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As a teacher and role model for young minds, you can facilitate this important skill by teaching a unit on friendship. You might choose, for example, a lesson plan that focuses on developing socialization skills like: 1. How to identify what characteristics are important in a friend. 2. How to identify what a good friend does. 3. How to practice skills that help people make friends. True friends don’t expect anything in return for your friendship. They like you for who you are and they expect the same in return. Friends offer an excellent way to get rid of stress and depression. The company of our friends makes us forget our sorrows and any unwanted pressure. Plus, we can openly ask our friends for suggestions on how to solve our personal problems and they would be glad to help us out. Friendships can have a major impact on our health and well-being, but it's not always easy to build or maintain friendships. It is important to teach your students the importance of friendships in their lives and what they can do to develop and nurture these friendships. Friendships help children develop emotionally and morally. In interacting with friends, children learn many social skills, such as how to communicate, cooperate, and solve problems.

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Chapter 7: Communication in Relationships

7.2 communication and friends, learning objectives.

Compare and contrast different types of friendships.
Describe the cycle of friendship from formation to maintenance to dissolution/deterioration.
Discuss how friendships change across the life span, from adolescence to later life.
Explain how culture and gender influence friendships.

Do you consider all the people you are “friends” with on Facebook to be friends? What’s the difference, if any, between a “Facebook friend” and a real-world friend? Friendships, like other relationship forms, can be divided into categories. What’s the difference between a best friend, a good friend, and an old friend? What about work friends, school friends, and friends of the family? It’s likely that each of you reading this book has a different way of perceiving and categorizing your friendships. In this section, we will learn about the various ways we classify friends, the life cycle of friendships, and how gender affects friendships.

Defining and Classifying Friends

Friendships are voluntary interpersonal relationships between two people who are usually equals and who mutually influence one another. [1] Friendships are distinct from romantic relationships, family relationships, and acquaintances and are often described as more vulnerable relationships than others due to their voluntary nature, the availability of other friends, and the fact that they lack the social and institutional support of other relationships. The lack of official support for friendships is not universal, though. In rural parts of Thailand, for example, special friendships are recognized by a ceremony in which both parties swear devotion and loyalty to each other (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). Even though we do not have a formal ritual to recognize friendship in the United States, in general, research shows that people have three main expectations for close friendships. A friend is someone you can talk to, someone you can depend on for help and emotional support, and someone you can participate in activities and have fun with (Rawlins, 1992).

Although friendships vary across the life span, three types of friendships are common in adulthood: reciprocal, associative, and receptive. [2] Reciprocal friendships are solid interpersonal relationships between people who are equals with a shared sense of loyalty and commitment. These friendships are likely to develop over time and can withstand external changes such as geographic separation or fluctuations in other commitments such as work and childcare. Reciprocal friendships are what most people would consider the ideal for best friends. Associative friendships are mutually pleasurable relationships between acquaintances or associates that, although positive, lack the commitment of reciprocal friendships. These friendships are likely to be maintained out of convenience or to meet instrumental goals.

Friendships that are maintained because they are convenient and meet an instrumental need, like having a workout partner, are likely to terminate if they become inconvenient or the need changes.

Marion Doss – Friends – CC BY-SA 2.0.

For example, a friendship may develop between two people who work out at the same gym. They may spend time with each other in this setting a few days a week for months or years, but their friendship might end if the gym closes or one person’s schedule changes. Receptive friendships include a status differential that makes the relationship asymmetrical. Unlike the other friendship types that are between peers, this relationship is more like that of a supervisor-subordinate or clergy-parishioner. In some cases, like a mentoring relationship, both parties can benefit from the relationship. In other cases, the relationship could quickly sour if the person with more authority begins to abuse it.

A relatively new type of friendship, at least in label, is the “friends with benefits” relationship. Friends with benefits (FWB) relationships have the closeness of a friendship and the sexual activity of a romantic partnership without the expectations of romantic commitment or labels (Lehmiller, VanderDrift, & Kelly, 2011). FWB relationships are hybrids that combine characteristics of romantic and friend pairings, which produces some unique dynamics. In my conversations with students over the years, we have talked through some of the differences between friends, FWB, and hook-up partners, or what we termed “just benefits.” Hook-up or “just benefits” relationships do not carry the emotional connection typical in a friendship, may occur as one-night-stands or be regular things, and exist solely for the gratification and/or convenience of sexual activity. So why might people choose to have or avoid FWB relationships?

Various research studies have shown that half of the college students who participated have engaged in heterosexual FWB relationships (Bisson & Levine, 2009). Many who engage in FWB relationships have particular views on love and sex—namely, that sex can occur independently of love. Conversely, those who report no FWB relationships often cite religious, moral, or personal reasons for not doing so. Some who have reported FWB relationships note that they value the sexual activity with their friend, and many feel that it actually brings the relationship closer. Despite valuing the sexual activity, they also report fears that it will lead to hurt feelings or the dissolution of a friendship (Lehmiller, VanderDrift, & Kelly, 2011). We must also consider gender differences and communication challenges in FWB relationships.

Gender biases must be considered when discussing heterosexual FWB relationships, given that women in most societies are judged more harshly than men for engaging in casual sex. But aside from dealing with the double standard that women face regarding their sexual activity, there aren’t many gender differences in how men and women engage in and perceive FWB relationships. So what communicative patterns are unique to the FWB relationship? Those who engage in FWB relationships have some unique communication challenges. For example, they may have difficulty with labels as they figure out whether they are friends, close friends, a little more than friends, and so on. Research participants currently involved in such a relationship reported that they have more commitment to the friendship than the sexual relationship. But does that mean they would give up the sexual aspect of the relationship to save the friendship? The answer is “no” according to the research study. Most participants reported that they would like the relationship to stay the same, followed closely by the hope that it would turn into a full romantic relationship (Lehmiller, VanderDrift, & Kelly, 2011). Just from this study, we can see that there is often a tension between action and labels. In addition, those in a FWB relationship often have to engage in privacy management as they decide who to tell and who not to tell about their relationship, given that some mutual friends are likely to find out and some may be critical of the relationship. Last, they may have to establish ground rules or guidelines for the relationship. Since many FWB relationships are not exclusive, meaning partners are open to having sex with other people, ground rules or guidelines may include discussions of safer-sex practices, disclosure of sexual partners, or periodic testing for sexually transmitted infections.

The Life Span of Friendships

Friendships, like most relationships, have a life span ranging from formation to maintenance to deterioration/dissolution. Friendships have various turning points that affect their trajectory. While there are developmental stages in friendships, they may not be experienced linearly, as friends can cycle through formation, maintenance, and deterioration/dissolution together or separately and may experience stages multiple times. Friendships are also diverse, in that not all friendships develop the same level of closeness, and the level of closeness can fluctuate over the course of a friendship. Changes in closeness can be an expected and accepted part of the cycle of friendships, and less closeness doesn’t necessarily lead to less satisfaction (Johnson et al., 2003).

The formation process of friendship development involves two people moving from strangers toward acquaintances and potentially friends (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). Several factors influence the formation of friendships, including environmental, situational, individual, and interactional factors (Fehr, 2000). Environmental factors lead us to have more day-to-day contact with some people over others. For example, residential proximity and sharing a workplace are catalysts for friendship formation. Thinking back to your childhood, you may have had early friendships with people on your block because they were close by and you could spend time together easily without needing transportation. A similar situation may have occurred later if you moved away from home for college and lived in a residence hall.

Many new college students form bonds with people in their residence halls that last through college and beyond.

Mtnbikrrrr – dorm friends – 1984 – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

You may have formed early relationships, perhaps even before classes started, with hall-mates or dorm-mates. I’ve noticed that many students will continue to associate and maybe even attempt to live close to friends they made in their first residence hall throughout their college years, even as they move residence halls or off campus. We also find friends through the social networks of existing friends and family. Although these people may not live close to us, they are brought into proximity through people we know, which facilitates our ability to spend time with them. Encountering someone due to environmental factors may lead to a friendship if the situational factors are favorable.

The main situational factor that may facilitate or impede friendship formation is availability. Initially, we are more likely to be interested in a friendship if we anticipate that we’ll be able to interact with the other person again in the future without expending more effort than our schedule and other obligations will allow. In order for a friendship to take off, both parties need resources such as time and energy to put into it. Hectic work schedules, family obligations, or personal stresses such as financial problems or family or relational conflict may impair someone’s ability to nurture a friendship.

