. 10:29-31).

Ezek. 17:22. After destruction comes a new beginning, symbolizing the kingdom of Christ and its growth to fill the nations (see Isa. 11:1).

Ezek. 18:4. God will do justice. The judgments within history look forward to the final judgment, when perfect justice will come (Rev. 20:11-21:8).

Ezek. 18:9. The granting of life to the righteous in the short run prefigures the granting of eternal life. The gift of eternal life comes only through perfect righteousness, the righteousness of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:23-26; 6:23).

Ezek. 19:9. On the exile as judgment, see note on Isa. 39:6.

Ezek. 20:3. See note on 14:3.

Ezek. 20:8. The repeated rebellion of Israel calls for judgment. God must also be faithful to his name in rescuing them. Judgment and mercy are finally both achieved in Christ (Rom. 3:25-26).

Ezek. 20:11. See note on Lev. 18:5.

Ezek. 21:31. Fire and wrath anticipate the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). The sword anticipates the sword of Christ in final judgment (Rev. 19:15; see Heb. 4:12-13).

Ezek. 22:15. On the exile, see note on Isa. 39:6.

Ezek. 22:20. The melting process prefigures the coming of the Messiah as refiner (Mal. 3:3).

Ezek. 22:30. No man is adequate to the task of redemption except Jesus Christ (1 Tim. 2:5-6).

Ezek. 23:3. See note on Ezek. 16:8.

Ezek. 23:22. Any lover other than the true God will be found to be treacherous, resulting in judgment. The failure of other gods points to the one way of salvation through the true God (Acts 4:12; John 14:6).

Ezek. 23:32. On the cup of wrath, see note on Jer. 25:15.

Ezek. 24:8. The coming of God’s wrath prefigures the wrath in the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Ezek. 24:21. The destruction of the temple destroys false pride and confidence. By contrast it points to confidence in God alone for salvation (John 2:19-21; Acts 4:12).

Ezek. 25:1. God’s judgment against Israel’s traditional enemies prefigures future judgments against enemies, including the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Ezek. 26:4. The completeness of destruction indicates God’s zeal to remove evil completely. His zeal is manifested both in the death of Christ and in the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Ezek. 27:9. The fall of Tyre with its riches prefigures the fall of Babylon the Prostitute (Rev. 18:19).

Ezek. 28:13. The fall of Tyre is reminiscent of the fall of Adam (Gen. 3:1-19), and some think it is also reminiscent of the fall of Satan. The proud beauty of Tyre also prefigures the beauty of Babylon (Rev. 17:4), contrasting with the true beauty of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:18-21).

Ezek. 29:3. Egypt, another traditional enemy of God and God’s people, is judged by God, prefiguring the last judgment. By depicting Egypt as a dragon, Ezekiel makes the connection between her and the defeat of Satan the dragon (Rev. 12:3-17).

Ezek. 29:13. God shows mercy to Egypt, in analogy with the mercy shown to Israel in bringing them back from exile. This mercy anticipates the mercy in Christ (Rom. 5:6-11).

Ezek. 30:3. On the day of the Lord, see note on Isa. 13:6.

Ezek. 31:14. Human pride is put down (see note on Isa. 2:11), anticipating the humbling of pride through the salvation in Christ (1 Cor. 1:26-31).

Ezek. 32:2. On Egypt as a dragon, see note on 29:3.

Ezek. 32:7. The darkening of light prefigures the darkening at the Second Coming of Christ (Matt. 24:29-31; Rev. 6:12-13).

Ezek. 32:21. An answer to the powerlessness and humiliation of death is found only in Christ and his resurrection (John 11:25-26; 1 Cor. 15:42-58).

Ezek. 33:2. On the watchman, see note on 3:17.

Ezek. 33:11. The invitation to repent anticipates the gospel invitation (2 Pet. 3:9; Acts 2:38-41).

Ezek. 33:16. See note on 18:9.

Ezek. 33:17. See note on 18:4.

Ezek. 33:31. Hypocrisy among the people anticipates the hypocrisy that Christ confronts (Matt. 23:13-36; see Jer. 7:11).

Ezek. 34:2. The false shepherds in Israel contrast with God who is the true shepherd through Christ (34:11-31; John 10:11, 14; Isa. 40:11; Luke 15:1-7).

Ezek. 34:23. God is shepherd in connection with David, prefiguring the fact that Christ is both God and man, and that as man he is the king in the line of David (Matt. 1:1-16).

Ezek. 35:5. See note on 25:1.

Ezek. 35:6. The principle of retribution manifests God’s justice, and anticipates the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15; see note on Prov. 1:18).

Ezek. 36:10. The return from exile prefigures God’s climactic redemption from sin through Christ (Col. 1:13-14; see note on Isa. 39:6).

Ezek. 36:22. The Lord vindicates his name in Christ, when he shows holiness and justice in punishing sins and mercy in saving the sinner (Rom. 3:23-26).

Ezek. 36:25. Cleansing from sins is accomplished in Christ (Col. 1:14; Heb. 9:23-28).

Ezek. 36:27. The promise of the Holy Spirit is fulfilled at Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21) and in the giving of the Spirit to those who believe in Christ (Rom. 8:9-17).

Ezek. 37:5. The vision of new life through the Spirit has a partial fulfillment in the return from exile (37:12). It prefigures the giving of resurrection life through the Spirit of Christ (Rom. 8:9-17; Col. 3:1-4; John 11:25-26).

Ezek. 37:24. See note on 34:23.

Ezek. 38:2. Gog and Magog attack, pointing to the final war between God and his enemies in Rev. 20:8-10.

Ezek. 38:22. Fire comes from heaven in Rev. 20:9.

Ezek. 39:17. The sacrificial feast is depicted in Rev. 19:17-21.

Ezek. 39:29. On the pouring out of the Spirit, see notes on 36:27 and 37:5.

Ezek. 40:2. The vision of a new temple builds on the earlier passages about the tabernacle of Moses (Ex. 25-40) and the temple of Solomon (1 Kings 5-8). Ezekiel’s temple is even more glorious, pointing forward to several realities: (1) the glory in which God dwells with man in Christ (John 1:14), (2) Christ’s body that is the temple (John 2:19-21), (3) the church as a temple (1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:20-22; 1 Pet. 2:5), (3) the body of the individual believer (1 Cor. 6:19), and (4) the heavenly Jerusalem (Rev. 21:9-22:5).

Ezek. 40:6. The gateways give access to the presence of God from all four directions. This access prefigures the access to God through Christ, an access extending to all nations (Heb. 10:19-22; Rev. 21:12-13, 24-26).

Ezek. 40:38. The burnt offering, described in Lev. 1:1-17, 6:8-13, prefigures the sacrifice of Christ (Eph. 5:2; Heb. 10:5-10; and note on Lev. 1:9). God gives the vision to Israel (Ezek. 43:10-11) using the symbolism belonging to the Mosaic covenant; but all the symbolism finds its culmination and fulfillment in Christ (Heb. 8:8-13).

Ezek. 40:45. The priesthood descending from Aaron is described in Lev. 9-10; 21-22; Num. 3-4; 8; 17-18; and other passages. This priesthood is a shadow and symbol, to be fulfilled in the eternal priesthood of Christ (Heb. 7:23-8:6).

Ezek. 41:2. The spaciousness prefigures free access to God through Christ (see notes on 40:2 and 40:6).

Ezek. 42:13. The eating of the holy food prefigures spiritual food in Christ (John 6:53-58; see note on 40:45).

Ezek. 43:3. The coming of the glory of the Lord, as described in Ezek. 1, indicates the blessing of his presence, giving a remedy for God’s departure in Ezek. 10. The presence of God comes to the church as a temple through the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:2-4; 1 Cor. 3:16).

Ezek. 43:18. On the burnt offering, see note on 40:38.

Ezek. 44:4. See note on 43:3.

Ezek. 44:15. The holiness required to serve God prefigures the holiness of Christ (Heb. 7:23-8:6; 9:11-28; see note on 40:45).

Ezek. 45:1. The expansion of holy area prefigures the holiness of the church, which is an international community (Rev. 5:9-10), and the holiness of the new heaven and the new earth (Rev. 21:1-22:5).

Ezek. 45:4. On the priests, see note on 40:45.

Ezek. 45:7. The princes as leaders of Israel belong to the symbolism of the Mosaic order that God uses in this vision (see note on 40:2 and 40:38). They point forward to the leaders in the church (1 Pet. 5:1-5; Eph. 4:11) and in the new heaven and new earth. Christ is the supreme Lord over all (Eph. 1:19-23). Fulfillment in Christ transforms the nature of worship and so displaces the forms of worship belonging to the shadows of the Mosaic order (Heb. 8:1-9:14).

Ezek. 45:18. Permanent purification has now been accomplished through the offering of Jesus Christ once and for all (Heb. 10:1-14).

Ezek. 45:21. Christ is our passover lamb (1 Cor. 5:7; see notes on Ezek. 40:38 and 40:45).

Ezek. 46:2. On the prince and the priests, see notes on 40:45 and 45:7.

Ezek. 47:1. Refreshing water from the presence of God (see Ps. 46:4) prefigures the living water that Christ offers through the Spirit (John 4:10, 13-14; 6:35; 7:37-39; Rev. 22:1-2).

Ezek. 47:12. The trees prefigure the tree of life as a symbol of abundant blessing from God (Rev. 22:2).

Ezek. 47:13. The inheritance of the land with its boundaries picks up the theme from Num. 34, Josh. 14-19, and other passages. The land prefigures the new heaven and the new earth (Rev. 21:1; Heb. 11:13-16).

Ezek. 47:22. The inclusion of foreigners prefigures the inclusion of the Gentiles in the blessing of the gospel and the inheritance from Abraham (Gal. 3:9, 14, 26-29; 4:28-31).

Ezek. 48:1. See note on 47:13.

Ezek. 48:21. God dwells consummately in the midst of his people in Rev. 21:1-22:5. See notes on 40:2 and 40:38.

Ezek. 48:31. The gates are found in Rev. 21:12-13 (see notes on 40:2 and 40:6).

Daniel. Daniel and his friends exemplify the conflict between the kingdom of God and the kingdoms of this world, a conflict that will come to its climax in Christ, both in his first coming and his second coming.

Dan. 1:5. Daniel and his friends meet the temptation to assimilate to the idolatrous culture in which they are immersed. Christ was in this world but did not yield to temptation (Matt. 4:1-11; Heb. 4:15), and we are called to follow in his steps (1 Pet. 2:21; John 17:14-19).

Dan. 1:17. Daniel is like Joseph (Gen. 40:8; 41:39), and prefigures the wisdom of Christ (Col. 2:3; 1 Cor. 1:30).

Dan 2:11. God by answering Daniel shows that he is the true God, and anticipates the time when God’s dwelling will be in the flesh (John 1:14).

Dan. 2:24. Daniel also saves the lives of others, prefiguring Christ who saves us (Heb. 2:14-15).

Dan. 2:44. In the days of the fourth kingdom, the Roman Empire, the kingdom of God is established through Christ (Matt. 3:2), and especially through his resurrection (Matt. 28:18; Eph. 1:19-23).

Dan. 3:6. The forcing of false worship anticipates the situation with the Beast (Rev. 13:12-15) and the persecution against the church (Acts 8:1-3).

Dan. 3:18. The willingness to die for the faith anticipates Christ’s willingness to die (John 10:17-18) and the willingness of Christian martyrs (Rev. 6:9; 12:11; Acts 7:55-60).

Dan. 3:25. The one like “a son of the gods” is the preincarnate Christ (compare Rev. 1:12-16). Christ identifies with the persecution of the Jews and in his power protects them.

Dan. 3:29. The resurrection-like deliverance from death results in spread of the message about the true God. The message prefigures the message of the gospel announcing the resurrection of Christ.

Dan. 4:9. Daniel’s wisdom and ability to interpret dreams is like that of Joseph (Gen. 41:38). Daniel serves to mediate divine wisdom to Nebuchadnezzar, and so prefigures the unique mediation of Christ, who is the wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1:30; Col. 2:3).

Dan. 4:30. Nebuchadnezzar is humbled by God’s judgment. The putting down of human pride anticipates the putting down of pride when God brings salvation in Christ (1 Cor. 1:26-31; see Dan. 4:37).

Dan. 5:4. The judgment on idolatry anticipates the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) and demonstrates the sovereignty of God.

Dan. 5:11. See note on 4:9.

Dan. 5:20. See note on 4:30.

Dan. 6:7. See note on 3:6.

Dan. 6:23. The resurrection-like deliverance of Daniel prefigures the resurrection of Christ.

Dan. 6:26. The message concerning the true God is spread, prefiguring the spread of the gospel, which announces the resurrection of Christ (see note on 3:29).

Dan. 7:3. The four beasts are four kingdoms (7:17), corresponding to the four kingdoms of Dan. 2:36-40. Features of the four beasts are combined in the Beast of Rev. 13:1-8, which represents a final opponent of God’s people.

Dan. 7:9. Features of this appearance of God reappear in Christ (Rev. 1:12-16), who is God in the flesh (John 1:14).

Dan. 7:13. Jesus is the Son of Man (Matt. 26:64; 24:30).

Dan. 7:14. The dominion of Christ is associated with his resurrection and ascension (Matt. 28:18; Acts 2:33-35; Eph. 1:20-22), and continues until the consummation (Rev. 22:1).

Dan. 7:21. The war against the saints is described in Rev. 11:7; 13:7-10.

Dan. 7:25. The period of “a time, times, and half a time” (also in 12:7) is echoed in the half week in 9:27, and is the time of persecution of the church in Rev. 11:2, 3, 11; 12:6, 14. See also Dan. 8:14 and 12:11, 12 for possible further echoes.

Dan. 8:10. The little horn, Antiochus Epiphanes, persecutes the faithful Jews and profaned the temple (168 B.C.; see 8:23). He prefigures the man of lawlessness, the final Antichrist, the great opponent of God’s people (2 Thess. 2:3-4, 7-12; Rev. 12:4).

Dan. 9:2. See Jer. 25:11-12 and 29:10; 2 Chron. 36:21.

Dan. 9:9. Definitive forgiveness comes only in Christ (Col. 1:14; Rom. 4:6-8).

Dan. 9:24. Atonement comes in Christ (Heb. 7:23-8:6; 10:1-14). Everlasting righteousness comes both with Christ the perfectly Righteous Savior (Acts 3:14) and with the righteousness that he gives to his people in justification (Rom. 3:23-26; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Dan. 10:6. The glorious appearance, reflecting the glory of God, prefigures the glory of Christ in Rev. 1:12-16.

Dan. 10:12. Daniel’s intercession for Israel prefigures the intercession of Christ the great high priest (Heb. 7:25).

Dan. 10:13. The angelic war prefigures the spiritual war in Revelation (Rev. 12:7-9).

Dan. 11:2. Tumults and wars on earth continue until the end (Matt. 24:6-7; Rev. 6:2-4), and remind us of spiritual war, part of which is invisible (Rev. 12:7-9). In the midst of tumult, Christ alone provides true peace (John 16:33; compare 1 Thess. 3:4; Phil. 4:6-7).

Dan. 11:31. See note on 8:10.

Dan. 11:35. The refining process looks forward to God’s refining the church (1 Pet. 1:6-7; Rom. 5:3-5; Heb. 12:3-11).

Dan. 11:36. The king is either the man of lawlessness of 2 Thess. 2:3-4 or a foreshadowing of him.

Dan. 12:1. The book is identified as the book of life of the Lamb that was slain (Rev. 13:8; 17:8; Eph. 1:4), guaranteeing the salvation of those who belong to Christ.

Dan. 12:2. Life and final judgment are controlled by the power of Christ (John 5:27-29).

Dan. 12:3. The brightness looks forward to the brightness in the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:22-27; 22:5).

Hosea. The unfaithfulness of Israel calls for a permanent remedy, which will come in the faithfulness of Christ to the Father and the faithfulness that Christ then works through the Spirit in his people. God’s love for Israel foreshadows Christ’s love for the church (Eph. 5:25-27).

Hos. 1:1. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in 2 Kings 15-20 and 2 Chron. 26-32.

Hos. 1:2. Israel’s spiritual adultery, indicated also in Jer. (see note on Jer. 2:1), is a shocking rebellion that must lead to judgment on God’s part (1:4). Yet God will eventually bring a remedy in Christ (Hos. 1:10; Rom. 9:26). Christ prepares the church as a faithful bride (Eph. 5:25-27).

Hos. 1:10. In faithfulness to the promise to Abraham (Gen. 13:16; 22:17) God will remember Israel. The remembrance takes surprising form in that it includes Gentiles (Rom. 9:25-26) as well as Jews (Rom. 11:25-32).

Hos. 2:3. God in justice brings judgment on unfaithfulness. His justice is climactically manifested in Christ, through whom we escape condemnation (Rom. 3:23-26; 8:1), and is manifested in the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-21:8).

