essay on gender and labour

Gender Roles and Division of Labour

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All human societies exhibit some degree of division of labour by gender. These divisions continue to exist as participation in paid work has increased over time. Gender divisions occur between household tasks, between unpaid and paid work, and within paid work. Economists have explained these divisions through reliance on essentialist arguments and/or the fundamental economic concepts of efficiency of specialization and division of labour, and investment in human capital. However, gender discrimination can also cause division of labour, and the feedback effects of such discrimination make it difficult to untangle the causes of the gender division of labour.

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Jacobsen, J.P. (2018). Gender Roles and Division of Labour. In: The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95189-5_2582

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Page One Economics ®

Gender and labor markets.

"Sure [Fred Astaire] was great, but don't forget that Ginger Rogers did everything he did…backwards and in high heels." —Robert Thaves 1

Introduction

In economics, labor is the human effort directed toward producing goods and services. Along with the other factors of production —land, capital, and entrepreneurship—it is a building block of the economy.

Employees exchange their labor with employers for wages, salaries, and other benefits such as health insurance and retirement benefits. These transactions take place in what is called the labor market and are worth more than half the total value of all the final goods and services produced in the economy during a given year. 2

The labor market is so important that the U.S. Congress made promoting maximum employment part of the Federal Reserve's mandate, along with promoting stable prices and moderate long-term interest rates. Monitoring how the labor market is doing is important to fulfilling that mandate. How­ever, it is also valuable for the Fed to understand how various characteristics of individuals affect their participation in the market.

For example, workers' gender affects their experiences in the labor market. These include their decisions to participate in the market, the types of jobs they hold, their decisions to exit the market, and ultimately their earnings. The following sections discuss these aspects of men's and women's experiences in the labor market.

How Many Men and Women Participate in the Labor Market?  

To answer that question, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) uses data collected through its monthly Current Population Survey (CPS). This survey is administered by the U.S. Census, and it involves interviewing about 60,000 people who either live alone or as part of a household. 3 Survey respondents identify as either employed (holding a job) or unemployed (being out of work and actively looking for work). The sum of the employed and unemployed workers is called the labor force. Because the size of the labor force is related to the overall size of the population, it is helpful to calculate the labor force participation rate by dividing the number of people in the labor force by the number of people in the population. Multiplying that rate by 100 expresses the rate as a percentage.

Figure 1 Labor Force Participation Rates for Men and Women

SOURCE: U.S. BLS via FRED ® , Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=Im2s , accessed October 20, 2021. 

Figure 1 shows the different labor force participation rates for men (blue line) and women (red line) in the United States. A larger percentage of men than women participate in the labor force. Between 1960 and the late 1990s, the number of women in the labor force steadily increased, when more married women started to work outside the home. Factors that helped facilitate this change include delaying having children and using time-­saving household technology, such as washing machines, vacuums, and dishwashers. 4

Nonetheless, since 2000, the labor force participation rate for U.S. women has declined. Researchers have not identified a single reason for this decline, however. In other countries, such as Canada, the labor force participation rate for women continues to increase. More generous parental leave policies and tax incentives may play a role there. 5

Do Economic Shocks Impact Working Women and Men Differently?

The labor market is affected by the expansions and contractions in economic activity known as business cycles. Figure 1 shows that the participation rates of both men and women decreased during the COVID-19-induced recession in 2020. At the time of this writing, those rates haven't fully bounced back. During contractions, known as recessions, there is less activity in the labor market (less hiring and moving from job to job) and more workers become unemployed. Recessions, however, can affect the employment status of men and women differently. 

Figure 2 Unemployment Rates for Women and Men

SOURCE: U.S. BLS via FRED ® , Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=HvNK , accessed October 20, 2021. 

Figure 2 shows the unemployment rate for men (blue line), for women (red line), and across genders (black line). The BLS reports the unemployment rate in the CPS survey by dividing the number of people unemployed by the number of people in the labor force. Because there are different numbers of men and women in the labor force, calculating a rate for each allows us to compare their unemployment experiences. Multiplying that rate by 100 expresses it as a percentage.