The number of friends we have at any given point is a situational factor that also affects whether or not we are actually looking to add new friends. I have experienced this fluctuation. Since I stayed in the same city for my bachelor’s and master’s degrees, I had forged many important friendships over those seven years. In the last year of my master’s program, I was immersed in my own classes and jobs as a residence hall director and teaching assistant. I was also preparing to move within the year to pursue my doctorate. I recall telling a friend of many years that I was no longer “accepting applications” for new friends. Although I was half-joking, this example illustrates the importance of environmental and situational factors. Not only was I busier than I had ever been; I was planning on moving and therefore knew it wouldn’t be easy to continue investing in any friendships I made in my final year. Instead, I focused on the friendships I already had and attended to my other personal obligations. Of course, when I moved to a new city a few months later, I was once again “accepting applications,” because I had lost the important physical proximity to all my previous friends. Environmental and situational factors that relate to friendship formation point to the fact that convenience plays a large role in determining whether a relationship will progress or not.

While contact and availability may initiate communication with a potential friend, individual and interactional factors are also important. We are more likely to develop friendships with individuals we deem physically attractive, socially competent, and responsive to our needs (Fehr, 2000). Specifically, we are more attracted to people we deem similar to or slightly above us in terms of attractiveness and competence. Although physical attractiveness is more important in romantic relationships, research shows that we evaluate attractive people more positively, which may influence our willingness to invest more in a friendship. Friendships also tend to form between people with similar demographic characteristics such as race, gender, age, and class, and similar personal characteristics like interests and values. Being socially competent and responsive in terms of empathy, emotion management, conflict management, and self-disclosure also contribute to the likelihood of friendship development.

If a friendship is established in the formation phase, then the new friends will need to maintain their relationship. The maintenance phase includes the most variation in terms of the processes that take place, the commitment to maintenance from each party, and the length of time of the phase (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). In short, some friendships require more maintenance in terms of shared time together and emotional support than other friendships that can be maintained with only occasional contact. Maintenance is important, because friendships provide important opportunities for social support that take the place of or supplement family and romantic relationships. Sometimes, we may feel more comfortable being open with a friend about something than we would with a family member or romantic partner. Most people expect that friends will be there for them when needed, which is the basis of friendship maintenance. As with other relationships, tasks that help maintain friendships range from being there in a crisis to seemingly mundane day-to-day activities and interactions.

Failure to perform or respond to friendship-maintenance tasks can lead to the deterioration and eventual dissolution of friendships. Causes of dissolution may be voluntary (termination due to conflict), involuntary (death of friendship partner), external (increased family or work commitments), or internal (decreased liking due to perceived lack of support) (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). While there are often multiple, interconnecting causes that result in friendship dissolution, there are three primary sources of conflict in a friendship that stem from internal/interpersonal causes and may lead to voluntary dissolution: sexual interference, failure to support, and betrayal of trust (Fehr, 2000). Sexual interference generally involves a friend engaging with another friend’s romantic partner or romantic interest and can lead to feelings of betrayal, jealousy, and anger. Failure to support may entail a friend not coming to another’s aid or defense when criticized. Betrayal of trust can stem from failure to secure private information by telling a secret or disclosing personal information without permission. While these three internal factors may initiate conflict in a friendship, discovery of unfavorable personal traits can also lead to problems.

Have you ever started investing in a friendship only to find out later that the person has some character flaws that you didn’t notice before? As was mentioned earlier, we are more likely to befriend someone whose personal qualities we find attractive. However, we may not get to experience the person in a variety of contexts and circumstances before we invest in the friendship. We may later find out that our easygoing friend becomes really possessive once we start a romantic relationship and spend less time with him. Or we may find that our happy-go-lucky friend gets moody and irritable when she doesn’t get her way. These individual factors become interactional when our newly realized dissimilarity affects our communication. It is logical that as our liking decreases, as a result of personal reassessment of the friendship, we will engage in less friendship-maintenance tasks such as self-disclosure and supportive communication. In fact, research shows that the main termination strategy employed to end a friendship is avoidance. As we withdraw from the relationship, the friendship fades away and may eventually disappear, which is distinct from romantic relationships, which usually have an official “breakup.” Aside from changes based on personal characteristics discovered through communication, changes in the external factors that help form friendships can also lead to their dissolution.

The main change in environmental factors that can lead to friendship dissolution is a loss of proximity, which may entail a large or small geographic move or school or job change. The two main situational changes that affect friendships are schedule changes and changes in romantic relationships. Even without a change in environment, someone’s job or family responsibilities may increase, limiting the amount of time one has to invest in friendships. Additionally, becoming invested in a romantic relationship may take away from time previously allocated to friends. For environmental and situational changes, the friendship itself is not the cause of the dissolution. These external factors are sometimes difficult if not impossible to control, and lost or faded friendships are a big part of everyone’s relational history.

Friendships across the Life Span

As we transition between life stages such as adolescence, young adulthood, emerging adulthood, middle age, and later life, our friendships change in many ways (Rawlins, 1992). Our relationships begin to deepen in adolescence as we negotiate the confusion of puberty. Then, in early adulthood, many people get to explore their identities and diversify their friendship circle. Later, our lives stabilize and we begin to rely more on friendships with a romantic partner and continue to nurture the friendships that have lasted. Let’s now learn more about the characteristics of friendships across the life span.

Adolescence

Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty and lasts through the teen years. We typically make our first voluntary close social relationships during adolescence as cognitive and emotional skills develop. At this time, our friendships are usually with others of the same age/grade in school, gender, and race, and friends typically have similar attitudes about academics and similar values (Rawlins, 1992). These early friendships allow us to test our interpersonal skills, which affects the relationships we will have later in life. For example, emotional processing, empathy, self-disclosure, and conflict become features of adolescent friendships in new ways and must be managed (Collins & Madsen, 2006).

Adolescents begin to see friends rather than parents as providers of social support, as friends help negotiate the various emotional problems often experienced for the first time (Collins & Madsen, 2006).

Friendships in adolescence become important as we begin to create an identity that is separate from our family.

Japharl – Family – CC BY 2.0.

This new dependence on friendships can also create problems. For example, as adolescents progress through puberty and forward on their identity search, they may experience some jealousy and possessiveness in their friendships as they attempt to balance the tensions between their dependence on and independence from friends. Additionally, as adolescents articulate their identities, they look for acceptance and validation of self in their friends, especially given the increase in self-consciousness experienced by most adolescents (Rawlins, 1992). Those who do not form satisfying relationships during this time may miss out on opportunities for developing communication competence, leading to lower performance at work or school and higher rates of depression (Collins & Madsen, 2006). The transition to college marks a move from adolescence to early adulthood and opens new opportunities for friendship and challenges in dealing with the separation from hometown friends.

Early Adulthood

Early adulthood encompasses the time from around eighteen to twenty-nine years of age, and although not every person in this age group goes to college, most of the research on early adult friendships focuses on college students. Those who have the opportunity to head to college will likely find a canvas for exploration and experimentation with various life and relational choices relatively free from the emotional, time, and financial constraints of starting their own family that may come later in life (Rawlins, 1992).

As we transition from adolescence to early adulthood, we are still formulating our understanding of relational processes, but people report that their friendships are more intimate than the ones they had in adolescence. During this time, friends provide important feedback on self-concept, careers, romantic and/or sexual relationships, and civic, social, political, and extracurricular activities. It is inevitable that young adults will lose some ties to their friends from adolescence during this transition, which has positive and negative consequences. Investment in friendships from adolescence provides a sense of continuity during the often rough transition to college. These friendships may also help set standards for future friendships, meaning the old friendships are a base for comparison for new friends. Obviously this is a beneficial situation relative to the quality of the old friendship. If the old friendship was not a healthy one, using it as the standard for new friendships is a bad idea. Additionally, nurturing older friendships at the expense of meeting new people and experiencing new social situations may impede personal growth during this period.

Adult friendships span a larger period of time than the previous life stages discussed, as adulthood encompasses the period from thirty to sixty-five years old (Rawlins, 1992). The exploration that occurs for most middle-class people in early adulthood gives way to less opportunity for friendships in adulthood, as many in this period settle into careers, nourish long-term relationships, and have children of their own. These new aspects of life bring more time constraints and interpersonal and task obligations, and with these obligations comes an increased desire for stability and continuity. Adult friendships tend to occur between people who are similar in terms of career position, race, age, partner status, class, and education level. This is partly due to the narrowed social networks people join as they become more educated and attain higher career positions. Therefore, finding friends through religious affiliation, neighborhood, work, or civic engagement is likely to result in similarity between friends (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992).