Hos. 2:14. Punishment and restoration for Israel prefigure the punishment and resurrection of Christ, the true Israel (Matt. 2:15; Rom. 4:25).

Hos. 2:23. See note on 1:10.

Hos. 3:1. God’s love for the wayward prefigures his love for sinners in Christ (Rom. 5:6-11).

Hos. 4:5. On false prophets, see note on Jer. 14:14.

Hos. 4:10. False gods are not able to satisfy. Their failure shows the folly of false worship, and points by contrast to the one true God, and ultimately to his way of salvation in Christ (John 14:6).

Hos. 5:4. The lack of knowledge of God points by contrast to true knowledge, which is to be found ultimately in Christ (John 17:3; 14:7).

Hos. 5:14. See note on 2:3.

Hos. 6:2. The invitation to come to the Lord prefigures the invitation of the gospel (Acts 17:30-31; 16:31). The granting of life on the third day prefigures the resurrection of Christ as the source of life to his people (Col. 3:1-4).

Hos. 6:3. God is known truly in Christ (Matt. 11:27; John 14:6; 17:3).

Hos. 6:6. Jesus teaches the centrality of steadfast love (Matt. 9:13; 12:7).

Hos. 7:5. The king and princes participate in sin with the people, pointing up the need for a faithful king. Christ is the faithful king in the line of David (Matt. 1:1-16).

Hos. 8:13. God in his justice punishes. Since the people have broken his covenant, he reverses the deliverance from Egypt that was an aspect of covenantal redemption. A greater redemption is needed, which is to be found in Christ (Matt. 2:15; Heb. 8:8-13).

Hos. 9:10. Israel’s present apostasy repeats the old apostasy at Baal-peor (Num. 25:1-5), pointing up the need for a permanent remedy and a permanent change of heart, which will come in Christ (Heb. 8:8-13).

Hos. 10:6. See note on 4:10.

Hos. 10:8. Fear of God’s wrath prefigures the fearful character of the final judgment (Luke 23:30; Rev. 6:16).

Hos. 10:12. Full righteousness comes in Christ (Rom. 3:23-26; 8:1-4).

Hos. 11:1. Israel, labeled God’s “son” in Ex. 4:22 (see Deut. 8:5), came out of Egypt in the exodus (Ex. 14). The movement of Israel prefigures the movement of Christ (Matt. 2:15), who is the faithful Son (Matt. 3:17), whereas Israel as son repeatedly failed (Hos. 11:2). See note on John 1:34.

Hos. 11:11. On the restoration from exile, see note on Isa. 35:10.

Hos. 12:2. God’s punishments are the product of his justice, prefiguring the justice of final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). Such demonstrations of justice make plain the need for pardon through the propitiation of Christ (1 John 2:1-2).

Hos. 13:14. The threat of death as punishment for sin (Rom. 6:23) is finally answered through the resurrection of Christ (1 Cor. 15:55-57; John 11:25-26; Heb. 2:14-15).

Hos. 14:1. The command to repent anticipates the command to repent in the gospel (Acts 2:38).

Hos. 14:5. The promise of blessing prefigures the blessings of salvation in Christ (Eph. 1:3-14; see note on Isa. 27:6).

Joel. The day of the Lord, the day of God’s coming (see note on Isa. 13:6), brings judgment on sin but also may include include blessing. Both aspects are fulfilled in both the first coming and the second coming of Christ.

Joel 1:4. God sent a locust plague through Moses on the Egyptians (Ex. 10:1-20). But this plague comes on God’s own people because of their sins (see Deut. 28:38). It shows the desperate need for forgiveness in Christ, and prefigures the locust plague preceding the judgment of the Second Coming (Rev. 9:1-11).

Joel 1:13. See note on 2:12.

Joel 1:15. The day of the Lord, the day when God appears, is a day of judgment (see note on Isa. 13:6).

Joel 2:12. The call to repent anticipates the gospel call to repent (Acts 2:38).

Joel 2:18. Christ welcomes repentant sinners (Luke 5:32; 15:7).

Joel 2:28. The climactic blessing is the pouring out of the Spirit, accomplished at Pentecost (Acts 2:16-21, 2-4).

Joel 2:32. NT preaching invites the listeners to be saved by the name of Christ (Acts 2:38-41, 21; Rom. 10:13; see Acts 4:12).

Joel 3:13. At the Second Coming God executes judgment (Rev. 14:14-20).

Joel 3:15. The light is darkened at the Second Coming as part of God’s judgment (Rev. 6:12; Matt. 24:29-31; see Rev. 8:12). The darkening at the crucifixion also indicates judgment (Matt. 27:45).

Joel 3:17. The holiness of Jerusalem is perfected in the consummation (Rev. 21:27).

Amos. God comes to Israel with both judgment for sin and promises of restoration. The judgment and restoration anticipates the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ, as well as the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15). The demand for righteousness is fulfilled in the righteousness of Christ (Rom. 8:1-4).

Amos 1:1. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in 2 Kings 14:23-15:7.

Amos 1:2. The power of God’s word in judgment anticipates the power of Christ’s word, both in his first coming and in his second coming (John 12:48-50; Rev. 19:15, 21).

Amos 1:3. Damascus, the capital of Syria, is judged, prefiguring final judgment on God’s enemies (Rev. 20:11-15). On the display of God’s justice in judgment, see notes on Lam. 1:5 and Ezek. 18:4.

Amos 2:4. God does not overlook the sins of his own people, but calls them to account just as he did the other nations (1:3-2:3). He shows his impartiality (Rom. 2:11-16). All are subject to curse for their disobedience, and escape is found only in Christ (Gal. 3:13-14; Rom. 3:9-31).

Amos 3:2. Those with greater privileges are liable to greater punishment (Luke 12:48). The principle is shown in the guilt that comes to those Jews reject Christ (Matt. 11:20-24; John 15:22-25).

Amos 3:8. See note on 1:2.

Amos 3:10. The demand for righteousness is an integral part of God’s law. Righteousness is to be fulfilled in the righteousness of Christ (Rom. 1:17; 2 Cor. 5:21) and in his followers (Rom. 8:1-4).

Amos 3:12. On the remnant, see note on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Amos 4:6. Stubbornness, like the stubbornness of Pharaoh in the exodus, increases guilt. Stubbornness characterizes Israel’s history, and comes to a climax in the rejection of Christ (Acts 7:51-53; see note on Isa. 29:13). The judgments on Israel were prophesied in Deut. 28:15-68.

Amos 5:18. People hoped that the day of the Lord would mean judgment against Israel’s enemies. But it involves judgment on sinners universally, including Israel. See notes on 2:4 and Isa. 13:6, 9.

Amos 5:27. Exile of the northern kingdom to lands beyond Damascus and then the southern kingdom to Babylon prefigure final judgment (Acts 7:43).

Amos 6:1. Pride and self-confidence are judged by God, anticipating the judgment against human pride in the gospel (1 Cor. 1:26-31).

Amos 7:3. The Lord in mercy does not simply destroy, but refines his people. His mercy anticipates the mercy to be manifested in Christ (Matt. 9:27).

Amos 8:9. The darkening is a symbol of judgment, prefiguring the judgment at the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45) and at the second coming (Matt. 24:29-31; Rev. 6:12; see Rev. 8:12 and Joel 3:15).

Amos 9:1. The lack of escape prefigures the universality of the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Amos 9:8. On the remnant, see 3:12 and notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Amos 9:11. The house of David is raised up when Christ is raised (Acts 15:15-17).

Amos 9:12. When Christ is raised, the nations (Gentiles) become included in God’s blessings (Acts 15:17), in fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (Gen. 12:3).

Obadiah. The judgment against Edom, a traditional enemy of Israel, contributes to the blessing of God’s people. The judgment and vindication prefigure the vindication of Christ and the judgments against his enemies, both in his first coming and in his second coming.

Obad. 3. God judges human pride, anticipating the judgment on pride in the gospel (1 Cor. 1:26-31).

Obad. 10. Those who attack God’s people will ultimately be destroyed in the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Obad. 15. On the day of the Lord, see note on Isa. 13:6. On the principle of just retribution, see note on Prov. 1:18.

Jonah. Jonah’s rescue from death prefigures the resurrection of Christ (Matt. 12:39-40). The repentance of the Ninevites prefigures the repentance of Gentiles who respond to the gospel (Luke 24:47; Matt. 28:18-20).

Jonah 1:15. The saving of mariners through the sacrifice of Jonah prefigures the salvation of all nations through the death of Christ (1 John 2:2).

Jonah 1:17. Jonah is under the sea, symbolizing the realm of death. His state prefigures the death of Christ (Matt. 12:40).

Jonah 2:6. Jonah’s rescue from death prefigures the resurrection of Christ from the dead (Matt. 12:39).

Jonah 3:5. Gentiles repent in response to Jonah, who figuratively has been raised from the “death” of the belly of the fish. Gentiles repent in response to the preaching of the resurrection of Christ (Matt. 28:18-20).

Jonah 3:10. The repentance of Gentiles contrasts with the repeated lack of repentance on the part of Israel (Matt. 12:41; 21:43).

Jonah 4:11. God’s mercy is shown abundantly in the gospel, and in salvation of Gentiles who deserve nothing (Rom. 9:30-31; 11:30).

Micah. God pronounces judgment on Israel, prefiguring final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) and the judgment that fell on Christ (Gal. 3:13). He promises blessing through the Messiah, anticipating the blessings of salvation in Christ (Eph. 1:3-14).

Mic. 1:1. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in 2 Kings 16-20 and 2 Chron. 27-32.

Mic. 1:5. God in justice cannot overlook the sins of his people. Punishment prefigures the punishment of the last judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) and the substitutionary punishment that Christ bore for his people (1 Pet. 2:24).

Mic. 2:3. On the judgment of human pride, see notes on Isa. 2:11; Ezek. 31:14; and Amos 6:1.

Mic. 2:12. On the remnant, see notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Mic. 3:5. On false prophets, see note on Jer. 14:14.

Mic. 3:12. On the destruction of the holy city, see note on Ps. 74:3.

Mic. 4:1. The exaltation of the name of God is accomplished in Christ (see note on Isa. 2:2).

Mic. 5:2. The Messiah is to be born in Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1-6).

Mic. 5:8. On the remnant, see 2:12 and notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Mic. 6:2. Israel does not escape judgment for her sins. This judgment prefigures the justice and thoroughness of final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15).

Mic. 6:8. Sacrifices cannot replace the need for justice and kindness. The focus on real righteousness anticipates Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 9:13; 15:10-20; 5:23-24), and is fulfilled in Jesus’ own righteousness (Acts 3:14; Rom. 8:1-4).

Mic. 7:6. The family treachery in Israel anticipates the family treachery from resistance to Christ (Matt. 10:35-36).

Mic. 7:18. Pardon is accomplished in Christ (1 John 2:2; Rom. 3:23-26). On the remnant, see notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Nahum. Judgment on Nineveh, a traditional enemy of God’s people, prefigures final judgment and final release from oppression (Rev. 20:11-21:8).

Nah. 1:15. The good news of deliverance from the oppression of Nineveh prefigures the good news of eternal deliverance from sin and death in the gospel (Mark 1:1; Rom. 1:1; Isa. 52:7).

Nah. 2:3. The attack and destruction of Nineveh prefigures God’s war through Christ against his ultimate enemies (Matt. 12:29; Luke 10:17-19; John 12:31; Rev. 19:11-21; 20:7-10).

Nah. 3:4. Nineveh’s punishment prefigures the punishment for the idolatrous seduction of Babylon the Prostitute (Rev. 17:1-6; 18:1-3).

Habakkuk. God’s use of a wicked nation to accomplish his righteousness foreshadows the use of wicked opponents to accomplish his purpose in the crucifixion of Christ.

Hab. 1:4. The perversion of justice in the triumph of the wicked prefigures the temporary triumph of the wicked in the crucifixion of Christ.

Hab. 1:5. The unbelievability in God’s use of a wicked nation, the Chaldeans, prefigures the unbelievability in the way in which the injustice of the crucifixion of Christ is used by God for salvation (Acts 13:41).

Hab. 1:13. In the crucifixion of Christ the wicked leaders swallowed up Christ the righteous one.

Hab. 2:4. The righteous person trusts in God; he that God’s promises are true and that he will bring to pass his righteous purposes. This trust anticipates trust in Christ (Rom. 1:17; Gal. 3:11; Heb. 10:37-38), in whom the promises of God are fulfilled (2 Cor. 1:20).

Hab. 2:8. On the principle of just retribution, see Prov. 1:18.

Hab. 2:16. On the cup of God’s wrath, see Jer. 25:15.

Hab. 3:13. God appears to bring salvation to his people and to the anointed king. Salvation comes when God appears in Christ (John 1:14; 14:9), when Christ the anointed king is saved from death in his resurrection, and when his people are saved through Christ.

Zephaniah. Judgments on evil people anticipate the final judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) and indicate the necessity of Christ’s work and sin-bearing in order to save us from judgment (see note on Isa. 13:9).

Zeph. 1:1. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in 2 Kings 22-23 and 2 Chron. 34-35.

Zeph. 1:2. God in his holiness is zealous to eliminate all evil. His commitment anticipates the final judgment and renewal of the consummation (2 Pet. 3:10-13; Rev. 21:1).

Zeph. 1:7. On the day of the Lord, see note on Isa. 13:6.

Zeph. 2:3. The call for humility prefigures the gospel call to repent and turn to the Lord (Acts 2:38), and the call to avoid the coming wrath (Acts 17:30-31).

Zeph. 2:9. On the remnant, see notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:3.

Zeph. 2:10. On the punishment of pride, see note on Ezek. 31:14.

Zeph. 3:15. The removal of judgments and curse comes with Christ (Gal. 3:13-14; Rom. 8:1). Christ is the Lord in our midst (Matt. 1:23; John 1:14), and now indwells the church through the Spirit (John 14:20; Rom. 8:9-10).

Haggai. The rebuilding of the temple prefigures the building of NT temples: the church (1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:20-22) and the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:9-22:5).

Hag. 1:1. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in Ezra 5-6 (see Ezra 5:1 and 6:14).

Hag. 1:2. The house of the Lord symbolizes his presence, and looks forward to Christ as temple (John 2:19-21; 1:14), the church as temple (1 Cor. 3:16; Eph. 2:20-22), and the dwelling of God in the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:22-22:5; 21:3).

Hag. 1:13. The promise to be with the people anticipates God being with his people in Christ (Matt. 1:23, “Immanuel”) and through the Spirit of Christ (1 Cor. 3:16; Rom. 8:9-10).

Hag. 2:4. Our work is not in vain in the Lord (1 Cor. 15:58; Phil. 2:12-13).

Hag. 2:6. God shakes the old order, showing that we should put our hope in his unshakable kingdom in Christ (Heb. 12:26-28).

Hag. 2:7. The ultimate glory of God is found in Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Rev. 21:22-23).

Zechariah. The rebuilding in the time of the restoration from exile prefigures the eternal salvation that comes in Christ.

Zech. 1:1. God gives the prophecies during the time covered in Ezra 5-6 (see Ezra 5:1 and 6:14).

Zech. 1:3. The call to return prefigures the gospel call to repent and come to God (Acts 2:38; 17:30-31).

Zech. 1:16. Mercy on Jerusalem prefigures the mercy on sinners in Christ (Luke 5:32).

Zech. 2:5. The glory of God is manifest in Jesus Christ (John 1:14; 17:1-5; Rev. 21:22-27).

Zech. 2:11. On the coming of the nations, see notes on Isa. 2:2; 11:10; and 42:6.

Zech. 3:4. The removal of iniquity symbolizes justification in Christ (Rom. 3:23-26; 5:1).

Zech. 3:8. The Branch is the Messiah (based on Isa. 11:1).

Zech. 4:6. The Spirit of Christ gives a permanent supply of power and light (Rom. 8:9-13; John 16:13-15).

Zech. 5:3. We can escape the curse for wrong doing through Christ who bore the curse for us (Gal. 3:13-14).

Zech. 6:12. On the Branch, see notes on 3:8 and Isa. 11:1.

Zech. 6:13. Christ builds the temple, the church (Matt. 16:18; 1 Cor. 3:10-16).

Zech. 7:9. The central importance of righteousness, rather than sacrifice, appears in 1 Sam. 15:22-23, Amos 5:21-27; Mic. 6:7-8, and Matt. 9:13, and underlines the superiority of the righteousness of Christ to all animal sacrifices (Heb. 10:1-14).

Zech. 8:3. On God’s dwelling, see note on Hag. 2:1.

Zech. 8:11. On the remnant, see notes on Isa. 1:9 and 6:13.

Zech. 8:22. On the coming of the nations, see notes on Isa. 2:2 and 11:10.

Zech. 9:9. Jesus the king comes to Jerusalem on a donkey (Matt. 21:1-9).

Zech. 10:9. The restoration from exile prefigures final salvation and life in Christ (John 14:6; 6:35).

