- Pre-registration nursing students
- No definition of master’s degree in nursing described in the publication
After the search, we collated and uploaded all the identified records into EndNote v.X8 (Clarivate Analytics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) and removed any duplicates. Two independent reviewers (MCS and SA) screened the titles and abstracts for assessment in line with the inclusion criteria. They retrieved and assessed the full texts of the selected studies while applying the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements about the eligibility of studies were resolved by discussion or, if no consensus could be reached, by involving experienced researchers (MZ-S and RP).
The first reviewer (MCS) extracted data from the selected publications. For this purpose, an extraction tool developed by the authors was used. This tool comprised the following criteria: author(s), year of publication, country, research question, design, case definition, data sources, and methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. First, we extracted and summarized information about the case study design. Second, we narratively summarized the way in which the data and methodological triangulation were described. Finally, we summarized the information on within-case or cross-case analysis. This process was performed using Microsoft Excel. One reviewer (MCS) extracted data, whereas another reviewer (SA) cross-checked the data extraction, making suggestions for additions or edits. Any disagreements between the reviewers were resolved through discussion.
A total of 149 records were identified in 2 databases. We removed 20 duplicates and screened 129 reports by title and abstract. A total of 46 reports were assessed for eligibility. Through hand searches, we identified 117 additional records. Of these, we excluded 98 reports after title and abstract screening. A total of 17 reports were assessed for eligibility. From the 2 databases and the hand search, 63 reports were assessed for eligibility. Ultimately, we included 8 articles for data extraction. No further articles were included after the reference list screening of the included studies. A PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection and inclusion process is presented in Figure 1 . As shown in Tables 2 and and3, 3 , the articles included in this scoping review were published between 2010 and 2022 in Canada (n = 3), the United States (n = 2), Australia (n = 2), and Scotland (n = 1).
PRISMA flow diagram.
Characteristics of Articles Included.
Author | Contandriopoulos et al | Flinter | Hogan et al | Hungerford et al | O’Rourke | Roots and MacDonald | Schadewaldt et al | Strachan et al |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Canada | The United States | The United States | Australia | Canada | Canada | Australia | Scotland |
How or why research question | No information on the research question | Several how or why research questions | What and how research question | No information on the research question | Several how or why research questions | No information on the research question | What research question | What and why research questions |
Design and referenced author of methodological guidance | Six qualitative case studies Robert K. Yin | Multiple-case studies design Robert K. Yin | Multiple-case studies design Robert E. Stake | Case study design Robert K. Yin | Qualitative single-case study Robert K. Yin Robert E. Stake Sharan Merriam | Single-case study design Robert K. Yin Sharan Merriam | Multiple-case studies design Robert K. Yin Robert E. Stake | Multiple-case studies design |
Case definition | Team of health professionals (Small group) | Nurse practitioners (Individuals) | Primary care practices (Organization) | Community-based NP model of practice (Organization) | NP-led practice (Organization) | Primary care practices (Organization) | No information on case definition | Health board (Organization) |
Overview of Within-Method, Between/Across-Method, and Data-Analysis Triangulation.
Author | Contandriopoulos et al | Flinter | Hogan et al | Hungerford et al | O’Rourke | Roots and MacDonald | Schadewaldt et al | Strachan et al |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Within-method triangulation (using within-method triangulation use at least 2 data-collection procedures from the same design approach) | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Interviews | X | x | x | x | x | |||
Observations | x | x | ||||||
Public documents | x | x | x | |||||
Electronic health records | x | |||||||
Between/across-method (using both qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures in the same study) | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Interviews | x | x | x | |||||
Observations | x | x | ||||||
Public documents | x | x | ||||||
Electronic health records | x | |||||||
: | ||||||||
Self-assessment | x | |||||||
Service records | x | |||||||
Questionnaires | x | |||||||
Data-analysis triangulation (combination of 2 or more methods of analyzing data) | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Deductive | x | x | x | |||||
Inductive | x | x | ||||||
Thematic | x | x | ||||||
Content | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Descriptive analysis | x | x | x | |||||
: | ||||||||
: | ||||||||
Deductive | x | x | x | x | ||||
Inductive | x | x | ||||||
Thematic | x | |||||||
Content | x |
The following sections describe the research question, case definition, and case study design. Case studies are most appropriate when asking “how” or “why” questions. 1 According to Yin, 1 how and why questions are explanatory and lead to the use of case studies, histories, and experiments as the preferred research methods. In 1 study from Canada, eg, the following research question was presented: “How and why did stakeholders participate in the system change process that led to the introduction of the first nurse practitioner-led Clinic in Ontario?” (p7) 19 Once the research question has been formulated, the case should be defined and, subsequently, the case study design chosen. 1 In typical case studies with mixed methods, the 2 types of data are gathered concurrently in a convergent design and the results merged to examine a case and/or compare multiple cases. 10
“How” or “why” questions were found in 4 studies. 16 , 17 , 19 , 22 Two studies additionally asked “what” questions. Three studies described an exploratory approach, and 1 study presented an explanatory approach. Of these 4 studies, 3 studies chose a qualitative approach 17 , 19 , 22 and 1 opted for mixed methods with a convergent design. 16
In the remaining studies, either the research questions were not clearly stated or no “how” or “why” questions were formulated. For example, “what” questions were found in 1 study. 21 No information was provided on exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory approaches. Schadewaldt et al 21 chose mixed methods with a convergent design.