During the 2007-09 recession, men experienced higher unemployment rates than women because more jobs were lost in occupations and industries that traditionally employ more men: namely, goods-producing manufacturing and construction. 6 (See the boxed insert for examples of jobs in each industry).

During the COVID-19-induced recession in 2020, women made up the majority of those who became unemployed and the majority of those who left the labor force. An unequal distribution of household responsibilities between men and women could explain this phenomenon. In fact, during the first few months of the pandemic, mothers decreased their work hours outside the home four to five times more than fathers did. 7 And research shows that women living with children under the age of six left the labor force in larger proportions than women with older children, suggesting that regular, reliable, and available childcare plays an important role in supporting women's continued participation in the labor force. 8  

However, recent research indicates that the unequal effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labor market experience of men and women were mostly temporary and that lingering differences are associated with age, race, ethnicity, and occupation. 9 The type of jobs men and women tend to hold can either shelter them from or expose them to an economy-wide shock.

In What Industries Are Men and Women Employed?

The employment landscape for men and women is very different across industries. 10 Companies often focus on providing either goods or services, and jobs can be categorized along these lines. For example, since 1984, women employees have been the majority in both the government and the private (non-government) service-­providing industry, yet they have never represented more than 28 percent of the employees in the private goods-­producing industry. And even within the service-­providing industry, the proportion of women employees varies across occupations.

Figure 3 Percent of Women Employees in Private Service-Providing Occupations

SOURCE: U.S. BLS via FRED ® , Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=Ihcy , accessed October 20, 2021.

Figure 3 shows the percentage of women employees in all private service-producing industries. The dotted red line at the 50 percent value helps compare employment trends across these industries. For example, women have historically represented more than 70 percent of all employees in education and health services (solid purple line) and a very large majority in financial activities (dotted purple line).

By contrast, women haven't yet topped 50 percent in the professional and business services (solid green line) or the trade, transportation, and utilities (solid orange line) sectors. Traditional cultural roles or ingrained professional practices might explain these percentages. 11 Finally, there are declining trends in some sectors such as information (dotted blue line) and financial activities (dotted purple line).

Why Is There an Earnings Gap Between Men and Women?

Some jobs pay better than others, and for most people earnings are determined by their occupation. The trends in the percentages of women employed across industries (described above) help explain, at least in part, the average difference in earnings between women and men.

Figure 4 Median Usual Weekly Real Earnings of Wage and Salary Male and Female Workers

SOURCE: U.S. BLS via FRED ® , Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=ImD6 , accessed October 20, 2021. 

Figure 4 shows the median usual weekly real earnings of wage and salary male workers (blue line) and female workers (red line). Median earnings are typical earnings, where half of the employees earn more than that dollar amount and half earn less than that dollar amount. The real in real earnings indicates that the effect of general and sustained rising prices—inflation—has been removed from this measure, giving the real value . Figure 4 shows women's earnings are consistently lower than men's earnings. This is known as the gender earnings gap. 

Researchers can explain about 75 percent of the average gender wage gap. Unequal wages between men and women are generally attributed to differences in educational attainment, work experience, occupation, career interruption, part-time status, and overtime hours worked. 12 For example, if a woman stops working for a few years to care for young children, this interruption in her career path means that she will have less work experience than her male counterparts of similar age.

Recent research suggests that the key to understanding at least part of the unexplained portion of the gender wage gap might have to do with marriage. Although the gender wage gap between never-married men and never-married women is small, married men earn much higher wages than everybody else in the labor force. 13 It is not immediately clear why married men earn more than single men, but the fact that they do earn so much more than other workers helps explain, at least in part, the presence of a wage and earnings gap between genders.

The labor market is central to the economy because the exchange between employees and employers—labor for wages, salaries, and other benefits—underpins all production activities. Workers' gender affects their experiences in the labor market, including their decisions to participate in the market, the types of jobs they hold, their decisions to exit the market, and ultimately their earnings.

1 Thaves, Robert. Frank and Ernest (comic strip). Image #69155; May 3, 1982; https://frankandernest.com/search/index.php?pm=&pd=&py=1982&kw=Fred&submit=Search .