Zech. 11:10. Faithlessness leads to annulling the covenant, indicating the need for a new covenant (Heb. 8:8-13).

Zech. 11:12. Thirty pieces of silver is the payoff connected with repudiating the Lord as true shepherd. It anticipates the payoff for Judas (Matt. 26:15; 27:9-10).

Zech. 12:10. Repentance involves looking on the crucified Messiah (John 3:14-15; 19:37).

Zech. 13:1. Cleansing from sin comes in Christ (1 John 2:1-2).

Zech. 13:7. The disciples are scattered at the time when Christ the shepherd is crucified (Matt. 26:31).

Zech. 14:8. The living waters are found in Christ (John 4:10; Rev. 22:1; see note on Ezek. 47:1.

Zech. 14:20. Holiness is found in Christ (Acts 2:27; Heb. 7:26) and in the new Jerusalem that he establishes (Rev. 21:22-22:5).

Malachi. Disobedience and compromise are eliminated with the coming of Christ and his purification.

Mal. 1:2. God’s sovereign love for Jacob prefigures the sovereignty of his love for the elect (Rom. 9:13).

Mal. 1:7. The danger of despising God continues in the church at the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 10:21).

Mal. 2:8. The corruption of the covenant shows the need for a new covenant (Heb. 8:8-13) and a perfect priest (Heb. 7:11-8:6).

Mal. 3:1. John the Baptist is the messenger preparing the way for Christ, who is the Lord, the messenger of the covenant (Matt. 11:10-11).

Mal. 3:7. On the call to repentance, see note on Jer. 18:11.

Mal. 4:1. On the day of the Lord, see note on Isa. 13:6.

Mal. 4:6. John the Baptist prepares hearts for the coming of the Lord in the person of Christ (Luke 1:17).

For Jesus is not the son of Mary only. He is also the Son of God. Were He not fathered through the power of the Holy Spirit, He would be no Savior at all. The initiation of this seed, the fathering of this child, cannot come through any human father, whose seed is dead within him. God does what Judah’s son Onan refused to do [Gen. 38:8-10]. He provides a living seed for the spiritually dead husband. Jesus’ birth is the result of a cosmic levirate marriage [analogous to Deut. 5:5]. Joseph’s seed is dead in sin. It died with Adam. It died with Abraham. It died with David. It died every time a son was born of sinful flesh, for that son could never claim eternal life, nor could his name live forever. Once the first Adam fell into sin, his progeny could never produce a holy seed able to provide salvation. None of Adam and Eve’s ordinary descendants could ever lay claim to the eternal throne. The ancestry of Jesus traced through Joseph in Luke and in Matthew arrives at a dead end, for Joseph had nothing to do with the conception of Jesus Christ. God Himself steps in to provide a son for Adam’s family and to rescue the name of the human race. Just as Boaz assured the line of Ruth’s husband [Ruth 4:5], so Jesus guarantees Adam’s family name and line. God Himsefl serves as the levirate husband to humankind. Through His intervention, Mary bears a holy son who carries Adam’s name and purifies it by uniting it to the name of God Himself. Does Christianity Squash Women?: A Christian Looks at Womanhood (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 2005), p. 106. ↩

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A Brief Overview of Salvation History

July 14, 2023 | salvation history is humanity’s story and begins before time was even measured. it’s recorded in the bible and details the tumultuous journey of the jews finding their way with god and through christ’s passion, where salvation was achieved for all..

So much happens in the Bible that it’s impossible to summarize it all so simply, but here is a brief overview of the major points of salvation history that all Christians should be familiar with.

We believe that God created everything that exists – and that he created a universe that was good. We call the first humans Adam (from the Hebrew meaning “man” or “mankind”) and Eve (from the Hebrew meaning “source of life”). Adam and Eve’s fall from the grace of God is called original sin.

Covenant with Abraham

We believe God formed a special relationship with his people. He made a covenant with Abraham and his wife, Sarah, in which God promised numerous descendants and a land of their own – the Promised Land. Although their story is fraught with crises, Abraham and Sarah do have a son, Isaac. Isaac is the father of Jacob, whose name is Israel. It is Jacob’s 12 sons who become the famous Twelve Tribes of Israel.

The Exodus and Moses

Like the Jewish people, we believe in God’s intervention in human history during the Exodus. This is the event where the Hebrew people (the Israelites), who were living as slaves in Egypt, were liberated. God heard the cries of his people and called Moses to lead them to freedom.

Moses led the people through the desert, and during the journey, received the precepts for faithful living that we call the Ten Commandments. Although Moses did not live to enter the Promised Land, God called his deputy, Joshua, to lead the people and take over the land.

The Kings of Israel

During the time of the Judges, the Israelites kept asking for a king. Saul, by God’s favor, became the first king. He was followed by David, who was known for his great leadership and for making Jerusalem the center of worship. David’s successor, his youngest son, Solomon, was famous for his wisdom and for building the Temple. Unfortunately, the kingdom was beset by trouble and was divided in two – Israel and Judah.

The period that followed is known as the time of the Prophets. Three of the major prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. These men called the people of Israel and Judah to repentance and faith in God. Isaiah’s prophecies are particularly significant to Christians, since he foretold the coming of the Messiah, who would be known by this sign: “A virgin shall be with child, and bear a son, and shall name him Immanuel.”

Jesus Christ

As foretold by Isaiah; around the year 4 B.C., a baby was born more than 2,000 years ago in the town of Bethlehem in Judea. He was named Jesus (from the Hebrew meaning “God saves”). From an early age, Jesus, born both fully human and fully divine, displayed a very special relationship with God, whom he referred to as Father. As an adult, Jesus made God’s Word come to life in the midst of those with whom he lived. Jesus performed miracles, taught with parables and befriended the outcasts of society.

Jesus' Suffering, Death and Resurrection

At the Passover, Jesus ate the traditional seder with his disciples – he took the bread, blessed it and broke it, saying, “Take and eat: this is my body.” He then took the cup, gave thanks and shared it, saying, “Drink from it all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which will be shed on behalf of many for the forgiveness of sins.” This is the foundation of the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist or holy Communion. The local leaders were threatened by Jesus and his ministry, and had him arrested, tortured and crucified. Three days after he died, his tomb was found empty. He had risen from the dead.

Christ’s resurrection fulfills the Old Testament promises and shows that he is the Son of God and God himself. Christ’s death liberates us from sin, and his resurrection opens up new life for us in heaven. “For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him might not perish but might have eternal life.” John 3:16

Pentecost, the Birthday of the Church

Before Jesus ascended into heaven, he appeared to his disciples and told them the Holy Spirit would descend on them. Fifty days after Passover, on the Jewish feast of Pentecost, the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in different tongues. Pentecost would become the birthday of the Church. 

The Early Church

The disciples, as they had been instructed by Jesus, went out to spread his Gospel message. They found an adversary in Saul, whose mission was to destroy the new  religion. But Saul had a life-changing experience in which he heard the voice of God. He became Paul, a Christian and a tireless preacher. Paul, and many of the other disciples, were eventually put to death. But not before the new faith had taken root in the hearts of people all over the known world.

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Salvation-History: An Outline

• World history is real. It had a real beginning, and is moving toward a real goal or ending.
• Human beings were created perfect, but fell into sin. Sin is rebellion against God.
• God is active in history; indeed, He is the supreme actor within history. He is especially working toward our complete salvation.
• Special revelation has been given to us, both through the Scriptures and through the incarnation of God in Jesus Christ.
• God will finally bring creation to perfection in obedience to Himself.

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The Importance of Salvation

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Introduction, theological perspectives, psychological and emotional impact, social and ethical dimensions, body paragraph 4: comparative analysis.

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Salvation History in Galatians: The Making of a Pauline Discourse

Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 2.2: 65-87, 2012

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This is a draft of a commentary on Galatians based on a six-week course of lectures that I gave for an adult education class. The content reflects the influence of J.M.G Barclay's magisterial Paul & the Gift, which I was reading at the time. Only in retrospect did it occur to me that I could have developed it for publication and wider distribution in view of the 500th commemoration of the Reformation in 2017, since together with Romans Galatians exerted a decisive influence on Martin Luther's formulation of the doctrine of justification by faith, which has been regarded as the "material" principle of the Reformation. .

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A common theme in biblical narrative and prophetic literature is that God aligns with those whom Walter Brueggemann calls the “dispossessed, that is, those denied land, denied power, denied place or voice in history.” The dispossessed can also be defined as those who do not receive an inheritance, or who do not receive an inheritance unless someone else acts on their behalf. Thus, in an ironic twist, God ensures that it is the dispossessed who become the heirs, the meek who inherit the earth (cf. Matt 5:5).

Ariel HaNaviy

I want my readers to know right up front that I do NOT believe one can be counted as forensically righteous (viz, saved) by keeping the Torah. For that matter, I do NOT believe God ever expected perfect obedience, or that the Bible insinuates a hypothetical perfect Law-keeping anywhere at all. For one thing, all of the laws cannot be enacted by a single individual because the totality of them were not designed by God to be done by a single individual (some are for kings, some for priests, some for men, others for women, etc.). However, the “word is in [our] mouth and heart so that [we] can do it” (Deut 30:14), and “his commandments are not “burdensome” (1 John 5:3), and it is possible to be “righteous before God and walk blamelessly in all the statutes and commandments” (Luke 1:6), and “the righteous requirement of the Law [is] fulfilled in us,” (Rom 8:4), and in point of fact, “the Law is good if one uses it lawfully (1 Tim 1:8), with the understanding that “the whole Law is fulfilled in one word” if you “love your neighbor as yourself” (Gal 5:14). Understanding the Law correctly means I dare NOT suppose that one can be counted as forensically righteous by the ‘works of the Law,’ and I dare NOT suppose one can be counted as forensically righteous by being born Jewish or by becoming a Jewish proselyte (see Section Three below for more on works of the Law and Jewish proselytism). However, I am unashamedly in favor of saved Jews and Gentiles walking into the Torah of Moshe as a blueprint for daily living. This includes many of what Christianity identifies as “ceremonial” and/or “civil” commandments such as seventh-day Sabbath, keeping kosher, keeping the Festivals of Leviticus 23; and other such patterns of religions that most people associate with “Jewishness.” I do NOT believe it was “relaxed” or “fulfilled” in Jesus, so that we no longer have to keep it. I do NOT believe Paul warned any believers away from genuine Spirit-led Torah obedience—whether they be Jewish or Gentile. After all relevant sources have been brought to the table for examination, in the end, as a Messianic Jew with a “pro-Torah” conviction, I find that I have more agreement with the direction that the NPP is headed (towards covenant loyalty to Torah) than with where Lutheran Paul is headed (away from covenant loyalty to Torah). I want to let the readers know right up front that my primary thesis to understanding the book of Galatians essentially launches from the New Perspective on Paul, although, I do not agree with all of the ramifications of the NPP view, and particularly with some of Sanders’ conclusions to his studies. But I think the NPP is headed in the right direction. Indeed, we have needed a fresh look at Pauline studies for a long time, and now that scholars are ready to accept the fact that Paul was a Jew who maintained a lifelong loyalty to Torah even after coming to faith in the risen Yeshua, we are finally able to begin to study Paul on his own terms and let him have his own voice (instead of that of a 16th century reformer).

Taylor Brown

In this paper I engage in an exegetical analysis of Gal 3:23—29 with particular emphasis placed on Paul's usage of παιδαγωγός in reference to the Law. In the paper, I argue that Paul primarily viewed the Law a guardian figure meant to discipline and protect and the people of God until the coming of the Messiah.

The Asbury Journal

Chad Harrington

Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters

Christine Hayes

In this essay I engage in a brief examination of Paul's theology of baptism in relation to his inaugurated eschatological worldview. As the paper is for a Sacramental Theology class and limited in scope, I confine my examination to three representative texts from Galatians, 1 Corinthians, and Romans. After exegetically examining each of these representative texts, I seek to engage in a theological synthesis of Paul's proto-sacramental baptismal theology. (Note: As this essay was written for a class not primarily oriented toward biblical studies, I have transliterated Greek phrases and words throughout the paper, rather than leaving them untranslated as per usual)

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40 Questions about Salvation

Executive editor of  Credo Magazine,  Matthew Barrett, has a new book out called  40 Questions About Salvation  ( Kregel Academic ).

This volume will help pastors, college and seminary students, and all Christians who want to grow in their understanding of what the Bible teaches about salvation. Each chapter is succinct and readable, with a bibliography of additional resources for those who wish to study further.

Table of Contents

Preface: How to Read This Book

Part 1: Sin and the Need for Salvation

• What Is Sin?
• Do We Inherit the Guilt and Corruption of Adam’s Sin? (Part 1)
• Do We Inherit the Guilt and Corruption of Adam’s Sin? (Part 2)
• Are We Totally Depraved?
• Do We Need God’s Grace to Be Freed from Sin?

Part 2: Salvation and Union with Christ

• What Is Meant by Salvation?
• What Is the Order of Salvation?
• What Does It Mean to Be United with Christ? (Part 1)
• What Does It Mean to Be United with Christ? (Part 2)

Part 3: Election, Calling and New Birth

• Is God’s Electing Choice Conditioned upon Us? (Part 1)
• Is God’s Electing Choice Conditioned upon Us? (Part 2)
• What Is the Difference Between the Gospel Call and the Effectual Call?
• Does God’s Call Ever Fail? (Part 1)
• Does God’s Call Ever Fail? (Part 2)
• What Does It Mean to Be Born Again?
• Is the New Birth Something We Bring About? (Part 1)
• Is the New Birth Something We Bring About? (Part 2)
• Does God Coerce Our Free Will?

Part 4: Conversion, Justification and Adoption

• What Is Saving Faith?
• What Is True Repentance?
• Are Faith and Repentance Gifts of God’s Grace?
• Is Justification a Legal Declaration or a Moral Transformation?
• What Is the Great Exchange?
• Is the Righteousness of Christ Imputed to Believers? (Part 1)
• Is the Righteousness of Christ Imputed to Believers? (Part 2)
• Is Justification by God’s Grace Alone Through Faith Alone?
• What Does It Mean to Be Adopted as Children of God?

Part 5: Sanctification, Perseverance and Glorification

• What Is the Difference Between Definitive and Progressive Sanctification?
• What Is the Difference Between Justification and Sanctification?
• Who Is the Author of Sanctification?
• How Do We Die to Sin?
• How Do We Grow in Likeness to Christ?
• Will We Ever Reach Perfection in This Lifetime?
• Can We Lose Our Salvation? (Part 1)
• Can We Lose Our Salvation? (Part 2)
• Is Perseverance in the Faith Necessary? (Part 1)
• Is Perseverance in the Faith Necessary? (Part 2)
• What Role Do Warning Passages Play in Our Perseverance? (Part 1)
• What Role Do Warning Passages Play in Our Perseverance? (Part 2)
• What Will Glorification Be Like?

Select Bibliography

Praise for 40 Questions About Salvation

“Matthew Barrett is one of the brightest young theologians on the scene today, and he is amazingly productive. His newest work on salvation is simply superb. Barrett marches through various topics on salvation, and even though the book is brief, the answers are thorough, rooted in scripture, informed by church history, and most important faithful to the faith once for all delivered to the saints. I should also add that the answers are remarkably clear and lucid, and it is hard to imagine a better primer for students to become acquainted with the doctrine of salvation in scripture.”

—Thomas Schreiner,  James Buchanan Harrison Professor of New Testament Interpretation and Associate Dean, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

“When the Philippian Jailer asked Paul and Silas “What must I do be saved?” he uttered humanity’s most important question. The answer to that question requires on the one hand only childlike understanding, but on the other hand can surpass the depths of human comprehension. Indeed, when one examines all that God has revealed in the Bible regarding salvation, many other questions arise and, yet, all reveal the marvelous kindness and glorious complexity of God. Thus, it is an exercise of worship to seek to ask and answer those questions, and therefore it is my joy to commend such an exploration in Matthew Barrett’s  40 Questions About Salvation . This book will strengthen your faith and help you to grow in your understanding and admiration of the God who saves.”

—Jason G. Duesing, provost and associate professor of historical theology, Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary

“The doctrine of salvation strikes a personal chord in the hearts of God’s people, even though many Christians struggle to comprehend its deeper dimensions. In view of this challenge, Matthew Barrett has rendered the church a great service. An extraordinary teacher with a knack for clarifying complexity, Barrett explores forty of the most crucial questions of salvation, providing answers that inform the mind and animate the heart.”

—Chris Castaldo, PhD., Lead Pastor of New Covenant Church, Naperville, and author of  Talking with Catholics about the Gospel .

“Dr. Barrett impressively combines historical, systematic, and biblical theology in a winsome presentation of the Reformed view of Salvation. I especially appreciated Dr. Barrett’s grounding of all doctrines in Scripture. My RTS students and alumni should buy this book.”

