what is a personal statement in journalism

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• Journalism Personal Statement Examples

Your Journalism personal statement is a crucial element of your UCAS application . It is your opportunity to showcase your passion for journalism, your relevant experiences, and your potential to succeed as a journalism student. Check our journalism personal statement examples for UCAS , which can inspire and guide you in writing your successful personal statement . 

Whether you are interested in broadcast journalism , print journalism , or digital and online journalism , these examples cover a range of topics and styles that can help you stand out to admissions tutors.

Journalism Personal Statement Example

As an A-level student in Business Studies, English Literature, and Religious Studies, I have always been passionate about education and learning. I have always been fascinated by the power of the written word and the impact that journalism can have on shaping public opinion and educating society. That is why I am so excited to pursue a career in journalism and continue to make a positive impact on society.

My interest in journalism was first sparked during work experience placements at my local newspaper, The South Wales Evening Post, and a local radio station. During my time at the newspaper, I was allowed to work with experienced journalists and editors, assisting them with research, conducting interviews, and writing articles for publication. This experience taught me the importance of accuracy, objectivity, and the need to present balanced viewpoints. Additionally, at the radio station, I learned about the power of broadcast media and how it can be used to reach a wider audience and engage with listeners on a more personal level.

As a great believer in education, I see the role of the journalist as an educating force, an incredibly important one. The media has a responsibility to inform the public about current affairs and provide accurate and unbiased reporting. Through my work experience, I have seen firsthand how the media can influence public opinion and shape perceptions of different issues. I believe that journalists have a responsibility to provide truthful and accurate reporting, whilst also highlighting important social issues and driving change.

Outside of my academic routine, I have several hobbies and interests that keep me grounded and motivated. One of my favourite pastimes is reading, particularly books that explore different cultures and perspectives. I also enjoy running, which I find helps me to clear my mind and think creatively. By engaging in these hobbies, I can maintain a balanced lifestyle and stay connected with the world around me.

Throughout my academic career, I have strived to excel in all of my studies. During my secondary school years, I was one of the best students in my class, achieving high grades in all subjects. This has given me a strong foundation and the skills necessary to succeed in a career in journalism. Additionally, I have travelled around the world and visited 56 countries so far. This has allowed me to gain a wider perspective on different cultures and societies, which I believe will be invaluable in my future career.

I am excited to continue my education and pursue a career in journalism. I believe that my passion for education, my experience in the media, and my diverse interests and hobbies make me an excellent candidate for this field. I am committed to using my skills and talents to make a positive impact on society, and I look forward to the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead.

Recommended for further reading:

• How to Write a Personal Statement for a Master’s
• How to Write a Personal Statement for a PhD
• UCAS Personal Statement: A Writing Guide And Tips For Success
• Tips for Writing a Personal Statement for the University
• How to Write a Personal Statement That Stands Out
• Personal Statement Examples UK
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• How To Write A Dentistry Personal Statement

Personal Statement Example For Journalism

I am driven by my passion for the English language and the power it holds to inform, engage and inspire people. With a deep-rooted affection for the written word and its ability to capture the essence of life, I have always been fascinated by how language has evolved. As a student of English Literature, History and Media Studies, I have been able to explore this evolution in detail and develop my unique voice as a writer.

Studying English has allowed me to think critically, analyse the techniques used by both fiction and non-fiction writers and express my ideas and opinions through a portfolio of work. Through this, I have learnt how to craft compelling narratives, convey complex ideas with clarity and precision, and engage readers through powerful storytelling. My studies in History and Media Studies have complemented my understanding of English, allowing me to appreciate the importance of context, perspective, and the role of media in shaping our understanding of the world around us.

Outside of academics, I am involved in many creative pursuits that allow me to develop my skills as a communicator and storyteller. I participate in a drama group, where I am honing my skills in characterisation, improvisation and public speaking. I am also working towards my Bronze Arts Award, which involves creating and performing a piece of original drama. Additionally, I enjoy playing the piano, which requires a large amount of patience, creativity and dedication – skills that I believe are essential for a successful journalist.

I am proud to have received Young Writers Award from my Secondary School, recognising my talent and dedication as a writer. These accolades have encouraged me to pursue a career in journalism, where I can use my skills to inform, educate and entertain readers on a wide range of topics. I am excited about the prospect of being able to tell stories that matter, whether it is through investigative journalism, features or opinion pieces.

My passion for the English language, combined with my academic pursuits and creative pursuits, have prepared me well for a career in journalism. I am eager to continue my journey as a writer and storyteller, and I believe that a degree in journalism will provide me with the knowledge, skills and experience needed to make a meaningful contribution to the world of media.

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7 ways to improve a journalism personal statement

As a journalism student, the question I hear the most from people wanting to study the subject at university is, “ how do I improve my personal statement?” and understandably so. Aside from your grades, your personal statement is your big chance to prove (or sell) yourself to that dream university.

It’s an arduous process with every word being sweated over and making the most of the strict word count. Deciding what to include is a nightmare in itself, so hopefully the following tips will help you improve your personal statement.

1. Researching and Deciding

Knowing what you want to do can be hard, but making a decision can make things a lot easier. Your personal statement will be much easier to write if you decide on one subject to apply for. Applying for multiple subjects (Journalism, History, English, etc.) can lead to an unfocused personal statement. Researching each subject and their related courses and then deciding what is best for you can make life easier.

Why is writing my personal statement so hard? I’m applying for journalism and creative writing courses I should be good at it — Chloe Becca (@ChloeBecca_) October 20, 2015

2. Get Blogging

The internet provides a great platform to get your writing out there. Blogging sites such as WordPress, Blogger and Google Blogs allow you to publish content for free and, if you’re lucky, build a readership. Even if nobody reads your blog, its a great place to archive your work.

3. Writing with Passion

Your personal statement should scream that you are passionate about writing and dream of becoming a journalist. After all, this is what your personal statement is about: proving how much you want to study the course. Don’t be too over-dramatic, but make the administrations person reading know how much you love to write.

4. Writing for an Online Publisher

What’s an online publisher? You’re on one. Sites such as Kettle Mag offer an excellent place to get articles published to a wider audience. They also introduce you to people just like you. Make sure to follow any style guide that the online publisher may have.

5. Work Experience

Nothing looks better on a personal statement than work experience. It provides you with experience as a journalist and also proves your interest in journalism. You can organise work experience by contacting where you want to work directly or you can get help through your school or college. Local newspapers are always a good option.

ok so i wanna go into sports journalism and ive got no experience and nothing to write about on my personal statement how stupid can i be?? — rachel (@hwatsonfan) July 21, 2015

6. School Newspapers

Busy days at school and college don’t allow for much time to be a journalist. That’s why becoming involved in a school newspaper is such a useful opportunity. It allows you to work on your writing skills, while having your work seen by other people. It’s also a handy place to start building up an archive of your work.

7. Show Your Ambition

So, you’ve said why you want to study the course and what you’ve done. But, it’s also important to say what you want to do after university. Do you want to become a columnist, a court reporter or a television reporter? There’s a long list of what a journalism course can lead to in the world of work and there is no pressure to make a firm decision at this point, but a quick mention of what you hope to achieve after university will show you have put some thought into your future and taking part in this course is something you really want to do to achieve that dream job.

For information on what journalism courses are out there check out our Journalism course search 

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Personal Statement: Applying for a Journalism/Media Degree

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• personal statement

A question I am frequently asked is what exactly you should write on your personal statement when applying for a journalism/media course. Putting together a great statement can be a pretty stressful task as it is difficult to gage what exactly universities are looking for. However, all graduates have been through it and there is no reason why you cannot secure a place on the course of your choosing. Here are some of my top tips on what exactly you should be writing:

Enthusiasm and passion

For me, I think this is the most crucial element to any application. Demonstrate just how passionate and enthused you are about the course. Perhaps pinpoint an element or a module that you are most excited about and why. Showing that you genuinely want to be studying that course always looks great and will put you in good stead with the admissions officer. Cardiff in particular has a fantastic student media department with its own newspaper, magazine, radio, and TV station. Make reference to these and emphasise how eager you are to get involved, maybe even mentioning that you aspire to be the editor-in-chief of the magazine, or a presenter on the radio station. Universities are always looking for people that want to get stuck in so convey this well.

Relevant experience

If you have done any kind of writing, editing, blogging etc. outside of school then absolutely put this in. This will show that you are not only able to use your initiative, but that you have the ability to work independently and have great time-management – all essential skills when studying at higher education. If you don’t already have a blog GET ONE. This is possibly the most simple and easy way to get journalism experience where you can write whatever you like, whenever you like, and wherever you like.

Even if you don’t directly have experiences like this, any part time jobs or qualifications you have will also be great for your statement as each will bring with them a useful set of skills for university.

A recent news story that has caught your interest

If you want to study journalism, you of course have to be up-to-date with all the latest happenings of the world. Writing a small paragraph on something in the news that has captured your attention and why will make your statement stand-out and show that you engage with the news. Don’t be afraid to have an opinion and articulate your feelings about something you feel strongly about.

Future goals

Why is it you want to study journalism/media? What do you hope to do with the degree you are applying for? Express that studying the course is a stepping stone for you to get into your dream career and that you truly believe the university will be able to support and facilitate that goal.

Finally, no human being is defined purely by work. Tell the admissions officer exactly who you are and show some personality. What is it you enjoy doing at the weekend? Do you have a hobby? No matter how common or unusual it is, put it in! If you play a sport then there is bound to be a society for that at Cardiff so let them know that you are desperate to get involved. You want to make it clear to the university that there is so much more to you than just academia, and that you will be an all-round great student to have study with them.

Thank you, this helped so much

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• Journalism personal statement

Journalism Personal Statement Example

Sample statement.

If you want to apply to study Journalism at university then it’s almost a given that you’re good at writing but all good writers suffer from writer’s block occasionally, right?

For those of you that are struggling with a personal statement to study Journalism – here is our example to help you out:

Having developed a passion for writing at an early age my writing skills have evolved over the years and I now feel that a career in journalism is right for me. However, I am not prepared to rest on my laurels and I am always striving to further develop my writing skills.

I enjoy the challenge of conveying a story, event, or thought to a reader in an interesting, engaging, and easily understood way. I write my own blog and look forward to expanding my topic range when I reach university.

To expand my knowledge and skills in journalism I undertook a work experience placement at my local newspaper, The Waterside Herald, whilst I was at school. This gave me the chance to develop my writing skills to suit a journalistic style and to gain an in-depth insight into the daily life of a journalist.

Outside of school I enjoy travelling and hope that my love of travel will enable me to gain experience working for publications in other countries during summer breaks from university.

I am also a keen sports player and regular runner. As well as my academic goals I also hope to complete the London Marathon next year, something that I have been training towards for a number of months.

I look forward to the new challenges that life at university will bring and having the chance to learn new skills and build on my already high standards of writing and communication.

I hope that by studying journalism to degree level I will be able to gain an entry level position at a national newspaper such as The Guardian or The Times. I am also interested in pursuing television journalism as a possible career choice whilst at university.

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How to write your UCAS personal statement

For those of you used to writing 280-character tweets, a 4,000-character UCAS personal statement might seem like your idea of hell.

The UCAS personal statement word count is 47 lines or 4000 characters – and trust us, you’ll want more.

Starring at a blank page can be really difficult so just start by writing anything – for example, why you want to study this subject and your best attributes – then you just need to structure it.

Your UCAS personal statement should be broken up into three main sections.

• Why you are excited about the course you are applying for

And how did you become interested in the subject – did you read an article or go to a lecture on the topic?

Make sure you have a punchy first sentence to engage the reader.

In this section you also need to show that you really understand the course.

• Evidence to prove your interest in the course

This can be shown through work experience and outside reading.

Here, you should also mention the skills you have that make you right for the course.

• What makes you unique?

Now you can write about your interests and hobbies, try and talk about something that you do that is unique.

Personal statements are very subjective but we’ve compiled a list of dos and don’ts to keep you on the right path.

UCAS PERSONAL STATEMENTS DON’Ts

• DON’T reference a specific university

The same personal statement will be sent to every course and university you apply for so avoid being too specific.

• DON’T be negative

You shouldn’t put down the course you are applying for eg ‘I am applying to be a nurse because it takes less time than training to be a doctor.’

• DON’T waffle

Now is not the time for verbal diarrhoea – you only have 47 lines so you need to be concise.

• DON’T be arrogant

It’s good to show off your skills and experience but be careful not to cross the line into arrogance.

• DON’T use clichés

Admissions tutors read A LOT of personal statements so avoid clichés such as ‘I have wanted to become a journalist for as long as I can remember.’

• DON’T exaggerate

Be prepared to back up everything you say in your personal statement in an interview.

• DON’T try and be funny

Admissions tutors might not have the same sense of humour as you.

• DON’T leave it until the last minute

Writing a whole page about yourself is harder than you think.

• DON’T copy anyone else’s

Universities use software to check for plagiarism.

UCAS PERSONAL STATEMENTS DOs

• DO show you’ve gone the extra mile

Talk about the extracurricular activities you do outside of school – for example volunteering or clubs you belong to.

• DO proofread your personal statement

Get a parent or a friend to read it too, a fresh eye is always good.

• DO save as you are going along

UCAS times out after 35 minutes of inactivity.

Unfortunately there is no definitive formula to writing your UCAS personal statement but stick to our guidelines and you can’t go too wrong.

Whether you’re currently in the process of writing your personal statement or have already gone through the pain, share your advice below.

If you need help with the rest of the form, take a look at our filling in your UCAS application blog.

Featured image courtesy of Francisco Osorio via Flickr, with thanks

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Journalism – Boost Your Personal Statement

Thinking about studying journalism at university but not sure what to include in your personal statement?  

Journalism is a competitive industry, but if you’re considering studying a degree in this exciting discipline, it’s important that you convey your enthusiasm, capability and written communication well – your personal statement is therefore the best place to evidence these skills. Understandably, the current situation has made things very difficult for you to gain extra-curricular skills, but here are a few activities you may wish to do over the summer to research the profession more and to enhance your personal statement.

You may be undecided about the type of journalism you want to specialise in, be it newspaper, magazine, digital, TV or radio broadcast journalism, but that’s ok as a degree in journalism will give you the opportunity to explore different areas in more depth, so ensure that you check the content of your five university choices for variety.   Also ensure that you research the profession – click here for further information.   

After you’ve researched different careers, start researching influential journalists.   You may aspire to be the next Faisal Islam or Vanessa Kingori, or it may be someone who writes or broadcasts about topics that you value such as the environment, music, fashion, travel, food, equality or human rights for example.   Like artists, it’s always good to have a muse or a role model to admire from afar before you start developing your own style.   So start watching TED talks, collate inspiring journalists’ work and dig a bit deeper into their backgrounds.

A sk yourself, what makes a successful journalist, influencer or campaigner?

Build upon the skills of a journalist

Check out the NCTJ Summer School , which boasts a series of video clips outlining the different attributes that make a great journalist.   This has already started but you can check out the videos on YouTube and learn about a variety of journalistic skills such as news gathering, media ethics, law, sports reporting, fact checking and much more.   Click here for access.  

Another useful skill is touch-typing and improving the number of words-per-minute that you can type and you can take a free online course here. You may have also heard about news reporters taking notes using shorthand when interviewing people.  This skill, used by many journalists is known as teeline and is great for when technology fails.  Have a go at learning some of the basics here as well as brushing up on your grammar from the BBC news style archives.

For a variety of free online courses related to Journalism and Media, try Alison , Coursera, or Open Culture all delivered from universities from all over the world.   This will give you a taste of learning beyond your current course and will equip you with research and independent study skills.   Just ensure that you check the time commitment of the course so that it’s feasible for you to complete.  It is also wise to keep up-to-date with what’s happening in the industry such as new technology, tools, apps and current affairs through the Journalism website – a go-to site for many journalists where you can read about current developments as well as listen to podcasts.

If you’ve not had any work experience yet, there are some virtual opportunities currently available.   Although these are not journalistic roles, you will still acquire employability skills such as time-management, planning and working to a deadline – all skills transferable to journalism.   View the following platforms on Chrome for opportunities: Inside Sherpa, Barclays Lifeskills and Speakers for Schools .  