Even as social networks narrow, adults are also more likely than young adults to rely on their friends to help them process thoughts and emotions related to their partnerships or other interpersonal relationships (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). For example, a person may rely on a romantic partner to help process through work relationships and close coworkers to help process through family relationships. Work life and home life become connected in important ways, as career (money making) intersects with and supports the desires for stability (home making) (Rawlins, 1992). Since home and career are primary focuses, socializing outside of those areas may be limited to interactions with family (parents, siblings, and in-laws) if they are geographically close. In situations where family isn’t close by, adults’ close or best friends may adopt kinship roles, and a child may call a parent’s close friend “Uncle Andy” even if they are not related. Spouses or partners are expected to be friends; it is often expressed that the best partner is one who can also serve as best friend, and having a partner as a best friend can be convenient if time outside the home is limited by parental responsibilities. There is not much research on friendships in late middle age (ages fifty to sixty-five), but it has been noted that relationships with partners may become even more important during this time, as parenting responsibilities diminish with grown children and careers and finances stabilize. Partners who have successfully navigated their middle age may feel a bonding sense of accomplishment with each other and with any close friends with whom they shared these experiences (Rawlins, 1992).

Friendships in later-life adulthood, which begins in one’s sixties, are often remnants of previous friends and friendship patterns. Those who have typically had a gregarious social life will continue to associate with friends if physically and mentally able, and those who relied primarily on a partner, family, or limited close friends will have more limited, but perhaps equally rewarding, interactions. Friendships that have extended from adulthood or earlier are often “old” or “best” friendships that offer a look into a dyad’s shared past. Given that geographic relocation is common in early adulthood, these friends may be physically distant, but if investment in occasional contact or visits preserved the friendship, these friends are likely able to pick up where they left off (Rawlins, 1992). However, biological aging and the social stereotypes and stigma associated with later life and aging begin to affect communication patterns.

Although stereotypes of the elderly often present them as slow or out of touch, many people in later life enjoy the company of friends and maintain active social lives.

Felipe Neves – 3 old friends – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Obviously, our physical and mental abilities affect our socializing and activities and vary widely from person to person and age to age. Mobility may be limited due to declining health, and retiring limits the social interactions one had at work and work-related events (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). People may continue to work and lead physically and socially active lives decades past the marker of later life, which occurs around age sixty-five. Regardless of when these changes begin, it is common and normal for our opportunities to interact with wide friendship circles to diminish as our abilities decline. Early later life may be marked by a transition to partial or full retirement if a person is socioeconomically privileged enough to do so. For some, retirement is a time to settle into a quiet routine in the same geographic place, perhaps becoming even more involved in hobbies and civic organizations, which may increase social interaction and the potential for friendships. Others may move to a more desirable place or climate and go through the process of starting over with new friends. For health or personal reasons, some in later life live in assisted-living facilities. Later-life adults in these facilities may make friends based primarily on proximity, just as many college students in early adulthood do in the similarly age-segregated environment of a residence hall (Rawlins, 1992).

Friendships in later life provide emotional support that is often only applicable during this life stage. For example, given the general stigma against aging and illness, friends may be able to shield each other from negative judgments from others and help each other maintain a positive self-concept (Rawlins, 1992). Friends can also be instrumental in providing support after the death of a partner. Men, especially, may need this type of support, as men are more likely than women to consider their spouse their sole confidante, which means the death of the wife may end a later-life man’s most important friendship. Women who lose a partner also go through considerable life changes, and in general more women are left single after the death of a spouse than men due to men’s shorter life span and the tendency for men to be a few years older than their wives. Given this fact, it is not surprising that widows in particular may turn to other single women for support. Overall, providing support in later life is important given the likelihood of declining health. In the case of declining health, some may turn to family instead of friends for support to avoid overburdening friends with requests for assistance. However, turning to a friend for support is not completely burdensome, as research shows that feeling needed helps older people maintain a positive well-being (Rawlins, 1992).

Gender and Friendship

Gender influences our friendships and has received much attention, as people try to figure out how different men and women’s friendships are. There is a conception that men’s friendships are less intimate than women’s based on the stereotype that men do not express emotions. In fact, men report a similar amount of intimacy in their friendships as women but are less likely than women to explicitly express affection verbally (e.g., saying “I love you”) and nonverbally (e.g., through touching or embracing) toward their same-gender friends (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). This is not surprising, given the societal taboos against same-gender expressions of affection, especially between men, even though an increasing number of men are more comfortable expressing affection toward other men and women. However, researchers have wondered if men communicate affection in more implicit ways that are still understood by the other friend. Men may use shared activities as a way to express closeness—for example, by doing favors for each other, engaging in friendly competition, joking, sharing resources, or teaching each other new skills (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). Some scholars have argued that there is a bias toward viewing intimacy as feminine, which may have skewed research on men’s friendships. While verbal expressions of intimacy through self-disclosure have been noted as important features of women’s friendships, activity sharing has been the focus in men’s friendships. This research doesn’t argue that one gender’s friendships are better than the other’s, and it concludes that the differences shown in the research regarding expressions of intimacy are not large enough to impact the actual practice of friendships (Monsour, 2006).

Cross-gender friendships are friendships between a male and a female. These friendships diminish in late childhood and early adolescence as boys and girls segregate into separate groups for many activities and socializing, reemerge as possibilities in late adolescence, and reach a peak potential in the college years of early adulthood. Later, adults with spouses or partners are less likely to have cross-sex friendships than single people (Rawlins, 1992). In any case, research studies have identified several positive outcomes of cross-gender friendships. Men and women report that they get a richer understanding of how the other gender thinks and feels (Halatsis & Christakis, 2009). It seems these friendships fulfill interaction needs not as commonly met in same-gender friendships. For example, men reported more than women that they rely on their cross-gender friendships for emotional support (Bleiszner & Adams, 1992). Similarly, women reported that they enjoyed the activity-oriented friendships they had with men (Halatsis & Christakis, 2009).

As discussed earlier regarding friends-with-benefits relationships, sexual attraction presents a challenge in cross-gender heterosexual friendships. Even if the friendship does not include sexual feelings or actions, outsiders may view the relationship as sexual or even encourage the friends to become “more than friends.” Aside from the pressures that come with sexual involvement or tension, the exaggerated perceptions of differences between men and women can hinder cross-gender friendships. However, if it were true that men and women are too different to understand each other or be friends, then how could any long-term partnership such as husband/wife, mother/son, father/daughter, or brother/sister be successful or enjoyable?

Key Takeaways

Friendships are voluntary interpersonal relationships between two people who are usually equals and who mutually influence one another.
Friendship formation, maintenance, and deterioration/dissolution are influenced by environmental, situational, and interpersonal factors.
Friendships change throughout our lives as we transition from adolescence to adulthood to later life.
Cross-gender friendships may offer perspective into gender relationships that same-gender friendships do not, as both men and women report that they get support or enjoyment from their cross-gender friendships. However, there is a potential for sexual tension that complicates these relationships.
Have you ever been in a situation where you didn’t feel like you could “accept applications” for new friends or were more eager than normal to “accept applications” for new friends? What were the environmental or situational factors that led to this situation?
Getting integrated: Review the types of friendships (reciprocal, associative, and receptive). Which of these types of friendships do you have more of in academic contexts and why? Answer the same question for professional contexts and personal contexts.
Of the life stages discussed in this chapter, which one are you currently in? How do your friendships match up with the book’s description of friendships at this stage? From your experience, do friendships change between stages the way the book says they do? Why or why not?

Bisson, M. A. and Timothy R. Levine, “Negotiating a Friends with Benefits Relationship,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 38 (2009): 67.

Bleiszner, R. and Rebecca G. Adams, Adult Friendship (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 2.

Collins, W. A. and Stephanie D. Madsen, “Personal Relationships in Adolescence and Early Adulthood,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships , eds. Anita L. Vangelisti and Daniel Perlman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 195.

Fehr, B., “The Life Cycle of Friendship,” in Close Relationships: A Sourcebook , eds. Clyde Hendrick and Susan S. Hendrick (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 71–74.

Halatsis, P. and Nicolas Christakis, “The Challenge of Sexual Attraction within Heterosexuals’ Cross-Sex Friendship,” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 26, no. 6–7 (2009): 920.

Johnson, A. J., Elaine Wittenberg, Melinda Morris Villagran, Michelle Mazur, and Paul Villagran, “Relational Progression as a Dialectic: Examining Turning Points in Communication among Friends,” Communication Monographs 70, no. 3 (2003): 245.

Lehmiller, J. J., Laura E. VanderDrift, and Janice R. Kelly, “Sex Differences in Approaching Friends with Benefits Relationships,” Journal of Sex Research 48, no. 2–3 (2011): 276.

Monsour, M., “Communication and Gender among Adult Friends,” in The Sage Handbook of Gender and Communication , eds. Bonnie J. Dow and Julia T. Wood (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 63.