—Robert J. Cara, Provost and Chief Academic Officer, Hugh and Sallie Reaves Professor of New Testament, Reformed Theological Seminary

“Matthew Barret provides readers with a clear and accessible explanation of salvation that spans from predestination to glorification. Anyone from the beginner to the advanced student can profit from Barrett’s insightful treatment. But more than an academic survey, Barrett assists readers in knowing, and thus worshipping, the God of our amazing redemption.”

—J. V. Fesko, Academic Dean, Professor of Systematic and Historical Theology, Westminster Seminary California

“Barrett accessibly and faithfully presents what the whole Bible teaches about salvation.”

—Andy Naselli, associate professor of New Testament and theology at Bethlehem College & Seminary in Minneapolis and an elder of Bethlehem Baptist Church

“Matthew Barrett has done a great service to the church with  40 Questions About Salvation .  As a pastor, I am always looking for solid and accessible books dealing with the basics of Christian theology from a biblical and Reformed perspective.  This is a book I will heartily recommend to anyone asking questions about the doctrines associated with our salvation from the guilt and the power of sin.  Questions for reflection are included, which makes this book suitable to personal and small group study.”

—Kim Riddlebarger, senior pastor, Christ Reformed Church (URCNA), Anaheim, CA, and a co-host of the White Horse Inn radio-internet broadcast.

“Matthew Barrett’s grasp of the various dimensions of soteriology is firm and well-informed, and his presentation of the doctrine here is clear and crisp. This will doubtless prove to be a helpful guide and a trusted resource for many. I will certainly want to put this to good use in my own courses and will recommend it heartily.”

—Fred G. Zaspel, Pastor, Reformed Baptist Church of Franconia, PA; Adjunct Professor of Theology, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary; Executive Editor, Books At a Glance

Matthew Barrett

Matthew Barrett is the editor-in-chief of Credo Magazine, director of the Center for Classical Theology , and host of the Credo podcast.  He is professor of Christian theology at Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, and the author of several books, including Simply Trinity,  which won the Christianity Today Book of the Year Award in Theology/Ethics. His new book is called The Reformation as Renewal: Retrieving the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church . He is currently writing a Systematic Theology with Baker Academic.

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• > Journals
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• > The End of Salvation History

Article contents

The end of salvation history.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 September 2014

The debate about salvation history brings to the surface a variety of issues, problems, and proposals that can be designated with some justice postmodern. In an effort to explore these contested issues, I offer a composite portrait of the meaning and uses of the concept of salvation history, drawing attention to its importance for recent Roman Catholic theology. I then review the various kinds of criticism leveled against salvation history models in an attempt to show that Peter Hodgson's contention is warranted: that is, the concept salvation history is problematic both as a category for interpreting the scriptural witness and as a pivotal category for fundamental and systematic theology. Thus, postmodernity, understood in broad terms, should mean the end of salvation history. The final section will explore how the legitimate concerns that generated interest in salvation history models can be recast in light of these broader postmodern approaches.

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1 Hodgson , Peter , God in History: Shapes of Freedom ( Nashville, TN : Abingdon , 1989 ), 11 – 50 . Google Scholar

2 The term “postmodern” has been used to describe aspects of neo-orthodox, liberationist, post-structuralist, and revisionist theologies. These theologies have been designated postmodern because (1) they provide a critical evaluation of the many-sided legacy of modernity and (2) they construct various proposals for responding to the crises resulting from modernity; e.g., some advance the importance of the primary language of faith, intertextuality, praxis, social contexts, critical theories, marginalized voices, minority traditions and communities. Different postmodern theological assessments of modernity are examined in my forthcoming essay, “The Rhetoric of Crisis in Postmodern Theologies.” In the current essay I draw from various kinds of so-called postmodern theology, without trying to stay within one paradigm, in order to encourage a cross-fertilization of different concerns and proposals.

3 The modern use of salvation history as a model for interpreting the scriptures has three historical contexts: (1) a pietist response to an arid and stagnant dogmatism of Protestant Theology in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; (2) the nineteenth-century Erlangen theologian, J. C. K, Hofmann; and (3) the rise of twentieth-century kerygmatic theology and the development of tradition-criticism. For this history and related bibliography, see von Reventlow , Henning Graf , Problems of Old Testament Theology ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1985 ), 87 – 110 Google Scholar , and Problems of Biblical Theology in the Twentieth Century ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1986 ), 10 – 37 . Google Scholar Also see Weth , G. , Die Heilsgeschichte, vol. IV/2, Forschungen zur Geschichte und Lehre des Protestantismus ( Munich , 1931 ) Google Scholar , and Frei , Hans , The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative ( New Haven : Yale University Press , 1974 ), 173 –82. Google Scholar

4 The salvation history motif can be found occasionally in official documents from the Second Vatican Council, Pope John Paul II, and the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In addition to those we will examine, there have been many Catholic theologians who have written about the Bible and revelation in terms of salvation history since the 1960s. See, for example, Mysterium Salutis: Grundriss heilsgeschichtlicher Dogmatik , ed. Feiner , Johannes and Löhrer , Magnus , 5 vols. ( Einsiedeln : Benziger , 1965 – 1976 ) Google Scholar , esp. the Introduction and Adolf Darlap's contribution, xxiii-xliii, 3-158; Schillebeeckx , Edward , “ Salvation History as the Basis of Theology: Theologia or Oikonomia? ” in Revelation and Theology , Vol. 2 ( New York : Sheed and Ward , 1968 ), 79 – 105 ; Google Scholar and Kasper , Walter , “ Grunlinien einer Theologie der Geschichte ” ( 1964 ) in Glaube in Wandel der Geschichte ( Mainz : Matthias-Grünewald-Verlag , 1973 ), 63 – 102 . Google Scholar On Bernard Lonergan, see Hefling , Charles C. Jr. , “ On Understanding Salvation History ” in McEvenue , S. E. and Meyer , B. F. , eds., Lonergan's Hermeneutics: Its Development and Application ( Washington, DC : Catholic University of America Press , 1989 ), 221 –99. Google Scholar For the role of salvation history in Catholic moral theology, see Heilsgeschichte und ethische Normen , “ Quaestiones Disputatae ,” ed. Rotter , Hans ( Freiburg : Herder , 1984 ). Google Scholar

5 Karl Barth used salvation history as a model for interpreting the Bible and in turn defined the task of dogmatic theology relative to this model. See Barth , Karl , Romans ( London : Oxford University Press , 1968 ), 57 Google Scholar and passim , and Church Dogmatics ( Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark , 1956 – 1969 ), Vol. I/2, 12–13; Vol. II/1, 506–22; Vol. III/1, 42–94, esp. 60; and Vol. IV / 4 , 24 – 26 . Google Scholar

6 The use of the term salvation history among biblical scholars reached its zenith in the 1950s and 1960s with the works of Gerhard von Rad, G. Ernest Wright, Oscar Cullmann, and Rudolf Bultmann, among others. Besides these Protestant biblical scholars there were numerous Catholics who interpreted biblical narratives in terms of a salvation history model, e.g., Herbert Haag, Bruce Vawter, John L. McKenzie, R. A. F. MacKenzie, and more recently Raymond E. Brown and Joseph Fitzmyer. For Catholic examples, see Salm , C. Luke , ed., Studies in Salvation History ( Engelwood, NJ : Prentice-Hall , 1964 ). Google Scholar

7 See Reventlow , , Problems of Biblical Theology , 14 – 37 . Google Scholar During the middle third of this century the use and theological function of typology in the New Testament received considerable attention, especially among Catholics, but since the 1960s a reconsideration of inner-biblical exegesis in terms of Jewish and Graeco-Roman hermeneutical principles and rhetorical devices has been under way. As Reventlow acknowledges, “Qumran and other contemporary Jewish interpretations have made the context of the New Testament method clearer: typology is just one, rather rare, way in which the Old Testament is used in the New” (20). This is an important point not only for understanding the New Testament, but also for assessing the contributions of the theologians from this period, and for considering the diverse uses of scripture in theology today.

8 Henri de Lubac's publications during the 1950s and 1960s on the history of early Christian and medieval exegesis and Jean Daniélou's work appearing in 1948 and 1950 accentuated the importance of typology and spiritual exegesis. These emphases are also found in the theologies of Joseph Ratzinger and Hans Urs von Balthasar.

9 See the works cited by McGinn , Bernard , The Calabrian Abbot: Joachim of Fiore in the History of Western Thought ( New York : Macmillan , 1985 ), 209 –13 Google Scholar , esp. nn. 41–42.

10 Rahner , Karl , “ History of the World and Salvation-History ” ( 1961 ), Theological Investigations ( New York : Seabury , 1979 ), 97 – 114 Google Scholar , and “ Observations on the Concept of Revelation ” in Rahner , Karl and Ratzinger , Joseph , eds., Revelation and Tradition, “Quaestiones Disputatae” 17 ( New York : Herder and Herder , 1966 ), 9 – 25 . Google Scholar Note Phan's , Peter discussion of Rahner , and Cullmann , on salvation history in Eternity in Time: A Study of Karl Rahner's Eschatology ( Selinsgrove, PA : Susquehanna University Press , 1988 ), 33 – 34 . Google Scholar Karl Rahner and Adolf Darlap give considerable attention to examining the relationship between salvation history and world history, whereas some Catholic theologians prefer to remain within a salvation history frame of reference. See Reventlow , , Problems of Old Testament Theology , 87, 90, 96 – 99 . Google Scholar

11 Ratzinger , Joseph , Principles of Catholic Theology , trans. McCarthy , M. F. ( San Francisco : Ignatius , 1982 ), 153 –90; Google Scholar “ Revelation and Tradition ” in Ratzinger , and Rahner , , Revelation and Tradition , 26 – 68 ; Google Scholar and Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life ( Washington, DC : Catholic University of America Press , 1988 ). Google Scholar On the importance of spiritual exegesis, see Ratzinger , Joseph , “ Foundations and Approaches of Biblical Exegesis ,” Origins 17 ( 1988 ): 584 – 602 , esp. 600–01. Google Scholar

12 von Balthasar , Hans Urs , Theology of History ( New York : Sheed & Ward , 1963 ); Google Scholar Theological Anthropology ( New York : Sheed & Ward , 1967 ); Google Scholar and Love Alone: The Way of Revelation ( London : Burns & Oates , 1968 ). Google Scholar

13 See von Balthasar , Hans Urs , The Moment of Christian Witness ( New York : Newman , 1968 ). Google Scholar Ratzinger and Balthasar have both criticized Rahner's transcendental approach to theology for overemphasizing the freedom of the human person. By contrast they accentuate the freedom of God's activity in salvation history and the obedience to God's Word as mediated through salvation history in the scriptures and as interpreted by the church's teaching office. Ratzinger explicitly argues and Balthasar suggests that liberation and political theologies are the further extrapolation of this anthropological interpretation of history—the vertical axis of time and eternity is jettisoned or deviated from in favor of a horizontal and immanentized transcendence.

14 The Glory of the Lord , 1 : 29 . Google Scholar Louis Dupré's concern about Balthasar's interpretation of the Old and the New Testament should be considered in relation to Balthasar's use of the salvation-history rubric. See Dupré , Louis , “ Hans Urs von Balthasar's Theology of Aesthetic Form ,” Theological Studies 49 ( 1988 ): 299 – 318 , esp. 318. CrossRef Google Scholar

15 Reventlow , , Problems of Old Testament Theology , 96 . Google Scholar The issue of salvation history seems passé for many in biblical studies and is no longer in vogue among Protestant systematic theologians—even those influenced by Barth. But it has remained viable for a number of Roman Catholic theologians and in official documents, as well as among some Evangelical Christians in the United States context. This may be attributed in part to the lag time between work being generated by biblical scholars and its reception among systematic theologians.

16 My formulation of these issues in influenced by Paul Ricoeur's treatment of a threefold mimesis and the relationship between fiction and history. See Time and Narrative 3 vols. ( Chicago : The University of Chicago Press , 1984, 1985 , 1988 ), 1:52–87, 3: 180 –92. Google Scholar Franz Hesse poses the question this way: “To what exactly is the predicate “Heilsgeschichte” attributed? There are three choices: (1) the history of Israel, as it happens in reality according to our scientific knowledge, (2) each history of the Old Testament people of God as it is set forth according to the faith witness of the biblical narrators above the stage [of history], (3) a salvation history, which somehow takes place ‘in, with, and under’ the real history of God at work” ( Abschied von der Heilsgeschichte, Theologische Studien 108 [ Zurich : Theologischer Verlag , 1971 ], 37 ). Google Scholar

17 Abschied , 8, 14-15.

18 In addition to Hesse's , Abschied , see his earlier statements, “ Die Erforschung der Geschichte Israels als theologische Aufgabe ,” Kerygma und Dogma 4 ( 1958 ): 1 – 20 Google Scholar , and “ Kerygma oder geschichtliche Wirklichkeit? Kritische Fragen ,” Zeitschrift für Theology und Kirche 57 ( 1960 ): 17 – 26 . Google Scholar

19 Reventlow remarks that “in van Rad [as in G. E. Wright], the historical event itself, the ‘facts’, a term which he often uses, has absolute priority for Israel,… though this becomes significant in the form of tradition, i.e., as the message of the event: the subject of a Theology of the Old Testament is, ‘the living word of Yahweh as it came down to Israel in the message of his mighty acts from time to time’ “ ( Problems in Old Testament Theology , 74).

20 See Barr , James , Old and New in Interpretation ( London : SCM , 1966 ), 67 – 69 . Google Scholar

21 The historicity of the ancestral narratives has been rejected by many. Some since the mid-1970s have pressed the fictitious character of the “historical books.” See Hayes , J. H. and Miller , J. M. , Israelite and fudean History ( Philadelphia : Westminster , 1977 ). Google Scholar This has led a few to attempt to develop a history of Israel independently of the biblical traditions, utilizing archaeological sources. See Thomas L. Thompson, “Historiography, Israelite,” Anchor Bible Dictionary (forthcoming); “Text, Context, and Referent in Israelite Historiography,” SBL Lecture, November 1989 (forthcoming); and The Origin Tradition of Ancient Israel , Vol. 1 , JSOT 55 ( Sheffield : Almonds , 1987 ). Google Scholar Also see Lemche , N. P. , Early Israel ( Leiden : Brill , 1985 ) CrossRef Google Scholar , and Finkelstein , Israel , The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement ( Jerusalem : Israel Exploration Society , 1988 ). Google Scholar I am indebted to Thomas Thompson for these references. Questions pertaining to the life of Jesus and emergent Christianity raise similar and distinctive issues which are not treated in this paper.

22 Thompson states: “The biblical tradition brings together three distinct tendencies which should not be confused with historiography: (a) an understanding of Israel's deity as providential and as determining historical events: (b) a West Semitic prophetic tradition which judges the morality of historical events and is critical of the action of king and state; and (c) the theological and moralizing Tendenz of the exilic and post-exilic collectors of traditional narrative who applied the prophetic judgments to the events of the tradition” (“Historiography,” 22).

23 This criticism has been made by many biblical scholars, but also see Ricoeur , Paul , “ Toward a Hermeneutic of the Idea of Revelation ” in Mudge , L. S. , ed., Essays on Biblical Interpretation ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1980 ), 73 – 118 , esp. 80–81. Google Scholar

24 On narrative, type scenes, and the structure of repetition, see Alter , Robert , The Art of Biblical Narrative ( New York : Basic , 1981 ) Google Scholar , and Sternberg , Meir , The Poetics of Biblical Narrative ( Bloomington : Indiana University , 1985 ). Google Scholar Recalling and reconfiguring narratives can be motivated by concerns with continuing a tradition, drawing out further implications of a narrative tradition, or possibly subverting earlier explicit or implicit claims within the received tradition.

25 Von Rad contrasts the modern historical critical view of history with the view of history held by Israel. He acknowledges that there are various views of salvation history in the different sources of the Old Testament and that the “reinterpretation of an older text by a later is often a violent one” ( Old Testament Theology , 2 : 413 Google Scholar ). So, for example, there are different traditions of election and the “continual actualization of the data of the saving history” (414) takes place throughout the Old Testament. There are “constant breaks in tradition, new beginnings, which can be found in this process” (“ Antwort auf Conzelmanns Fragen ,” Evangelische Theologie 24 [ 1964 ]: 388–94, 390 ). Google Scholar But note well: “The great historical works from the succession Document and the Deuteronomic histories down to Chronicles certainly exhibit an astounding variety both in possible methods of presentation and in basic aims: but the fundamental conception of history as a continuum of events determined by Jahweh's promise, which flows forward to the fulfillment intended by him, is constant” ( Old Testament Theology , 2 : 426 –27 Google Scholar ). See Reventlov , , Problems of Old Testament Theology , 101 . Google Scholar

26 According to Fishbane, “the movement from traditum to aggadic traditio involves both a shift to a new historical setting, such that a given traditum is aggadically revised by new teachers in new life settings, and a shift to a new literary setting, such that an aggadic traditio is embodied in new literary milieux, and, commonly, in new literary modes as well” ( Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel [ Oxford : Clarendon , 1985 ], 408, 435 –40; Google Scholar also see his Garments of Torah [ Bloomington : Indiana University , 1989 ], 18 . Google Scholar Cf. von Rad , , Old Testament Theology , 2 : 438 . Google Scholar

27 For similar concerns, see Thompson's , Thomas work (n. 21 above) and Sanders , James A. ' work on canon and the traditioning process, From Sacred Story to Sacred Text ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1987 ). Google Scholar

28 See Hesse , , Abschied , 49 – 67 . Google Scholar

29 Similar instances may also be found in the Targums and Midrash, as well as in New Testament and early Christian literature.