For writing experience, you’ll have to be persuasive and seek out opportunities yourself, so approach your local newspaper and ask if there are any virtual tasks you can help them with or see if you can interview a journalist about their job. The worst they can do is say no! Or try writing competitions such as the BBC Young Reporter, Young Muslim Writers Award , or the Walter Scott Prize to name a few.  

You could also try blogging about issues that are important to you through sites such as WordPress or Blogger – don’t worry if nobody reads them, this is a way for you to collate your writing! 

Volunteering in roles such as tutoring English or campaigning for social action is also great experience, so try Vinspired .  You can always blog about your volunteering experiences too! Or why not approach other volunteering organisations and offer to write for them?   You could even ask your school or college if you can start a newsletter, newspaper or social media communication – this will build your personal writing portfolio.   Other ideas include volunteering for hospital radio when the situation becomes safer to do so. For information on this, click here.

These are just some cost-effective ideas for you to expand upon in your personal statement, but it’s not an exhaustive list so do keep your eyes open for other opportunities too.  

Remember, like a journalist, be tenacious and create opportunities!

For further advice on your personal statement, email: [email protected]

* Always be cautious and check any online forum or employer with your teacher or people at home first, as your safety is paramount!

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All About Universities

SOP for Journal...

SOP for Journalism: How to Write a Statement of Purpose for Journalism, Mass Communication, or Media Studies?

Do you have a background in communication sciences, social sciences, or literature? Do you aspire to pursue an MA/MSc in Journalism and Mass Communication or Media Studies abroad? Writing an effective SOP plays a crucial role in the initial steps of the application process for some of the top media schools like Amsterdam, Southern California, and LSE.

Media schools assess capabilities like critical thinking and creativity through writing samples, along with communication skills evident in your portfolios. Similarly, the capabilities of an appropriate candidate are highlighted through your statement of purpose for journalism.

But how do you write an effective statement of purpose for a mass communication program? Connect with Yocket Counsellors , and they will help you with everything that comes along the way! Get personalized assistance on your SOP, LOR, and application process and get it all sorted.

Read ahead to understand the intricate facets of a good SOP for journalism.

How to Draft an SOP for Mass Communication, Journalism, and Media Studies?

To start writing your statement of purpose for a mass communication sample, brainstorm, free-write, and collect your thoughts. Your SOP should dive into relevant life experiences, academic and professional background (if applicable), career goals, co-curricular activities, volunteering/community involvement, and more. Get more information at Yocket’s SOP Builder.

So, refer to the effective guidelines given below to draft a stellar SOP for mass communication, journalism, and media studies programs:

Introduction

What motivated you to choose Journalism, Mass Communication, and Media Studies as your interests? What is the strongest experience that led you to choose this field? For example, a community event in your neighborhood was misrepresented in the media, or a progressive children’s campaign against abuse did not get any coverage in your national media. Depict how this formative experience provoked a thought for you and eventually translated into your passion for Journalism, Mass Communication, and Media Studies.

• Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing experience that is evocative of your journey into the field.
• Alternatively, you can also begin with a research problem statement that you consider exploring in your future Journalism, Mass Communication, and Media Studies programs.
• This is because some programs directly seek an SOP for mass communication that is more of a research proposal than it is otherwise.

Second Paragraph

Building on the onset of interest in Journalism, Mass Communications, and Media Studies, discuss relevant academic and life experiences that have augmented this interest. How has each of these experiences impacted your thought process, streamlined it, or transformed it?

• Here, you can discuss relevant undergraduate experiences or courses in which you developed a particular interest.
• For example, you must have developed Journalism, Mass Communications, Media Studies, or Media Psychology.
• Touch upon a few course specifics and how these led you to develop your portfolio and inspired to work on projects relevant to these interests.
• You can discuss interesting projects you have worked on or relevant co-curricular experiences worth sharing. Make sure that your experiences align with your interest in the Journalism, Communications, and Media Studies program you’re applying for.

Third Paragraph

Have you faced any setbacks in your academics? You can mention that if you just made the cut or have fewer scores.

• Have you faced any other unique challenges or setbacks that have redefined your perspectives or interests?
• How did you overcome these challenges, and what is/are the positive outcomes of these experiences?
• It’s essential to reflect on the lessons from these experiences to underscore your resilience. To learn more about how to make your SOP stand out, schedule a free consultation call with Yocket’s experts. 

Fourth Paragraph

You can discuss extracurriculars in this paragraph. Remember that universities are interested in learning more than just academics. So, go ahead and speak about your hobbies, social work, volunteering, etc. here. You can also discuss workshops or certifications that you have taken to upgrade your skills.

Fifth Paragraph

If you have work experience, add it here. If you do not have work experience, you can also discuss your internship experiences, reflecting on your specific learnings and take-aways. Identify a knowledge gap or the need for you to go for an MA/MSc in Journalism, Communications, and Media Studies.

• How has the work experience/s influenced your career goals? Why do you wish to go for an MA/MSc in Journalism now?
• Define your short-term and long-term goals.
• How will the MA/MSc program in journalism or mass media from a specific design school help you achieve these goals?
• How does the program align with your areas of interest?

Your conclusion for a statement of purpose in mass communication or journalism needs to be equally engaging as your introduction.

• What capabilities do you have to contribute to the university?
• How can you be an asset to the university?
• What activities, clubs, sports, student associations, groups, etc, piqued your interest?
• What diverse experiences do you bring to your future graduate community?

Do’s and Don'ts of an SOP for Journalism, Mass Communication, and Media Studies

Your statement of purpose should be truthful, concise, engaging, and well-written. Remember that every experience that you present should be coherent and well-connected. This leaves no space for grey areas. Follow these dos and don'ts in the statement of purpose for the journalism sample.

Suggested: Common Mistakes in Writing SOPs and Application Essay

Skills to Include in Your SOP for Mass Communication, Journalism, and Media Studies

Your statement of purpose for a journalism sample should be in-depth and research-intensive. Journalism, communications, or media studies is a creative and fascinating field of study. From information design, campaign graphics, and digital entrepreneurship to filming, news production, and academia, the career opportunities are diverse.

Therefore, an SOP for journalism should portray these skills to make it unique and more appealing than the rest. Let’s check!

• Investigative Skills
• Through Knowledge
• Communication Skills
• Professionalism and Confidence
• Research Aptitude
• Academic/Research Writing Skills
• Knowledge of Platform Specialisation applying for (television, digital, print, and so on)
• Relevant Technologies/Software
• Experiential Mindset
• Critical Thinking
• Problem-solving

Suggested: Remove Your SOP Writing Fever!

SOP Requirements of Top Universities for Journalism, Mass Communications, and Media Studies

Most universities have a similar statement of purpose mass communication requirements as part of their respective applications. We’ve shortlisted a few top universities for MA/MSc in Journalism, Mass Communications, or Media Studies with their requirements.

1.  University of Amsterdam

If you are applying for an MA in Journalism, Communications, or Media Studies at the University of Amsterdam , follow these guidelines:

• What are your reasons for applying to the course?
• How will you contribute to your future classes and beyond?
• A succinct narrative of your background with emphasis on clearly defined academic and career goals.
• The SOP should focus on ideas rather than extensive background/personal information and should be forward-thinking in vision.
• Evidence of motivation for the proposed area of study.
• Applications to specializations within Media have specific prompts that need to be addressed in the SOP.

2.  London School of Economic and Political Science

The London School of Economic and Political Science requires a personal statement as part of an MSc in Journalism, Communications, and Media Studies.

• The personal statement should be 500 words.
• Elucidate your reasons for applying to the program and the university.
• What is your current creative practice or your Journalism, Communications, or Media Studies career, and how will this help you achieve your future career goals?
• If you cannot substantiate formal educational background or qualifications to apply to the program, describe relevant academic and professional experiences underscoring motivation to apply to the chosen Journalism, Communications, or Media Studies program.

3.  University of Southern California

The University of Southern California requires an SOP of 500 to 750 words in length. This statement should demonstrate the following aspects:

• Your interest in applying to the chosen program
• Clearly defined goals (in the program and after the program)
• What are the expected outcomes of the program, and how do these align with or help achieve your career aspirations?

Apart from these general instructions, SOPs for different specializations have unique requirements and different word limits.

From the Desk of Yocket

However, the SOP writing style for most countries remains the same. But in the case of a program-specific statement of purpose for Journalism/Mass Communication/Media Studies, you can re-engineer the original draft to suit the University/program requirements.

We understand that writing an SOP can be daunting. But don’t worry, Yocket is here to help you comprehend the nuances of an actionable SOP in terms of the format and guidelines. Therefore, choose Yocket Premium and bring your educational dream to life. Our counsellors are transparent with the rules, cooperative, and provide unique services. Become a Yocketeer and make your study abroad journey a hassle-free ride!

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the accepted word count for an MA/MSc in Journalism, Communication, and Media Studies SOP?

Keep the length of the SOP for journalism within 800-1000 words. However, universities abroad have word counts defined as part of the online applications.

What can lead a statement of purpose for mass communication to be rejected right away?

Plagiarism and poor syntax can get your SOP for mass communication rejected.

What is the best writing style for a Journalism and Mass Communication or Media Studies SOP?

Conversational writing keeps the narrative engaging. So, write your SOP effectively maintaining a positive tone.

How many SOPs to write for Journalism and Mass Communication or Media Studies?

Each university requires a separate and original SOP. Hence, you need to write a different statement of purpose for the mass communication sample for every university applying to. Along with SOP, Universities require program-specific writing samples as part of applications.

How to save and submit your SOP for mass communication and journalism?

SOPs have to be uploaded in PDF as part of the applications. This makes your SOP look professional and eliminates the possibility of any formatting inconsistencies. Universities may also provide forms to paste contents of SOP as part of applications with or without the option to upload it.

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How To Write a Personal Statement That Stands Out

Table of contents

Laura Jane Bradbury

A personal statement is a chance to highlight your unique qualities, skills, and experiences, all while showcasing your personality.

But whether you're applying for university, a job, or funding, it can be daunting to write about yourself. To increase your chances of getting accepted, it's important to know how to create an effective personal statement.

In my six years as a copywriter, I’ve written many personal statements that get results. In this article, I’ll guide you through what to include, what to avoid, and how to tailor a personal statement based on your application type.

Key Takeaways

• A personal statement is an opportunity to share your unique qualities, experiences, and skills.
• It should always relate to the course, job, or funding you are applying for.
• Include accomplishments and experiences that demonstrate how suited you are to the position or course you are applying for.
• Use clear and simple language to ensure your points are understood.

Your personal statement should be concise and demonstrate how you fit the position or opportunity you’re applying for. It’s important to keep information relevant, rather than listing all of your skills and accomplishments.

Follow these steps to accurately write and tailor your statement.

Understand your prompt

Before you start, make sure you understand what's expected of you. Are there specific instructions, keywords, or phrases that stand out in your prompt? Read through it thoroughly and note the requirements. You can then brainstorm ideas for each point.

Let's say I'm applying for a university journalism course. I've been asked to write a statement that shares why I'm interested and why I would be a good fit. I can use columns to plan my content:

Putting your ideas together first makes it easier to stay on track. Otherwise, you might lose focus and include irrelevant information. 

Show, don't just tell

Once you’ve listed your experiences, skills, and accomplishments, consider how you can demonstrate them with examples. Take a look at the list you created during the previous exercise and organize your points so you have clear examples and proof.

This technique helps you demonstrate your experiences and how they tie in with your application.

When telling anecdotes, use engaging stories that demonstrate your skills. For instance, a story about how I handled a fast-paced news internship proves I work well under pressure. 

Start strong

Recruiters, application tutors, and funders read lots of personal statements. You can make yours stand out with an engaging introduction.

Examples of a strong opening include:

A meaningful statistic

This draws readers in and increases credibility: 

"Communication is the key to marketing success, according to Business Marketing News. With five years of experience communicating and delivering campaigns to global clients, I have the skills and passion to add value to your team."

A personal story

Anecdotes connect the reader with the author’s real-life experience: 

"My first exposure to microbiology was during my time as a research assistant for a microbiologist. I was fascinated by the complex and intricate processes within cells."

An alarming statement

This piques the reader’s interest by making an issue seem urgent:  

“ The fashion industry churns out clothes at an alarming rate, causing mass production of synthetic fibers and harsh chemicals which have a detrimental impact on the planet. Funding my sustainability initiative is vital to mitigating this environmental impact." 

Avoid cliches such as "From a young age, I have always loved...." and "For as long as I can remember, I have had a passion for..."

Pro tip: Use Wordtune Editor 's Shorten feature to cut unnecessary fluff and make your intro sharper. Simply type in your sentence and click Shorten to receive suggestions.

Get Wordtune for free > Get Wordtune for free >

Admission committees and employers appreciate sincerity and authenticity. While it may be tempting, avoid exaggeration. You can better emphasize your skills and personality by being honest. For instance, rather than claiming I read every type of newspaper in my journalism application, I can focus on my dedication to reading The New York Times.

Your writing style should also feel genuine. Instead of trying to impress with complex language and fancy words, keep sentences simple and direct . This makes them more effective because they’re easier to read. 

Address weaknesses

Addressing weaknesses can show your willingness to confront challenges. It also gives you a chance to share efforts you have made for improvement. When explaining a weakness, exclude excuses.

Instead of saying "I didn't achieve my expected grades due to work commitments impacting my studies," try “While I didn't achieve my expected grades, I am now working with a tutor to help me understand my weak areas so I can succeed in your program.”

Wordtune’s Spices feature can help you develop counterarguments to weaknesses. In the Editor, highlight your text, click on Spices, and then Counterargument . Here’s an example:

Using Wordtune’s suggestion, I can highlight my eagerness to learn and provide examples to support my argument.

Highlight achievements

This is your chance to shine! A personal statement should highlight your best qualities — provided they relate to your prompt.

Ask yourself:

• What are your skills and strengths? Identify both academic and non-academic abilities such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork.
• What challenges have you faced? Reflect on how you have overcome significant challenges and how these experiences have helped you grow. For example, completing a course, learning a new language, or starting a business.
• What are your unique selling points? Consider what sets you apart from other applicants. For example, you may have a unique set of technical skills or experience learning in a different country.
• How have your achievements shaped your goals and aspirations? Sharing your goals shows that you think long-term and have taken the time to make sure you’re applying for the right opportunity.

Connect with the institution or company

Tailor your statement to the specific institution or company you're applying to — this shows you understand their values and have carefully considered where you want to seek opportunities.

To do this, head to the company or institution’s website and look for the About page. Many organizations include a mission statement on this page that conveys its purpose and values.

For example, universities often include their values under “Community” or “Student Life” sections. Here, Princeton University’s “In Service of Humanity” section highlights how they value using education to benefit society. Applicants can engage with this by explaining how they interact with their communities and seek to use their education to help others.

You can also research a company or institution’s social media. Look for similarities — maybe you both prioritize collaboration or think outside the box. Draw upon this in your personal statement. 

End with a strong conclusion

A strong conclusion is clear, concise, and leaves a lasting impression. Use these three steps:

• Summarize the main points of your statement. For example, “My experience volunteering for the school newspaper, along with my communication skills and enthusiasm for writing, make me an ideal student for your university."
• Discuss your future . Share your future ambitions to remind the reader that you’ve carefully considered how the opportunity fits into your plans.
• Include a closing statement. End on a positive note and offer the reader a final explanation for why you would be a great match. For instance, “Thank you for reviewing my statement. I am confident my skills and experience align with the role and your company culture.”

Tip: Learn more about writing an effective conclusion with our handy guide . 

Different types of personal statements

Now you know how to write a personal statement, let’s look at what to focus on depending on your application type.

The length of your personal statement will vary depending on the type. Generally, it should be around 500 words to 650 words . However, a university application is often longer than a statement for a job, so it’s vital to determine what is expected of you from the beginning.

Whatever the length, it’s important to remove and edit content fluff , including any repetition or copy that does not relate to your prompt.