A total of 5 studies defined the case as an organizational unit. 17 , 18 - 20 , 22 Of the 8 articles, 4 reported multiple-case studies. 16 , 17 , 22 , 23 Another 2 publications involved single-case studies. 19 , 20 Moreover, 2 publications did not state the case study design explicitly.
This section describes within-method triangulation, which involves employing at least 2 data-collection procedures within the same design approach. 6 , 7 This can also be called data source triangulation. 8 Next, we present the single data-collection procedures in detail. In 5 studies, information on within-method triangulation was found. 15 , 17 - 19 , 22 Studies describing a quantitative approach and the triangulation of 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures could not be included in this scoping review.
Five studies used qualitative data-collection procedures. Two studies combined face-to-face interviews and documents. 15 , 19 One study mixed in-depth interviews with observations, 18 and 1 study combined face-to-face interviews and documentation. 22 One study contained face-to-face interviews, observations, and documentation. 17 The combination of different qualitative data-collection procedures was used to present the case context in an authentic and complex way, to elicit the perspectives of the participants, and to obtain a holistic description and explanation of the cases under study.
All 5 studies used qualitative interviews as the primary data-collection procedure. 15 , 17 - 19 , 22 Face-to-face, in-depth, and semi-structured interviews were conducted. The topics covered in the interviews included processes in the introduction of new care services and experiences of barriers and facilitators to collaborative work in general practices. Two studies did not specify the type of interviews conducted and did not report sample questions. 15 , 18
In 2 studies, qualitative observations were carried out. 17 , 18 During the observations, the physical design of the clinical patients’ rooms and office spaces was examined. 17 Hungerford et al 18 did not explain what information was collected during the observations. In both studies, the type of observation was not specified. Observations were generally recorded as field notes.
In 3 studies, various qualitative public documents were studied. 15 , 19 , 22 These documents included role description, education curriculum, governance frameworks, websites, and newspapers with information about the implementation of the role and general practice. Only 1 study failed to specify the type of document and the collected data. 15
In 1 study, qualitative documentation was investigated. 17 This included a review of dashboards (eg, provider productivity reports or provider quality dashboards in the electronic health record) and quality performance reports (eg, practice-wide or co-management team-wide performance reports).
This section describes the between/across methods, which involve employing both qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures in the same study. 6 , 7 This procedure can also be denoted “methodologic triangulation.” 8 Subsequently, we present the individual data-collection procedures. In 3 studies, information on between/across triangulation was found. 16 , 20 , 21
Three studies used qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures. One study combined face-to-face interviews, documentation, and self-assessments. 16 One study employed semi-structured interviews, direct observation, documents, and service records, 20 and another study combined face-to-face interviews, non-participant observation, documents, and questionnaires. 23
All 3 studies used qualitative interviews as the primary data-collection procedure. 16 , 20 , 23 Face-to-face and semi-structured interviews were conducted. In the interviews, data were collected on the introduction of new care services and experiences of barriers to and facilitators of collaborative work in general practices.
In 2 studies, direct and non-participant qualitative observations were conducted. 20 , 23 During the observations, the interaction between health professionals or the organization and the clinical context was observed. Observations were generally recorded as field notes.
In 2 studies, various qualitative public documents were examined. 20 , 23 These documents included role description, newspapers, websites, and practice documents (eg, flyers). In the documents, information on the role implementation and role description of NPs was collected.