Rawlins, W. K., Friendship Matters: Communication, Dialectics, and the Life Course (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1992), 271.

William K. Rawlins, Friendship Matters: Communication, Dialectics, and the Life Course (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1992), 11–12. ↵
Adapted from C. Arthur VanLear, Ascan Koerner, and Donna M. Allen, “Relationship Typologies,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships , eds. Anita L. Vangelisti and Daniel Perlman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 103. ↵
Communication in the Real World: An Introduction to Communication Studies. Provided by : University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing edition, 2016. This edition adapted from a work originally produced in 2013 by a publisher who has requested that it not receive attribution.. Located at : https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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What the Research Says About the Academic Power of Friendship

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For years, education research focused on time-on-task as a measure of effective instruction, says Scott Gest , a professor at the University of Virginia. Through that lens, friends in elementary school appeared to be a negative, an impediment to focus and a catalyst for disruption. Even when the value of strong social ties gained recognition, friendships stood to the side conceptually, as developmentally important but not germane to academics. Yet recent research has confirmed two things many teachers have long believed to be true. First, social-emotional benefits and academic ones don’t operate in isolation . Second, friendships in elementary school can be harnessed to drive academic growth.

Students with no friends “receive lower grades and are less academically engaged compared to those with even just one friend,” reported Jaana Juvonen , a psychology professor at UCLA, and her colleagues in a 2019 issue of the journal Educational Psychologist. This is a point that bears repeating, says Florida Atlantic University’s Brett Laursen , editor in chief of the International Journal of Behavioral Development : “There is a massive gap between being friended and friendless,” he says, and “studies that are as close to causation as you can get” show that becoming friendless produces a meaningful decline in mental health. Research has also tied friendlessness and exclusion to truancy, susceptibility to peer pressure, inability to focus, deficits in working memory, and lack of classroom participation.

On the flip side, friends can make mundane tasks more fun, reports Lydia Denworth in Friendship . Her 2020 book catalogues research on the many benefits of “life’s fundamental bond.” For example, when they smell familiar fish, zebrafish show reduced levels of fear, a fact that seems cool but irrelevant until you learn that a 2011 study of humans showed that “having a best friend present during an experience significantly buffered any negative feelings, lowering cortisol and boosting a sense of self-worth.” Another found that talking to supportive friends after a stressful incident increases the speed with which cortisol levels revert to normal. This buffering effect appears to insulate kids from both social and academic missteps by shifting their inner narrative in the face of failure from “there’s something wrong with me” to a more resilient response.

In one study , adolescents working together took part in more exploratory behavior, learned faster, and completed tasks better than they did working alone. In another , Laursen and his colleagues arranged for pairs of students to be taught a new programming language. Kids were asked how they felt about their partner multiple times. “How much I thought that you were my friend,” he says, “predicted how much I learned in that classroom.” Taken together, the evidence suggests that with a friend on hand, a child’s tolerance for novelty and intellectual stretching tends to increase, while without one, engagement tends to decrease.

How do educators both promote this type of bond and exploit its academic power?

Gest, who is chair of human services at the Curry School of Education and Human Development, says, “There is a long tradition of informal guidance on how to think about group dynamics in the classroom, but relatively little empirical research to back up particular strategies.” That said, some things are known. There are four big impediments to friendship formation in school: lack of contact, competition, unequal status, and surface-level homophily (a.k.a., “birds of a feather flock together”). Each of these factors can prevent relationships from blossoming, particularly across gender, racial, and other divides. For each of the four roadblocks, teachers wield at least one not-so-secret weapon.

But before getting to solutions, says Barbara Stengel , a professor emerita at Vanderbilt University, who focuses on the philosophy of education, it’s important to think about what friendship really means in a classroom. Aristotle divided the concept into three categories : friendships of utility based on mutual benefit, friendships of pleasure that usually center around a shared interest, and friendships of virtue, the kind with deeper, longer lasting mutual appreciation. When we think of a friend, most of us picture that last sort, the one we can confide in and count on, but the other two types can also make children feel “seen and encouraged,” Stengel says, producing many of the desired academic benefits.

Encouraging contact

Lack of contact obviously inhibits friendship formation. On the flip side, physical proximity can reduce negative perceptions of a peer. Teachers and administrators often don’t have control over the biggest piece of this puzzle —the makeup of their student body—but they can manipulate contact between the kids they do have. For starters, Juvonen says, teachers and administrators should consider keeping friends together when assigning classes. Schoolwide “house” programs that produce stable cohorts have also shown potential.

Within classes, seating arrangements most directly impact proximity. When children who did not like each other were seated close together for several weeks in one study , their likeability ratings increased. Perhaps they formed Aristotle’s friendships of pleasure, because they were made aware of common interests (comic books!) or maybe the students formed friendships of utility, since whisperings and wisecracks require a set of ears.

Students who dislike one another should not , however, be paired for peer-assisted learning. Most commonly in pairs, peer-assisted learning has been shown to improve the standing of students with learning disabilities and help shy children befriend peers. In choosing dyads, professors Lynn and Douglas Fuchs suggest different strategies for reading and math , both of which involve splitting the class into a top half and a bottom half by current skill level and then choosing one student from each block. But Juvonen says teachers would do well to make these matches with pre-existing friendships and common interests in mind as well, and at least one study backs her up (there, how much partners liked each other predicted how well they learned).

Peer-assisted learning does not, unfortunately, seem to be “sufficient to improve the social integration of children who have behavior issues or whose negative reputation is deeply entrenched,” says Éric Dion , a professor at the University of Quebec at Montreal.

Fostering cooperati ve learning

Another type of grouping shows promise for that though. By doing away with competition, cooperative learning boosts learning and decreases problematic behaviors, says Cary Roseth , chair of the Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special Education at Michigan State University. It requires establishing positive interdependence , meaning “individuals can attain their goals if (and only if) others in their group also reach their goals,” Roseth has written.

Teachers may require a single finished product from a group (goal interdependence) or may offer a reward to the group if everyone achieves above a certain threshold (reward interdependence). Members of the group can be issued different materials that the group must share to complete the lesson (resource interdependence), or each member of the group could be assigned a different role to play (role interdependence). The group may have its own name (identity interdependence), or each group member may have to complete a different step in a task, like on an assembly line (task interdependence).

When teachers carefully create and scaffold small groups, an expectation that a group member will cooperate arises, and that produces liking. If one group member perceives another as attempting to promote their success, that also promotes liking, even if they ultimately fail . A positive feedback loop results: “The more students work cooperatively to learn, the more they will tend to like each other, and the more they like each other, the harder they will work to help each other learn,” Roseth and colleagues report. In other words, positive interdependence fosters, at the very least, Aristotelian friendships of utility.

Equalizing status

Encouraging contact provides the opportunity for friendships to form, but budding connections can easily be nipped by social status asymmetry. Those who don’t conform with school norms on behavior, ability, sexuality, and even body size will be shunned without intervention, Juvonen says. Promoting a cooperative, rather than competitive, learning environment is one step toward redefining “smart” and “good” in children’s minds, but teachers can further decrease status gaps by drawing attention to hidden strengths .

In a 2013 study , when camp counselors encouraged peers to interact inclusively with children who exhibit ADHD symptoms and drew attention to those students’ positive characteristics, the reputations of the children with ADHD improved, and they had more reciprocated friendships. The study’s primary author, Amori Yee Mikami, a psychology professor at the University of British Columbia, stresses that these findings may not translate to the classroom but other studies have shown that teachers voicing a favorable opinion of students and interacting with them warmly tends to increase their social integration.

To this end, teachers should think of themselves in social media parlance as “influencers” or “thought leaders.” Teachers’ relationships with kids “have a big influence on how those kids are seen,” Gest confirms: “Kids who perceive their classmates as not getting along with the teacher come to see those classmates less positively.” But “if teachers make public comments about a child’s academic or social strengths, those have an impact on how kids view that classmate” too.

There’s a problem though: Teachers’ take on who is high status and who isn’t doesn’t always align with kids’, Gest says. “There are kids whom teachers perceive to be disruptive and a problem yet who are quite popular with their classmates. And then conversely, sometimes kids teachers perceive as super nice and prosocial are not particularly influential.” A first step, then, in realizing children’s potential to elevate and inspire one another, is “developing an accurate understanding of what those relationship patterns are.”

Leveraging homophily

One pattern is called homophily. Plato once wrote “similarity begets friendship,” and modern social science research has proven him right. Like tends to stick with like in terms of attitudes and beliefs, but also ethnicity, socio-economic status, and gender even in an integrated classroom. (In Friendship , Denworth reports: “Friendship with opposite-sex peers ‘drops off precipitously after seven years of age.’”)