2 The following FRED ® graph shows the relative sizes of the four main components of gross domestic income, reported by the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis since 1929: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=I4PM . The largest component is "Compensation of Employees, Paid."

3 For a description of the methodology of the CPS, see https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/technical-documentation/methodology.html .

4 For more on changes in the labor force participation rate, see the following article: Engemann, Kristie M. and Owyang, Michael T. "Look Who's Working Now." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Synopses , 2006, No. 9; https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/economic-synopses/2006/04/02/look-whos-working-now .

5 For more about the comparison between the United States and Canada, see the following post: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. "What's Different for Working Women in Canada." FRED ® Blog , July 1, 2021; https://fredblog.stlouisfed.org/2021/07/whats-different-for-working-women-in-canada/ .

6 For more on the impact of the 2007-09 recession on the unemployment rate of men, see the following article: Contessi, Silvio and Li, Li. "From 'Man-Cession' to 'He-Covery': Same Old, Same Old." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Synopses , 2013, No. 3; https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/economic-synopses/2013/01/18/from-man-cession-to-he-covery-same-old-same-old/ .

7 For more on the COVID-19 pandemic-related changes in the labor force participation rate, see the following article: Jefferson, Nathan. "Post-Pandemic Activity Rebounds, but Many Remain Outside the Labor Force." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Synopses , 2021, No. 18; https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/economic-synopses/2021/07/14/post-pandemic-activity-rebounds-but-many-remain-outside-the-labor-force .

8 For more on the labor force participation of women during COVID-19, see the following article: Lim, Katherine and Zabek, Mike. "Women's Labor Force Exits during COVID-19: Differences by Motherhood, Race, and Ethnicity." Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System Finance and Economics Discussion Series (FEDS) , October 2021; https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/feds/womens-labor-force-exits-during-covid-19-differences-by-motherhood-race-and-ethnicity.htm .

9 For more on the recovery from the COVID-19-induced economic shock, see the following article: Lee, Sang Yoon; Park, Minsung and Shin, Yongseok. "Hit Harder, Recover Slower? Unequal Employment Effects of the COVID-19 Shock." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review , Fourth Quarter 2021, 103 (4), pp. 367-83; https://doi.org/10.20955/r.103.367-83 .

10 For more about the proportion of women in a variety of occupations, see the following post: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. "Working 9 to 5: Woman Make Up More of the Workforce." Fred ® Blog , January 16, 2020; https://fredblog.stlouisfed.org/2020/01/working-9-to-5-women-make-up-more-of-the-workforce/ .

11 In the discipline of economics, for example, women are underrepresented in comparison with other academic fields. For more on this topic and to learn about St. Louis Fed initiatives to address it, see this article: Bullard, James. "The St. Louis Fed Focus on Women in Economics." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Regional Economist , April 5, 2019; https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/first-quarter-2019/bullard-women-in-economics .

12 For more on the gender wage disparity, see the following article: Kolesnikova, Natalia A. and Liu, Yang. "The Gender Wage Gap." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Synopses , 2011, No. 25; https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/economic-synopses/2011/08/29/the-gender-wage-gap/ .

13 For more on the differences between married and single men and women, see the following article: Vandenbroucke, Guillaume. "Married Men Sit Atop the Wage Ladder." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Synopses , 2018, No. 24; https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/economic-synopses/2018/09/14/married-men-sit-atop-the-wage-ladder/ .

© 2022, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect official positions of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis or the Federal Reserve System.

Factors of production: The natural, human, and capital resources that are available to make goods and services. Also known as productive resources.

Labor force participation rate: The number of people who are either employed or are actively looking for work, usually expressed as a percentage. Also known as the activity rate.

Median earnings: Typical earnings. Technically, median earnings means that half of the employees earn more than that amount and half earn less than that amount.

Real value: A measure of money that removes the effect of inflation.

Recession: A period of declining real income and rising unemployment; significant decline in general economic activity extending over a period of time.

Unemployment rate: The percentage of the labor force that is willing and able to work, does not currently have a job, and is actively looking for employment.