In 1 study, qualitative individual journals were studied. 16 These included reflective journals from NPs, who performed the role in primary health care.
Only 1 study involved quantitative service records. 20 These service records were obtained from the primary care practices and the respective health authorities. They were collected before and after the implementation of an NP role to identify changes in patients’ access to health care, the volume of patients served, and patients’ use of acute care services.
In 2 studies, quantitative questionnaires were used to gather information about the teams’ satisfaction with collaboration. 16 , 21 In 1 study, 3 validated scales were used. The scales measured experience, satisfaction, and belief in the benefits of collaboration. 21 Psychometric performance indicators of these scales were provided. However, the time points of data collection were not specified; similarly, whether the questionnaires were completed online or by hand was not mentioned. A competency self-assessment tool was used in another study. 16 The assessment comprised 70 items and included topics such as health promotion, protection, disease prevention and treatment, the NP-patient relationship, the teaching-coaching function, the professional role, managing and negotiating health care delivery systems, monitoring and ensuring the quality of health care practice, and cultural competence. Psychometric performance indicators were provided. The assessment was completed online with 2 measurement time points (pre self-assessment and post self-assessment).
This section describes data-analysis triangulation, which involves the combination of 2 or more methods of analyzing data. 6 Subsequently, we present within-case analysis and cross-case analysis.
Three studies combined qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. 16 , 20 , 21 Two studies involved deductive and inductive qualitative analysis, and qualitative data were analyzed thematically. 20 , 21 One used deductive qualitative analysis. 16 The method of analysis was not specified in the studies. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics in 3 studies. 16 , 20 , 23 The descriptive statistics comprised the calculation of the mean, median, and frequencies.
Two studies combined deductive and inductive qualitative analysis, 19 , 22 and 2 studies only used deductive qualitative analysis. 15 , 18 Qualitative data were analyzed thematically in 1 study, 22 and data were treated with content analysis in the other. 19 The method of analysis was not specified in the 2 studies.
In 7 studies, a within-case analysis was performed. 15 - 20 , 22 Six studies used qualitative data for the within-case analysis, and 1 study employed qualitative and quantitative data. Data were analyzed separately, consecutively, or in parallel. The themes generated from qualitative data were compared and then summarized. The individual cases were presented mostly as a narrative description. Quantitative data were integrated into the qualitative description with tables and graphs. Qualitative and quantitative data were also presented as a narrative description.
Of the multiple-case studies, 5 carried out cross-case analyses. 15 - 17 , 20 , 22 Three studies described the cross-case analysis using qualitative data. Two studies reported a combination of qualitative and quantitative data for the cross-case analysis. In each multiple-case study, the individual cases were contrasted to identify the differences and similarities between the cases. One study did not specify whether a within-case or a cross-case analysis was conducted. 23
This section describes confirmation or contradiction through qualitative and quantitative data. 1 , 4 Qualitative and quantitative data were reported separately, with little connection between them. As a result, the conclusions on neither the comparisons nor the contradictions could be clearly determined.
In 3 studies, the consistency of the results of different types of qualitative data was highlighted. 16 , 19 , 21 In particular, documentation and interviews or interviews and observations were contrasted:
Both types of data showed that NPs and general practitioners wanted to have more time in common to discuss patient cases and engage in personal exchanges. 21 In addition, the qualitative and quantitative data confirmed the individual progression of NPs from less competent to more competent. 16 One study pointed out that qualitative and quantitative data obtained similar results for the cases. 20 For example, integrating NPs improved patient access by increasing appointment availability.
Although questionnaire results indicated that NPs and general practitioners experienced high levels of collaboration and satisfaction with the collaborative relationship, the qualitative results drew a more ambivalent picture of NPs’ and general practitioners’ experiences with collaboration. 21
The studies included in this scoping review evidenced various research questions. The recommended formats (ie, how or why questions) were not applied consistently. Therefore, no case study design should be applied because the research question is the major guide for determining the research design. 2 Furthermore, case definitions and designs were applied variably. The lack of standardization is reflected in differences in the reporting of these case studies. Generally, case study research is viewed as allowing much more freedom and flexibility. 5 , 24 However, this flexibility and the lack of uniform specifications lead to confusion.