Personal statement checklist

Use this checklist to ensure that your statement includes: 

• An engaging introduction.
• Clear examples of your experiences, skills, and expertise. 
• A commitment to improvement, if required.
• Any applicable achievements. 
• A direct connection to the company or institution’s values.
• A strong conclusion that summarizes information without adding new content.
• Authentic, simple language.

Personal statements are an opportunity to delve deeper and share who you are beyond your grades or resume experience. Demonstrate your ability with anecdotes and examples, address any weaknesses, and remember to use genuine and simple language. This is your place to shine, so follow our tips while displaying your unique personality, and you’ll be sure to stand out from the crowd.

Want to get started and create a powerful introduction? Read our step-by-step guide .

What is the difference between a cover letter and a personal statement?

A cover letter expresses your interest in a position and introduces you to an employer. It’s typically shorter and focuses on your qualifications, skills, and experience for a particular role. A personal statement, however, is common for a job, internship, funding, or university application. It explores your background, goals, and aspirations, as well as your skills and experience.

What is the purpose of a personal statement?

A personal statement is an opportunity to stand out by detailing your background, experiences, and aspirations. It should explain why you are interested in and a good match for the company or institution you are applying to.

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Article contents

Professional identity and roles of journalists.

• Thomas Hanitzsch Thomas Hanitzsch Department of Media and Communication, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.95
• Published online: 26 October 2017

The study of journalists’ professional roles is a principal avenue to understand journalism’s identity and place in society. From the perspective of discursive institutionalism, one could argue that journalistic roles have no true “essence”; they exist as part of a wider framework of meaning—of a discourse. At the core of this discourse is journalism’s identity and locus in society. As structures of meaning, journalistic roles set the parameters of what is desirable in the institutional context of journalism: they are subject to discursive (re)creation, (re)interpretation, appropriation, and contestation. In other words, the discourse of journalistic roles is the central arena where journalistic culture and identity is reproduced and contested; it is the place where the struggle over the preservation or transformation of journalism’s identity takes place.

Journalists articulate and enact journalistic roles on two analytically distinct levels: role orientations (normative and cognitive) and role performance (practiced and narrated). The four categories of journalistic roles—normative, cognitive, practiced, and narrated roles—correspond to conceptually distinct ideas: what journalists ought to do, what they want to do, what they really do in practice, and what they think they do.

Normative roles encompass generalized and aggregate expectations that journalists believe are deemed desirable in society. Most normative roles of journalists are derived from a view that emphasizes journalism’s (potential) contribution to the proper workings of democracy.

Cognitive role orientations comprise the institutional values, attitudes and beliefs individual journalists embrace as a result of their occupational socialization. These roles tend to appear as evident, natural, and self-explaining to the journalists. They index their individual aspirations and ambitions and the communicative goals they want to achieve through their work. Practiced role performance captures the roles of journalists as they are executed in practice; narrated roles, finally, denominate subjective perceptions of and reflections on the roles that journalists carry out in practice.

Comparative research has demonstrated that journalists tend to subscribe to a variety of cognitive roles, largely depending on the political and social contexts they work in. Here, journalistic roles address six elementary needs of political life: informational-instructive, analytical-deliberative, critical-monitorial, advocative-radical, developmental-educative, and collaborative-facilitative needs. In a time, however, when traditional social institutions cease to provide a normative framework, journalism increasingly provides collective orientation in a multi-optional society. In the domain of everyday life, journalism’s normative roles therefore extend to the contexts of consumption, identity, and emotion.

Over time, researchers have shifted their focus from the analysis of journalists’ occupational values, attitudes, and beliefs to the study of journalistic performance and the way professional orientations are enacted in the world of practice. Studies of this type so far produced seemingly contradictory evidence: one the one hand, there seems to be a gap between the roles journalists aspire to and the roles they execute in practice, but at the same time, many studies also found a robust correlation between cognitive and performed roles of journalists.

• professional identity
• journalistic roles
• professional values
• discursive institutionalism
• comparative research

Introduction

Research into the roles of journalists is central to the understanding of journalism’s identity and place in society. Journalists define their service to society in various ways, which ultimately helps them give meaning to their work (Aldridge & Evetts, 2003 ). The study of journalistic roles is more relevant than ever: in the 21st century , journalism’s identity is existentially shaken, and journalistic ideals have become more ambivalent and liquid after the turn of the century (Koljonen, 2013 ). It is therefore not surprising that the inquiry into journalists’ roles and identity has a long tradition in the larger area of journalism and (mass) communication research.

Journalistic Identity and Roles as Discursive Framework

Professional identity and journalistic roles can be meaningfully studied from within the perspective of discursive institutionalism (Schmidt, 2008 , 2010 ). Journalistic roles have no true “essence”; they exist because and as we talk about them (Hanitzsch & Vos, 2016 , 2017 ). In order to be intelligible, they exist as part of a wider framework of meaning—of a discourse. In other words, journalistic roles—and professional identity by extension—are discursively constituted. As structures of meaning, they set the parameters of what is desirable in a given institutional context. Understood from within a discursive perspective, journalistic roles are never static; they are subject to discursive (re)creation, (re)interpretation, appropriation, and contestation. As expressive value set, journalistic roles are indicative of a certain journalism culture (Hanitzsch, 2007 ).

At the core of this discourse is journalism’s identity and locus in society. Here, journalistic roles represent and articulate discursive positions that compete in a relational structure—the discursive field. This field is the site where journalistic actors struggle over discursive authority in conversations about the meaning and role of journalism in society. In other words, the discourse of journalistic roles is the central arena where journalistic culture and identity is reproduced and contested, and it is the place where the struggle over the preservation or transformation of journalism’s identity takes place. As a result of this contest, dominant positions in the discourse of journalism crystallize as institutional norms and practices. The institution of journalism as it exists today therefore represents the “state of play” in an ongoing struggle over discursive authority.

Ultimately, the discourse of journalistic roles legitimizes and delegitimizes certain norms, ideas and practices. Although journalists are the central discursive agents in the articulation of roles (Zelizer, 1993 ), they do so in an exchange with interlocutors in the broader society and by using a discursive toolkit that the broader society recognizes as legitimate (Carlson, 2016 ). The discourse of journalistic identity and roles therefore extends well beyond the boundaries of journalism as a field of practice and journalism studies as academic subject. In this sense, journalistic roles perform a double duty—they act as a source of institutional legitimacy relative to the broader society, and through a process of socialization they inform the cognitive toolkit that journalists use to think about their work.

In other words, journalists think of their work as meaningful to themselves and others in a discursive construction. The discourse of journalistic roles is a major site of reproduction and contestation within the institution of journalism. As Christians, Glasser, McQuail, Nordenstreng, and White ( 2009 ) noted, journalistic roles are widely recognizable and have a fairly stable and enduring form. Journalistic roles most generally allude to a set of normative and cognitive beliefs as well as real-world and perceived practices of journalists situated and understood within the institutional framework of journalism. Journalists articulate and enact journalistic roles on two analytically distinct levels: role orientations (normative and cognitive) and role performance (practiced and narrated).

Role orientations refer to discursive constructions of the institutional values, attitudes, and beliefs with regard to the position of journalism in society and, consequently, to the communicative ideals journalists are embracing in their work. These orientations can be normative and cognitive. Despite sharing attitudinal features, normative and cognitive roles differ in important respects. Normative roles indicate what is generally desirable to think or do in a given context, while cognitive ideas provide the recipes, guidelines, and maps for concrete action (Schmidt, 2008 ).

Practiced and narrated roles belong to the level of role performance (Mellado, 2015 ); they capture the behavioral dimension of journalists’ roles. Role performance refers to the roles of journalists as executed in practice, or as practice as observed and narrated by the journalists. Practiced and narrated roles need to be distinguished simply, and importantly, because what journalists do, and what they think they do is not necessarily the same thing.

The four categories of journalistic roles—normative, cognitive, practiced, and narrated roles—tend to be confused in much of present research. In fact, they correspond to conceptually distinct ideas: what journalists ought to do , what they want to do , what journalists really do in practice, and what they think they do . The four categories of roles, and the analytical distinction between orientations and performance, are connected through the processes of internalization, enactment, reflection, normalization, and negotiation in what Hanitzsch and Vos ( 2017 ) proposed as the “process model” of journalistic roles.

Normative Roles

Norms are commonly defined as “the rules and standards that are understood by members of a group, and that guide and/or constrain social behavior without the force of laws” (Cialdini & Trost, 1998 , p. 152). Normative role orientations appear external to individual journalists; they encompass generalized and aggregate expectations that are deemed desirable in society (Donsbach, 2012 ). They speak to how journalists are expected to meet the aspirations and ideals of the general public.

Normative roles of journalists are socially negotiated and sensitive to context—they are in a constant flux. Being confronted with journalists’ actual performance, these roles are subject to discursive reproduction and conservation, as well as to contestation and struggle. It is here where the distinction between “injunctive” and “descriptive norms” becomes most useful (Lapinski & Rimal, 2005 , p. 130): Injunctive norms refer to journalists’ beliefs about desirable practice in a given context, while descriptive norms refer to their beliefs about what is actually done by most other journalists.

The context-sensitive nature of norms also explains why some journalistic roles (e.g., the watchdog or “Fourth Estate”) are socially desirable in some contexts (e.g., in democracies) more than in others (e.g., in authoritarian societies). Ultimately, journalism’s normative roles are discursively constructed through legitimizing these roles by borrowing ideas, scripts and memes from legitimate fields, such as law, science, diplomacy, education (Schudson, 2001 ; Vos, 2012 ). Roles such as the analyst, detective, missionary, or educator speak to the ways in which journalism is discursively indexed to other social fields or institutions.

Most normative roles of journalists are derived from a view that emphasizes journalism’s (potential) contribution to the proper workings of democracy. It comes as no surprise, then, that most of the roles advocated in the literature bear a close connection to citizenship and democratic participation. The news media is expected to provide surveillance of and information about potentially relevant events and their contexts, as well as commentary, guidance and advice, and the means for access, expression, and political participation. The media is also expected to contribute to shared consciousness and to act as critic or watchdog to hold the government to account (Christians et al., 2009 ; McQuail, 2000 ).

Normative perspectives gained momentum shortly after the Second World War when politicians and academics began to recognize the power of the media to shape public conversation. In the United States, it was the Commission on Freedom of the Press that pointed out in its 1947 report that democracy essentially depends on a free flow of information and a diversity of viewpoints. Siebert, Peterson, and Schramm’s ( 1956 ) bestselling book “Four Theories of the Press” became a milestone in the discourse of normative theories of the media. Based on the premise that “the press always takes on the form and coloration of the social and political structures within which it operates” (p. 1), the authors identified four models of the press—authoritarian, libertarian, Communist, and the social responsibility model. In all these models, journalists were expected to act in different capacities and embrace different normative ideals. Despite its fairly ethnocentric appeal, Siebert and colleagues’ premise still finds traction today: journalism’s role needs to be understood within the constraints of the relevant political, economic, and sociocultural contexts.

Even after many decades of studying journalistic roles, there is a remarkable consensus about the essential tasks of journalism in society: observation and information; participation in public life through commentary, advice, and advocacy; as well as the provision of access for a diversity of voices. Journalists are charged with acting in four principal roles (Christians et al., 2009 ):

The monitorial role entails the collection, publication, and distribution of information of interest to audiences.

The facilitative role promotes dialogue between different stakeholders in society and inspires the public to actively participate in political life.

The radical role is about providing a platform for views and voices critical of authority with the aim to support change and reform.

The collaborative role calls journalists to support authorities in defense of the social order against threats of crime, conflict, and natural emergencies.

These roles, however (with the possible exception of the collaborative role), were all articulated from within Western perspectives and Western notions of democracy. Such a view emphasizes individual liberties and freedom, while other societies may prioritize collective needs and social harmony. Traditional western accounts of media functions in political life do therefore not sufficiently account for the variation in political cultures and socio-cultural value systems around the world. Distinct sets of normative ideas may be at work in many non-western contexts. As developing and transitional societies are facing a number of unique challenges with regard to political, economic, and social development, journalists are often expected to act in the capacity of nation builders, partners of the government, and agents of empowerment (Romano, 2005 ). Development journalism as a normative approach calls for a more collaborative and constructive role of journalists in the public domain, and it places greater emphasis on the idea of social responsibility.

By acknowledging a revolutionary and developmental role for journalists, Hachten ( 1981 ) was one of the first to recognize the need for alternative concepts that are better suited to many countries in the non-Western world. Several scholars from Asia, for instance, link the media’s responsibility to the preservation of social harmony and respect for leadership, which urges journalists to restrain from coverage that could potentially disrupt social order (Masterton, 1996 ; Xiaoge, 2005 ). The discomfort that many scholars in the Global South felt with the adoption of Western normative ideas was perhaps best articulated by Mehra ( 1989 , p. 3), who argued that “unlike the individualistic, democratic, egalitarian and liberal tradition of Western political theory, some societies value their consensual and communal traditions with their emphasis on duties and obligations to the collective and social harmony.”

Cognitive Roles

Cognitive role orientations can be defined as the institutional values, attitudes, and beliefs individual journalists embrace as a result of their occupational socialization. Although normative roles are in many ways imposed on journalists, cognitive roles capture their individual aspirations and ambitions, as well as the communicative goals they want to achieve through their work. These ambitions mostly work in the subconscious and largely emerge from journalists’ internalization of normative expectations. Cognitive role orientations, therefore, tend to appear as evident, natural and self-explaining to the journalists (Schultz, 2007 ). A discourse shared by journalists as discursive community, these roles belong to a collective repertoire that is selectively activated by journalists, both in context-specific situations and as a marker of their professional identity (Aldridge & Evetts, 2003 ).

Normative roles do not directly translate into cognitive roles, however; they are selectively internalized by the journalists. In this process, journalists learn about the institutional norms, values, and roles through occupational socialization that can take place either within the news organization or during vocational education and training (Gravengaard & Rimestad, 2014 ; Singer, 2004 ; Tandoc & Takahashi, 2014 ). This way, journalists develop specific idealized expectations about work and news organizations that remain a pervasive standard against which daily practices are compared (Russo, 1998 ).

The socialization of journalists takes place in a specific community of practice in which the professional veterans have common goals and share a repertoire of myths and tales (Gravengaard & Rimestad, 2014 ). Here, occupational socialization works toward the preservation of an “institutional mythology”: the prescription that “the way we do” things becomes “the way one should do” things (Schudson, 2001 ; Singer, 2004 ). Forms of ritual solidarity that call on journalists to celebrate themselves as a professional community invigorate the articulation of institutional norms. Shared interpretations of and narratives about journalism’s key moments, such as the exposure of the Watergate scandal, feed well into the collective imaginary of journalists and serve to reinforce professional identity (Zelizer, 1993 ).

Cohen ( 1963 ) is usually credited to have proposed the first systematic classification of journalists’ cognitive roles by distinguishing between a “neutral” and a “participant” role. Janowitz ( 1975 ) a few years later identified two similar role concepts, the “gatekeeper” and the “advocate.” The first large-scale empirical study was undertaken by Johnstone, Slawski, and Bowman ( 1972 ), who surveyed 1,313 journalists in the United States. Their pioneering work was later continued by Weaver and Wilhoit ( 1986 , 1996 ; Weaver et al., 2007 ). According to the results, journalists tended to embrace a participant role more than a neutral role. However, despite the antithetical nature of the two value sets, most journalists also held patterns of beliefs that combined elements from each of the two perspectives.

Johnstone, Slawski and Bowman’s pioneering work was later continued by Weaver and Wilhoit ( 1986 , 1996 ; Weaver et al., 2007 ). In their first study, Weaver and Wilhoit ( 1986 ) identified three, rather than two, distinct sets of journalists’ professional attitudes: “disseminator,” “interpreter,” and “adversarial” roles. Ten years later, Weaver and Wilhoit ( 1996 ) added another role, the “populist mobilizer.” In the United States, the interpretive function remained the strongest perception among American journalists after the millennium, while the importance of the disseminator function had dramatically declined over time. The adversarial function remains a minority attitude among American journalists, whereas the populist mobilizer role seems to have increased its appeal (Weaver et al., 2007 ).