30 See the Ulrich Wilckens-Günther Klein debate about Romans 4. For Wilckens Romans 4 provided the paradigmatic example of salvation history and the continuity of God's salvific intention. Günther Klein argued that salvation history was an inappropriate heremeneutical principle to illuminate Paul's use of the Abraham episode in Romans and that in fact this text demonstrates the real problem of discontinuity for Paul, early Christianity, and the salvation history model. See Klein , Günther , “ Römer 4 und die Idee der Heilsgeschichte ,” Evangelische Theologie 23 ( 1963) : 424 –47; CrossRef Google Scholar “ Exegetische Probleme in Römer 3, 21-4, 25 ,” Evangelische Theologie 24 ( 1964 ): 676 –83; Google Scholar and “ Heil und Geschichte nach Römer 4 ,” New Testament Studies 13 ( 1966 – 1967 ): 43 – 47 ; CrossRef Google Scholar Wilckens , Ulrich , “ zu Römer, 4, 21-4, 25 ,” Evangelische Theologie 24 ( 1964 ): 586 – 610 ; Google Scholar “ Die Rechtfertigung Abrahams nach Römer 5 ” in Rendtorff , R. and Koch , K. , eds., Studien zur Theologie der alttes-tamentlichen Ueberliferungen ( Neukirchener , 1961 ). Google Scholar

31 See Pawlikowski , John T. , Christ in the Light of Christian-Jewish Dialogue ( New York : Paulist , 1982 ). Google Scholar

32 Achtemeier , Paul , The Quest for Unity in the New Testament Church: A Study in Paul and Acts ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1987 ) Google Scholar , and Brown , Raymond E. , The Churches the Apostles Left Behind ( New York : Paulist , 1984 ). Google Scholar

33 Reventlow provides a helpful discussion of the contributions of many figures on this problem of discontinuity (“the single chain of disasters with very few bright moments”) and he acknowledges the qualifications by von Rad and Cullmann in response; but in the end he concludes that “the dialectic of a history of salvation and disaster is not expressed clearly enough in von Rad and Cullmann…” ( Problems of Old Testament Theology , 103-10).

34 John Scotus Eriugena developed a “more than” ( plus quam ) construction in order to move beyond affirmative and negative statements about God. See Macquarrie , John , In Search of Deity: An Essay in Dialectical Theism ( New York : Crossroad , 1985 ), 89 . Google Scholar

35 E.g., Gilkey , Langdon , “ Cosmology, Ontology, and the Travail of Biblical Language ,” The Journal of Religion 41 ( 1961 ): 194 – 205 ; CrossRef Google Scholar Hodgson , Peter , God in History: Shapes of Freedom; Gordon Kaufmann, God the Problem ( Cambridge : Harvard University Press , 1972 ) Google Scholar , and Theology for a Nuclear Age ( Philadelphia : Westminster , 1985 ); Google Scholar Wiles , Maurice , God's Action in the World ( London : SCM , 1986 ); Google Scholar McFague , Sally , Models of God ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1987 ); Google Scholar and Bracken , Joseph A. , The Triune Symbol: Persons, Process, and Community ( Lanham, MD : University Press of America , 1985 ). Google Scholar

36 Kasper , Walter contrasts incarnational and eschatological theologies of history in “ Grundlinien einer Theologie der Geschichte ,” Glaube im Wandel der Geschichte , 63 – 102 . Google Scholar

37 E.g., Jürgen Moltmann, Wolfhart Pannenberg, Johann Baptist Metz, and Edward Schillebeeckx. Of seminal importance for these theologians was Bloch , Ernst , The Principle of Hope ( Cambridge : MIT Press , 1986 ). Google Scholar

38 See Farley , Edward , Ecclesial Reflection: An Anatomy of Theological Method ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1982 ), 27–34, 155 –57 Google Scholar , and Fiorenza , Elisabeth Schüssler , In Memory of Her: A Feminist Reconstruction of Christian Origins ( New York : Crossroad , 1983 ) Google Scholar , and Bread Not Stone: The Challenge of Feminist Biblical Interpretation ( Boston : Beacon , 1984 ). Google Scholar

39 Jurgen Moltmann's and Edward Schillebeeckx's work on the Church and the Holy Spirit are key here, but also note Lampe , G. W. H. , God as Spirit ( Oxford : Clarendon , 1977 ); Google Scholar Boff , Leonardo , The Church: Charism and Power ( New York : Crossroad , 1985 ); Google Scholar and Congar , Yves , I Believe in the Holy Spirit , 3 vols. ( New York : Seabury , 1983 ). Google Scholar Gutiérrez , Gustavo acknowledges the importance of this issue and Moltmann's , contribution in The Truth Shall Set You Free ( Maryknoll, NY : Orbis , 1990 ), 147 . Google Scholar

40 See, e.g., the Introduction to Mysterium Salutis .

41 See de Lubac , Henri , La postérité spirituelle de Joachim de Flore , 2 vols. ( Paris : Editions Lethielleux , 1979 , 1981 ), 1:13–67; 2: 435 –50; Google Scholar and Ratzinger , Joseph , Eschatology , 13 , 57–60, 211–14, 273 . Google Scholar

42 Gutiérrez , Gustavo , A Theology of Liberation ( Maryknoll, NY : Orbis , 1988 ), 34 ff. Google Scholar Liberation theologians have been criticized for advancing a “politically reductionistic” interpretation of the Bible by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith from a salvation history frame of reference. See “ Instruction on Certain Aspects of the Theology of Liberation ,” Origins 14 ( 1984 ): 193 – 204 Google Scholar , and “ Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation ,” Origins 15 ( 1986 ): 713 –28. Google Scholar

43 Theology of Liberation , 86. Gutiérrez more recently acknowledged that his claim that “history is one” was influenced by Hans Urs von Balthasar's and Henri de Lubac's work; see The Truth Shall Set You Free , 22, 124. Gutiérrez's avowal notwithstanding, there are equally important differences between these interpretations of history.

44 Theology of Liberation, 97. The salvation history motif drops out of Gutiérrez's subsequent works. Instead he emphasizes “the underside of history” as distinct from a progressive European view of history and society. Note in this context that Gutiérrez acknowledges his previous indebtedness to von Rad's biblical theology, but contends that it is no longer adequate. See “ Theology from the Underside of History ,” The Power of the Poor in History ( Maryknoll, NY : Orbis , 1983 ), 169 – 221 Google Scholar , and The Truth Shall Make You Free , 23-32, 47-48.

45 See, e.g., Fiorenza , Elisabeth Schüssler , In Memory of Her; Judith Plaskow, Standing at Sinai: Judaism from a Feminist Perspective ( San Francisco : Harper & Row , 1990 ); Google Scholar Schneiders , Sandra M. , Women and the Word ( New York : Paulist , 1986 ); Google Scholar Trible , Phyllis , Texts of Terror: Literary-Feminist Headings of Biblical Narratives ( Philadelphia : Fortress , 1984 ). Google Scholar

46 See the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, “ Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood ,” Origins 6 ( 1977 ): 517 –24 Google Scholar , and Paul , Pope John II , On the Dignity and the Vocations of Women ( Boston : St. Paul Books , 1988 ). Google Scholar The extent and ramifications of the use of a salvation history model in official Church teachings over the last 25 years merits further investigation.

47 See Barr , James , Old and New in Interpretation , 70 ff. Google Scholar Also important are Albrektson , B. , History and Gods: An Essay on the idea of Historical Events as Divine Manifestations in the Ancient Near East and in Israel ( Lund : Gleerup , 1967 ) Google Scholar , and Saggs , H. W. F. , The Encounter with the Divine in Mesopotamia and Israel ( London : Athlone , 1978 ). Google Scholar

48 Gnuse , Robert , Heilsgeschichte as a Model for Biblical Theology ( Lanham, MD : University Press of America , 1988 ), 67 , 139 . Google Scholar

49 Heilsgeschichte, 99-100. He mentions the following as possible points of difference: (1) total freedom from nature imagery; (2) total affirmation of history as the arena for divine activity; (3) divine actions in history denote purpose; (4) long range purpose of plan in history; (5) view of God; (6) covenant; (7) developed concept of the divine word; (8) higher piety or morality; (9) pathos; (10) high literary quality. It is uncertain how biblical and Near Eastern scholars would respond to Gnuse's list.

50 See Ricoeur , Paul , “ The History of Religions and the Phenomenology of Time Consciousness ” in Kitagawa , J. M. , ed., The History of Religions: Retrospect and Prospect ( New York : Macmillan , 1985 ), 13 – 30 . Google Scholar For related discussions of nature, creation, and history-centered theologies, see French's , William review essay, “ Returning to Creation: Moltmann's Eschatology Naturalized ,” Journal of Religion 68 ( 1988 ): 78 – 86 CrossRef Google Scholar , and “ Subject-centered and Creation-centered Paradigms in Recent Catholic Thought ,” Journal of Religion 70 ( 1990 ): 48 – 72 . CrossRef Google Scholar

51 See Gnuse, Heilsgeschichte ; this position is also suggested by the editors of Mysterium Salutis .

52 I included Balthasar and Ratzinger in this category with certain qualifications. Balthasar uses the semantics of salvation history as an archetypal myth, but he recognizes the plurality of traditions, the occasional cacophany of these traditions, and he rejects any simple contrast between linear and cyclical traditions. Ratzinger raises some of his own criticisms of Protestants who speak of salvation history, specifically with regard to the compatability of metaphysics and salvation history, but he uses the phrase without discussing many of the critical issues reviewed here.

53 I wonder whether some people who have been influenced by Frei's , Hans The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative and George Lindbeck's The Nature of Doctrine ( Philadelphia : Westminster , 1984 ) Google Scholar are not in fact in this category. The issue is related to Barth's position. Reventlow refers to Barth's important statements in favor of viewing the Bible in terms of salvation history. However, David Kelsey states that Barth finally distinguished biblical narrative and salvation history ( The Uses of Scripture in Recent Theology [ Philadelphia : Fortress , 1975 ], 50 ). Google Scholar See the references to salvation history in Placher , William , Unapologetic Theology ( Louisville, KY : Westminster/John Knox , 1989 ), 123–35, esp. 127 –28 Google Scholar and in Greer , Rowan A. , “ The Christian Bible and Its Interpretation ” in Greer , and Kugel , James L. . Early Biblical Interpretation ( Philadelphia : Westminster , 1986 ), 107 – 209 , esp. 140–41, 156, 162–68, 182, 185, and 195. Google Scholar The recent use of the phrase “The Drama of Salvation” (e.g., by Richard B. Hays an Raymond Sewager) deserves further scrutiny in this context.

54 To speak of the economy of salvation hearkens back to Irenaeus' Against Heresies which has been important for many interested in salvation history. See, e.g., Alfred Bengsch, Heilsgeschichte und Heilswissen: Eine Untersuchung zur Struktur und Entfaltung des Theologischen Denkens im Werk “Adversus Haereses” des Hl. Irenaus von Lyon ( Leipzig : St. Benno-Verlag , 1957 ) Google Scholar , and Balthasar's , interpretation and criticisms, The Glory of the Lord , 2 :31–94, esp. 90 – 92 . Google Scholar To write of economies in the plural is to take into account the diversity of historical, cosmic, and literary vehicles in the one economy and to acknowledge Derrida's concern about absence, trace, and supplement. See Harvey , Irene , Derrida and the Economy of Difference ( Bloomington : Indiana University Press , 1986 ), 203 –15. Google Scholar

55 Schlomith Rommon-Kennan, drawing from Gérard Genette, develops the distinction between one story and many narratives that interpret this story. Christians must speak of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus as the core and norm of Christian faith, but this does not require isolating one plot for this story, which would betray the richness and diversity of the biblical witness. See Harrington , Daniel , “ The Synoptic Gospels ” in Collins , J. and Crossan , J. D. , eds., The Biblical Heritage in Modern Catholic Scholarship ( Wilmington, DE : Glazier , 1986 ); Google Scholar Collins , Adela Yarbro , Is Mark's Gospel a Life of Jesus? ( Milwaukee, WI : Marquette University Press , 1990 ) Google Scholar : and Koester , Helmut , Ancient Christian Gospels: Their History and Development ( Philadelphia : Trinity , 1990 ). Google Scholar

56 Post-structuralist thinkers, like Derrida, heighten attention to some (a few) aspects of inner-biblical, rabbinic, and early Christian exegesis. But their work does not warrant jettisoning the limitations placed on biblical interpretation by genre-structure, the style of individual authors, the subject matter of the work, and the social contexts out of which they emerge. Thus, I am not commending Mark C. Taylor's labyrinth of erring as a viable alternative to salvation history. Nor do I believe that Derrida's deconstruction of archaeology, teleology, and eschatology and Francois Lyotard's critique of meta-narratives are the last word. While Christian theology should critique religious and secular linearism as unworthy of Christianity and must assess diverse narrative modes of Christian discourse, it cannot abandon protology, teleology, and eschatology. Rather it is the responsibility of Christian theology not only to transmit cherished narratives, but also to reconfigure them in a manner that is faithful to the biblical witness and responsive to the present situation. In this task, theology is properly understood as contextual, practical (as in phronesis), and rhetorical.

57 Some biblical scholars and theologians use the structuralist term “intertextuality” when describing linguistic relationships between the biblical books, but I have chosen to speak of this as intratextuality because the focus at this point is on the relationships “within” (intra) the biblical canon, whereas I wish to speak of another inter textual interpretative task that concerns the relationships “between” (inter) canonical and non-canonical texts.

58 Balthasar argues that human experience offers a fragmented experience of God, and that classic philosophy, drama, and poetry present similar fragmented mediations. But he suggests that the scriptural world is a whole that transcends these fragments. I want to affirm and qualify Balthasar's claim by saying that the scriptures provide us with a fragmented whole. The picture the scriptures give us is not as clear as Balthasar sometimes suggests, but is more polyvalent, tensive, and sometimes problematic. For representative texts, see Theological Anthropology , 12-14, 95-101, 103-54; The Glory of the Lord , 1 :29–30, 69–71, 118, 124–25, 434–35, 498 –99; Google Scholar passages that may lend support to my formula can be found on 553, 639.

59 Typologies generate new meanings and thus exploit the openness in the text, but in this process they tend to bring closure and tie up loose ends. They remain an indispensable ingredient in inner-biblical exegesis and in Christian exegesis. It is not surprising that typologies received so much attention from the previous generation of scholars, especially Catholics. But there are other rhetorical strategies and methods of argument at work within biblical and early Christian writings that work with the indeterminacies within the biblical text. Herein lies the importance of recent work on inner-biblical and early Christian rhetorical strategies that adapt Jewish and Graeco-Roman genres.

60 The Company We Keep: An Ethics of Fiction ( Berkeley : University of California Press , 1988 ), 64 . Google Scholar

61 Here I wish to affirm with George Lindbeck and his supporters that the biblical text functions as a whole for the religious community, but I disagree that it functions only as an intratextual whole. I believe that Balthasar provides us in certain ways with a more suitable, because more catholic understanding of how scripture and theologies are generated between cultures. But I would go farther than Balthasar in granting the mediating role of theology in relation to the distinctive intertextual and socio-political problems raised by modernity. Logos spermatikos are found even in the modern world.

62 New Testament examples include the use of Jewish and Graeco-Roman genres and modes of rhetorical argument in the New Testament, the dynamic and problematic importance of Gnostic texts and communities, as well as the relevance of the social and cultural matrix of Graeco-Roman society.