Methodologic triangulation, as described in the literature, can be somewhat confusing as it can refer to either data-collection methods or research designs. 6 , 8 For example, methodologic triangulation can allude to qualitative and quantitative methods, indicating a paradigmatic connection. Methodologic triangulation can also point to qualitative and quantitative data-collection methods, analysis, and interpretation without specific philosophical stances. 6 , 8 Regarding “data-collection methods with no philosophical stances,” we would recommend using the wording “data source triangulation” instead. Thus, the demarcation between the method and the data-collection procedures will be clearer.
Yin 1 advocated the use of multiple sources of evidence so that a case or cases can be investigated more comprehensively and accurately. Most studies included multiple data-collection procedures. Five studies employed a variety of qualitative data-collection procedures, and 3 studies used qualitative and quantitative data-collection procedures (mixed methods). In contrast, no study contained 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures. In particular, quantitative data-collection procedures—such as validated, reliable questionnaires, scales, or assessments—were not used exhaustively. The prerequisites for using multiple data-collection procedures are availability, the knowledge and skill of the researcher, and sufficient financial funds. 1 To meet these prerequisites, research teams consisting of members with different levels of training and experience are necessary. Multidisciplinary research teams need to be aware of the strengths and weaknesses of different data sources and collection procedures. 1
When using multiple data sources and analysis methods, it is necessary to present the results in a coherent manner. Although the importance of multiple data sources and analysis has been emphasized, 1 , 5 the description of triangulation has tended to be brief. Thus, traceability of the research process is not always ensured. The sparse description of the data-analysis triangulation procedure may be due to the limited number of words in publications or the complexity involved in merging the different data sources.
Only a few concrete recommendations regarding the operationalization of the data-analysis triangulation with the qualitative data process were found. 25 A total of 3 approaches have been proposed 25 : (1) the intuitive approach, in which researchers intuitively connect information from different data sources; (2) the procedural approach, in which each comparative or contrasting step in triangulation is documented to ensure transparency and replicability; and (3) the intersubjective approach, which necessitates a group of researchers agreeing on the steps in the triangulation process. For each case study, one of these 3 approaches needs to be selected, carefully carried out, and documented. Thus, in-depth examination of the data can take place. Farmer et al 25 concluded that most researchers take the intuitive approach; therefore, triangulation is not clearly articulated. This trend is also evident in our scoping review.
Few studies in this scoping review used a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis. However, creating a comprehensive stand-alone picture of a case from both qualitative and quantitative methods is challenging. Findings derived from different data types may not automatically coalesce into a coherent whole. 4 O’Cathain et al 26 described 3 techniques for combining the results of qualitative and quantitative methods: (1) developing a triangulation protocol; (2) following a thread by selecting a theme from 1 component and following it across the other components; and (3) developing a mixed-methods matrix.
The most detailed description of the conducting of triangulation is the triangulation protocol. The triangulation protocol takes place at the interpretation stage of the research process. 26 This protocol was developed for multiple qualitative data but can also be applied to a combination of qualitative and quantitative data. 25 , 26 It is possible to determine agreement, partial agreement, “silence,” or dissonance between the results of qualitative and quantitative data. The protocol is intended to bring together the various themes from the qualitative and quantitative results and identify overarching meta-themes. 25 , 26
The “following a thread” technique is used in the analysis stage of the research process. To begin, each data source is analyzed to identify the most important themes that need further investigation. Subsequently, the research team selects 1 theme from 1 data source and follows it up in the other data source, thereby creating a thread. The individual steps of this technique are not specified. 26 , 27
A mixed-methods matrix is used at the end of the analysis. 26 All the data collected on a defined case are examined together in 1 large matrix, paying attention to cases rather than variables or themes. In a mixed-methods matrix (eg, a table), the rows represent the cases for which both qualitative and quantitative data exist. The columns show the findings for each case. This technique allows the research team to look for congruency, surprises, and paradoxes among the findings as well as patterns across multiple cases. In our review, we identified only one of these 3 approaches in the study by Roots and MacDonald. 20 These authors mentioned that a causal network analysis was performed using a matrix. However, no further details were given, and reference was made to a later publication. We could not find this publication.