The work of Weaver and Wilhoit has notably become a blueprint for a number of studies outside the United States that largely followed their original questionnaire. Many of these surveys culminated in two seminal collections, Weaver ( 1998a ) and Weaver and Willnat ( 2012 ). The first book, The Global Journalist (Weaver, 1998a ) has become a milestone in the comparative analysis of journalists’ roles, as the volume documents survey evidence about altogether 20,280 journalists from 21 countries. In his analysis, Weaver ( 1998b ) found a remarkable consensus among journalists regarding the importance of reporting the news quickly and some agreement on the importance of providing access for the people to express their views. There was much less support, however, for providing analysis and being a watchdog of the government. Journalists largely disagreed over the importance of providing entertainment, as well as accurate and objective reporting. Overall, strong national differences clearly override any universal professional values of journalism around the world. Much of this variation seems to reflect societal influences, especially differences in political systems, more than influences of media organizations, journalism education and professional norms.

The second volume, edited by Weaver and Willnat ( 2012 ), largely echoed these conclusions. Journalists often disagreed over the relative importance of journalistic roles across societies, which seems to speak against the idea of a universal set of occupational standards institutionalized in journalism globally. It is hard to say, however, to what extent these survey results reflect real-world differences between national journalistic cultures. The surveys reported in both books were not based on a common methodological framework. Rather, substantive variation in interview methods, sampling strategies, questionnaire wordings and research periods makes this kind of comparison a “game of guesswork at best,” as Weaver ( 1998b , p. 455) himself admitted.

Many of these methodological issues were addressed in a large and growing number of comparative studies, notably driven by European scholars. Donsbach ( 1981 ) and Köcher ( 1986 ) were among the first to look into the cognitive roles of journalists on a considerably large and cross-national scale. Based on a survey of 450 German and 405 British journalists, their findings confirmed the initial expectation that German and British journalists differed substantially with regard to their professional roles. German journalists were more in favor of an active role of advocacy, whereas their British counterparts embraced a more neutral reporter role. The values of criticizing abuses and being a spokesman for the underdog, which stand for partisanship and advocacy, were more pronounced among German journalists than among their British colleagues. At the same time, however, journalists in Great Britain tended to claim political influence more than their German counterparts, and they were also more in favor of an instructor or educator role.

These findings led Köcher ( 1986 , p. 63) to conclude that British journalists resembled more the ideal type of a “bloodhound” or “hunter of news,” while their German colleagues perceived themselves in terms of “missionaries” acting on behalf of certain ideological positions in the political spectrum. Köcher, however, admitted that the differences between journalists from the two countries were not always as clear-cut as her somewhat catchy conclusion suggested. In practice, German and British journalists interpreted their roles more as a conglomerate of neutrality and advocacy. Patterson and Donsbach ( 1996 ) came to similar conclusions, comparing journalists from Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Sweden, and the United States. Based on interviews with 1,361 working journalists, they found, for instance, Germans and Italians to be keenest to champion values and ideas in their reporting. Journalists’ partisanship most strongly related to their news decisions in Germany and the lowest in the United States and Sweden.

These and other studies ultimately challenged assumptions about a universal journalism culture even for Western societies. In the largest concerted research effort of journalism researchers to date, the Worlds of Journalism Study looked into journalists’ cognitive roles on a global scale. A collaboration between researchers from 21 countries, the study administered identical survey questionnaires to 2,100 journalists in Australia, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Indonesia, Israel, Mexico, Pakistan, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Uganda, and the United States. The project identified a number of traits that seemed to have universal appeal, including detachment and non-involvement as well as the watchdog role and the delivery of political information (Hanitzsch et al., 2011 ). At the same time, the study established interventionism—that is, journalists’ willingness to actively involve themselves in social development—as a main denominator of cross-national differences in journalists’ professional views. Western journalists were generally less supportive of any active promotion of particular values, ideas and social change, while their colleagues from non-Western countries tended to be more interventionist in their professional views. On a global level, the surveyed journalists were classified into four global professional milieus a preferred set of role orientations (Hanitzsch, 2011 ):

Populist disseminators see themselves as detached observers who provide the audience with news that is most interesting to them.

Detached watchdogs are detached observers, too, but they primarily act in the capacity of watchdogs by holding powers to account.

Critical change agents drive social reform and political participation out of a critical attitude toward the government.

Opportunist facilitators see themselves as constructive partners, helping the government to bring about economic well-being and social development.

For the Pan-European context, comparative research yielded rather inconclusive results. Based on qualitative interviews with senior journalists in 12 European countries, Preston ( 2009 , p. 165) found journalists embrace a “strikingly similar set of professional values” across the continent. Likewise, Statham ( 2008 , p. 418) concluded from a comparison of European newspaper journalists that “journalism over Europe is emerging as a common transnational experience and practice.” Heikkilä and Kunelius ( 2006 , p. 63), on the other hand, did not find “much ground to assume that a European public sphere would emerge out of national journalistic cultures.”

In addition, a growing number of studies looks at journalists’ roles beyond the Western world. In a series of surveys, Arab journalists, for instance, conceived of their mission as that of driving political and social reform, thus acting as, “change agents” in the political arena (Pintak, 2014 , p. 494). Pakistani journalists found it most important to defend national sovereignty, preserve national unity, and foster societal development (Pintak & Nazir, 2013 )—a trait that was also pronounced among Indonesian journalists (Romano, 2003 ). These values correspond to the idea of “development journalism” identified in several countries that broadly belong to the “global South,” including Bangladesh, Nepal and Nigeria (Edeani, 1993 ; Ramaprasad & Kelly, 2003 ; Ramaprasad & Rahman, 2006 ).

A considerable number of studies point to remarkable similarities between journalists from Western countries and their “counterparts” in other world regions (e.g., Mwesige, 2004 ; Ramaprasad, 2001 ; Zhu et al., 1997 ). One might take this as evidence for a growing global professional awareness, or as proof of a transfer of occupational ideology from the West to countries in the Global South (Golding, 1977 ). At the same time, however, these similarities may well be an academic artifact, especially when the normative expectations of the Western model mold the questionnaires and in turn shape the journalists’ answers (Josephi, 2006 ). In some parts of the non-Western world, the idea of what Western journalism represents may even undermine the cultural code of the profession, as it has been demonstrated for Russian journalists (Lowrey & Erzikova, 2013 ).

The study of cognitive roles of journalists has been relatively thin on theory for a long time. One of the first attempts to extract a theoretical classification of roles from the literature and empirical work was undertaken by Donsbach and Patterson ( 2004 ), who identified two major dimensions of roles for Western democracies: passive vs. active roles and neutral vs. advocate roles. A globally more inclusive approach was suggested by Hanitzsch ( 2007 ), who distinguishes between three major dimensions:

Interventionism reflects the extent to which journalists pursue a particular mission and promote certain values. The distinction tracks along a divide between two types of journalist: the one involved, socially committed, assertive and motivated, the other detached and uninvolved, dedicated to objectivity, neutrality, and impartiality.

Power distance denominates the journalist’s position towards loci of power in society. One pole of the continuum captures classic “watchdog” journalism that holds the powers to account, while “loyal” or opportunist journalists, on the other hand, tend to see themselves more as collaborators, or “partners”, of the ruling elites.

Market orientation refers to the extent to which members of the audience are addressed primarily in their role as citizens or as consumers. Here, the division falls between journalistic cultures that subordinate their goals to the logic of the market and those that emphasize political information and mobilization, and the creation of an informed citizenry.

Practiced Roles

Most of the aforementioned studies have focused on journalists’ normative and cognitive ideas, and researchers are just starting to pay more attention to the way these roles are enacted in practice (e.g., Carpenter, Boehmer, & Fico, 2016 ; Mellado & Van Dalen, 2014 ; Tandoc, Hellmueller, & Vos, 2013 ). Practiced role performance as analytical concept captures the roles of journalists as they are executed in practice. They are indicated through the tangible behavior and performance of journalists when doing their work. Just like the other three types of journalistic roles discussed here, practiced roles also have discursive properties. They can be understood as behavioral expression—as a practical form by which journalists articulate their position in discourses of journalism’s identity and locus in society. In other words, by enacting a specific journalistic role, or a bundle of roles, journalists—often inadvertently—take position in the discursive construction of journalism’s identity.

Cognitive roles of journalists—and normative roles by extension—translate into practiced roles through a process commonly referred to as role enactment. Individuals tend to seek consistency between role orientations and role performance, which is why journalists are likely to enact roles that are in line with the cognitive roles they embrace (Tandoc, Hellmueller, & Vos, 2013 ). However, the process of role enactment is highly contingent on the contextual conditions of news work. Journalists are not always—or perhaps even rarely—able to fully enact their occupational ideas when external constraints impose limits on their editorial autonomy (Reich & Hanitzsch, 2013 ; Shoemaker & Reese, 2013 ). Little surprisingly, a number of studies do indeed point to a “gap” between the roles journalists aspire to and the roles they execute in practice (Mellado & Van Dalen, 2014 ; Tandoc, Hellmueller, & Vos, 2013 ).

Practiced roles of journalists can be most meaningfully studied through means of observation and ethnography. Most of the times, however, these roles are extracted from news content—an approach that gained popularity in recent years (Mellado & Van Dalen, 2014 ; Skovsgaard et al., 2013 ; van Dalen, de Vreese, & Albæk, 2012 ). Early research discovered that journalism students included more analysis and interpretation in their articles when they believed that journalism should play an active role (Starck & Soloski, 1977 ). In the United States, journalists’ self-reported roles correlated only modestly with the roles present in what they considered their best work (Weaver et al., 2007 ). In a comparison of five Western countries, journalists’ partisanship was found to be significantly—but weakly—related to their practice when the journalists’ survey responses were confronted with their news decisions in four hypothetical situations (Patterson & Donsbach, 1996 ).

Studies in the 21st century do not seem to bring much clarity to this issue: surveys of journalists in Denmark, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom point to a robust relationship between journalists’ role perceptions and journalistic practice (van Dalen, de Vreese, & Albæk, 2012 ), while studies in Chile and the United States point to a gap between professional role perceptions and role enactment (Tandoc, Hellmueller, & Vos, 2013 )—or as Mellado and van Dalen ( 2014 ) put it, to a gap between journalists’ “rhetoric and practice.” However, as discussed above, an inconsistency between occupational aspirations and professional practice is not surprising at all. The practice of journalists is likely to deviate from their occupational attitudes given the many constraints on their work, but there is little doubt that professional orientations substantively correlate with performance. Consistent with evidence from social psychology research (e.g., Bardi & Schwartz, 2003 ), the relationship between professional orientations and performance should be construed as one of correlation rather than correspondence. Future empirical research should focus on the strength of this relationship in a variety of situations and contexts. Van Dalen, de Vreese, and Albæk ( 2017 ) provide a comprehensive overview of the various techniques of studying the nexus between professional attitudes and practices of journalists.

Recently, researchers have started theorizing the roles of journalists as they materialize in news content. Esser ( 2008 ) has identified “journalistic intervention”—here understood as the extent to which journalists report in their own words, scenarios, assessments—as major denominator of cross-national differences. Mellado ( 2015 ) suggested distinguishing between three dimensions of journalistic performance: presence of the journalistic voice, power relations, and audience approach. These concepts nicely reproduce the three dimensions—interventionism, power distance, and market orientation—Hanitzsch ( 2007 ) had identified earlier (see above).

Narrated Roles

The last category in this fourfold distinction of journalistic roles is narrated roles, which denominate subjective perceptions of and reflections on the roles that journalists carry out in practice. To be clear, it makes a difference whether we look at the real practices of journalists, or if we study journalists’ recollections of and reflections on their own performance in retrospect. Narrated roles are filtered through journalists’ cognitive apparatuses and are ultimately reinterpreted against normative expectations and cognitive aspirations. In many Western societies, the omnipresent professional ideology of objectivity, detachment, and neutrality, for instance, makes it hard for journalists to admit that they are actually not able, or unwilling, to cater to what they conceive of being the highest normative expectations. In this sense, it is helpful to think of narrated role performance in terms of a discursive relationship between journalists and their audiences. Paradigm repair is a classic example of this, since it suggests that journalists reimagine their work based on how their role performance is perceived by the interlocutor-public (Berkowitz, 2000 ). It follows from the above that self-reports of journalists on their performance are little more than an approximation to journalists’ real practice.

One common research strategy to get hold of narrated roles is by asking journalists about the extent to which they think they are able to enact their cognitive roles in practice. Culbertson ( 1983 ) was one of the first scholars to look into the self-reported role performance of journalists. He found journalists’ role conceptions to be correlated with perceived practice. Also, from a survey of Danish journalists, Skovsgaard et al. ( 2013 ) concluded that journalists’ cognitive roles have substantial explanatory power with regard to how journalists implement the objectivity norm. Ramaprasad and Rahman ( 2006 ), however, discovered a substantial gap between perceived importance and performance for some roles. German journalists found it particularly difficult to enact a critical and monitorial role (Weischenberg, Löffelholz, & Scholl, 1993 ).

The process by which practiced roles of journalists translate into narrated role can be understood as role reflection. Reflection is a retrospective mechanism that puts journalistic practices—as well as their observation, interpretation, and categorization—into a coherent narrative. The reporting practices through which Washington Post reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward famously exposed the Watergate scandal, for instance, were later framed in terms of “investigative journalism,” with journalists acting as detectives and watchdogs. Other narratives, such as the idea of objectivity, were used for strategic reasons to shield journalists from public critique (Tuchman, 1971 ). This way, the process of role reflection generates myths and tales about “good journalists,” or about practices that have led to professional failure. Some of the emerging narratives can become powerful tools that instigate introspection and may occasionally transform journalistic culture.

In the process of role reflection, journalists tend to reinterpret their practice so that it neatly maps onto the standard set of journalistic roles provided by an orthodox repertoire of collectively shared exemplars. Nowhere does this become more evident than in interviews with journalists when researchers find, sometimes to their great surprise, that people in the news business more or less resort to the same categories when interviewers ask for role perceptions and professional performance, no matter how they actually practice the trade.

The journalists’ imagery of their professional practice feeds back into discourses on normative and cognitive role orientations. In a routine setting, perceptions of journalistic practice serve to consolidate and reinforce established norms. Beliefs about what is actually done by most other journalists, which Lapinski and Rimal ( 2005 ) referred to as descriptive norms, work toward the normalization—or legitimation—of certain professional standards and ultimately lead to the preservation of journalistic cultures in which professional values are constituted as compelling objects of belief (Bogaerts, 2011 ). At the same time, certain perceived roles may also challenge—or delegitimize—the tacit professional consensus in the journalists’ community of practice and therefore contribute to destabilization of hegemonic journalistic norms. A popular example is the idea of “peace journalism,” which former BBC reporter Annabel McGoldrick ( 2000 , p. 20) advocated as a new form of journalism that looks “at how journalists could be part of the solution rather than part of the problem.” These and other discourses are continuously trying to destabilize predominant newsroom cultures by challenging the normative core of journalism.

Furthermore, the way journalists perceive and frame their own practice may also have consequences for the cognitive roles they embrace. Narrated roles may assimilate journalists into newsroom culture, or journalism culture more generally; they make journalists to become members of a social group with shared ideas about what it takes to be good journalists (Tandoc & Takahashi, 2014 ). Especially young journalists feel a strong push toward streamlining their practices to presumed expectations of their seniors (“the-way-we-do-things”) in order to become fully accepted members of a professional community. This way, journalists develop a professional identity that gives them a sense of self that is constantly reiterated and reinforced by the professional community (Aldridge & Evetts, 2003 ).

At the same time, journalists may eventually realize that their practice does not live up to the desired standards set by their cognitive roles. A young reporter might enthusiastically embrace the watchdog role when he or she graduates from a journalism school. But once confronted with the realities on the ground, that reporter might realize that various constraints keep him or her from carrying out this role in a way consistent with his aspirations. One way to resolve this dissonance is by appropriation (i.e., by adjusting one’s professional aspirations and bringing them in line with—actual or narrated—practice). Exit is just another option to resolve this conflict: journalists may come to conclude that their professional aspirations are fundamentally incompatible with real-existing practice and, thus, decide to leave the field of journalism.