63 The old wisdom states: heresies help clarify orthodoxy; heresies arise when external philosophies and ideologies take precedence over Christian doctrines, scriptures, and rituals; and heresies are newer deviations from the older internal coherency of Christian identity. This internal/external logic is crucial for Christian discourse, but it is more complex than is sometimes suggested. Using this logic, Balthasar and Ratzinger complain about modern forms of Gnosticism. Modern mediating and hermeneutical theologians have urged care with this logic. Derrida's work raises related issues about this logic of inner and outer; see Derrida , , “ Living On: Border Lines ,” Deconstruction and Criticism ( New York : Seabury , 1979 ) Google Scholar , and Gasche , Rodolphe , The Tain of the Mirror: Derrida and the Philosophy of Reflection ( Cambridge : Harvard University Press , 1986 ), 278 –83. Google Scholar

64 This last point is important because as we have indicated a salvation history model can distort or repress political issues and dynamics. Moreover, it can gloss over unresolved conflicts and discontinuities within the biblical witness and in the history of dogma. These provide some reasons why the historical-critical approaches to the Bible remain necessary. But, of course, these methods must be complemented by other methods of inquiry—literary, sociological, archaeological, et al. See Collins , John J. , “ Old Testament Theology ,” The Biblical Heritage in Modern Catholic Scholarship , 29 Google Scholar , and Schneiders , Sandra M. , “ Does the Bible Have a Postmodern Message? ” in Burnham , F. B. , ed., Postmodern Theology: Christian Faith in a Pluralist World ( San Francisco : Harper & Row , 1989 ), 56 – 73 . Google Scholar

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• Volume 18, Issue 2
• Bradford E. Hinze (a1)
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0360966900025135

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Volume 33 - Issue 3

Salvation history, chronology, and crisis: a problem with inclusivist theology of religions, part 2.

A fundamental requirement in an inclusivist understanding of the relationship between Christianity and other religions is evidence of God's salvific activity outside of any knowledge of Christ. Evidence for such redemptive activity is commonly identified (rightly) in the people of Old Testament Israel.

A fundamental requirement in an inclusivist understanding of the relationship between Christianity and other religions is evidence of God’s salvific activity outside of any knowledge of Christ. Evidence for such redemptive activity is commonly identified (rightly) in the people of Old Testament Israel. On this basis an analogy (the ‘Israel analogy’) is drawn between these Old Testament believers and contemporary followers of other religions. The Israel analogy relies on a correspondence between what is chronologically pre-messianic (Israel) and epistemologically pre-messianic (other religions), and in so doing considers the ‘b.c. condition’ to continue today. This two-part essay maintains that the analogy undermines the significance of the Christ-event in the unfolding plan of redemption by failing to appreciate the decisive effect of this event on history. The Christ-event is the midpoint of salvation history and is of universal significance for all space and time and for all people living both before and after the Christ-event itself.

2. Being Pre-Messianic Is Impossible in Post-Messianic Times

The preceding discussion has asserted the decisive cosmic impact of the Christ-event. The implications of this assertion on the Israel analogy and fulfilment model will now be considered. I will argue here that the concept of ‘pre-messianic’ is invalid this side of the cross, and therefore the Israel analogy and fulfilment model are rendered implausible. I will focus my initial analysis on Acts 14:16–17 and 17:30–31, for these two texts are widely cited by those who consider the pre-messianic condition to be an ongoing condition. 2 Two issues need examining: (1) What is the nature of the times of ignorance? (2) What is the duration and extent of these times, i.e., do they continue today, and if so, for whom?

2.1. The Nature of the Times of Ignorance

The reference in Acts 14:16, ‘In past generations he [God] allowed the nations to walk in their own ways’, parallels the statement in 17:30, ‘The times of ignorance God overlooked’. With regard to the nature of these times, it is commonly argued, for example by Clark Pinnock, that God did not consider culpable, those who failed to trust him and come to terms with him out of ignorance. 3 I dispute this interpretation, however, and maintain that the Scriptures suggest all people everywhere (including the ‘ignorant’) are considered culpable. 4 As A. C. McGiffert explains:

The ‘overlooking’ of ignorance which is here referred to does not imply that in pre-Christian days God regarded the idolatry of the heathen with indifference or saved them from the consequences of their sins, denounced so vigorously in Rom. i., but simply that the time for the final judgement had not come until now, and that they were, therefore, summoned now to prepare for it as they had not before. 5

Rather than indicating non-culpability these two addresses suggest that even in these former times, God held accountable all who rejected him, for he did not leave himself without witness (14:17). This witness is evident in the works of creation and providence which testify to the existence and nature of the true God. 6 Therefore, any ignorance that did exist should not have been as great as it was.

What Paul is arguing in these passages is that until the full revelation of God came to the Gentiles, God ‘overlooked’ the errors which arose through ignorance of his will. However, this overlooking ‘betokened not indifference but patience’. 7 Therefore, although God did allow the nations to ‘go their own way’, this should not be taken as an indication that he condoned their guilt, but rather an acknowledgement that his redemptive plan was targeted in the former times, at Israel. 8 During these former times, there is a strong distinction between Israel as the covenant people of God and Gentiles outside God’s covenant. 9 C. K. Barrett explains that God was unknown to the Gentiles because with the exception of his own people, Israel, he had withdrawn from human affairs to the extent of leaving the Gentiles to manage their own, and to this extent they may be excused. 10 God did not fully reveal himself to the Gentiles, but neither did he completely annihilate them, as their sins deserved. 11

This interpretation is confirmed by the first three chapters of Romans, which make it clear that even before Christ all were subject to God’s wrath. 12 In Rom 1:19–20, Paul explains that if humankind had paid heed to the works of God in creation, they might have found indications of his existence and nature. Therefore, no one has ever been absolutely ignorant. God has made himself known through general revelation, providing sufficient evidence of himself to hold accountable all who reject that revelation. 13 Knowledge of God’s eternal power and divine nature is manifest, but is suppressed and the truth exchanged for a lie (Rom 1:21–26). 14 With regard to Acts 17, Barrett writes:

From nature the Greeks have evolved not natural theology but natural idolatry. That this should have been permitted was a mark of God’s forbearance (cf. 14.16; also and especially Rom. 3:26). God did not will or approve this ignorant idolatrous worship, but he did not suppress it; he overlooked it. 15

The guilt of humanity, therefore, is not due to absence of the truth, but to its suppression. ‘If guilt were due to ignorance it would be an intellectual problem, but in reality it is a problem of the will which is sin’. 16 Although all are culpable, God’s judgement is impartial and proportionate. Those with the Mosaic law (the Jews) and those without it (Gentiles) will both be judged impartially (Rom 2:12–16). ‘The Mosaic legislation will play no part in the judgement of those who have not heard’. 17 However, those without the Mosaic law, still have ‘law’ (in the sense of a moral conscience) written on their hearts (2:14–15), and they will be judged according to this. Neither the Jews nor Gentiles keep their respective laws, and therefore this universal sinfulness demands judgement (1:18–3:20). 18 Terrance Tiessen rightly argues that judgement is in accordance with the revelation an individual receives. With regard to Acts 14:16–17, Tiessen explains:

It is highly implausible that Paul is suggesting that God accepted all the various forms of worship and conduct that the nations chose in their ignorance of God through lack of revelation. His point is twofold: First, God had given them some revelation in the form of his providential care for them. As indicated in Rom 1:21, this left them culpable if they did not respond by honouring God as God and giving him thanks. And second, in Paul’s generation, they were receiving a clearer revelation of God’s truth and of his will, so their obligation was increasing accordingly. 19

Pinnock adopts a different position on this, suggesting Paul was positive about the religious practices of the Lystrans and Athenians and by extension is similarly positive about the potential of contemporary non-Christian religious practices. He suggests Paul’s Lystran sermon

represents a gracious and understanding appreciation of their past and their culture. In a later vignette, Paul is described in Athens as acknowledging the good intentions of the Greeks in worshipping the unknown God. . . . Evidently Paul thought of these people as believers in a certain sense, in a way that could be and should be fulfilled in Jesus Christ. 20

In the same way, Karl Rahner also suggests Paul’s speech shows he held a positive view of pagan religion. 21 Similarly, Jacques Dupuis interprets this passage as evidence that

Paul praises the religious spirit of the Greeks and announces to them the ‘unknown God’ whom they worship without knowing. . . . [T]he message surely seems to be that the religions of the nations are not bereft of value but find in Jesus Christ the fulfillment of their aspirations. 22

Pinnock, Rahner and Dupuis, however, are mistaken here. Paul argues that God was worshipped in ignorance precisely because he was unknown, not that God was known but was somehow worshipped in ignorance. There are clear indications in the text that this is what Paul meant. William Larkin asserts that the use of neuter instead of masculine pronouns here shows that Paul is not simply going to proclaim to them the identity of the one whom they worship ignorantly. ‘Here is no basis for contending that non-Christian religionists, who are seeking him but don’t know his name, are in a saving relation with God’. 23 Similarly, Simon Kistemaker maintains,

They worship without knowledge, which in Athens, the bastion of learning, was a contradiction in terms. They concede that this unknown god exists, but they have no knowledge of him. And they must acknowledge that their approach to proper worship is deficient because of their ignorance. Paul, however, does not equate the unknown god of the Athenians with the true God. Notice that he says ‘what you worship’, not ‘whom you worship’. Paul calls attention only to their lack of knowledge and thus takes the opportunity to introduce God as Creator and Judge of the universe. Paul intimates that the Athenians’ ignorance of God is blameworthy and this ignorance demands swift emendation. 24

This interpretation may be supported by the word ‘ignorance’ (ἀγνοοῦντες), which occurs here in the present participle active form thus suggesting the Athenians were continually worshipping without knowledge, that is, in ignorance. Bultmann explains that the verb is

used with all the nuances of knowledge [and] denote[s] ‘being mistaken’ or ‘in error’ as the character of action (cf. 1 Tim. 1:13). Ignorance of self is meant in Heb. 5:2. ‘Not recognizing’ in 1 Cor. 14:38 means rejection (‘not being recognized’ by God). Not knowing God is meant in Rom. 10:3, and Christ in 1 Tim. 1:13. This ignorance entails disobedience (Rom. 10:3); hence it is not just pardonable lack of information but a failure to understand that needs forgiveness. 25

The statement ‘if perhaps they might grope for Him and find Him’ (17:27 NIV) should not be understood as suggesting individuals are able to reach a true knowledge of God unaided by special revelation, for the words ‘grope’ and ‘find’ are in the optative mood, that is the mood of strong contingency or possibility. 26 ‘It contains no definite anticipation of realization, but merely presents the action as conceivable. Hence it is one step further removed from reality than the subjunctive’. 27 So this statement does not suggest a divine pattern for successfully finding God and salvation apart from special revelation. Rather, it points to the effect of sin causing all to become as those who are blind in their search for God. 28

According to Paul however, non-Christian religious worship is rebellious. It is evidence of each culture going its own way, autonomously developing its religion without reference to the one true God. 29 If this were not so, the times of ignorance would not have to be overlooked, and Paul’s message would not have climaxed in a call to repentance. 30 Further confirmation of Paul’s negative assessment of non-Christian religious practices is seen in the description that ‘his spirit was provoked within him’ (17:16) which ‘at the least . . . means that Paul was very irritated by what he saw’. 31

In conclusion, the texts examined here indicate that the ‘times of ignorance’ are not to be interpreted as a period during which sin was not punished or as a period when non-biblical religions functioned as instruments of salvation. Rather, all people at all times are culpable for their sin, and worshippers of non-biblical religions are worshipping in ignorance and rebellion.

2.2. Duration of the Times of Ignorance

Having established the nature of the times of ignorance, the next matter for consideration is the duration of these times, namely, have they ended with the objective act of the Christ-event, or is their end associated with an individual’s existential encounter with the gospel? Proponents of the Israel analogy and fulfillment model believe the latter to be the case. For example, Rahner asserts that non-Christian religions are ‘overtaken and rendered obsolete by the coming of Christ and by his death and resurrection’. This moment in time, however, ‘is arrived at the point at which Christianity in its explicit and ecclesiastical form’ becomes ‘an effective reality, making its impact and asserting its claims in history in the relevant cultural sphere to which the non-Christian religions concerned belonged’. 32

Normally [in Catholic theology] the beginning of the objective obligation of the Christian message for all men–in other words, the abolition of the validity of the Mosaic religion and of all other religions–is thought to occur in the apostolic age. Normally, therefore, one regards the time between this beginning and the actual acceptance or the personally guilty refusal of Christianity in a non-Jewish world and history as the span between the already given promulgation of the law and the moment when the one to whom the law refers takes cognizance of it. 33

Rahner wants to ‘leave it . . . an open question (at least in principle) at what exact point in time the absolute obligation of the Christian religion has in fact come into effect for every man and culture’. 34 I shall argue in this section that the times of ignorance have ended objectively, coinciding with the Christ-event.

The place of the events of Acts in the unfolding history of redemption provides the necessary framework for a proper understanding of these times. 35 Luke, in his second volume, recounts the historical origins of the Christian movement, the founding of the Church, and the spread of the gospel. He addresses the universal claims of the gospel and the nature of the Church–a Church for both Jew and Gentile. He writes concerning the climax of God’s redemptive acts in history 36 and has been described as par excellence the ‘theologian of redemptive history’. 37 Redemptive history is fundamental in Paul, too. While Reformed Pauline studies have rightly placed much emphasis on the doctrine of justification by faith, this emphasis has at times overshadowed the centrality of redemptive-history in Paul. Ridderbos maintains that a redemptive-historical or eschatological orientation governs Paul’s theology. 38

It is this great redemptive-historical framework within which the whole of Paul’s preaching must be understood and all of its subordinate parts receive their place and organically cohere. . . . It is from this principle point of view and under this denominator that all the separate themes of Paul’s preaching can be understood and penetrated in their unity and relation to each other. 39

Whatever treatment Paul gives to the application of salvation to the individual (the ordo salutis ) is controlled by his redemptive-historical outlook, that is, how salvation was accomplished (the historia salutis ). 40

The center of Paul’s teaching is not found in the doctrine of justification by faith or any other aspect of the ordo salutis. Rather, his primary interest is seen to be in the historia salutis as that history has reached its eschatological realization in the death and especially the resurrection of Christ. 41

Michael Horton cautions that separating the ordo salutis from the historia salutis results in a ‘failure to recognize the revolutionary logic of biblical (especially Pauline) eschatology, in which the future is semirealized in the present and the individual is included in a wider eschatological activity’. 42 However, when the ordo salutis is seen in relationship to the historia salutis , then ‘that which God is doing in the experience of believers will be treated as derivative of that which God is doing in the world, in history’. 43 Paul’s redemptive-historical outlook is clear in the Paul of Acts and is more fully expounded in Romans. 44 There are clear parallels between Paul’s speeches in Acts 14 and 17 and Rom 3:21–26, and these three texts will be considered in unison in the following discussion. 45

Paul’s speeches in Acts 14 and 17 embrace the ideas of the creation (the past), of God’s dominion over the world (the present) and of the judgement (the future). 46 Paul presents the Christ-event as an event of acute temporal decisiveness. Referring to Acts 17, F.F. Bruce rightly observes: ‘The claim that the fact of Jesus marks the end of the time of ignorance and the irrevocable declaration of God’s will, with the accompanying summons to repentance, is underlined by the framework of universal history in which it is set’. 47 Paul’s reference to the ‘times of ignorance’ was, as Francis Watson states, motivated by the need to assert the radical newness of the present moment. 48 The former times correspond to the ages in which the mystery of Christ has been kept secret, the period before the fullness of time was revealed. 49 But now, the Lordship of Christ is a present reality, extending over the whole world, as Cullmann explains:

The result of Christ’s death and resurrection is that the Lordship over all things is committed to him. The entire creation is affected by this redemptive event. Ever since the ascension Christ sits at the right hand of God, and everything is put under his feet. With this is connected the fact that since reaching this mid-point the world process is drawn into the redemptive history in a decisive manner. 50

In the cross an eschatological process is taking place. The Kingdom of God becomes manifest in Christ’s resurrection which marks the boundary where the two aeons collide. The Eschaton has come and the world has been opened up for the Kingdom of God. 51

There is therefore a dichotomy of ‘before’ and ‘after’ the Christ-event, and a radical newness to the present age. 52 The ‘but now’ (τὰ νυ̑ν) of Acts 17:30b balances ‘the times’ (τοὺς χρόνους) in the first part of the sentence. It is the ‘now’ that is the subject of the last part of the sentence. All has changed now that Christ has come with the full knowledge of God. Through Christ, God has dealt definitively with the problem of sin, but for that very reason, he has laid humanity under a new accountability. The day of the gospel begins with the resurrection, and the time of the old covenant ends here. Now that Christ has come, God calls the unbelieving world into judgment through the One whom he raised from the dead. 53 God ‘overlooked’ sin during the former times, but this overlooking was possible only because these times were for a period only, a period allocated by God from eternity, to be followed by a course of action which would deal with sin finally and fully through the cross. 54 As Bruce argues,

God’s overlooking people’s earlier ignorance of himself is seen to have had in view the full revelation now given in the advent and work of Christ. ‘But now’ in the present context is parallel to ‘but now’ in Rom. 3:21. If ignorance of the divine nature was culpable before, it is inexcusable now. 55

Rom 3:21–26 also testifies to the radical newness of the current age, an age inaugurated when ‘this righteousness from God’ was made known in Christ. The ‘but now’ of verse 21 indicates a change of tone from the preceding section (1:18–3:20). 56 This change is both logical and temporal, marking a decisive shift, not just in Paul’s argument, but in God’s economy. It is logical because of its place in the strategy of Paul’s argument, concluding the teaching of the previous section. It is temporal, shifting the emphasis from the old situation of Jews and Gentiles under sin to the new age of salvation inaugurated by Christ. Osborne considers the temporal sense to be most important:

Paul tells us here that as a result of Christ’s sacrificial act a new era, one of salvation, has dawned. As Schreiner says, this indicates ‘a salvation-historical shift between the old covenant and the new’. God’s ‘saving righteousness’ has been ‘actualized in history’. 57

The temporal sense is reinforced by the expression ‘has been made known’ (πεφανέρωται). 58 The perfect tense used here specifies something which began in the past but which is still valid now–that which was made manifest in Christ’s redemptive work has ever since remained manifest and is the means of salvation for all people henceforth. 59 At a given point in history, God intervened to consummate the plan of redemption. 60 The decisive once-for-all redemptive act of God, the revelation both of righteousness and wrath, has taken place. Thus, verse 21 ‘points to the decisiveness for faith of the gospel events in their objectiveness as events which took place at a particular time in the past and are quite distinct from and independent of the response of men to them’. 61

This does not mean that God failed to punish sins committed before the Christ-event or that God was unable fully to forgive sins committed by old covenant believers. According to Douglas Moo, ‘Paul’s meaning is rather that God “postponed” the full penalty due sins in the Old Covenant, allowing sinners to stand before him without their having provided an adequate “satisfaction” of the demands of his holy justice (cf. Heb. 10:4)’. 62

The reference to passing over former sins (Rom 3:25) refers to sins committed before the Christ-event–not sins committed before a person’s individual justification. 63 This is clear from the context, which Paul presents as the historia salutis rather than the ordo salutis . This is indicated by the reference to the revelation of the righteousness of God that is now revealed (v. 26), rather than the righteousness that is given to those who believe. This latter sense cannot be what Paul intends since in Rom 4 he demonstrates that Abraham and all true believers, whether Jew or Gentile, are reckoned righteous by faith. ‘If in 3:21 Paul is talking about individual soteriology, there would be no “but now” about it. Justification has always and ever been by faith’. 64 Rather, what is new or ‘now’ is that God has revealed his righteousness through Christ.