Because it focused on the implementation of NPs in primary health care, the setting of this scoping review was narrow. However, triangulation is essential for research in this area. This type of research was found to provide a good basis for understanding methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. Despite the lack of traceability in the description of the data and methodological triangulation, we believe that case studies are an appropriate design for exploring new nursing roles in existing health care systems. This is evidenced by the fact that case study research is widely used in many social science disciplines as well as in professional practice. 1 To strengthen this research method and increase the traceability in the research process, we recommend using the reporting guideline and reporting checklist by Rodgers et al. 9 This reporting checklist needs to be complemented with methodologic and data-analysis triangulation. A procedural approach needs to be followed in which each comparative step of the triangulation is documented. 25 A triangulation protocol or a mixed-methods matrix can be used for this purpose. 26 If there is a word limit in a publication, the triangulation protocol or mixed-methods matrix needs to be identified. A schematic representation of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies can be found in Figure 2 .
Schematic representation of methodologic and data-analysis triangulation in case studies (own work).
This study suffered from several limitations that must be acknowledged. Given the nature of scoping reviews, we did not analyze the evidence reported in the studies. However, 2 reviewers independently reviewed all the full-text reports with respect to the inclusion criteria. The focus on the primary care setting with NPs (master’s degree) was very narrow, and only a few studies qualified. Thus, possible important methodological aspects that would have contributed to answering the questions were omitted. Studies describing the triangulation of 2 or more quantitative data-collection procedures could not be included in this scoping review due to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Given the various processes described for methodologic and data-analysis triangulation, we can conclude that triangulation in case studies is poorly standardized. Consequently, the traceability of the research process is not always given. Triangulation is complicated by the confusion of terminology. To advance case study research in nursing, we encourage authors to reflect critically on methodologic and data-analysis triangulation and use existing tools, such as the triangulation protocol or mixed-methods matrix and the reporting guideline checklist by Rodgers et al, 9 to ensure more transparent reporting.
Acknowledgments.
The authors thank Simona Aeschlimann for her support during the screening process.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Supplemental Material: Supplemental material for this article is available online.
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Uncertainty assessment of species distribution prediction using multiple global climate models on the tibetan plateau: a case study of gentiana yunnanensis and gentiana siphonantha.
2. materials and methods, 2.1. study area, 2.2. species data, 2.3. climate and environment data, 2.4. global climate models, 2.5. species distribution modeling, 3.1. model performance, 3.2. current potential distribution, 3.3. future potential distribution simulations, 3.3.1. impacts of gcms on sdm, 3.3.2. range shift under future climate change with mme-4, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
Click here to enlarge figure
GCM | Period | SSP | PercLoss * | PercGain ** | SRC *** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACCESS-CM2 | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 48.044 | 31.524 | −16.52 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 52.977 | 31.693 | −21.284 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 60.382 | 39.043 | −21.339 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 82.395 | 79.704 | −2.691 | |
CMCC-ESM2 | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 36.285 | 57.186 | +20.901 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 42.388 | 43.684 | +1.296 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 56.526 | 55.463 | −1.063 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 75.51 | 109.853 | +34.342 | |
MPI-ESM1-2-HR | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 26.371 | 26.623 | +0.252 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 33.978 | 26.487 | −7.491 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 38.659 | 32.557 | −6.102 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 67.043 | 75.848 | +8.805 | |
UKESM1-0-LL | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 52.019 | 49.915 | −2.104 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 61.284 | 62.254 | +0.969 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 67.6 | 81.549 | +13.949 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 90.564 | 87.737 | −2.827 |
GCM | Period | SSP | PercLoss * | PercGain ** | SRC *** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACCESS-CM2 | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 11.835 | 15.244 | +3.409 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 14.424 | 16.181 | +1.757 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 18.563 | 16.316 | −2.247 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 43.152 | 11.929 | −31.223 | |
CMCC-ESM2 | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 9.645 | 12.267 | +2.622 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 10.643 | 13.915 | +3.272 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 19.096 | 16.265 | −2.831 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 40.618 | 13.833 | −26.784 | |