Two Catalogues of Journalistic Roles

The above strands of research resulted in a notable variety of, partly overlapping and often disparate, catalogues of journalistic roles. Hanitzsch and Vos ( 2016 ) recently proposed to systematize these roles across national contexts and journalistic beats by organizing them along two major domains of people’s lives: political life and everyday life. For the purpose of this entry, I will treat these two domains as analytically distinct, although in reality, the news often caters to the needs of audiences in both the political and everyday life simultaneously.

In the first domain, political life, journalism addresses the audience in its capacity as citizenry. Here, the social contribution of journalism lies in providing citizens with the information they need to act and participate in political life and, if given a chance, to be free and self-governing (Kovach & Rosenstiel, 2001 ). The universe of politically oriented roles of journalists can further organized into 18 specific roles that map onto a higher-order structure of six elementary functions of journalism, each addressing specific needs of political life (see Figure 1 ):

The informational-instructive function pertains to the idea that citizens need to have the relevant information at hand to act and participate in political life. Central to this function is the understanding of journalism as an exercise of information transmission, information (re-)packaging and storytelling.

The analytical-deliberative dimension encompasses journalistic roles that are politically more active and assertive either by making a direct intervention in a political discourse (e.g., by news commentary), by engaging the audience in public conversation, by empowering citizens, or by providing means for political participation.

The critical-monitorial function, sitting at the heart of journalism’s normative core in the West, is grounded in the ideal of journalism acting as “Fourth Estate,” with journalists voicing criticism, holding powers to account and, in so doing, creating a critically minded citizenry.

Roles that belong to the advocative-radical function compel journalists to conceive of themselves as “participants” in political life rather than as objective bystanders. Participation, however, is limited to the discursive realm, with journalists acting as missionaries of values and ideologies, as advocates of groups and causes, and as adversaries of the powerful.

The developmental-educative, by way of contrast, takes this intervention beyond political discourse into the real world, with journalists actively contributing to public education, enlightenment, social change, and social harmony.

The collaborative-facilitative dimension, finally, entails an understanding of journalists acting as partners of the government and supporting it in its efforts to bring about development and social well-being. In this capacity, journalists may serve as facilitators, collaborators, or mouthpieces of the government.

Figure 1. Roles of Journalists in Political Life

Most of the abovementioned roles rather exclusively pertain to journalism’s contribution to political life. However, modernity continues to extend the locus of journalism from the political arena to the domain of everyday life. In a time and in places where traditional social institutions cease to provide a normative framework, the media have to some extent taken over this role, filling the void through providing collective orientation in an increasingly multi-optional society (Hanusch & Hanitzsch, 2013 ). Journalism has, for a long time, provided help, advice, guidance, and information about the management of self and everyday life through consumer news and “news-you-can-use” content (Eide & Knight, 1999 ; Underwood, 2001 ). Given the historical, discursive toolkit available to them, however, journalists have been slow to articulate this role within journalism’s institutional framework.

It is therefore sensible to extend the existing set of journalistic roles—and journalism’s identity by extension—to the domain of everyday life. Here, Hanitzsch and Vos ( 2016 ) have suggested a separate set of journalistic roles that serve the public’s needs in the domain of everyday life. Seven additional roles map onto three interrelated spaces of everyday needs (see Figure 2 ):

In the area of consumption , journalism is addressing audience members in their capacity as consumers by featuring various kinds of purchasable products and patterns of leisure-time activities, thus contributing to the construction of consumer lifestyles (Chaney, 2001 ). Consumption is closely related to performative aspects of lifestyles that engender a great deal of consistency and authenticity in individuals’ behaviors (Taylor, 2002 ).

The area of identity becomes relevant for journalists as identity work in modern society is more than ever an individual exercise. Individuals are no more “born into” their identities; identity is transformed from a “given” into a “task”, charging the actors with the responsibility for performing that task and for the consequences (Bauman, 2000 , p. 31). People are not only confronted with an increased plurality of options, they also have more flexibility in choosing between them. This is where they need orientation for the management of self and everyday life, and for developing as sense of identification and belonging.

The area of emotion is concerned with the affective, emotional, and mood-related experience of news consumption, which is established as a major determinant of selective exposure to media content (Zillmann & Bryant, 1985 ). In this view, journalism contributes to affect regulation by helping individuals regulate mood and arousal and can stimulate rewarding social and cognitive experiences that contribute to emotional well-being in more complex and sustainable ways (for instance, by fostering a sense of insight, meaning, and social connectedness; Bartsch & Schneider, 2014 ).

Figure 2. Roles of Journalists in Everyday Life

Issues and Challenges in the Study of Journalistic Roles

Research on professional identity and journalists’ roles has always been at the heart of journalism scholarship. Despite a long tradition and a truly impressive number of studies, the area suffers from several shortcomings that are especially critical to the area of theorizing journalistic roles. Terminology varies considerably across publications and over time. Researchers refer to a wide range of concepts to denote roles of journalists as “press functions,” “media roles,” “role perceptions,” “role conceptions” or “journalistic paradigms” (e.g., Cohen, 1963 ; Janowitz, 1975 ; Pan & Chan, 2003 ; Donsbach & Patterson, 2004 ; Weaver & Wilhoit, 1986 ). An array of seeming synonyms, such as “ideology,” “perspectives,” “philosophy,” “orientations,” “school,” “belief-sets” and “mission,” add to a lack of conceptual clarity (Culbertson, 1983 ; Johnstone, Slawski, & Bowman, 1972 ; Starck & Soloski, 1977 ; Weaver & Wilhoit, 1986 ; Zhu, Weaver, Lo, Chen, & Wu, 1997 ).

More importantly, the area is still remarkably thin on theory. The study of professional identity and journalists’ roles lack a general theoretical framework that links journalists’ individual attitudes to the analysis of journalism as a social institution or field. Much of what we know about journalism builds on a methodological individualism: we try and arrive at conclusions about “journalism” by aggregating survey responses of journalists. At the same time, normative approaches and much of political communication research often treat journalism as “black box”; they are little grounded in journalists’ views, practices, and experience.

Perhaps as a consequence of the above two shortcomings, scholars until around the early 21st century tended to conflate the attitudinal and performative aspects of journalists’ roles, as well as their normative and empirical dimensions. As previously argued, journalists’ roles can be studied with regard to normative ideas (what journalists should do), cognitive orientations (what they want to do), professional practice (what journalists really do), and narrated performance (what they think they do). Not only are these dimensions often confused in much 21st-century work, journalists also find it difficult to respond to survey questions when it is not clear whether they are asked to report on normative, cognitive, practiced, or narrated roles.

Furthermore, it seems that both the normative and analytical traditions of conceptualizing journalistic roles have come to a point where they increasingly disconnect with journalism’s realities in a global world. The focus on journalists’ roles in democratic contexts, together with a concentration of scholarly resources in the northern hemisphere, has produced a Western bias that tends to pin journalism to the idea of democracy—despite overwhelming evidence for alternative roles exercised by journalists in non-Western contexts (Pintak & Ginges, 2008 ; Romano, 2005 ). To be sure, few would deny journalism’s centrality to democratic processes, but democracy is arguably not necessarily a prerequisite for journalism (Josephi, 2013 ). For a long time, journalism research has privileged a journalistic world that is narrower than that which exists in practice. Journalism has always extended beyond democracies—in fact, journalism within democracy is enjoyed only by a minority of the world’s population. The centrality of democracy has generated undemocratic journalism scholarship, by which variants of journalisms most germane to the core of democratic theory have been privileged over those that are not (Zelizer, 2013 ).

The global political economy of research and uneven distribution of scholarly resources has contributed to a normalization of Western ideals and practices of journalism as the “professional” standard against which journalism in the non-Western world was gauged. As scholarly doctrine, journalism’s existential relationship with democracy is hardly challenged. James Carey famously argued in 1996 : “Journalism is another name for democracy or, better, you cannot have journalism without democracy.” The Western model of journalism assumes that news media are relatively autonomous from the state and that journalists are independent agents engaged in an antagonistic relationship to power while representing the people (Nerone, 2013 ). The model was exported to the developing world along with many other Western beliefs and practices—a transfer of occupational ideology from the West to countries in the Global South (Golding, 1977 ).

In addition, journalism scholarship has been preoccupied for decades with studying the roles of journalists in the political context. Other forms of journalism, such as service or lifestyle news, have been marginalized in scholarly discourse and occasionally discredited as an unworthy other. In a world, however, where working on one’s identity is increasingly an individual exercise (Bauman, 2000 ), journalism is not just about providing orientation in the political arena. As discussed above, journalists are also expected to perform in the domain of everyday life by providing help, advice, guidance, and information about the management of self and everyday life.

Discussion of the Literature

Research into the professional identity and roles of journalists has a long and rich tradition in the broader field of communication and media studies. Early approaches were primarily normative, with the central roles of the press identified as surveillance, correlation, transmission, and entertainment (Lasswell, 1948 ; Wright, 1960 ). These early conceptualizations continue to serve as a backbone to normative discussions. The idea that democracy essentially depends on a free flow of information and a diversity of viewpoints achieved paradigmatic status after it was enshrined in the 1947 report of the Commission on Freedom of the Press in the United States. In the subsequent years, Siebert, Peterson and Schramm’s ( 1956 ) “Four Theories of the Press” deeply influenced normative discourse in large parts of the West at least until the end of the Cold War. Normative approaches continue to thrive in the field until today (see Christians et al., 2009 for a recent account), though they seem to have lost some of their steam in the late 1980s.

Empirical-analytical approaches to the study of journalistic roles gained importance with Cohen ( 1963 ), which distinguished between a “neutral” and a “participant” role. In the United States, Cohen’s work was followed up upon through a series of large-scale representative surveys of journalists starting in the early 1970 (Johnstone, Slawski, & Bowman, 1972 ; Weaver & Wilhoit, 1986 , 1996 ; Weaver et al., 2007 ). Scholars in other countries followed suit, though research tended to be concentrated in the West.

Comparative studies of journalistic roles gained importance in the 1990s, most notably with a five-nation study by Patterson and Donsbach ( 1996 ). Until the turn of the century, most comparative work was based on collections of surveys based on rather idiosyncratic methodological designs and procedures (Deuze, 2002 ; Weaver, 1998b ; Weaver & Willnat, 2012 ). These limitations were overcome by newer studies that were based on a common methodological framework specifically tailored to the purpose of tight cross-sectional comparison. One major example is the Worlds of Journalism Study , which in its second wave carried out surveys in 67 countries ( http://www.worldsofjournalism.org ).

Recently, researchers are shifting their attention from the study of cognitive roles to the investigation of role performance. While early studies of role perceptions simply presumed that journalists’ professional views had some impact on their practice, 21st-century research tests such assumptions by comparing journalists’ survey responses to the content they produce or to journalists’ self-assessments of their enacted roles (Mellado, Hellmüller, & Donsbach, 2017 ; Mellado & Van Dalen, 2014 ; Tandoc, Hellmueller, & Vos, 2013 ; Weaver et al., 2007 ). Studies of this type so far produced seemingly contradictory evidence: on the one hand, there seems to be a gap between the roles journalists aspire to and the roles they execute in practice. But on the other hand, many studies also found a robust correlation between cognitive and performed roles of journalists.

Further Reading

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Journalism Personal Essays

Cultural reporting and criticism.

The Cultural Reporting and Criticism (CRC) program in Journalism requires applicants to submit a personal essay that will be judged both as a piece of writing and as an indication of whether your aspirations, abilities, interests, and experience are suited to CRC.

The essay should be specific and detailed enough to give the admissions committee a concrete sense of who you are as a potential cultural reporter and critic. It should address the following questions: What do you expect to get from CRC? What do you think you can contribute to it? What aspects of your background and experience are most relevant to your interest in the program? What kind of writing have you done and what do you aspire to do? Which cultural issues and phenomena most engage you? What publications do you read regularly and why? Which cultural journalists do you admire, which do you dislike, and which have influenced you? Feel free to include any other ideas you consider relevant to your application.

CRC places most emphasis on letters of recommendation from professors or editors with whom you have worked directly and who can assess your intellectual abilities and the quality of your writing.

Please append to your essay a brief statement of your plans for financing your graduate work. This statement must be included, whether or not you are applying for financial aid. 

Global and Joint Programs

Africana studies | east asian studies | european and mediterranean studies | french studies | international relations | latin american and caribbean studies | near eastern studies | russian and slavic studies.

Journalism requires applicants to write a personal essay. The essay is an extremely important part of the application, so treat it accordingly. The essay should be 1,000 to 1,500 words in length. In addition, all applicants must submit at least three samples of their work, whether published or not.

The goal of the essay is to give the Admissions Committee a concrete sense of who you are as someone who aspires to a career as a professional journalist, writing and reporting for print, online or broadcast media. It should address the following questions: What do you expect to get from the program? What aspects of your experience are most relevant to your interest in journalism? Tell us about your background--your academic degree, intellectual interests, work experience, life experience, and other sources of inspiration--and explain how this background informs what you want to do as a journalist.

Applicants should also describe their existing "body of work" as a journalist, critic or just someone who writes. We are mostly interested in published work, but if you have yet to break into print, then tell us what kind of writing you have done. What have been your major themes? What issues and phenomena most engage you? What publications do you read regularly and why? Which journalists do you admire, which do you dislike, and which have influenced you?

In addition, for the non-Journalism field of study  (Africana Studies, East Asian Studies, French Studies, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Near Eastern Studies, or Russian and Slavic Studies), please briefly describe your past and present work as it relates to your intended field of study, and your reasons for choosing your field of study.

In addition, for International Relations : the program in International Relations (IR) trains individuals who wish to make a difference on international affairs either through continued academic study or via the actual practice of international affairs in government, the non-governmental or private sectors. Please explain, in a brief and concise manner, how your past studies and work experience relate to a course of study at the graduate level in international relations at NYU. You should include how your educational objectives will help you to achieve your future career goals, and should briefly outline where you see yourself 10 years after graduating from NYU. Please also explain why you chose to apply to study in the IR Program at NYU and how NYU specifically will help you to advance your personal and professional objectives.

European and Mediterranean Studies  does not not require an additional statement. Only the Journalism personal essay is required.

Please append to your essay a brief statement of your plans for financing your graduate work. This statement must be included, whether or not you are applying for financial aid.

Journalism and Religion

Journalism requires applicants to write a personal essay. The essay is an extremely important part of the application, so treat it accordingly. The essay should be 1,000 to 1,500 words in length. In addition, applicants must submit at least two samples of their work, whether published or not.

As part of your personal essay, please include a discussion that provides the Admissions Committee with a sense of who you are as someone who aspires to a career in journalism, writing and reporting about important matters in the news and analysis of religious issues.

Two different writing samples are required. One should be an example of your strongest academic writing, preferably a paper written for an undergraduate course that demonstrates your ability to construct a coherent argument. It should not exceed 25 double-spaced pages. The second should represent your aptitude for journalism. A clip from your college newspaper, a personal essay, and an academic research paper are all acceptable.

Literary Reportage

Literary Reportage requires applicants to answer the following questions. We will judge both the style and content of your writing.

• Describe the project you want to pursue. Tell us about the stories you want to write, in as much detail as possible. Big ideas, themes and questions are essential, but just as essential are specific stories—real names, real places—through which you explore them. We expect your work to evolve while at NYU, so you are not committing to your agenda now.
• Who/what have you read and been inspired by? What, to your mind, are the similarities and differences between creative writing and creative nonfiction? How can "literary technique" be applied to the practice of long-form journalism? What do reporters do? What do you envision “Literary Reportage” to be?
• Tell us about your academic degree(s), intellectual interests, work/life experiences, and explain how they inform your project. Describe your "body of work" as a journalist, blogger, or just someone who writes. What are your strengths and weaknesses as a writer? What do you expect to get from Literary Reportage?
• Describe how you plan to use the city and the university’s vast resources. We welcome projects of national or international scope, but only if they can be reported effectively from the city and its environs (with the usual extensions of email and telephone) during the school term.
• You may answer the above questions separately, or in a single essay.