Yet friendships that bridge these divides have been associated with higher academic outcomes, and Juvonen says, “students with a greater proportion of cross-ethnic friendships reported lower vulnerability” to peer victimization. On the other hand, discriminatory experiences lead to anger, impulsivity, depression, anxiety, sleep loss, and more, all conditions that drive down academic engagement and performance.

For cross-group friendships to thrive, Juvonen says, teachers and administrators have to “disrupt typical social dynamics and avoid instructional practices that highlight differences.” Going after low-hanging fruit, Juvonen recommends we stop saying, “Good morning, boys and girls.” Using these categories implies that they have functional importance in elementary school (when research has yet to prove they do ) and impedes same-gender bonds.

Administrators can also consider explicit anti-bias interventions. Juvonen says a puppet program that “teaches about acceptance of various body shapes has been shown effective in reducing negative attitudes and stereotypes about larger body shapes.” Inclusive curricula can also alter social dynamics.

Though initiatives like these take time and institutional support, there’s one thing educators can do right away, Laursen says. While perceived similarities predict who will become friends better than actual similarities, it’s the latter that determines whether friendships will last. Teachers can help kids’ friendship calculus be more accurate by making less obvious similarities salient. Another way of looking at it? By drawing attention to traits and interests that aren’t as readily apparent as gender or skin tone (e.g., “You two and your Minecraft obsession!”), teachers foster Aristotelian friendships of virtue.

Juvonen says extracurricular activities like sports and interscholastic robotics competitions provide the ideal context both for highlighting shared interests and promoting positive interdependence, but access is often a problem. Administrators can try to decrease hurdles such as transportation and out-of-pocket expenses, as well as ensuring there’s extra support on hand to facilitate the participation of special needs students. But logistical stumbling blocks aren’t the only type. “Some kids are just reluctant to take the big step to join a club,” Laursen says, and schools would do well to create an emotionally safe environment. That can mean paired activities and inclusion-oriented clubs such as Gay-Straight Alliances.

Kids can also be encouraged to find hidden similarities on their own. Julia Smith, who teaches first-grade in San Francisco, reads her students The Day You Begin by Jacqueline Woodson:

There will be times when you walk into a room and no one there is quite like you until the day you begin to share your stories. My name is Angelina and I spent my whole summer with my little sister , you tell the class …. Your name is like my sister’s , Rigoberto says. Her name is Angelina, too …. This is the day you begin to find … every new friend has something a little like you.

But Elizabeth Self, an assistant professor at Vanderbilt University, says it’s important to keep in mind there simply isn’t enough research on encouraging cross-group friendships for academics like her to provide a 10-tricks book. For the most part, they are instead “going to talk about, you could do this, but you’d need to watch out for that.”

Case in point: Just how much to spread kids out.

Skill sorting and ability grouping, Juvonen says, “not only reduces contact, but also highlights status differences between demographic groups.” Tracked classes, resource rooms, and second-language learner programs that separate groups of students and highlight their differences are also “likely to hinder peer acceptance and the development of friendships,” she says.

And yet, distributing a small group of atypical kids across classrooms can also be the wrong call. In one study, children with disabilities, who can struggle with social integration, were just as likely to have friends and be accepted as their developmentally typical peers when placed in classrooms where one-third of the students had a mild disability. Juvonen’s conclusion: “There is a critical minimum mass required for groups of vulnerable students to be socially integrated.”

Research on race relations in middle and high schools suggests exactly that. In Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? Beverly Daniel Tatum, a psychology professor and former president of Spelman College, explains that around the onset of puberty, Black students start to explore their identity just as “the world begins to reflect their Blackness back to them more clearly.” In racially mixed settings, she writes, voluntary “racial grouping is a developmental process in response to an environmental stressor, racism.” When it comes to racial microaggressions , white peers “are unprepared to respond in supportive ways.” That makes joining with other Black students “a positive coping strategy.”

A teacher with a class of 25 students that includes 5 Black students and needs to be split into 5 groups may be tempted to create diverse pods by placing one of the underrepresented students in each group, but doing so can actually set intergroup relations back. Once kids are old enough to grapple with race, numerical insignificance and stereotype threat —which one of Dr. Tatum’s young sources described as “that constant burden of you always having to strive to do your best and show that you can do just as much as everybody else"—can silence and alienate Black children, reduce their status, and thwart friendship formation. When small groups involve peer critique, preventing critical mass can also leave Black students emotionally unprepared to receive feedback. As counterintuitive as it may seem, allowing Black students “the psychological safety of their own group” can actually increase the likelihood that they form friendships outside it.

Elizabeth Self says similar concerns apply to “putting kids from the same linguistic background together in maths small group work.”

Making game-time calls

At the end of the day, teachers will have to make judgment calls when it comes to friendship. Students who are easily distracted may benefit from more individual work, and there’s research showing that friends do interfere with productivity in some circumstances: for example, when they’re not engaged by the subject matter or they put one another’s feelings over giving meaningful feedback. But if a friendless child goofs off with a peer, Laursen says, a little more leeway may be in order, since research shows that kids with at least one friend are both less likely to be bullied and less harmed by bullying. It would make sense then, to seat a child with very low social status near one who is both friendly and popular. A warm relationship with someone like that could increase classwide acceptance considerably.

Elizabeth Self likes the idea of reconceptualizing friends as a resource, thinking, “How can we give them permission to draw on that person?” When a student is getting out of sorts, for example: “If they have a good bud who is not in the classroom, say: ‘Let’s go see if we can pull Margarita from Ms. Jon’s class. You all stay in the hall for five minutes. We are going to set a timer to see if spending some time together helps you to be able to come back into class.’” In the context of restorative justice circles, why not have an ally present for each child? “I think there is rich opportunity here,” she says.

But Gest wants to remind teachers, administrators, and their communities: “You can’t address everything at once, through either a seating arrangement or a group learning assignment.” Yes, friendship can present untapped academic potential, but “there’s limits to how much teachers can do.”

This article is part of the “ Friendship in Schools ” series, which explores the complexities of friendship at various stages of learning.

Gail Cornwall works as a mother and writer in San Francisco. Her youngest child is in Julia Smith’s class at Rooftop School.

University of Bridgeport News

7 Strategies for Taking Group Projects by Storm

It’s day one of the new semester, and you see it…staring ominously from the syllabus, it lurks in eager waiting…haunting unlit corners of your lecture hall, the beast inches closer every class until one day, it strikes — sinking its teeth in. No silver tokens or wooden stakes will save you now. It’s time for mandatory group projects.

For even the most scholarly students, the mere suggestion of a group project can send shivers down the spine. These projects plague the mind with many questions. What if I get stuck with someone who does nothing? Will communication break down into a chaotic mess of emojis? And, sometimes, above all else, why do I have to do this?

So, fellow Purple Knights, let’s turn that stress into success — equip yourself with these 7 strategies to help you make the most of group assignments.

1. Acknowledge your anxiety and self-assess

Let’s take a moment to commemorate the ghosts of group projects past. Remember that paper from history class? The one on the American Revolution? Your whole team was supposed to write it, yet your group dedicated more time to scrolling through TikTok than typing. Oh, and how about that PowerPoint presentation for your accounting class? You know, the one nobody pulled their weight on, shaving a few precious points off your final grade?

Although you should never begin a group project with the attitude that failure is inevitable, being honest with yourself about any anxiety you feel helps repurpose the stress of past projects into lessons with future applicability.

So, when you see a group assignment on your syllabus, don’t panic. Instead, ask yourself a few questions, such as:

What were some issues I encountered during previous group projects?
How could these issues have been avoided or addressed?
Did I give the project my all and contribute to the best of my ability?
What did I learn about the subject I was studying?
What did I learn about working with a group?
More specifically, what did I learn about how I work with others?

If this self-assessment only serves to raise more questions, consider talking to your instructor or visiting the Academic Success Center . Expressing your concern about group work, and consulting with supportive and experienced professionals, can help you kickstart your collaboration with confidence.

2. Assemble your A-Team

Now that your head is in the game, it’s time to assemble the A-Team! Whether your group is self-selected or pre-assigned, first things first — for a cohesive collaboration, every teammate must cooperate.

Think of it like building a boat. Each crewmate takes on a different, albeit pivotal, role to ensure the ship will stay afloat. While some people lay floor plans and foundations, others gather materials, create sails, or complete safety assessments. Although every team member has their own purview, everyone must cooperate to achieve a common goal. If one person drops the ball, the vessel might not be seaworthy. The same goes for your group project — without joint effort, your crew may flounder in the face of challenges.