MPI-ESM1-2-HR | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 5.414 | 12.431 | +7.016 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 7.447 | 14.406 | +6.959 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 8.826 | 13.909 | +5.083 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 20.353 | 15.44 | −4.912 | |
UKESM1-0-LL | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 13.209 | 18.332 | +5.122 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 18.672 | 19.768 | +1.097 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 25.129 | 18.764 | −6.365 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 54.606 | 13.273 | −41.333 |
Bio1 (°C) | Bio5 (°C) | Bio6 (°C) | Bio12 (mm) | Bio16 (mm) | Bio17 (mm) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
G. yunnanensis | 6.70 (−0.14~15.40) | 17.53 (11.00~25.10) | −7.71 (−15.40~1.80) | 803.58 (638.00~943.00) | 406.55 (311.00~525.00) | 33.81 (10~60) |
G. siphonantha | −0.40 (−5.35~5.63) | 15.43 (−16.1~26.30) | −21.04 (−25.20~−16.30) | 397.26 (115.00~616.00) | 240.93 (70.00~375.00) | 6.26 (2.00~13.00) |
Species | Period | SSP | PercLoss * | PercGain ** | SRC *** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
G. yunnanensis | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 40.866 | 38.871 | −1.995 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 46.854 | 38.671 | −8.183 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 55.218 | 51.176 | −4.042 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 78.872 | 99.762 | +20.89 | |
G. siphonantha | 2041–2060 | SSP2-4.5 | 9.045 | 14.733 | +5.688 |
2041–2060 | SSP5-8.5 | 11.468 | 16.391 | +4.922 | |
2081–2100 | SSP2-4.5 | 16.657 | 16.572 | −0.085 | |
2081–2100 | SSP5-8.5 | 39.276 | 13.642 | −25.634 |
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Song, Y.; Xu, X.; Zhang, S.; Chi, X. Uncertainty Assessment of Species Distribution Prediction Using Multiple Global Climate Models on the Tibetan Plateau: A Case Study of Gentiana yunnanensis and Gentiana siphonantha . Land 2024 , 13 , 1376. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091376
Song Y, Xu X, Zhang S, Chi X. Uncertainty Assessment of Species Distribution Prediction Using Multiple Global Climate Models on the Tibetan Plateau: A Case Study of Gentiana yunnanensis and Gentiana siphonantha . Land . 2024; 13(9):1376. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091376
Song, Yuxin, Xiaoting Xu, Shuoying Zhang, and Xiulian Chi. 2024. "Uncertainty Assessment of Species Distribution Prediction Using Multiple Global Climate Models on the Tibetan Plateau: A Case Study of Gentiana yunnanensis and Gentiana siphonantha " Land 13, no. 9: 1376. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091376
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August 29, 2024
This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:
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A recent case report published in Cyborg Bionic Systems details the diagnosis of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) using multimodality diagnostic approaches, highlighting significant advancements in medical diagnostics and patient care. The study conducted by a team of researchers from Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China, presents a comprehensive case study of a 68-year-old male patient diagnosed with iNPH, showcasing the effectiveness of these advanced diagnostic techniques.
iNPH is a condition characterized by the accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) causing ventricular dilation, often mistaken for brain atrophy due to similar symptoms such as cognitive impairment and gait disturbances. The prevalence of this condition increases with age, affecting approximately 1.30% of individuals over 65 and rising to 5.9% among those over 80.
In the documented case, the patient suffered from deteriorated gait, cognitive decline, and urinary incontinence , symptoms that gradually worsened over several years. Initially misdiagnosed, his condition prompted the use of multimodality diagnostic approaches after traditional methods provided inconclusive results. The diagnostic process included brain imaging, cerebrospinal fluid tap tests (CSFTT), continuous intracranial pressure monitoring, and a novel infusion study, which collectively led to an accurate diagnosis and subsequent treatment.
The infusion study, a critical component of the diagnosis, involves the measurement of cerebrospinal fluid resistance (Rcsf), which has been identified as a crucial physical marker for diagnosing hydrocephalus. In this case, an Rcsf level exceeding the normal range significantly indicated the presence of hydrocephalus, confirming the necessity for surgical intervention.
Following the diagnosis, the patient underwent a ventriculoperitoneal shunt surgery, which involves the insertion of a tube to drain excess CSF from the brain to the abdominal cavity. The surgery was successful, with the patient showing remarkable improvement in symptoms and overall quality of life.
This case underscores the vital role of multimodality diagnostic approaches in the medical field. Not only do these techniques enhance diagnostic accuracy, but they also reduce clinical costs and time spent on diagnosis, providing a quicker path to recovery for patients. The effectiveness of these approaches in complex cases like iNPH demonstrates their potential for broader application, promising significant improvements in the diagnosis and treatment of similar conditions.
Moreover, the study advocates for the adoption of these techniques in standard medical practice, suggesting that they could significantly reduce the rates of misdiagnosis and improve clinical outcomes. As medical technology continues to advance, the integration of such multimodal diagnostic tools holds the promise of transforming patient care , offering more precise, efficient, and cost-effective solutions for challenging medical diagnoses.