News and Documentary

The News and Documentary Program in Journalism requires applicants to write a personal essay. The essay is an extremely important part of the application, so treat it accordingly. The essay should be 1,000 to 1,500 words in length. In addition, all applicants must submit at least three samples of their work. This can be print or video clips or scripts.

The goal of the essay is to give the Admissions Committee a sense of who you are as someone who aspires to a career as a professional journalist/documentary filmmaker. It should address the following questions: What aspects of your experience are most relevant to your interest in journalism? Tell us about your background—your academic degree, intellectual interests, work experience, life experience, and other sources of inspiration—and explain how this background informs what you want to do as a journalist. What do you expect to get from the program?

Applicants should also describe their existing "body of work." This can be print, video, radio or documentary work you’ve already done. Video experience is not a prerequisite at all so if this is the case, your body of work might be volunteering somewhere, working with an NGO, teaching etc. We’d also like to know what publications you read and news or documentary programming you like, and why. Which journalists do you admire, and which have influenced you?

Please also address what motivates you to pursue the documentary long form in particular. In your third semester, you will be creating a capstone piece of journalism--a half-hour documentary. What might this project be about and how would you approach it? Although experience in documentary is not required, your ideas are.

Podcasting and Audio Reportage

Your personal essay is an opportunity for you to reveal more about who you are and for you to connect your goals for attending this program with your background and qualifications. The Admissions Committee will be looking for your voice in your writing style, as well as paying close attention to the evidence you provide in the case you are making for why you should be selected. While many students aim for 1,000-1500 words in length, writing for audio requires efficiency and clarity, therefore shorter essays may also be effective. In addition, applicants are asked to submit 3 work samples, which can be links to audio or multimedia work. Work samples do not need to be published work, but we suggest choosing work which demonstrates your journalism, narrative storytelling or audio production skills. 

In your essay, please address the following questions:

• Why are you applying to this program and what do you hope to gain from your graduate studies?
• Why audio? What is it about this medium and what in your background or experience has motivated you to pursue this field of study? What is your experience with audio production? What experience do you have in journalism?
• Audio Journalism is a medium that values voice. Whose voices have you been inspired by and whose voices do you imagine we would hear in your work?
• Tell us about your interests and background. What life experiences, intellectual pursuits, educational or creative pursuits or other sources of inspiration inform your desire to create audio journalism?    

Please append to your essay a statement of your plans for financing your graduate work. This statement must be included, regardless of any request for financial assistance.

All Other Programs

American journalism | magazine and digital storytelling | reporting new york | reporting the nation | business and economic reporting | science, health and environmental reporting .

The goal of the essay is to give the Admissions Committee a concrete sense of who you are as someone who aspires to a career as a professional journalist, writing and reporting for print, online or broadcast media. It should address the following questions: What do you expect to get from the program and the specific concentration to which you are applying? What aspects of your experience are most relevant to your interest in journalism? Tell us about your background--your academic degree, intellectual interests, work experience, life experience, and other sources of inspiration--and explain how this background informs what you want to do as a journalist.

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Trump trial: Highlights from opening statements and first witness testimony

For the first time in history, prosecutors will present a criminal case against a former American president to a jury as they accuse Donald Trump of a hush money scheme aimed at preventing damaging stories about his personal life from becoming public.

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Today’s live coverage has ended, but there’s still plenty to catch up on. Follow Tuesday’s live coverage as testimony resumes.

David Pecker was called as the first witness in Donald Trump ‘s hush money trial following opening statements Monday.

For the first time in history, prosecutors presented a criminal case against a former American president to a jury, accusing Trump of a scheme to prevent damaging stories about his personal life from becoming public.

Here’s what to know:

• What the case is about: Trump is charged with 34 felony counts of falsifying business records as part of a scheme to bury stories that he feared could hurt his 2016 campaign.
• What was said in opening statements: The prosecution argued that Trump’s hush money payments were mislabeled as legal services. The defense said Trump had nothing to do with the payments.
• Why the trial isn’t televised: New York state law regarding media coverage of court proceedings is one of the most restrictive in the country, but some reporters, including from the AP, are allowed inside the courtroom.

President Joe Biden boards Air Force One at Delaware Air National Guard Base in New Castle, Del., Monday, April 22, 2024. (AP Photo/Manuel Balce Ceneta)

As President Joe Biden returned from a weekend in Wilmington, Delaware, screens aboard Air Force One showed recaps of Trump’s trial, with images of the Republican challenger being broadcast by MSNBC. It was not clear if the volume was on or if the news was just playing in the background with the sound off.

Similarly, the televisions on Air Force Two were turned to CNN’s coverage of Trump’s trial as Vice President Kamala Harris traveled to Wisconsin earlier today.

The opening statements offered the 12-person jury — and the voting public — radically divergent roadmaps for the first criminal trial of a former American president and the first of four prosecutions of Trump to reach a jury.

Befitting that history, prosecutors sought from the outset to elevate the gravity of the case, which they said was chiefly about election interference as reflected by the hush money payments to a porn actor who said she had a sexual encounter with Trump.

Todd Blanche, the defense lawyer, sought to preemptively undermine the credibility of prosecution witness Michael Cohen, who pleaded guilty to federal charges related to his role in the hush money scheme, as someone with an “obsession” with Trump who cannot be trusted.

Trump faces 34 felony counts of falsifying business records — a charge punishable by up to four years in prison — though it’s not clear if the judge would seek to put him behind bars. A conviction would not preclude Trump from becoming president again, but because it is a state case, he would not be able to pardon himself if found guilty. He has repeatedly denied any wrongdoing.

Trump has sought to turn his criminal defendant status into an asset for his campaign , fundraising off his legal jeopardy and repeatedly railing against a justice system that he has for years claimed is weaponized against him. In the weeks ahead, the case will test the jury’s ability to judge him impartially but also Trump’s ability to comply with courtroom protocol, including a gag order barring him from attacking witnesses.

In a nearby Manhattan civil court on Monday, state lawyers and an attorney for Trump settled their differences over a $175 million bond that Trump posted to block a large civil fraud judgment while he pursues appeals.

An attorney for the state said they wanted extra assurances because Trump had raised the money with help from a relatively small out-of-state insurance company.

As part of the deal struck Monday, lawyers for Trump and Knight Specialty Insurance Company agreed to keep the $175 million in a cash account that will gain interest but faces no downside risk.

The bond stops the state from potentially seizing Trump’s assets to satisfy the more than $454 million that he owes after Judge Arthur Engoron in February concluded that Trump and others had deceived banks and insurers by exaggerating his wealth on financial statements.

FILE - Judge Arthur Engoron, sit on the bench inside New York Supreme Court, Tuesday, Oct. 10, 2023, in New York. (AP Photo/Seth Wenig, File)

Trump railed against Engoron after his criminal trial wrapped for the day. “He challenged the bonding company that maybe the bonding company was no good. Well, they’re good. And they also have $175 million of collateral — my collateral,” he said.

▶ Read more about Trump’s $175 million bond .

Before testimony resumes, Merchan will hold a hearing Tuesday morning on the prosecution’s request to hold Trump in contempt of court and fined at least $3,000 for allegedly violating his gag order by making social media posts about witnesses.

After court wraps for day 1 of testimony, Trump exited the court staring straight ahead and down, flanked by lawyers and others from his team.

“I’m the leading candidate ... and this is what they’re trying to take me off the trail for. Checks being paid to a lawyer,” he said to press gathered in the hallway outside. “It’s a case as to bookkeeping, which is a very minor thing.”

Former U.S. President and Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump speaks to the media outside the courtroom during his trial at Manhattan criminal court in New York, Monday, April 22, 2024. (Angela Weiss/Pool Photo via AP)

While courtroom access was restricted to a handful of reporters during jury selection, the start of opening statements has given members of the public a chance to witness the first criminal trial of a former president up close.

Roughly a dozen members of the public were allowed into the proceeding. Some had lined up before dawn to get their chance at witnessing history. But not everyone.

“I was planning on going to work, then as I was walking by, I saw all the police,” said Monroe Clinton, a programmer, who added that had not been following the trial closely. “I told my co-workers, ‘Hey I just saw the Trump trial is happening.’ The line was quite short, so I decided to go on in.”

Andrew Giuliani, the son of former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani and a former aide in the Trump administration, was seen waiting in line to get into the overflow room, a room adjacent to the main courtroom where the trial is being shown on monitors.

Andrew Giuliani, left, son of former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani, stands on line outside Manhattan criminal court building for a chance to get inside the courtroom to watch the proceedings in former President Donald Trump’s criminal trial, Monday, April 22, 2024, in New York. (AP Photo/Mary Altaffer)

An alternate juror has an emergency dental appointment this afternoon.

Tomorrow, Judge Merchan plans to end at 2 p.m. for the Passover holiday.

Most jurors looked straight ahead as they passed the defense table on the way out of the courtroom.

Pecker said former National Enquirer editor Dylan Howard is now living in Australia and, to his understanding, has a spinal condition that makes it impossible for him to travel internationally. (This appears to be a way of Steinglass explaining to jurors why Howard won’t be testifying, if indeed he doesn’t).

Witness David Pecker, far right, talks on the witness stand while Donald Trump, far left, looks on as assistant district attorney Joshua Steingless asks questions with Judge Juan Merchan presiding in Manhattan criminal court Monday, April 22, 2024, in New York. (Elizabeth Williams via AP)

He’s the first person ever to testify at a criminal trial of a former U.S. president, and David Pecker is doing so under subpoena, with his lawyer in the courtroom.

But the weighty occasion still had a lighthearted moment. It came when a prosecutor asked Pecker to recite parts of phone numbers he’d had during the time period of the allegations from 2015 to about 2017, a question that might have been asked in order to authenticate phone records later on. After Pecker rattled off the closing digits of four different cell and office numbers from memory, prosecutor Joshua Steinglass assured him, “This isn’t a quiz.” Pecker responded with a cackling laugh.

Pecker is testifying about the National Enquirer’s use of “checkbook journalism,” a practice that entails paying a source for a story. Pecker said he “gave a number to the editors that they could not spend more than $10,000” on a story without getting his approval.

He went on to describe the publication’s coverage meetings — in which he had final say over celebrity stories — and his editorial philosophy. “The only thing that is important is the cover of a magazine,” Pecker said.

The wooden benches in the courtroom where everyone sits are very hard, so some people like me are bringing pillows or seat cushions to sit on. Earlier, I left to record something outside the courtroom, came back for opening statements and someone had not only taken my seat, but was sitting on my pillow.

Pecker’s introductory questioning was briefly interrupted when Merchan realized jurors had not yet been given pens and paper to take notes. He asked the jury if anyone wanted writing materials, to which several jurors raised their hands.

The trial’s first witness, Pecker is the National Enquirer’s former publisher and a longtime Trump friend. Prosecutors say he met with Trump and Cohen at Trump Tower in August 2015 and agreed to help Trump’s campaign identify negative stories about him.

Pecker took the stand just after noon Monday, sporting a charcoal suit, yellow tie and glasses. The 72-year-old is now consults, including for his old employer, the company formerly known as American Media Inc.

FILE - David Pecker, chairman and CEO of American Media, speaks at an event, Jan. 31, 2014 in New York. Pecker is The National Enquirer’s former publisher and a longtime friend of Donald Trump. Prosecutors say he met with Trump and Trump’s former lawyer Michael Cohen at Trump Tower in August 2015 and agreed to help Trump’s campaign identify negative stories about him. (Marion Curtis via AP, File)

▶ Read more about David Pecker and other key players in Trump’s hush money trial

Blanche concluded by urging jurors to pay attention to all of the testimony and to use common sense, observing, “We’re all New Yorkers here.”

“If you do that, there will be a very swift not guilty verdict,” Blanche said.

Court subsequently took a break and Trump left the courtroom without speaking to reporters in the hallway.

Blanche emphasized that although prosecutors described the allegations in their opening as a conspiracy, they didn’t actually charge Trump with conspiring.

“There’s nothing illegal about what you will hear happened among the National Enquirer, AMI, David Pecker and Donald Trump,” Blanche said, adding: “It’s not a scheme, unless a scheme means something that doesn’t matter, that’s not illegal.”

“I will say one other thing about Ms. Daniels’ testimony: It doesn’t matter,” Blanche said, explaining that she had no awareness about how the payments to Cohen were logged. “Her testimony, while salacious, does not matter,” he said.

Daniels has made “hundreds of thousands of dollars” since her allegations against Trump became public, Blanche said. She wrote a book, starred in a documentary and gained fame. At the same time, he noted, courts have sided with Trump in legal disputes with Daniels and that she owes him a substantial sum of cash.

As expected, Blanche is providing an extensive account of Cohen’s criminal record and his history of lying under oath . He said that Cohen turned against Trump only after he was not given a job in the administration and found himself in legal trouble.

Blanche accused Cohen of being “obsessed with President Trump,” saying “his entirely financial livelihood depends on President Trump’s destruction.”

“You cannot make a serious decision about President Trump relying on the words of Michael Cohen,” Blanche said.

While arguing that Trump did nothing illegal when his company recorded the checks to Cohen as legal expenses — prosecutors say they were veiled reimbursements meant to cover up Cohen’s payments to Daniels — Blanche is also challenging the notion that Trump agreed to the Daniels payout to safeguard his campaign.

Acknowledging that the money did change hands close to the election, Blanche characterized the transaction as the then-candidate trying to squelch a “sinister” effort to embarrass him and his loved ones. “President Trump fought back, like he always does, and like he’s entitled to do, to protect his family, his reputation and his brand, and that is not a crime,” Blanche told jurors.

Blanche took particular issue with the prosecution’s insinuation that attempting to influence an election connotes illegality. “I have a spoiler alert: There’s nothing wrong with trying to influence an election. It’s called democracy,” Blanche said. “They put something sinister on this idea, as if it’s a crime. You’ll learn it’s not.”

Blanche portrayed the ledger entries at issue in the case as pro forma actions performed by a Trump Organization functionary. Trump “had nothing to do” with the invoice, the check being generated or the entry on the ledger, Blanche said.

While prosecutors allege Trump reimbursed Michael Cohen $420,000 — more than double what Cohen paid to Daniels — because the cover-up was crucial to the campaign, Blanche said the excess payments are proof that Trump had nothing to do with the scheme.

“Ask yourself, would a frugal businessman, a man who pinches pennies, repay a 130,000 debt to the tune of $420,000?” Blanche asked.

“President Trump had nothing to do with any of the 34 pieces of paper, the 34 counts, except that he signed the checks, in the White House, while he was running the country.”

In the prosecution’s openings, Donald Trump was referred to as “the defendant.” But his own lawyers are referring to him as “President Trump.”

“We will call him President Trump, out of respect for the office that he held,” Blanche said.

Other Trump lawyers have used the same language in previous legal cases.

Trump’s lawyer Todd Blanche began, “President Trump is innocent. President Trump did not commit any crimes. The Manhattan district attorney’s office should never have brought this case.”

“He’s, in some ways, larger than life. But he’s also here in this courtroom, doing what any of us would do: defending himself,” Blanche said as Trump looked on with interest. He went on to describe Trump as a former president but also an everyday person — a man, a husband, a father.

Next up, Trump’s defense attorney Todd Blanche.

Anticipating the defense’s likely attacks on their star witness, Colangelo is acknowledging Michael Cohen’s criminal record.

“I suspect the defense will go to great lengths to get you to reject his testimony precisely because it is so damning,” Cohen said.

“We will be very upfront about it,” he continued, adding that Cohen, “like other witnesses in this trial, has made mistakes.”

“You can credit Michael Cohen’s testimony despite those past mistake,” he adds.

The evidence will show Trump is a “very frugal businessman. He believed in pinching pennies” and watching every dollar, Colangelo said. “It’s all over every book he’s written.”

Yet, when it came to reimbursing Cohen, Trump paid him double. “This might be the only time it ever happened,” Colangelo said. Trump’s willingness to part with so much cash showed just how important it was to him to keep the hush money scheme under wraps, the prosecutor posited.