To take the helm, create team roles with the project’s guidelines in mind. Weigh the academic expectations with the skills and strengths of your teammates. Does one partner have a head for facts and figures? Group Researcher , reporting for duty! How about the group member with an eye for design? PowerPoint Coordinator may be the perfect fit!

Scenario snapshot

You and your best friend want to be in the same group for an English presentation. They’re a stand-up pal and astute problem-solver, but they often slack off on assignments. Let’s turn procrastination into collaboration. How can you help establish a healthy group dynamic without boxing out your bestie?

3. Planning is power

Collaborating on an assignment isn’t as simple as casting roles for each group member. You will also need a plan of attack outlining what must be done (and when).

During your initial group meeting, roll up your sleeves to brainstorm ideas and generate timelines for the different components of your project. To keep all the most vital information in an accessible location, utilize project management tools like Google Docs or Trello — providing a clear, shared resource teammates can refer to when working independently.

What would you do?

It’s been two weeks, and one of your group mates still hasn’t opened the shared document outlining their role and the project schedule. They were attentive when your team first met to discuss the presentation, but you’re concerned the assignment has fallen from their radar. How can you address your concerns?

At University of Bridgeport, your personal and professional success is our priority. Learn more about our comprehensive support services today!

4. keep up communication.

Determining guidelines for group check-ins is essential to success. Whether you’re meeting in person or virtually, it’s critical to establish when, where, and how your team will update one another.

You may even consider setting parameters for your group pow-wows. How long should each check-in last? Should one teammate have the floor during each meeting, or will everyone provide updates? Agreeing on these expectations can facilitate smooth sailing ahead.

Your four-person biology group includes a pair of close friends. Each time your team meets to discuss the project, the duo brings little to the table, filling most of the hour with fits of giggly gossip.

The last group check-in was the biggest bust yet — extending an hour longer than the agreed-upon time due to constant distractions and derailments. The following afternoon, your third partner privately messaged you, expressing the same frustrations you’re feeling. How can you and your partner constructively address this issue with your other teammates?

5. Be fair and flexible…

When collaborating with classmates, it’s crucial to remember that is difficult. With academic, personal, and professional demands competing for space, everybody has more than one ball in the air. If someone on your team needs an extension for their part of an assignment, show grace and understanding — most people are doing their best to meet all the expectations tossed their way, and a little leniency can go a long way.

6. …but remember to set boundaries

Flexibility may be paramount, but have you ever flexed too far? If you’re always happy to go with the flow, your willingness to bend could cause your group to break. If you and your teammates are always cleaning up after one partner, burnout will ensue — potentially leading to an underwhelming final project.

If you have a teammate who isn’t pulling their weight, it’s time to set boundaries and reiterate your group’s agreed-upon expectations. If you’re uncomfortable breaching the topic, consult with your professor. Even if they expect you to start the conversation on your own, they can offer support and strategies for addressing conflicts in your group. Moreover, communicating these concerns keeps your instructor in the loop about your team’s progress.

Last month, you were randomly assigned to group for your nursing project. You were pleasantly surprised by how well it was going — at least, at first. Over the past few weeks, one of your partners has missed every meeting due to a personal problem. While they didn’t disclose the specifics, they’ve missed three deadlines and have been completely incommunicado.

With the deadline quickly approaching, you and your other teammates are starting to sweat. What could you do to help your team overcome this challenge?

7. Celebrate success

Group projects are full of peaks and valleys alike. When you hit “submit” and the game is over, take some time to acknowledge your dedicated team. Collaborative assignments can present an invaluable opportunity to connect with classmates, learn from each other, and create something truly impressive.

While the anxiety of an impending group project can be overwhelming, don’t let it overshadow the fact that these ventures can be rewarding and, dare we say, enjoyable experiences. Furthermore, in our increasingly interconnected world, nurturing your collaborative aptitude provides you with a career-ready skill — sought after by employers across all industries.

At University of Bridgeport, #UBelong. Begin your UB journey today — learn more about becoming a Purple Knight !

What things do Jonas' parents share with hints about their memories of their assigment and of their friends' assigment?

Jonas' father shares his memory of the Ceremony of Twelve, telling Jonas that he paid little attention to the other ceremonies except to see his sister take out her hair ribbons and receive her bicycle. Jonas' father describe the pride in his own parents' face, and the way his sister stopped figeting when his turn came. He also shared that there really wasn't an air of suspense, as he was pretty certain of his assignment. His father felt himself fortunate, as he received the assignment he wanted most.

Jonas' mother admits that after her own Ceremony of Twelve, she missed participating in recreation. She did, however, enjoy her training in Law and Justice and made many friends along the way.

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7.2: Communication and Friends

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Learning Objectives

Compare and contrast different types of friendships.
Describe the cycle of friendship from formation to maintenance to dissolution/deterioration.
Discuss how friendships change across the life span, from adolescence to later life.
Explain how culture and gender influence friendships.

Defining and Classifying Friends

Two people, smiling, looking into the camera.

The Life Span of Friendships

Students in a dorm posing for a picture.

Friendships across the Life Span

Adolescence

Early Adulthood

Gender and Friendship

Key Takeaways

Friendships are voluntary interpersonal relationships between two people who are usually equals and who mutually influence one another.
Friendship formation, maintenance, and deterioration/dissolution are influenced by environmental, situational, and interpersonal factors.
Friendships change throughout our lives as we transition from adolescence to adulthood to later life.
Cross-gender friendships may offer perspective into gender relationships that same-gender friendships do not, as both men and women report that they get support or enjoyment from their cross-gender friendships. However, there is a potential for sexual tension that complicates these relationships.
Have you ever been in a situation where you didn’t feel like you could “accept applications” for new friends or were more eager than normal to “accept applications” for new friends? What were the environmental or situational factors that led to this situation?
Getting integrated: Review the types of friendships (reciprocal, associative, and receptive). Which of these types of friendships do you have more of in academic contexts and why? Answer the same question for professional contexts and personal contexts.
Of the life stages discussed in this chapter, which one are you currently in? How do your friendships match up with the book’s description of friendships at this stage? From your experience, do friendships change between stages the way the book says they do? Why or why not?
Bisson, M. A. and Timothy R. Levine, “Negotiating a Friends with Benefits Relationship,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 38 (2009): 67.
Bleiszner, R. and Rebecca G. Adams, Adult Friendship (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 2.
Collins, W. A. and Stephanie D. Madsen, “Personal Relationships in Adolescence and Early Adulthood,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships , eds. Anita L. Vangelisti and Daniel Perlman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 195.
Fehr, B., “The Life Cycle of Friendship,” in Close Relationships: A Sourcebook , eds. Clyde Hendrick and Susan S. Hendrick (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 71–74.
Halatsis, P. and Nicolas Christakis, “The Challenge of Sexual Attraction within Heterosexuals’ Cross-Sex Friendship,” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 26, no. 6–7 (2009): 920.
Johnson, A. J., Elaine Wittenberg, Melinda Morris Villagran, Michelle Mazur, and Paul Villagran, “Relational Progression as a Dialectic: Examining Turning Points in Communication among Friends,” Communication Monographs 70, no. 3 (2003): 245.
Lehmiller, J. J., Laura E. VanderDrift, and Janice R. Kelly, “Sex Differences in Approaching Friends with Benefits Relationships,” Journal of Sex Research 48, no. 2–3 (2011): 276.
Monsour, M., “Communication and Gender among Adult Friends,” in The Sage Handbook of Gender and Communication , eds. Bonnie J. Dow and Julia T. Wood (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 63.
Rawlins, W. K., Friendship Matters: Communication, Dialectics, and the Life Course (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1992), 271.
William K. Rawlins, Friendship Matters: Communication, Dialectics, and the Life Course (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 1992), 11–12. ↵
Adapted from C. Arthur VanLear, Ascan Koerner, and Donna M. Allen, “Relationship Typologies,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships , eds. Anita L. Vangelisti and Daniel Perlman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 103. ↵

VALORANT Patch Notes 8.07

Hey, friends! Jo-Ellen here. Nice to see you again.

There’s not much time left in Act II so better make the most of it. Below, we’ve got an update to Omen, lots of Clove bug fixes, and more.

GENERAL UPDATES

Interaction prompts have received an accessibility update, adding contrast to make them easier to read in-game. Prompt text has been simplified and weapon prompts no longer show skinline names.