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During the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770–222 BC), a large number of bronze arrowheads were unearthed from the Chu tombs, which is of great significance to the study of bronze weapons in the Chu state. However, little is known about the production technology, mode, and provenance of the raw materials for bronze weapons in the Chu state. Therefore, we conducted archaeometallurgical analyses of 16 bronze arrowheads excavated from the Yuwan cemetery using metallographic microscopy, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, and multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The results indicate that the arrowheads are all copper-tin–lead ternary alloys with a high tin content and adequate mechanical properties. The differences in the production process, lead–tin content, and copper groups indicate that bronze arrowheads were produced at a high rate and in multiple batches. Furthermore, comparative lead isotope studies of galena from different regions revealed that during the Warring States period, the Chu state possessed a strong supply network of metal resources, and after occupying regions with abundant metal resources, it was transported to the Chu state for bronze production.
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Metallurgical and chemical characterization of bronze remains found at the houhe site in shanxi province, china, data availability.
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We would like to thank Xiaoyu Liu, Anhui University, for assistance with Figure 1.
This research was supported by the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 21AKG008).
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Centre for Archaeological Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
Qiang Li & Haichao Li
School of Archaeology and Museology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
Qiang Li, Bin Bai, Jian He & Haichao Li
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Zhang, K., Li, Q., Bai, B. et al. The production of bronze weapons in the Chu state: a case study of bronze arrowheads excavated from the Yuwan cemetery in Hubei, China. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 16 , 152 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-024-02061-x
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triangulation of multiple investigators, within-case and cross-case analyses, and the role of existing literature. The result is a more nearly ... Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, Building Theories from Case Study Research, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14, No. 4 (Oct., 1989), pp. 532-550 ...
Abstract. This essay sharpens and refreshes the multi-case theory-building approach, sometimes termed The "Eisenhardt Method.". The Method's singular aim is theory building, especially with multiple cases and theoretical logic. Its defining features (e.g. research questions without obvious answers, careful case selection, well-identified ...
We used a single case study design with multiple units of analysis, which is suitable for studying a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007;Yin, 2018 ...
In this commentary, we focus on the related research strategy of theory building from cases, particularly multiple cases. Scholars have used case studies to develop theory about topics as diverse as group process. Building theory from case studies is a research strategy that involves using one or more cases to create theoretical constructs, propositions and/or midrange theory from case-based ...
What is the Eisenhardt Method, really?: Kathleen M. Eisenhardt. - 04 Feb 2021. - Strategic Organization. - Vol. 19, Iss: 1, pp 147-160. 218 Citations. TL;DR: In this article, the authors sharpened and refreshes the multi-case theory-building approach, sometimes termed Theisenhardt Method, which aims at theory building with multiple cases.
Professor Eisenhardt's contributions to multiple-case theory-building methods have been among the most significant of her generation. Her 1989 article on case study research, as well as further articles - 'Better stories and better constructs: the case for rigor and comparative logic' (Eisenhardt 1991) and 'Theory building from cases: opportunities and challenges' (Eisenhardt and ...
Eisenhardt's (1989, p. 548) purpose for the article is "to describe the process of theory building from case studies". The article does so in a systematic way which compares theory building with case studies to hypothesis testing research. The present article summarizes Eisenhardt's (1989) article and highlights the contributions that ...
This essay sharpens and refreshes the multi-case theory-building approach, sometimes termed The "Eisenhardt Method." The Method's singular aim is theory building, especially with multiple cases and theoretical logic. Its defining features (e.g. research questions without obvious answers, careful case selection, well-identified constructs and relationships, theoretical arguments, boundary ...
Eisenhardt (1989) defines the case study approach as "a research strategy which focuses on understanding the dynamics present within single settings" (Eisenhardt, 1989, p. 534) and employs multiple levels of analysis and multiple types of data collection.According to Eisenhardt (1989), case study research may analyze data from one or more cases, and either from within one case or across ...
The Case Study Approach The case study is a research strategy which focuses on understanding the dynamics present within single settings. Examples of case study research include Selznick's (1949) description of TVA, Allison's (197 1) study of the Cuban missile crisis, and Pettigrew's (1973) research on deci- sion making at a British retailer.
Multiple case study is a prevalent approach in qualitative research, with Kathleen Eisenhardt's method being a notable example. Unlike quantitative research,...