The temporal decisiveness of the Christ-event is given further weight by Paul’s assertion that the divine act of righteousness has now been made known ‘apart from the law’ (v. 21a). In one sense this refers to the fact that righteousness cannot come by keeping the law (3:20 cf. 2:1–3:8), but the primary meaning here is given by the salvation-historical orientation of Paul’s argument. That is, it refers to the new era inaugurated by Christ. ‘Paul’s purpose is to announce the way in which God’s righteousness has been manifest rather than to contrast two kinds of righteousness’. 65 This is clear from the developing argument: Paul has already established that the law is powerless to save (Rom 2:12–3:20), and Rom 4 makes clear that justification has always been by faith apart from the law. For the argument to make sense, the reference has to be to the manner in which God’s righteousness is manifested, not the manner in which it is received. 66

This then indicates that the ‘law’ (νόμος, v. 21a) is not primarily a set of rules required by God for humans to keep, but a system, that is, a stage in God’s unfolding plan. If this is so, then it refers to the Mosaic covenant, a temporary administration established by God for the period leading to its fulfilment in Christ. 67 There is, therefore, a discontinuity between the former times and the present times. 68 However, as Paul proceeds, the emphasis changes from discontinuity to continuity. For while this righteousness comes apart from the law, the ‘Law and Prophets bear witness to it’ (v. 21b). Paul understands the Old Testament as a whole to anticipate and prepare for this new age of justification and fulfilment. 69

On the basis of the discussion outlined above, it is clear that the ‘times of ignorance’ are a period in the historia salutis and therefore have ended with the objective, historical, and decisive Christ-event. These times should not therefore be understood in reference to a person’s existential encounter with the gospel or to any other time after the Christ-event. If one does not accept the definite turning point of the Christ-event, it leads to speculative and rather arbitrary predictions of when the ‘times of ignorance’ might have ended. The focus of many commentators on when these times might have ended is due in part, I suggest, to a misunderstanding of the nature of the times of ignorance and the nature of saving faith. Many consider saving faith to have changed between the Old Testament and New Testament eras, and this leads them to speculate how this change affects the existential circumstances of individuals. I maintain that the nature of saving faith has always and everywhere been essentially constant, that is, trust in the covenant-making God made possible by his special revelation. This revelation is Christocentric, and consequently saving faith has always been Christ-focussed and has not changed at any point in terms of its object and essential characteristics. 70

Scripture gives no grounds for suggesting that saving faith has changed or for suggesting that a believer who lived during the ‘times of ignorance’ will no longer be saved after the Christ-event for failing to respond to the ‘new content’ of saving faith. But this is exactly what is discussed by some theologians. 71 For Pinnock, the times of ignorance end only when an individual receives the gospel. 72 Similarly, Tiessen argues that Acts 17:30–31 indicates that there is an ignorance that is not culpable, but that when the gospel is preached and the Spirit illumines the hearers, the ignorance is dispelled and God’s overlooking is therefore no longer appropriate. 73 Tiessen concurs with Howard Marshall, who writes,

Until the coming of the revelation of God’s true nature in Christianity, men lived in ignorance of him. But now the proclamation of the Christian message brings this time to an end so far as those who hear the gospel are concerned; they no longer have an excuse for their ignorance. God was prepared to overlook their ignorance, but now he will do so no longer. 74

For Tiessen, the ‘critical question’ is this:

When (if ever) does salvation cease to be possible for Jews with an Old Testament faith and for God-fearing Gentiles who do not know of Jesus? Ronald Nash suggests ‘that whole first century community of Believers in Yahweh was a kind of transition generation’. But why must the transition be limited to one generation? Why may it not extend throughout this age to all who remain ignorant of Jesus and of his identity and work? Why might people today who have the faith of an old covenant believer or of a Gentile god-fearer be saved today, just as they were then? 75 Ecclesiocentrists face a particularly sticky problem in regard to Jews at the time of Jesus who had the faith of Abraham or in regard to Gentile God-fearers who did not know about Jesus. Did such people lose their salvation? And, if so, at what point–at the moment of Christ’s resurrection, at the ascension or at Pentecost? . . . Some theologians might cover such people under a ‘grandfather clause’, but this is problematic within the principles of Ecclesiocentrism. 76

Likewise, John Sanders claims,

A major problem for this understanding of faith [that knowledge of Jesus Christ is necessary] is the salvation of those who lived before and just after Jesus. Those who take a restrictive approach generally allow for the salvation of those who lived before Jesus but claim that since the time of Jesus one has to know about him in order to be saved. God-fearing Jews and Gentiles who died ten minutes after Jesus died but who had no knowledge of that fact or no understanding of its atoning value are thus left in a most pitiful position–damned to hell for not living long enough for Christian theology to be developed! But if we concede that such people are exceptions, then why aren’t the rest of the unevangelized exceptions as well? 77

These accounts demonstrate the problem that results if it is argued that saving faith is substantially different before and after Christ. Tiessen proposes an analogy between old covenant believers and Jews today who do not know Jesus is their Messiah: they are ‘in the same position as were their forebears who lived prior to Messiah’s coming’. 78 Tiessen makes this proposal support his thesis that knowledge of Christ is unnecessary for salvation. On the contrary, I suggest that his proposal is broadly right, but should be understood as supporting my position that saving faith has not changed. A believing Jew living at the time of Christ would have faith in the Messiah (anticipated). If such a Jew died before hearing of the advent of the Messiah, then there is no reason to suggest they would be denied saving faith now that greater information (which they have not received) about the Messiah is available. In theory then, it is possible to be saved ‘by old covenant anticipation’ after the Christ-event, if that anticipation is according to special covenantal revelation. With regard to the Gentile ‘God-fearers’ that Tiessen and Sanders refer to, I maintain that these too, were only ever saved by contact with and response to special covenantal revelation. 79

D. A. Carson responds to the suggestion that the times of ignorance end only when an individual hears the gospel by declaring:

This is an astonishing inference. It would mean that the Athenians were better off before they heard Paul’s preaching about Jesus: they were nicely spared any blame because they were ignorant, but now, poor chaps, for the first time they are held accountable. 80

While Carson is right to highlight the error of the individual-existential interpretation of the ending of the times of ignorance, his response is itself rather misleading. 81 He presents a hypothetical scenario (that people would be better off not hearing the gospel), which given his wider Reformed theological convictions he does not consider valid, for he maintains that all people everywhere are culpable, and he accepts therefore that no one will be saved through their ignorance. Therefore, although the ‘times of ignorance’ should not be confused with an individual’s personal knowledge or ignorance, Scripture does seem to suggest that judgement is according to the revelation one receives (see §2.1). Indeed, Jesus speaks of greater judgement on those to whom more has been revealed (Matt 11:20–24; John 9:39–41; 15:22).

John Frame contends, ‘There is some indication in Scripture that greater knowledge can be an aggravating circumstance (Luke 12:47–48). From whom much is given, much is required’. 82 This indicates, suggests Frame, that it would better not to hear of Christ than to hear of him and reject him. Matt 26:24 and 2 Pet 2:21 say this in specific contexts. 83

Piper defends the assertion that the times of ignorance have ended with the Christ event by stating:

But ‘now’—a key word in the turning of God’s historic work of redemption–something new has happened. The Son of God has appeared. He has revealed the Father. He has atoned for sin. He has risen from the dead. His authority as universal Judge is vindicated. And the message of His saving work is to be spread to all peoples. This turn in redemptive history is for the glory of Jesus Christ. Its aim is to put Him at the center of all God’s saving work. And therefore it accords with this purpose that henceforth Christ be the sole and necessary focus of saving faith. 84

William Larkin makes a similar statement:

Formerly humankind lived in a sinful ignorance that God in his mercy passed over. Now, after sin has been judged in Jesus’ death and resurrection, comes the ‘day of salvation’ in a gospel proclaimed in his name, calling for repentance and promising forgiveness. Today there is no room in God’s economy, as Paul preaches it, for so-called B.C. Christians–persons saved without knowledge of Christ and his saving work. 85

While I concur with both Piper and Larkin that the times of ignorance have ended with the Christ-event, these quotes give the unhelpful impression that saving faith has changed. On the contrary I maintain that Christ has always been the ‘sole and necessary focus of saving faith’ 86 and there has never ‘been room in God’s economy for so-called B.C. Christians’. The intervention of God to inaugurate a new era means that all who respond in faith—not only after the cross, but as Rom 4 shows, before it also—will be transferred into the new era from the old era. 87

Christ is the midpoint of salvation-history. The Christ-event constitutes the centre of salvation-history and is of universal and decisive significance. It marks a radical turn in salvation-history, a crisis point, rendering the b.c. period complete and fulfilled. It ushers in the new eschatological age and forms a dividing line between ‘b.c.’ and ‘a.d.’ A new situation has been created objectively in history independent of the circumstances of individuals. The effect of the atonement cannot be limited to one strand of subsequent history, namely, that which is coextensive with the Church or knowledge of the gospel. Therefore it is impossible to exist in a ‘b.c. condition’ this side of the cross.

The ‘times of ignorance’ are a period in salvation-history and not a period before an individual’s existential encounter with the gospel. They are a category in the historia salutis—not the ordo salutis . The ‘times of ignorance’ must not be confused with an individual’s personal knowledge (or lack of it). To do so conflates ontology and epistemology. Maintaining the existence of a pre-messianic condition fails to recognise the epochal nature of the unfolding redemptive history and represents a form of under-realised eschatology. The first coming of Christ is an eschatological event around which the culmination of history centres. It is a breaking in of the future events of the day of the Lord which has yet to come. It has now been revealed that God’s final wrath against sin which is to come at the end of history has been poured out upon Christ in the middle of history. It is therefore an event that allows no practical reality of any pre-cross paradigm continuing or of an alternative track being presently employed. The question of when the times of ignorance end is the question of whether the history of salvation or individual application of salvation is the ultimate governor. Historia salutis always underlies ordo salutis and never the reverse. The final and once-for-all saving act of Christ is more ultimate with its attendant historical transition than an individual’s personal experience and appropriation of the benefits of this.

The Israel analogy relies on a correspondence between the chronologically pre-messianic and the epistemologically pre-messianic and in so doing requires the ‘b.c. condition’ to continue today. There is no sense in which the ‘b.c. condition’ can exist after the cross, and therefore, the Israel analogy and fulfilment model with its reliance on a present continuation of a pre-messianic paradigm is substantially weakened.