AGENT UPDATES

Omen is now able to pick up the Spike and interact with other useables like doors while in the Shade form of From the Shadows (X) without having to cancel the ability. Our goal is to make these interactions more intuitive and clearly intended.
NOTE: this is purely a visual fix and the underlying gameplay around damage has not changed.
Fixed an exploit where Chamber could place Trademark (C) in unintended locations.
If you still see this in your match, please report it here: https://support-valorant.riotgames.com/hc/en-us/requests/new and choose “ Technical Issues: Install, patch, lag, or crashes ”.
Fixed a bug where Clove's Not Dead Yet (X) does not progress the “Use Your Ultimate” weekly mission and Match Details incorrectly reports 0 casts.
Fixed a bug where Clove’s Ruse (E) used after death does not report to the Match Details.
Fixed a bug where damage to Clove’s Pick-Me-Up (C) temporary health did not appear in Combat Report.
Fixed a bug where Clove’s aim direction would abruptly change when suppressed during Not Dead Yet (X). Thank you @FLOWSHIZZLETV, @FatalGlytch and @papashlomo for the testing and report .
Fixed a bug where Clove would sometimes resurrect without their primary weapon when using Not Dead Yet (X).
Fixed the same bug that also applied while Clove was crouched with Ruse (E) equipped.
Fixed a bug where Clove’s Meddle (Q) used an incorrect ability icon in the Combat Report.
Submitted a speculative fix for Clove’s Pick-Me-Up (C) HUD sometimes showing > 150 total health values when taking fall damage as Clove activated the ability.
Fixed a bug where moving through the edges of Clove’s smoke would cause flickering vision rather than a smooth transition.
Fixed a bug where dead allies or observers spectating Clove would skip the death camera ceremony upon Clove’s death.
Fixed a bug where Clove’s Meddle (Q) could rarely cause a client-side hitch.
Fixed a bug where Viper picking up her Poison Orb (Q) while the smoke is forming caused the smoke visuals to flicker then disappear.
Glitchpop Classic
Prime Classic
Cryostasis Classic
Gravitational Uranium Neuroblaster (G.U.N) Classic
Spectrum Classic
Elderflame Operator
Ion Sheriff (Note: This was already hotfixed during 8.05, but adding here so everyone is aware.)
We also had several other guns/skins reported as having audio issues (Standard/Default Phantom, Oni Phantom, Recon Phantom, etc.), but we verified these are actually working properly. If these guns or any other first person audio sounds different on headphones than it sounded before 8.05, it could be due to your speaker configuration in the VALORANT audio settings. This can happen if your USB headphones appear to Windows to be a surround sound device with multiple channels and you have opted into Auto-Detect in the VALORANT audio settings. If you are listening on headphones, have selected Auto-Detect, and do not have Spatial Audio enabled, your speaker configuration should appear as 2.0. If any other number of channels is shown, you can either set your VALORANT speaker configuration back to Stereo or enable Spatial Audio in Windows to fix this.

GAMEPLAY SYSTEMS

Fixed an issue where Radio Commands Menu being bound to number keys caused a conflict when trying to activate commands.
Fixed a bug where your status displayed in the roster list was sometimes too small to read.
Fixed a bug where ties on the Standings were not broken correctly.

Jo-Ellen “Riot JoEllen” Aragon

Community manager, valorant.

Finally putting her writing degree to good use. Lover of cheeseburgers. She/her/hers.

Patch Notes

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Screen Rant

Megatron and optimus prime used to be friends why the classic transformers villain turned evil.

The Transformers One trailer reveals that Optimus Prime and Megatron were once friends, raising questions about what ultimately tore them apart.

Transformers One trailer shows a surprising friendship between Optimus Prime and Megatron, hinting at a new dynamic for the characters.
The film delves into Optimus Prime's past on Cybertron, showcasing his early days alongside familiar allies like Bumblebee and Elita.
Despite honoring various Transformers continuities, Transformers One tells an original story that explores the relationship between Optimus Prime and Megatron.

The Transformers One trailer highlights a friendly rapport between Optimus Prime and Megatron, which stands in stark contrast to the sinister reputation the latter is known to have in the lore. Among the constants of the Transformers franchise is Megatron's role, given that the character is traditionally depicted as a villain across all his movie appearances. Interestingly, though, that's not the impression provided by the Transformers One trailer, which paints him in a much more positive light.

The first trailer for the upcoming film offers a deep look at what to expect from the animated Transformers adventure. Directed by Josh Cooley, Transformers One will dive into the past of Optimus Prime as he fights alongside a team of Autobots during his early days on Cybertron. Among his allies at this point in the Transformers timeline are Scarlett Johansson's Elita, Bumblebee, and perhaps most surprisingly, Megatron. Despite their iconic rivalry and Megatron's history of attacks against Earth, it's made clear in the footage that there was a time when Optimus Prime and Megatron actually got along quite well.

Megatron Was Once Optimus Prime's Friend In Transformers Comics

In most Transformers continuities, Optimus Prime and Megatron's relationship is consistent with the movies, with it being understood that they've never been on the same side. This extends to their younger days on Cybertron when Optimus Prime used the name " Orion Pax ." One exception to that interpretation of their history is IDW's Transformers comic book series, which has revealed that in its universe, the classic villain wasn't always unapologetically evil. In some of these stories, Megatron and Orion Pax were even shown to be friends. Unfortunately, they were driven apart by ideological differences.

The Megatron seen in IDW's Transformers comics started out as a Cybertron resident driven by a strong stance on his planet's politics. Megatron had deep-rooted, political beliefs about the direction Cybertron was taking . In his mind, Cyberton was becoming weak in its avoidance of territorial expansion. His opposition to this culminated in the character leading violent movements. Ultimately, his views put him on a collision course with Orion, with their contrasting ideals laying the foundation for their future rivalry as Optimus Prime and Megatron.

Transformers One Is Telling A New Story, But Honors Multiple Continuities

While the friendliness between Optimus Prime and Megatron speaks to a level of influence that IDW's comics may have had on Transformers One , it's still an original story nonetheless. Optimus and Megatron serving together on a team of Autobots and the two getting their powers from the same source goes to show that Transformers One definitely stands on its own. However, the emphasis that the trailer seems to be putting on how close their dynamic feels like a poignant reminder of the movies, which established that Optimus Prime once regarded Megatron as a "brother." This dynamic appears to be the relationship Transformers One is building for their origin story.

Transformers One

National News | Second body pulled from Schuylkill River after…

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National News | Second body pulled from Schuylkill River after 2 friends disappeared in Philadelphia

Quadir Diaz, left, and Ausar Scott-Thomas.

A second body has been found in the Schuylkill River several weeks after two friends disappeared in Philadelphia .

Family members identified the body Tuesday as Quadir Diaz, who had been missing since March 7, the Philadelphia Inquirer reported.

“It’s definitely Quadir,” Taniesha Diaz , the 18-year-old’s mother, told the Inquirer.

Diaz and two friends were driving in Northeast Philadelphia on the evening of March 7, but only one of the three pals returned home. That person has not been publicly identified by police.

Previously, authorities found the body of Ausar Scott-Thomas , 21, in the Schuylkill on March 31.

The surviving friend has told Scott-Thomas’ family that the three buddies were being chased by another car and crashed, then decided to split up and take off on foot, according to the Inquirer.

Diaz’s family said he and Scott-Thomas were extremely close. Taniesha Diaz told the Inquirer she had been fearing the worst ever since Scott-Thomas’ body was found.

“He’s not going to leave Ausar, and Ausar is not going to leave him,” she told the paper at the time . “If Ausar jumped in the water, Quadir jumped right with him.”

Police did not confirm that Diaz was the man found Tuesday, according to local CBS affiliate KYW. Cops said the body had been in the water for a while and there were no obvious signs of trauma.

Authorities are still investigating the case. Diaz’s car and various items belonging to him and Scott-Thomas were previously found in Fairmount Park .

“I believe in my heart my son was set up,” Taniesha Diaz previously told local Fox affiliate WTXF . “I believe in my heart that if he is in the water he didn’t just jump, he was pushed or someone was chasing him.”

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Brewers' Trevor Megill: Set for rehab assignment Saturday

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Megill (concussion) will begin a rehab assignment with Triple-A Nashville on Saturday, Curt Hogg of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reports.

Megill has been sidelined due to a concussion since April 3. He threw a bullpen session earlier in the week without any issues and doesn't project to spend much time on his rehab assignment, making it likely he returns to the Brewers ' bullpen within a few days. Megill threw two scoreless innings and struck out three batters during Milwaukee's season-opening series against the Mets.

Brewers' Trevor Megill: Sidelined with concussion

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7 Tips Lifelong Renters Always Use to Make Any New Home Cozy

P erhaps you've just moved into a new rental apartment and feel a bit stumped as to how you should decorate the space, or maybe you've been renting a home for quite some time and have noticed that it just doesn't seem to reflect your taste or personality.