Eisenhardt recommends eight steps for developing theories from case study research: Getting started. Pick a focused research question and define any constructs (e.g. conflict, power) you want to ...
The Method's singular aim is theory building, especially with multiple cases and theoretical logic. Its defining features (e.g. research questions without obvious answers, careful case selection, ... This paper was Building Theories from Case Study Research (Eisenhardt, 1989a). Building Theories became more influential than I could have ever ...
K. Eisenhardt, Melissa E. Graebner. Published 1 February 2007. Business. Academy of Management Journal. TLDR. The research strategy of theory building from cases, particularly multiple cases, involves using one or more cases to create theoretical constructs, propositions, and/or midrange theory from case-based, empirical evidence. Expand.
Following the logic of multiple case study research (Eisenhardt, 1989), these features make empirical studies on agile teams suitable for theory development on questions related to resource mobilization. ... (60%) used qualitative methods such as multiple case studies (k = 20) and ethnographic approaches (k = 4). The average qualitative study ...
There are different types of case-based research methods that differ considerably in their basic assumptions and objectives. An example of such a method is the multi-case theory-building approach, which is based on the work of Kathleen M. Eisenhardt. Her 1989 article, which laid the foundation for this method, has been cited tens of thousands of times to date.
Abstract. To investigate innovation and reconfiguration happening in brick-and-mortar retail during the COVID-19 crisis, a multiple-case comparative research strategy was applied (Eisenhardt, 1991). In general, case studies use different perspectives and data sources to illustrate complex phenomena in a real-world context.
This paper describes the process of inducting theory using case studies—from specifying the research questions to reaching closure. Some features of the process, such as problem definition and construct validation, are similar to hypothesis-testing research. Others, such as within-case analysis and replication logic, are unique to the inductive, case-oriented process. Overall, the process ...
A case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion." 1(p15) This design is described as a stand-alone research approach equivalent to grounded theory and can entail single and multiple cases. 1,2 However, case study research should not be confused with single clinical case reports.
The Tibetan Plateau and the adjacent mountain regions, renowned for their complex terrain, play a significant role in climate regulation, harbor extraordinarily high species richness, and are one of the world's major biodiversity hotspots [1,2].This region hosts diverse ecosystems and numerous endemic and rare species, providing irreplaceable ecosystem services and functions to humanity [3,4].
Theory building from case studies (Eisenhardt, 1989a; Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007) ... A multiple-case study author has a much different writing challenge than a single-case author. Regarding page limits, a criticism of my work and the work of other multicase authors from some reviewers is, "We don't see enough description." ...
A recent case report published in Cyborg Bionic Systems details the diagnosis of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) using multimodality diagnostic approaches, highlighting significant ...
Higher education is crucial for the development of states and societies and improving the overall quality of life. However, entry into higher education is often influenced by factors beyond qualifications, and individuals in the field face suppression from the controlling parties. These challenges undermine the value of education and the integrity of democratic processes like elections. In ...
Chennai city has implemented numerous strategies and plans to effectively manage the municipal solid waste by the municipal corporation. One of the prime strategy is the establishment of public-private partnership schemes, which play a crucial role in enhancing waste management practices. This case study focus to assess the conservancy operations carried out by multiple stakeholders in order ...
All in all, we believe that in using the case study research as a methodology we have two types: single case study or multiple case study which follows a replication logic. ... (Eisenhardt, 1989). Whichever case selection strategy is used as the underlying principle common to all of these strategies is selecting information-rich cases.
This essay sharpens and refreshes the multi-case theory-building approach, sometimes termed The "Eisenhardt Method.". The Method's singular aim is theory building, especially with multiple cases and theoretical logic. Its defining features (e.g. research questions without obvious answers, careful case selection, well-identified constructs ...
During the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770-222 BC), a large number of bronze arrowheads were unearthed from the Chu tombs, which is of great significance to the study of bronze weapons in the Chu state. However, little is known about the production technology, mode, and provenance of the raw materials for bronze weapons in the Chu state. Therefore, we conducted archaeometallurgical analyses of 16 ...
And this fit with my own work. For example, Kaye Schoonhoven and I used insights from my strategic decision-making case studies (e.g. Eisenhardt, 1989b) for the theoretical arguments in our deductive econometrics-based paper on venture growth (Eisenhardt and Schoonhoven, 1990). Yet I now realize that many deductive researchers are neither able ...