•  ↑ Back   Part 1 of this article is published in Themelios 33:2 (2008): 7–18.
•  ↑ Back   See the references in the following discussion, particularly those in Section 2.2.
•  ↑ Back   Pinnock, Wideness , 101. Many Acts commentators also suggest this. For example, I. Howard Marshall writes, ‘In time past he had let the Gentiles live in their own ways, the implication being that he did not regard their ignorance of himself as culpable’ ( Acts [Leicester: IVP, 1980], 239). Cf. David Williams, Acts (NIBC; Peabody: Hendrickson, 1990), 250: ‘The implication seems to be that their ignorance of God in the past was not culpable . . . though this would no longer be so now that the Good News had been announced’.
•  ↑ Back   For example, all are subject to the wrath of God (John 3:19; Eph 2:3) and are already under condemnation (Rom 3:19).
•  ↑ Back   A. C. McGiffert, History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Printing Company, 1897), 260, quoted in Christopher Little, The Revelation of God Among the Unevangelized (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2000), 27.
•  ↑ Back   F.F. Bruce, The Book of The Acts (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 277. Cf. Dennis Johnson, The Message of Acts in the History of Redemption (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1997), 193, 198.
•  ↑ Back   Bruce, Acts, 277.
•  ↑ Back   Reymond writes ‘In Old Testament times God had “let the nations go their own way” (Acts 14:16) as he prepared Israel to be the repository of special revelation and the racial originator of the Messiah, and he had “overlooked the nations’ ignorance” (Acts 17:23) in the sense that he had taken no direct steps to reach them savingly. But now that Christ has come God commands all people everywhere to repent (Acts 17:30) and to put their faith in Christ’ ( Systematic Theology , 1091n40). Cf. Ben Witherington, The Acts of the Apostles (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 427.
•  ↑ Back   This former division between Jew and Gentile and the overcoming of it in the events described in Acts is a fundamental theme in redemptive history and has great significance for how these passages should be understood. It should be noted that although Gentiles were not formerly the target of God’s redemptive program and were generally ignorant of God’s purposes, they were not excluded from redemption. Examples recorded in the Old Testament such as Ruth make it clear that through faith Gentiles could also become part of the covenant community.
•  ↑ Back   C. K. Barrett, Acts , ICC (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 1:681. Cf. Gordon Lewis and Bruce Demarest, Integrative Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 1:306.
•  ↑ Back   Little, The Revelation of God Among the Unevangelized , 22. Cf. Matthew Henry, Matthew Henry’s Commentary (Basingstoke: Marshall Morgan & Scott, 1960), 489; Everett Harrison, Acts: The Expanding Church (Chicago: Moody, 1975), 223.
•  ↑ Back   See particularly Rom 1:18 (‘the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and wickedness of men’) and 2:12 (‘those who have sinned without the law will also perish without the law’). Douglas J. Moo writes, ‘Rom. 1:18–2:20 has sketched the spiritual state of those who belong to the old era: justly condemned, helpless in the power of sin, powerless to escape God’s wrath’ ( The Epistle To The Romans , NICNT [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996], 221).
•  ↑ Back   Robert Mounce, Romans , NAC (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995), 77. Cf. James R. Edwards, Romans, NIBC (Peabody: Hendrikson, 1992), 50–52.: ‘Verses 19–21 . . . assert that the problem of human guilt is not God’s hiddenness and therefore humanity’s ignorance, but rather God’s self-disclosure and humanity’s rejection of it’. Cf. C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans: A Shorter Commentary (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1985), 32–33: ‘The result of God’s self-manifestation in His creation is not a natural knowledge of God on men’s part independent of God’s self-revelation in His Word, a valid though limited knowledge, but simply the rendering excuseless of their ignorance’ (32). Cf. Grant Osborne, Romans, IVPNT (Leicester: IVP, 2004), 46–48.
•  ↑ Back   See, for example, Greg Bahnsen, ‘The Encounter of Jerusalem with Athens’ (1980), available at http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pa045.htm (accessed 12 August 2006), 11. Paul identifies the ‘basic schizophrenia in unbelieving thought when he described in the Athenians both an awareness of God (v. 22) and ignorance of God (v. 23). . . . Knowing God, the unregenerate nevertheless suppresses the truth and follows a lie instead’.
•  ↑ Back   Barrett, Acts , vol 2: 851.
•  ↑ Back   Edwards, Romans , 51. Cf. Rom 1:18–23 indicates that the natural human relation to God is more than a simple straightforward agnoia . Cf. Francis Watson, Text And Truth: Redefining Biblical Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 248; Bahnsen, ‘The Encounter of Jerusalem with Athens’, 13. The unbeliever is ‘responsible because he possesses the truth, but he is guilty for what he does with the truth’.
•  ↑ Back   Mounce, Romans , 93
•  ↑ Back   Edwards, Romans , 70.
•  ↑ Back   Tiessen, Who Can Be Saved? , 128–29. Tiessen is referring to general revelation in his use of the expression ‘some revelation’.
•  ↑ Back   Pinnock, Wideness , 32.
•  ↑ Back   Rahner, ‘Christianity and the Non-Christian Religions’, 122, 125.
•  ↑ Back   Dupuis, Toward , 49.
•  ↑ Back   William Larkin, ‘The Contribution of the Gospels and Acts to a Biblical Theology of Religions’, in Christianity and the Religions: A Biblical Theology of World Religions (ed. Edward Rommen and Harold Netland; Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1995), 82–83. Cf. Chrys Caragounis, ‘Divine Revelation’, Evangelical Review of Theology 12 (1988): 229–230.
•  ↑ Back   Simon Kistemaker, Exposition of the Acts of the Apostles (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990), 632. Cf. G. E. Ladd, The Wycliffe Bible Commentary (Chicago: Moody, 1962), 1157; Witherington, Acts, 524.
•  ↑ Back   Rudolf Bultmann, ‘Ignorance’, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament Abridged in One Volume (ed. Geoffrey Bromiley; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 18. Cf. John Calvin: ‘God cannot be worshipped rightly unless he be first known’ ( Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles [Edinburgh: Edinburgh Printing Company, n.d.], 2:157, quoted in Little, The Revelation of God Among the Unevangelized , Cf. Darrell Bock, ‘Athenians Who Have Never Heard’, in Through No Fault of Their Own? (ed. William Crockett and James Sigountos; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991), 124. Bock writes, ‘Ignorance and “God-fearing devotion” in themselves provide no hope that one can enter God’s presence outside of Jesus, as the New Testament shows. Devotion to God must be according to knowledge’.
•  ↑ Back   The Greek reads εἰ ἄρα γε ψηλαφήσειαν αὐτὸν καὶ εὔροιεν.
•  ↑ Back   H. E. Dana and Julius Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New York: Macmillan, 1955), 172, quoted in Little, The Revelation of God Among the Unevangelized , 26–27. Cf. Bahnsen, ‘The Encounter of Jerusalem with Athens’, 13. Cf. Marshall, Acts, 288.
•  ↑ Back   Larkin suggests the fact that God is ‘not very far away’ (v. 27) shows that the human lack of success is not a function of how God has set up the search but of an intervening factor: sin. Larkin, ‘The Contribution of the Gospels and Acts’, 82. Cf. Caragounis, ‘Divine Revelation’, 227–229; Bahnsen, ‘The Encounter of Jerusalem with Athens’, 13. Bahnsen argues that this groping is not an innocent matter but unrepentant ignorance.
•  ↑ Back   Larkin, ‘The Contribution of the Gospels and Acts’, 83. Paul’s negative attitude toward pagan worship is also shown by the meaning of the word ‘provoke’ in v. 16. Little asserts that its meaning is ‘to rouse to wrath’ ( The Revelation of God Among the Unevangelized , 25).
•  ↑ Back   Larkin, ‘The Contribution of the Gospels and Acts’, 83.
•  ↑ Back   Witherington, Acts, 512. Cf. Bahnsen, ‘The Encounter of Jerusalem with Athens’, 6.
•  ↑ Back   Karl Rahner, ‘Church, Churches and Religions’, in Theological Investigations (New York: Herder & Herder, 1973), 10:47.
•  ↑ Back   Rahner, ‘Christianity and the Non-Christian Religions’, 119. Rahner uses the expression ‘law’ here to refer to Christianity.
•  ↑ Back   Ibid., 120.
•  ↑ Back   Cf. Gaffin, Resurrection and Redemption , 13. Gaffin rightly states that dealing with the biblical writers in terms of their respective places in redemptive history is necessary.
•  ↑ Back   See, for example, Johnson, Message of Acts , “Luke invites us again and again to walk back and forth across the bridge linking Old Covenant promise with New Covenant fulfilment in Christ—to see, compare and discover afresh the manifold wisdom of God in his plan of redemption, glimpsed in many parts and ways in the words of the prophets, but now blazing from the glorious face of the Son’ (122).
•  ↑ Back   Bruce, ‘Salvation History in the New Testament’, 78. Bruce is quoting Lohse, ‘Lucas als Theologe der Heilsgeschichte’, EvT 14 (1954–55): 254. Cf. Helmut Flender, St. Luke: Theologian of Redemptive History (trans. Reginald Fuller and Ilse Fuller; London: SPCK, 1967).
•  ↑ Back   Ridderbos uses the designations redemptive-historical and eschatological interchangeably. Ridderbos states, ‘The central motive of justification by faith can be understood in its real pregnant significance only from this redemptive-historical viewpoint’ (Time Fully Come, 50). Cf. Ridderbos, Paul and Jesus (trans. David H. Freeman; Philadelphia: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1958), 64–65: ‘Before everything else, he [Paul] was the proclaimer of a new time, the great turning point in the history of redemption’. Cf. Robert Yarbrough, ‘Paul and Salvation History’, in The Paradoxes of Paul, vol. 2 of Justification and Variegated Nomism (ed. D. A. Carson, Peter T. O’Brien, and Mark A. Seifrid; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2004), 297–342.
•  ↑ Back   Ridderbos, Paul , 39. Cf. 44, 49, 65, 162, 208, 429–30, 516.
•  ↑ Back   Gaffin ( By Faith , 18n2) notes that this distinction ( historia salutis — ordo salutis ) appears to originate with Herman Ridderbos, being found first in his Time Fully Come (48–49).
•  ↑ Back   Gaffin, Resurrection and Redemption , 13. Gaffin notes the term ‘ ordo salutis can have two distinct senses, one more general, the other more elaborated. The latter sense, more detailed and technical, is its usual, more common usage. It has in view the logical and/or causal, or even chronological “order” or sequence of various discrete saving acts and benefits, as these are unfolded in the life of the individual sinner. However, the expression ordo salutis may also be used . . . more generally, to the ongoing application of salvation, in distinction from its once-for-all accomplishment’. It is this latter sense that is being used here. Cf. Gaffin, By Faith , 18; Horton, Covenant and Eschatology , 6. Horton rightly observes that often (even in Reformed theology) the various loci of the ordo salutis (calling, regeneration, repentance and faith, justification, sanctification, and glorification) have been separated from the historia salutis .
•  ↑ Back   Horton, Covenant and Eschatology , 6–7.
•  ↑ Back   Ibid., 7
•  ↑ Back   Bruce, ‘Salvation History in the New Testament’, 81, 84. Bruce suggests that this is true for his speeches at Pisidian Antioch and Athens. While it is true that the precise focus on Paul in Acts can be differentiated from the precise focus on Paul in Paul’s own writings, it is a methodological mistake to set these foci against each other as if they were mutually incompatible.
•  ↑ Back   My use of Rom 3:21–26 is given further weight by the importance it plays in Romans. Luther notes in his Bible margin that it was ‘the chief point, and the very central place of the Epistle, and of the whole Bible’ (quoted in Moo, Romans, 218). Cf. C. E. B. Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1975), 1:199. Cranfield notes it is ‘the centre and heart of the whole of Romans’.
•  ↑ Back   Conzelman, The Theology of Saint Luke , 168. Cf. Bahnsen, ‘The Encounter of Jerusalem with Athens’, 17.
•  ↑ Back   Bruce, ‘Salvation history in the New Testament’, 81.
•  ↑ Back   Watson, Text and Truth , 248.
•  ↑ Back   See §1.1 of this article in Themelios 33:2 .
•  ↑ Back   Oscar Cullmann, Christ and Time (London: SCM, 1962), 185. Cf. Cullmann, Salvation in History (London: SCM, 1967), 163.
•  ↑ Back   Ridderbos, Time Fully Come , 17. Cf. idem, The Coming of the Kingdom (ed. Raymond O. Zorn; trans. H. de Jongste; St. Catherines: Paideia, 1978), xxviii: ‘The coming of the kingdom of God is most certainly to be looked upon as the realization of the great drama of the history of salvation. . . . This realization is not merely a matter of the future, however, it has started. The great change of the aeons has taken place. The center of history is in Christ’s coming, in his victory over the demons, in his death and resurrection’. Ridderbos states that the cosmic and historical meaning of the kingdom of heaven must be fully acknowledged (xxiv). The idea of the kingdom of heaven implies the participation of all created life in the coming of the kingdom. The proportions of the kingdom are universal (46).
•  ↑ Back   Vern Poythress, Understanding Dispensationalists (2d ed.; Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1994), 43.
•  ↑ Back   Lewis and Demarest, Integrative Theology , 2:87.
•  ↑ Back   Cranfield, Romans: A Shorter Commentary , 74. John Calvin points out that Paul gives no explanation for why God allowed the times of ignorance to last so long, but that even during this time ignorance cannot be excused because of the reality of general revelation ( The Acts of the Apostles [trans. John Fraser; Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1966], 2:12, 124).
•  ↑ Back   Bruce, Acts , 340. Cf. Witherington, Acts , 535. ‘Both the Paul of his letters . . . and the Paul of this speech (17:31) see the resurrection as a decisive divine demonstration or proof of God’s intentions in regard to humankind, and the decisive shift in the ages which turns times of ignorance or sin into the age of accountability’.
•  ↑ Back   Osborne, Romans , 92.
•  ↑ Back   Ibid., 92. The reference is to T. R. Schreiner, Romans , BECNT (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 180. Cf. Mounce, Romans , 114n2. Mounce notes, ‘Most contemporary writers take Nυνὶ δὲ as temporal rather than logical and emphasize that it marks the transition to a new stage in salvation history’. Cf. Moo, Romans , 221: ‘This contrast between two eras in salvation history is one of Paul’s most basic conceptions, providing the framework for many of his key ideas’. Cf. D. A. Carson, ‘Atonement in Romans 3:21–26’, in The Glory of the Atonement (ed. Charles Hill and Frank James; Downers Grove: IVP, 2004), 121: The ‘but now’ is ‘salvation-historical’.
•  ↑ Back   Edwards, Romans , 98.
•  ↑ Back   Cranfield, Romans: A Shorter Commentary , 70. Cf. Edwards, Romans, 98.
•  ↑ Back   Cranfield, Romans: A Shorter Commentary , 69.
•  ↑ Back   Moo, Romans , 240.
•  ↑ Back   A different interpretation is offered by Glenn Davies, Faith and Obedience in Romans: A Study of Romans 1–4 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1990), 110. Davies suggests it was the sins of the righteous that God formerly passed over, thus enabling the Old Testament saints to enjoy the experience of forgiveness. However, this minority view among commentators seems unlikely given the redemptive-historical framework of Paul’s argument here.
•  ↑ Back   Paul J. Leithart, ‘Paul on God’s Righteousness’, available at http://www.leithart.com/archives/000437.php (accessed 19 August 2006).
•  ↑ Back   Moo, Romans , 222. Moo notes that this is how most English translations interpret this verse. Cf. Osborne, Romans, 93: ‘ apart from the law modifies made known more than it does a righteousness from God and so refers to the process by which it is revealed rather than the way it is received by us’.
•  ↑ Back   Moo, Romans , 222f. Cf. Carson, ‘Atonement in Romans 3:21–26’, 123. Carson states that the reference ‘focuses attention not on the reception of righteousness . . . but on the disclosure of this righteousness’.
•  ↑ Back   Moo, Romans , 223 Cf. Carson, ‘Atonement in Romans 3:21–26’, 121, 123.
•  ↑ Back   Carson, ‘Atonement in Romans 3:21–26’, 123: ‘There is a dramatic shift in salvation-history’.
•  ↑ Back   Moo, Romans , 223. Moo comments that the ‘law and prophets’ denotes the entire Old Testament. Cf. Osborne, Romans , 93.
•  ↑ Back   That is not to say that all believers at all times have known and understood the same details.
•  ↑ Back   See below.
•  ↑ Back   Pinnock, Wideness , 101.
•  ↑ Back   Tiessen, Who Can Be Saved? , 129. Cf. 178–79.
•  ↑ Back   Ibid., 133, quoting Marshall, Acts, 289–90 (emphasis in original).
•  ↑ Back   Tiessen, Who Can Be Saved? , 178. The reference is to Ronald H. Nash, ‘Restrictivism’, in What About Those Who Have Never Heard? (ed. John Sanders; Downers Grove: IVP, 1995), 122.
•  ↑ Back   Tiessen, Who Can Be Saved? , 199. Ecclesiocentrism is characterized by the belief that in the Christian dispensation only those who hear the gospel (at least in the case of competent adults) can be saved. Thus, the possibility of salvation is coextensive with the presence of the Church. See Tiessen, Who Can Be Saved? , 32–33.
•  ↑ Back   John Sanders, ed., What About Those Who Have Never Heard? (Downers Grove: IVP, 1995), 37n18. Sanders highlights here the particular problems that the dispensational system presents for the situation of those living at a time of transition between different dispensations. ‘When do the new requirements of the “specific content of salvation” take effect? For instance when did the requirement for belief in Jesus become obligatory? At the resurrection? At the ascension? . . . If a “grace period” is granted to people who are a dispensation behind (in terms of hearing), then why not a grace period for those unevangelized, who may be five or six dispensations behind?’ Sanders is right to identify this as a problem. Clark Pinnock writes favourably regarding dispensationalism with its emphasis on the difference between the nature of saving faith in the different dispensations: ‘Charles Ryrie spoke of a dispensation where God accepted pagans like Job on the basis of faith but without knowledge of either Moses or Christ. I felt this was biblical and found it appealing. I remember thinking how helpful it would be if this arrangement were still true for today for people in the same situation. I keep hoping dispensational theology will progress in this direction too and that a dispensational inclusivist will come forward to help people burdened by restrictivism’. Pinnock continues, however, ‘It hasn’t happened yet, and I’m not holding my breath’ (‘An Inclusivist View’, 108). The dispensational theologian Ramesh P. Richard has provided a useful critique of inclusivism, showing that even if the nature of saving faith in Old Testament and New Testament times differed (with Old Testament believers not confessing Christ), this no longer holds true now that Christ has come ( The Population of Heaven [Chicago: Moody, 1994]). Dispensational inclusivists attempt to resolve the problem by proposing “transdispensationalizing”–treating people in a particular dispensation as though they live in another dispensation, in terms of the requirement of salvation. Tony Evans uses this concept in Totally Saved (Chicago: Moody, 2004). This problem is overcome for covenantal theologians, for saving faith has been constant in its essential nature at all times.
•  ↑ Back   Tiessen, Who Can Be Saved? , 168.
•  ↑ Back   For an insightful critique of the concept of ‘Pagan Saints’, see Strange, Salvation Among the Unevangelized , 163–88.
•  ↑ Back   D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God (Leicester: Apollos, 1996), 310. Likewise, Darrell Bock suggests that if the times of ignorance end with the hearing of the gospel then ‘at Mars Hill Paul puts nonhearers at risk. In their ignorance they had a chance, but now that he has told them about Jesus they must respond or be destroyed. We are driven to the absurd conclusion that Paul should never have mentioned Jesus, because as “nonhearers” they had a chance!’ Bock, ‘Athenians Who Have Never Heard’, 122.
•  ↑ Back   Carson and Bock possibly intend their statements to be understood rhetorically. Nevertheless, my assertion that they are misleading is warranted.
•  ↑ Back   Email from John Frame, ‘Does the BC Condition still exist today?’ 22 August 2006.
•  ↑ Back   Ibid.
•  ↑ Back   John Piper, Let The Nations Be Glad (Leicester: IVP, 1993), 134–35. While I agree with the general thrust of Piper’s statement, it unhelpfully infers that salvation was different before Christ. However, Piper makes it clear elsewhere that this is not what he means to suggest. He notes that there is continuity between God’s path to salvation in the OT and NT and that before Christ people were not saved apart from special revelation. General revelation was not effective in producing faith before Christ but ineffective after Christ (164n23).
•  ↑ Back   William Larkin, Acts , IVPNTC (Downers Grove: IVP, 1995), 259–60.
•  ↑ Back   I do accept however, that New Testament believers have greater knowledge of Christ than Old Testament believers.
•  ↑ Back   Moo, Romans , 221.

Adam Sparks

Adam Sparks completed his PhD (Theology of Religions) at Bristol University in 2007, under the supervision of Professor Gavin D’Costa. He has been a part-time tutor at Bristol University and is currently a part-time sessional lecturer at the University of London (Birkbeck College). This article is an updated section of his thesis.

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