We spoke with longtime renters to gather their insights on how to best design a rental space that is welcoming, cozy, and full of special touches.

Meet the Experts

Brigette Muller is a New York City renter and a home decor content creator.
Sarah Horton is a renter in Newport Beach, California and a content creator.
Imani Keal is a home decor content creator and renter based in Washington, D.C.

Hang Digitally Printed Art

No home is complete without art, but Brigette Muller , a New York City renter and a home decor content creator, understands it can take quite some time to build a substantial collection of pieces. Muller is particularly drawn to vintage oil paintings, which she has printed out downloadable files of vintage artwork to incorporate within her space.

She recommends printing the files on textured paper to make them appear more authentic and then placing them inside ornate frames—sans glass—for a museum-quality look. Muller emphasizes how you won't be able to tell the difference once it's displayed.

Sarah Horton , a renter in Newport Beach, California and a content creator, agrees that artwork is a must in any rental home.

"The absence of personal art and objects can make it feel like a hotel," she says. If you want, shop for art that reflects your locale.

Horton explains how all her pieces reflect a cozy, collected life on the water. Take to a neighborhood flea market or thrift store in search of affordable pieces that speak to you and don't break the bank.

Incorporate Green Friends

Plants will make any space feel more like home in no time. Muller has come to appreciate the power of fewer but more substantial—and thoughtfully positioned—plants in her own apartment.

"Don't be afraid to get a full tree," she says. "My weeping fig is one of the best things I've ever brought into my apartment."

If you travel often, consider incorporating fake plants into your space; there are many realistic-looking styles that will fool most of your guests.

Part Ways With Bland Blinds

Horton has one key piece of advice regarding window treatments.

"Ditch the blinds," she advises. "I typically opt for light and airy white linen curtains, they really can transform a space and add a lot of texture."

Oftentimes, the blinds that exist within a rental unit look impersonal and bland, Horton notes.

Don't Shy Away From Paint

Imani Keal , who is a home decor content creator and renter based in Washington, D.C., encourages others in rental properties to experiment with paint, assuming the landlord approves.

"Nothing says 'rental' like a bad paint job with an off-white or gray color,'" Keal says. "It's awful and very hard to counteract."

Instead, she recommends opting for a moody hue, such as Valspar Coconut Husk or Benjamin Moore Black. Keep in mind that you may need to repaint your space before moving out, so make note of the original color.

Swap Out Your Bulbs

The existing light bulbs within your rental apartment may not be up to par—so change them. Keal has noticed that apartment lighting can simply feel too stark.

"As soon as you move in, switch things out for a warm or amber bulb instead," Keal says.

Creating ambient lighting will help bring warmth to your space. Consider bringing in some lamps and filling any empty corners to illuminate your home.

Lay Down a Rug

A rug will immediately make your rental apartment feel cozier, but it will also help conceal noise, Keal says, noting that it's also much more pleasant to walk around on a rug than step directly onto hardwood floors, particularly when it's cold out.

You can even layer rugs if you wish . A colorful Turkish rug will add dimension to any living room and can easily be layered over a larger jute.

Be Open to Rearranging

It may take some time to arrange your rental space so that it best accommodates your everyday needs. Some trial and error is normal as you determine which furniture items are serving you and which are less conducive to your lifestyle.

Horton ended up trading in her at-home workspace for a large kitchen hutch, which she uses to store entertaining essentials and trinkets.

"I wouldn’t have known that during my first couple months of living there," she says.

Read Next: 18 Ways to Cozy Up Your Home for Winter and Beyond

Read the original article on The Spruce .

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Friends
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FRIENDS
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Friendship Lessons, Worksheets and Activities
You might choose, for example, a lesson plan that focuses on developing socialization skills like: 1. How to identify what characteristics are important in a friend. 2. How to identify what a good friend does. 3. How to practice skills that help people make friends. True friends don't expect anything in return for your friendship.
assignment 7 Flashcards
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IDS 105 Project Template assignment 7. complete assignment. Course. Awareness & Online Learning (IDS-105-J8482) 144 Documents. Students shared 144 documents in this course. ... It is possible that some family members and friends may have implied biases that they are not aware of, which can affect their behavior towards others. ...
7.2 Communication and Friends
Defining and Classifying Friends. Friendships are voluntary interpersonal relationships between two people who are usually equals and who mutually influence one another. [1] Friendships are distinct from romantic relationships, family relationships, and acquaintances and are often described as more vulnerable relationships than others due to their voluntary nature, the availability of other ...
What the Research Says About the Academic Power of Friendship
Research has also tied friendlessness and exclusion to truancy, susceptibility to peer pressure, inability to focus, deficits in working memory, and lack of classroom participation. On the flip side, friends can make mundane tasks more fun, reports Lydia Denworth in Friendship. Her 2020 book catalogues research on the many benefits of "life ...
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The stories in The Assignment are written from the perspective of each of the 7 friends and how they respond to one another based on their own motivational gift. For Example: In chapter 3 - Chores Before Pleasure , we learn that Anna sometimes tries to skip her chores at home when she is in an impulsive mode to do something else.
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Question: Assignment #7: Create an array of names (friends' names, family members' names, city names, or country names), count the total occurrences of vowel letters (regardless of upper or lower case) as contained in those names. Name your program Vowels.java. Show transcribed image text. Here's the best way to solve it.
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Writing someone else's assignment is plagiarism (she was trying to present your work as hers) and she should have never put you in that position to begin with. She was using your friendship to her advantage. I think in the future you should trust yourself more and stand your ground. The friends that care about you will respect your boundaries.
7.2: Communication and Friends
Adolescents begin to see friends rather than parents as providers of social support, as friends help negotiate the various emotional problems often experienced for the first time (Collins & Madsen, 2006). Friendships in adolescence become important as we begin to create an identity that is separate from our family. Japharl - Family - CC BY 2.0.
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April 17, 2024 at 2:11 p.m. A second body has been found in the Schuylkill River several weeks after two friends disappeared in Philadelphia. Family members identified the body Tuesday as Quadir ...
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Coloring Pages

Chapter 7: Communication in Relationships

Defining and Classifying Friends

The Life Span of Friendships

Friendships across the Life Span

Adolescence

Early Adulthood

Gender and Friendship

Key Takeaways

What the Research Says About the Academic Power of Friendship

Encouraging contact

Fostering cooperati ve learning

Equalizing status

Leveraging homophily

Making game-time calls

University of Bridgeport News

7 Strategies for Taking Group Projects by Storm

1. Acknowledge your anxiety and self-assess

2. Assemble your A-Team

Scenario snapshot

3. Planning is power

What would you do?

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5. Be fair and flexible…

6. …but remember to set boundaries

7. Celebrate success

What things do Jonas' parents share with hints about their memories of their assigment and of their friends' assigment?

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7.2: Communication and Friends

Learning Objectives

Defining and Classifying Friends

The Life Span of Friendships

Friendships across the Life Span

Adolescence

Early Adulthood

Gender and Friendship

Key Takeaways

VALORANT Patch Notes 8.07

GENERAL UPDATES

AGENT UPDATES

GAMEPLAY SYSTEMS

Jo-Ellen “Riot JoEllen” Aragon

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Screen Rant

Megatron Was Once Optimus Prime's Friend In Transformers Comics

Transformers One Is Telling A New Story, But Honors Multiple Continuities

Transformers One

National News | Second body pulled from Schuylkill River after…

National News

National News | Second body pulled from Schuylkill River after 2 friends disappeared in Philadelphia

More in National News

National News | Wallingford, Connecticut, fire that killed 2 was ‘criminal in nature’: police

National News | Atlantic City mayor says child abuse charges don’t change commitment to city

National News | 3rd suspect arrested in fatal shooting outside Connecticut courthouse

National News | CT mayor calls special needs issue ‘out of control’

Fantasy Baseball

The Early Edge

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Brewers' Trevor Megill: Set for rehab assignment Saturday

Brewers' Trevor Megill: Sidelined with concussion

Prospects: Loperfido making noise

Week 4 Trade Values Chart

Rankings Movers: Westburg climbing

Jared Jones drawing lofty comparisons

Prospect call ups: Add Leiter, Pages?

Bullpen Report: Yates over Leclerc?

7 Tips Lifelong Renters Always Use to Make Any New Home Cozy

Meet the Experts

Hang Digitally Printed Art

Incorporate Green Friends

Part Ways With Bland Blinds

Don't Shy Away From Paint

Swap Out Your Bulbs

Lay Down a Rug

Be Open to Rearranging

IMAGES

VIDEO