After the election, Trump invited Pecker to Trump Tower to thank him for his contribution to the campaign. He also invited the publisher to the inauguration and later to the White House, where a dinner was held to honor Pecker and then-National Enquirer editor Dylan Howard.

But Colangelo said Trump still had a few “loose ends” to tie up, including reimbursing Cohen for the payments he had given to Daniels.

“Neither Trump nor the Trump Organization could just write a check to Cohen with a memo line that said ‘reimbursement for porn star pay-off,’” Colangelo said. “So they agreed to cook the books and make it look like the payment was actually income, payment for services rendered.”

Within days of the “Access Hollywood” tape becoming public, Colangelo told jurors that The National Enquirer alerted Cohen that porn actor Stormy Daniels was agitating to go public with her claims of a sexual encounter with Trump in 2006.

“At Trump’s direction, Cohen negotiated a deal to buy Ms. Daniels’ story to prevent American voters from hearing that story before Election Day,” Colangelo told jurors, referring to the scheme as a “conspiracy” and “election fraud, pure and simple.”

Colangelo told jurors that The Washington Post’s publication of the 2005 “Access Hollywood” tape, where Trump was heard on a hot mic “bragging about sexual assaults,” “was immediate and explosive.”

Colangelo told jurors that prominent Trump allies withdrew their endorsements and condemned his language. The prosecutor said evidence will show the Republican National Committee even considered whether it was possible to replace Trump with another candidate.

As Colangelo read aloud words from the tape, Trump showed no reaction.

For the first time in history, prosecutors are presenting a criminal case against a former American president to a jury as they accuse Donald Trump of a hush money scheme aimed at preventing damaging stories about his personal life from being public. (AP Video: David R. Martin)

Speaking of the arrangements made to pay former Playboy model Karen McDougal $150,000 to suppress her claims of a nearly year-long affair with the married Trump, Colangelo said Trump “desperately did not want this information ... become public because he was worried about its effect on the election.”

Colangelo told jurors they would hear a recording Cohen made in September 2016 of himself briefing Trump on the plan to buy McDougal’s story. The recording was made public in July 2018. Colangelo told jurors they would hear Trump in his own voice, saying, “What do we got to pay for this? One-fifty?”

The plan was hatched at Trump Tower shortly after the then-presidential candidate had announced his candidacy, what Colangelo is referring to as the “Trump Tower conspiracy.”

During that meeting, prosecutors say that David Pecker, then the publisher of the National Enquirer, agreed to “help the defendant’s campaign by working as the eyes and the ears of the campaign.”

All 18 jurors are looking directly at the veteran prosecutor, who stands at a lectern in the middle of the courtroom about halfway between them and Trump.

Colangelo, senior counsel to the district attorney, told jurors that though the payments to Michael Cohen, then Trump’s personal lawyer, were labeled as legal fees pursuant to a retainer agreement, there was no retainer and there were no legal services.

“The defendant was paying him back for an illegal payment to Stormy Daniels on the eve of the election. The defendant falsified those business records because he wanted to conceal his and others’ criminal conduct,” he said.

“The defendant, Donald Trump, orchestrated a criminal scheme to corrupt the 2016 presidential election. Then he covered up that criminal conspiracy by lying in his New York business records over and over and over again,” prosecutor Matthew Colangelo told jurors.

As the judge was giving jurors instructions about the trial, Trump’s campaign sent out a fundraising email to his supporters declaring, “THE HEARTLESS THUGS ARE FORCING ME TO SKIP MY SON’S GRADUATION!” and “THEY WANT TO RUIN MY LIFE!”

In reality, Judge Merchan has not yet ruled on the requests that court be adjourned on May 17 so the former president can attend his son Barron’s graduation, as well June 3 so one of the lawyers can attend their own child’s ceremony.

Merchan has previously said that he’s willing to adjourn for one or both days if the trial proceeds as planned. “It really depends on how we’re doing on time and where we are in the trial,” he said last week.

Members of the media gather outside Manhattan Criminal Court, Tuesday, April 16, 2024, in New York. (AP Photo/Yuki Iwamura)

Without cameras in the courtroom, CNN is emulating websites by using one-third of its screen for a running live blog of what is going on in the trial, written by three correspondents in the courthouse.

Meanwhile, pundits on both CNN and MSNBC, previewing opening statements, compared it to a movie trailer, a preview of coming attractions. “So many times, movie trailers are better than the movies,” said MSNBC’s Jose Diaz-Balart.

While allowing for Trump — if he testifies — to be questioned to a limited extent about his recent civil business fraud trial and writer E. Jean Carroll’s defamation lawsuits against him, Merchan declined prosecutors’ requests to bring up two other legal cases.

One was the 2022 New York criminal tax fraud trial of Trump’s business, the Trump Organization. The company was convicted by a jury. Trump wasn’t charged in that case.

The other is the nearly $1 million fine that a federal judge in Florida last year ordered Trump and one of his attorneys to pay. The judge levied the penalty after finding that Trump filed a “completely frivolous” lawsuit against his 2016 rival Hillary Clinton and others.

Prior to the start of opening statements, the judge is giving jurors instructions about trial procedure, the burden of proof and other aspects of their role. The jurors looked on attentively.

Members of the jury have entered the courtroom. Trump turned in his seat and looked briefly in their direction.

“Good morning, jurors. We are about to proceed with the trial of the People of the State of New York v. Donald J. Trump,” said Judge Merchan.

Because the panel was selected over several days, this is the first time the full jury has been together. It’s also the first time jurors are seeing the courtroom packed with reporters, a departure from last week when the gallery was full of prospective jurors — or empty seats, as the groups were whittled down — and there were just a few reporters permitted inside.

Trump shook his head as Judge Merchan ruled that prosecutors could ask him about the outcome of his recent civil business fraud trial, in which another judge found that Trump, along with his business and key executives, fraudulently inflated his wealth on paperwork used to secure loans and insurance.

Merchan said prosecutors could challenge the former president’s credibility by questioning him about six legal determinations in four cases, including his $88.3 million in judgments for defaming writer E. Jean Carroll.

Strict limits will be placed on what prosecutors can question Trump about regarding those cases, including prohibiting them from eliciting the amounts of the monetary penalties imposed, said Merchan.

He will not allow them to show the actual video in court.

Trump’s lawyers object to the use of a transcript. But Merchan said that in his view there is “no reason” why a transcript of the video, where Trump boasted about grabbing women’s genitals without permission , “should not be admitted into evidence.”

An alternate juror has an emergency dental appointment this afternoon; court will adjourn at 12:30 p.m.

Before the juror’s tooth issue, Judge Merchan had previously planned to adjourn the trial at 2 p.m. because of Passover. He plans to end at 2 p.m. on Tuesday for the holiday.

Judge Merchan made the announcement after questioning the individual behind closed doors.

Judge Juan M. Merchan said his understanding was “that the juror was concerned about the media attention” to the case and wasn’t “100% sure they wanted to be here today.”

The juror did show up to court Monday and will be questioned further in the judge’s robing room, out of the view of the press, he said.

Republican presidential candidate and former President Donald Trump sits in the courtroom at his criminal trial at Manhattan state court in New York, Monday, April 22, 2024. (Brendan McDermid/Pool Photo via AP)

The former president filled his cheeks with air and exhaled before sitting down. Photographers quickly crowded around him, snapping photos ahead of the proceedings.

The gallery is packed with reporters, and the temperature in the courtroom is slightly warmer than on previous days, where the chill was a subject of much discussion.

Former president Donald Trump leaves Trump Tower on his way to Manhattan criminal court, Monday, April 22, 2024, in New York. Opening statements in Donald Trump’s historic hush money trial are set to begin. Trump is accused of falsifying internal business records as part of an alleged scheme to bury stories he thought might hurt his presidential campaign in 2016. (AP Photo/Stefan Jeremiah)

Before heading into the courtroom, Trump addressed a camera in the hallway, once again saying that it’s “unfair” he has to be there, rather than out campaigning.

He once again cast the trial as a “witch hunt” and a “shame” aimed at damaging his campaign.

“I’m here instead of being able to be in Pennsylvania and Georgia and lots of other places campaigning and it’s very unfair,” he said.

Trump also spoke at length about another hearing taking place at a nearby court, regarding the $175 million bond he paid in his civil fraud case .

A small group of anti-Trump protesters was outside the courthouse ahead of opening statements, chanting, “No one is above the law,” while members of the media and public lined up to get inside.

Police had discussed the possibility of closing the park across the street, Collect Pond Park, after a man set himself on fire there last week, but on Monday it remained open to the public, including protesters.

He walked straight inside.

An official website of the United States government

Gross Domestic Product, First Quarter 2024 (Advance Estimate)

• News Release
• Related Materials
• Additional Information

Real gross domestic product (GDP) increased at an annual rate of 1.6 percent in the first quarter of 2024 (table 1), according to the "advance" estimate released by the Bureau of Economic Analysis. In the fourth quarter of 2023, real GDP increased 3.4 percent.

The GDP estimate released today is based on source data that are incomplete or subject to further revision by the source agency (refer to “Source Data for the Advance Estimate” on page 3). The “second” estimate for the first quarter, based on more complete source data, will be released on May 30, 2024.

The increase in real GDP primarily reflected increases in consumer spending, residential fixed investment, nonresidential fixed investment, and state and local government spending that were partly offset by a decrease in private inventory investment. Imports, which are a subtraction in the calculation of GDP, increased (table 2).

The increase in consumer spending reflected an increase in services that was partly offset by a decrease in goods. Within services, the increase primarily reflected increases in health care as well as financial services and insurance. Within goods, the decrease primarily reflected decreases in motor vehicles and parts as well as gasoline and other energy goods. Within residential fixed investment, the increase was led by brokers’ commissions and other ownership transfer costs as well as new single-family housing construction. The increase in nonresidential fixed investment mainly reflected an increase in intellectual property products. The increase in state and local government spending reflected an increase in compensation of state and local government employees. The decrease in inventory investment primarily reflected decreases in wholesale trade and manufacturing. Within imports, the increase reflected increases in both goods and services.

Compared to the fourth quarter, the deceleration in real GDP in the first quarter primarily reflected decelerations in consumer spending, exports, and state and local government spending and a downturn in federal government spending. These movements were partly offset by an acceleration in residential fixed investment. Imports accelerated.

Current‑dollar GDP increased 4.8 percent at an annual rate, or $327.5 billion, in the first quarter to a level of $28.28 trillion. In the fourth quarter, GDP increased 5.1 percent, or $346.9 billion (tables 1 and 3).

The price index for gross domestic purchases increased 3.1 percent in the first quarter, compared with an increase of 1.9 percent in the fourth quarter (table 4). The personal consumption expenditures (PCE) price index increased 3.4 percent, compared with an increase of 1.8 percent. Excluding food and energy prices, the PCE price index increased 3.7 percent, compared with an increase of 2.0 percent.

Personal Income

Current-dollar personal income increased $407.1 billion in the first quarter, compared with an increase of $230.2 billion in the fourth quarter. The increase primarily reflected increases in compensation and personal current transfer receipts (table 8).

Disposable personal income increased $226.2 billion, or 4.5 percent, in the first quarter, compared with an increase of $190.4 billion, or 3.8 percent, in the fourth quarter. Increases in compensation and personal current transfer receipts were partly offset by an increase in personal current taxes, which are a subtraction in the calculation of DPI. Real disposable personal income increased 1.1 percent, compared with an increase of 2.0 percent.

Personal saving was $755.7 billion in the first quarter, compared with $815.5 billion in the fourth quarter. The personal saving rate —personal saving as a percentage of disposable personal income—was 3.6 percent in the first quarter, compared with 4.0 percent in the fourth quarter.

Source Data for the Advance Estimate

The GDP estimate released today is based on source data that are incomplete or subject to further revision by the source agency. Information on the source data and key assumptions used in the advance estimate is provided in a Technical Note and a detailed " Key Source Data and Assumptions " file posted with the release. The second estimate for the first quarter, based on more complete data, will be released on May 30, 2024. For information on updates to GDP, refer to the "Additional Information" section that follows.

*          *          *

Next release, May 30, 2024, at 8:30 a.m. EDT Gross Domestic Product (Second Estimate) Corporate Profits (Preliminary Estimate) First Quarter 2024

Full Release & Tables (PDF)

Technical note (pdf), tables only (excel), release highlights (pdf), historical comparisons (pdf), key source data and assumptions (excel), revision information.

• GDP Lisa Mataloni  301-278-9083 [email protected]
• Corporate Profits Kate Pinard 301-278-9417 [email protected]
• Media (BEA) Connie O’Connell 301-278-9003 [email protected]

Additional resources available at www.bea.gov :

• Stay informed about BEA developments by reading the BEA blog , signing up for BEA's email subscription service , or following BEA on X, formerly known as Twitter @BEA_News .
• Historical time series for these estimates can be accessed in BEA's interactive data application .
• Access BEA data by registering for BEA's data Application Programming Interface (API).
• For more on BEA's statistics, refer to our online journal, the Survey of Current Business .
• BEA's news release schedule
• NIPA Handbook : Concepts and Methods of the U.S. National Income and Product Accounts

Definitions

Gross domestic product (GDP), or value added , is the value of the goods and services produced by the nation's economy less the value of the goods and services used up in production. GDP is also equal to the sum of personal consumption expenditures, gross private domestic investment, net exports of goods and services, and government consumption expenditures and gross investment.

Gross domestic income (GDI) is the sum of incomes earned and costs incurred in the production of GDP. In national economic accounting, GDP and GDI are conceptually equal. In practice, GDP and GDI differ because they are constructed using largely independent source data.

Gross output is the value of the goods and services produced by the nation's economy. It is principally measured using industry sales or receipts, including sales to final users (GDP) and sales to other industries (intermediate inputs).

Current-dollar estimates are valued in the prices of the period when the transactions occurred—that is, at "market value." Also referred to as "nominal estimates" or as "current-price estimates."

Real values are inflation-adjusted estimates—that is, estimates that exclude the effects of price changes.

The gross domestic purchases price index measures the prices of final goods and services purchased by U.S. residents.

The personal consumption expenditure price index measures the prices paid for the goods and services purchased by, or on the behalf of, "persons."

Personal income is the income received by, or on behalf of, all persons from all sources: from participation as laborers in production, from owning a home or business, from the ownership of financial assets, and from government and business in the form of transfers. It includes income from domestic sources as well as the rest of world. It does not include realized or unrealized capital gains or losses.

Disposable personal income is the income available to persons for spending or saving. It is equal to personal income less personal current taxes.

Personal outlays is the sum of personal consumption expenditures, personal interest payments, and personal current transfer payments.

Personal saving is personal income less personal outlays and personal current taxes.

The personal saving rate is personal saving as a percentage of disposable personal income.

Profits from current production , referred to as corporate profits with inventory valuation adjustment (IVA) and capital consumption (CCAdj) adjustment in the National Income and Product Accounts (NIPAs), is a measure of the net income of corporations before deducting income taxes that is consistent with the value of goods and services measured in GDP. The IVA and CCAdj are adjustments that convert inventory withdrawals and depreciation of fixed assets reported on a tax-return, historical-cost basis to the current-cost economic measures used in the national income and product accounts. Profits for domestic industries reflect profits for all corporations located within the geographic borders of the United States. The rest-of-the-world (ROW) component of profits is measured as the difference between profits received from ROW and profits paid to ROW.

For more definitions, refer to the Glossary: National Income and Product Accounts .

Statistical conventions

Annual-vs-quarterly rates . Quarterly seasonally adjusted values are expressed at annual rates, unless otherwise specified. This convention is used for BEA's featured, seasonally adjusted measures to facilitate comparisons with related and historical data. For details, refer to the FAQ " Why does BEA publish estimates at annual rates? "

Quarterly not seasonally adjusted values are expressed only at quarterly rates.

Percent changes . Percent changes in quarterly seasonally adjusted series are displayed at annual rates, unless otherwise specified. For details, refer to the FAQ " How is average annual growth calculated? " and " Why does BEA publish percent changes in quarterly series at annual rates? " Percent changes in quarterly not seasonally adjusted values are calculated from the same quarter one year ago. All published percent changes are calculated from unrounded data.

Calendar years and quarters . Unless noted otherwise, annual and quarterly data are presented on a calendar basis.

Quantities and prices . Quantities, or "real" volume measures, and prices are expressed as index numbers with a specified reference year equal to 100 (currently 2017). Quantity and price indexes are calculated using a Fisher-chained weighted formula that incorporates weights from two adjacent periods (quarters for quarterly data and annuals for annual data). For details on the calculation of quantity and price indexes, refer to Chapter 4: Estimating Methods in the NIPA Handbook .

Chained-dollar values are calculated by multiplying the quantity index by the current dollar value in the reference year (2017) and then dividing by 100. Percent changes calculated from real quantity indexes and chained-dollar levels are conceptually the same; any differences are due to rounding. Chained-dollar values are not additive because the relative weights for a given period differ from those of the reference year. In tables that display chained-dollar values, a "residual" line shows the difference between the sum of detailed chained-dollar series and its corresponding aggregate.

Updates to GDP

BEA releases three vintages of the current quarterly estimate for GDP. "Advance" estimates are released near the end of the first month following the end of the quarter and are based on source data that are incomplete or subject to further revision by the source agency. "Second" and "third" estimates are released near the end of the second and third months, respectively, and are based on more detailed and more comprehensive data as they become available.

The table below shows the average revisions to the quarterly percent changes in real GDP between different estimate vintages, without regard to sign.

Annual and comprehensive updates are released in late September. Annual updates generally cover at least the five most recent calendar years (and their associated quarters) and incorporate newly available major annual source data as well as some changes in methods and definitions to improve the accounts. Comprehensive (or benchmark) updates are carried out at about 5-year intervals and incorporate major periodic source data, as well as major conceptual improvements.

Unlike GDP, advance current quarterly estimates of GDI and corporate profits are not released because data on domestic profits and net interest of domestic industries are not available. For fourth quarter estimates, these data are not available until the third estimate.

GDP by industry and gross output estimates are released with the third estimate of GDP.

Death of Mandisa, 'American Idol' alum, does not appear suspicious, Franklin police say

Franklin Police Department officials said Monday that no foul play is suspected in the death of Christian singer Mandisa — four days after she was found dead in her home.

Mandisa, a Grammy-winner born in Citrus Heights, California, as Mandisa Lynn Hundley, was 47 years old.

The singer died suddenly in her Franklin home and was found on Thursday. Hundley was identified by a medical examiner, police officials said.

"At this time, there is no indication the death was the result of suspicious or criminal activity," said police spokesperson Max Winitz. "The Franklin Police Department send its condolences to Hundley’s family, friends, and fans."

He did not provide a suspected cause of her death on Monday.

Initially, police only said they were working at a home that matched the address provided for the 'American Idol' alum on public records. The Media Collective talent agency that represented Hundley confirmed her death Friday. But the company provided no insight into her cause of death.

Hundley graduated from Fisk University, where she was a member of the famed Fisk University Jubilee singers, in 2000.

In 2005, Hundley appeared on "American Idol" and made it to the top nine contestants. Her career as a Christian artist bloomed from there. She released her first album, "True Beauty" in 2007 and debuted on the Top Christian Album charts with her first single, "Only the World."

Hundley won best contemporary Christian Music Album for "Overcomer" at the 56th Grammy Awards in 2014.

As news of her death spread, other celebrities and people who knew Mandisa have spoken out on social media, saying her music and lyrics served as inspiration to them when they needed it.

"Mandisa's smile was like turning on sunshine," said singer-songwriter Amy Grant on Instagram.

Frequent collaborator TobyMac said: "I have never met an artist who is more encouraging and supportive to other artists than Mandisa."

Tennessean reporters Craig Shoup and Melonee Hurt contributed to this report.

ABC's George Stephanopoulos says 2024 race can't be treated normally after Biden urges press to alter coverage

O ne day after President Biden implored the media to not treat the 2024 election like business as usual, ABC's George Stephanopoulos sternly told his audience on Sunday's "This Week" that this year was abnormal and a "test" for the media and the country.

In contrast with the show's usual style, Stephanopoulos began the program with remarks on former President Trump's legal troubles and how the 2024 election was testing the tenets of democracy. This followed Biden calling on members of the press to focus less on horse race politics and "rise up to the seriousness of the moment," in a sober conclusion to his speech at the White House correspondents' dinner on Saturday.

"Until now, no American president had ever faced a criminal trial," Stephanopoulos said. "No American president had ever faced a criminal indictment for retaining and concealing classified documents. No American president had ever faced a federal indictment or a state indictment for trying to overturn an election, or been named an unindicted co-conspirator in two other states for the same crime. No American president has faced hundreds of millions of dollars in fines for business fraud, defamation, and sexual abuse," Stephanopoulos began. 

Stephanopoulos argued this election was not normal, and that it was easy for everyone to treat it as an ordinary race for the presidency when the "scale of the abnormality is so staggering."

NEW POLL SHOWS BIDEN'S 2024 LEAD VANISHING WITH TRUMP ON TRIAL

"It’s all too easy to fall into reflexive habits, to treat this as a normal campaign, where both sides embrace the rule of law, where both sides are dedicated to a debate based on facts and the peaceful transfer of power. But that is not what’s happening this election year. Those bedrock tenets of democracy are being tested in a way we haven’t seen since the Civil War. It’s a test for the candidates, for those of us in the media, and for all of us as citizens," Stephanopoulos said.

READ ON THE FOX NEWS APP

There was no indication that Stephanopoulos' remarks weren't coincidental, however. An ABC News spokesperson didn't respond to request for comment on whether the anchor's editorial was related to Biden's admonition.

Biden highlighted Trump's rhetoric while addressing the press, and said the biggest question facing Americans in this election was whether democracy was "still the sacred cause of America."

"The defeated former president has made no secret of his attack on our democracy. He has said he wants to be a ‘dictator on day one,’ and so much more," Biden said. "He tells supporters he is their ‘revenge’ and ‘retribution.’  When in God’s name have you heard another president say something like that? And he promised a ‘bloodbath’ when he loses again. We have to take this seriously." 

He also told the press to focus on the high stakes of this presidential race, Fox News Digital reported.

GOP BLASTS ‘OUT OF TOUCH’ WARNING OF NO MORE WHITE HOUSE CORRESPONDENTS DINNERS IF TRUMP WINS ELECTION

"Move past the horse race numbers and the 'gotcha' moments and the distractions and the sideshows that have come to dominate and sensationalize our politics, and focus on what’s actually at stake," Biden said. "I think in your hearts, you know what's at stake. The stakes couldn’t be higher."

Biden added that every member of the media had "serious roles to play" in making sure democracy endures.

The president, who has taken heat from the New York Times and other news outlets for avoiding serious interviews, sat for a rare live chat on Friday with radio host Howard Stern. Biden told Stern he was "happy" to debate Trump this year after previously hedging on the subject.

Original article source: ABC's George Stephanopoulos says 2024 race can't be treated normally after Biden urges press to alter coverage

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Concertgoer Trolls Metro Boomin With ‘Play Some Drums’ Drake Diss, Producer Seemingly Responds

The fan quoted Drake's diss record, "Push Ups."

A fan trolled Metro Boomin at a recent show by quoting some Drake lyrics.

“Metro, shut your ho ass up and play some drums!” the concertgoer appeared to yell from the crowd and laughed. Metro could also be heard laughing on stage, before saying, “I heard that.” 

The audience roared and the fan started jumping up and down, visibly excited that Metro seemingly caught his comment, even though it was a diss.

A Drake Fan tried to clown Metro Boomin at his concert: “Metro shut ya hoe a** up and play some drums” pic.twitter.com/MVJgkgPDg5 — Daily Loud (@DailyLoud) April 29, 2024

The moment looked to take place on April 26 at the BRED Festival in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. Clips from the St. Louis producer’s performance show him playing Drake and 21 Savage’s song “Knife Talk,” which Metro produced, as well as his explosive Future and Kendrick Lamar song, "Like That."

@inabudhabi Metro performing at BRED Abu Dhabi #metroboomin #metro #kendricklamar #drake ♬ original sound - Visit Abu Dhabi

The fan’s remark is a nod to Drizzy’s “Push Ups” diss song from earlier this month, which took aim at Metro, Future, and Kendrick Lamar. “Metro, shut your ho ass up and make some drums, n***a,” Drake rapped.

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If it's been weeks since you filed your tax return, you may want to start tracking its status to see when your refund will arrive.

When can you expect your money?

If you filed your tax return weeks ago and still haven't received your refund money, it could be for a number of reasons. For instance, you may have opted to receive a paper check instead of an electronic refund directly to your bank account. But if it's been more than 21 days since you filed your tax return and you still haven't received your money, it's time to use the IRS refund tracker tool to check the status of your money.

For most tax filers, April 15 was the final day to submit tax returns. That is unless you  file a tax extension  or you reside in one of these states . Although the IRS has been sending tax refunds for months, the process of receiving money back  isn't instantaneous.

Keep reading to find out how to track the status of your refund and any other money the IRS owes you, to learn about what status messages mean, what to know about calling the IRS if a problem occurs, and other tips. For more on money matters, here's when you could expect to receive  your child tax credit money . Here's the  best tax software for 2024  if you have an extension.

Track the status of your 2024 tax refund with this tool

The quickest way to monitor your tax refund is with the IRS'  Where's My Refund?  tracker page, which also lets you know if your return has been  rejected because of errors . 

To use the  IRS' tracker tools , you'll need to provide your Social Security number or Individual Taxpayer Identification Number, your filing status (single, married or head of household) and your refund amount in whole dollars.

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Go to the  Get Refund Status  page on the IRS website, enter your personal data, and then press  Submit .

If you're not taken to a page that shows your refund status, you may be asked to verify your personal tax data and try again. If all the information looks correct, you'll need to enter the date you filed your taxes, along with whether you filed electronically or on paper.

Make sure it's been at least 24 hours before you start tracking an online return, or up to four weeks if you mailed your return. 

Yes, you can track a refund from previous years

The Where's My Refund tool lists the federal refund information the IRS has from the past two years. If you're looking for return details from previous years, you'll need to check your  IRS online account . 

From there, you'll be able to see the total amount you owe, your payment history, key information about your most recent tax return, notices you've received from the IRS and your address on file. 

The IRS has a mobile app to track your refund, too

The IRS2Go app is available to use on both iOS and Android.

The IRS also has a mobile app called  IRS2Go  that can monitor your tax refund status. It's available for both iOS and Android and in English and Spanish.

You're able to see if your return has been received and approved in the app, and if a refund has been sent.

To log in, you'll need your Social Security number, filing status and the expected amount of your refund. The IRS updates the app overnight, so if you don't see a status change, check back the following day. 

What these tax return status messages mean

The IRS tools will show you one of three messages explaining your tax return status.

• Received : The IRS now has your tax return and is working to process it.
• Approved : The IRS has processed your return and confirmed the amount of your refund if you're owed one.
• Sent : Your refund is now on its way to your bank via direct deposit or as a paper check sent to your mailbox. (Here's how to  change the address on file if you've moved .)

Why you might see 'Tax Topic 152' or an IRS error message

Although the Where's My Refund tool typically shows a status of Received, Approved or Sent, there are a variety of other messages some users may see.

One of the most common is  Tax Topic 152 , indicating you're likely getting a refund but it hasn't been approved or sent yet. The notice simply links out to an informational topic page on the IRS FAQ website explaining the types and timing of tax refunds.

The delay could be an automated message for taxpayers claiming the child tax credit or earned income tax credit sent because of additional fraud protection steps.

Tax Topic 151  means your tax return is now under review by the IRS. The agency either needs to verify certain credits or dependents, or it has determined that your tax refund will be reduced to pay money that it believes you owe. You'll need to wait about four weeks to receive a notice from the IRS explaining what you need to do to resolve the status.

There are other IRS refund codes that a small percentage of tax filers receive, indicating freezes, math errors on tax returns or undelivered checks. The College Investor offers a  list of IRS refund reference codes and errors  and their meaning. 

Problems? What to know about calling the IRS about your refund

Getting  live phone assistance  is notoriously difficult at the IRS. In 2022,  only about 13% of taxpayers  reached a human being, according to Erin M. Collins, the national taxpayer advocate.

Congress has since increased the agency's funding, and the IRS said it has hired thousands of new telephone representatives. Still, the agency says you should call only if it's been at least 21 days since you filed your taxes online or if the  Where's My Refund  tool tells you to.

The IRS said  wait times during tax season can average 4 minutes, but they also said you may experience longer wait times on Monday and Tuesday, as well as during  Presidents Day weekend  (Feb. 17, 18 and 19) and around the April tax filing deadline.

You can call  800-829-1040  or  800-829-8374  during regular business hours. 

Otherwise, the IRS is directing taxpayers to the  Let Us Help You  page on its website and to in-person help at Taxpayer Assistance Centers around the country. You can  contact your local IRS office  or call 844-545-5640 to make an appointment. If you're eligible for assistance, you can also contact the  Taxpayer Advocate Service  at 877-777-4778. 

What 'IRS TREAS 310' means as a bank statement transaction

If you receive your tax refund by direct deposit, you may see  IRS TREAS 310  listed in the transaction. The 310 code simply  identifies the transaction  as a refund from a filed tax return in the form of electronic payment. You may also see  TAX REF  in the description field for a refund.

If you see a  449  instead of  310 , it means your refund may have been  offset for delinquent debt .

Why your refund was mailed instead of issued via direct deposit

There are a few reasons why your refund may be mailed rather than deposited electronically into your account. Keep in mind:

• You must provide the correct account and routing number.
• Funds can only be deposited into an account with your name or your spouse's name (or both for a joint account). 
• The IRS can only do direct deposit for up to three refunds into one account.

If you're receiving a refund check in the mail, here's how to  track it from the IRS office to your mailbox .

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Journalism personal statement example 8.

Through the years media has become one of the most powerful entities in the world. This, combined with its social element and dynamic, ever-changing nature is what mostly has inspired me to choose this field of study for my higher education.

Having devoted much of my adolescence to learning English, I now feel great enthusiasm when working with it, be it in a formal or casual setting. This is partially why I believe that studying in the UK is the perfect place for me to continue developing key language and social skills. There I have provided the grounds for a prospective career as well as a vigorous lifestyle.

My interest in journalism obviously was not always present, but what got me into it was an initiative by my school where I was asked to write a short article on a relevant subject. I did not feel too self-assured at the time, but it was well received and my confidence in language and creative writing started snowballing.

Ever since then, I have regularly posted articles in the school website as well as the local newspaper, which was a valuable experience altogether.

I have also held numerous presentations in front of crowds and am no stranger to working in teams due to my experience in debating. It is to my belief that I can adapt to new topics of discussion with ease as I have been competing in a number of debate-related events on a nation-wide scale for almost 3 years now.

These events have featured various relevant topics and have put to test many of my oratory skills. It was debating that introduced me to a new setting I hadn’t been familiar with before, namely being part of a structured argument.

What I gained as a result were skills such as: the importance of critical thinking; the ability to create a well- structured speech; the way in which one can properly construct an argumentation; how to research a certain topic in a limited amount of time and several more. Understanding and developing these strengths has led me to become more vocal and substantially more confident in myself.

Subsequently I became more engaged in extracurricular activities, for instance, currently I am in the process of co- founding a local debates club.

Such undertaking includes a vast amount of municipal work: discussions with the mayor of my hometown and fellow peers, whose interest me and my acquaintances need to capture trough promoting. There is still work underway but I believe it is off to a good start.

I have many various hobbies, some of which include filmmaking, which has been one of my passions for a long time now, and it has helped me develop a keen eye for detail. This very interest of mine has showed me that most captivating stories are in the most unexpected places. Another hobby of mine is skiing. Going to the mountain side, for me, is always welcome.

I hope that this personal statement supports my application and demonstrates that I am enthusiastic and look forward to contributing to university life.

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Author's Comments

To be completely honest, I broke rule one. I didn't take my time with what I had to write. Frankly though, three days of work paid off quite well. I look forward to receiving feedback.

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