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On Gender, Labor, and Inequality by Ruth Milkman

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Ruth Gomberg-Muñoz; On Gender, Labor, and Inequality by Ruth Milkman. Labor 1 March 2018; 15 (1): 115–116. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/15476715-4288764

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In this scholarly tour de force, Ruth Milkman brings together four decades of sociological research on women workers to paint a portrait of gendered labor patterns from the Great Depression of the 1930s to the Great Recession of 2007–9. With meticulous research, careful argumentation, and effective writing, Milkman shows how economic actors—especially women workers, unions, and employers—shaped women’s employment and key industries of the US economy. As they managed changes in the labor and job markets, these actors both maintained strict job segregation by gender and transformed it, with implications for the dynamism and rigidity of gender roles in society more widely.

This collection of previously published pieces is most in conversation with foundational theories in political economy (especially Marxist theories of class), socialist feminism, and sociological theories of organization. In the book’s introduction, Milkman concedes that these bodies of thought may seem “quaint” to contemporary students of intersectionality; and,...

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What explains the gender division of labour and how can it be redressed?

Adam Smith’s division of labour was about the efficiency gains from task specialisation in factories. But the gender division – gaps between men and women in pay, prestige, career progression and much more – can also be highly inefficient as well as highly inequitable.

Centuries of economic growth and campaigning have enabled gender parity in legal rights in the developed world. But there remain persistent gaps in the economic standing of women and men across all high-income countries.

Women still make systematically different education choices from men, and they bear most of the earnings penalty that comes from becoming a parent. What’s more, gender gaps in paid work are typically exacerbated by gender gaps in unpaid work, which leads to differences in access to leisure and economic prestige that favour men.

These inequalities naturally raise issues of redistributive justice, related to unequal access to employment opportunities and life satisfaction. Additionally, economists are becoming increasingly concerned about the optimal distribution of goods and services in the economy, what’s known as allocative efficiency.

If we accept the premise that innate talent is equally distributed between men and women, barriers to women's entry into certain male-dominated occupations imply that the talents of some remain underused. This applies equally to the underuse of men in occupations dominated by women. What’s needed is a rethink of traditional trade-offs between equity and efficiency, and the associated zero-sum fallacy – the idea that one person’s gain must mean another person’s loss.

Drivers of gender inequalities are actively researched in several areas of economics. Recent advances are coalescing around different gender barriers to labour market opportunities.

One key constraint for women is their primary role in raising and caring for children. Evidence from several countries has established that while childbirth is fairly neutral for men’s careers, it causes a large and persistent drop in women’s earnings. On becoming a parent, women are more likely than men to leave employment and, if they remain in work, they tend to favour family-friendly working conditions. These include flexible schedules and shorter hours, which are less conducive to career development and progression.

The resulting motherhood penalty is not substantially mitigated by the availability and generosity of child-care support policies, nor by the introduction of parental leave rights that are exclusively reserved for fathers. As a result, it’s natural to think about the deeper roots of these inequalities, which are related to social norms about appropriate gender roles in the household and the workplace.

One can think of norms as social prescriptions about what is appropriate and inappropriate for men and women to do in society. For example, the male breadwinner model has clear prescriptions for gender roles in the family, with consequences for women’s investment in their careers.

One central issue is that even gender-neutralising policies face an uphill struggle whenever they provide incentives for behaviour that clashes with conservative gender norms. As such, in conservative societies, families may be unwilling to substitute maternal child-care with state-provided child-care, and fathers may be reluctant to take up paternity leave.

Figure 1: Gender pay gap for median gross hourly earnings for full-time employees

Source: office for national statistics, 2022.

In some cases, norms stem from intrinsic beliefs about gender roles. In others, they are mostly shaped by peer pressure and the reputational costs associated with breaking a certain norm. It isn’t easy for policy to reshape personal beliefs, and it’s debatable to what extent third parties should be allowed to interfere with decisions taken within families.

Even recognising these limits, policy – as well as the media and the education system – can raise awareness about stereotyping beliefs and their consequences for equity and allocative efficiency. And whenever stereotyping behaviour is driven by incorrect perceptions about peer pressure, providing individuals with correct information about their peer groups can be especially effective in redressing a stereotypical gender division of labour.

Where can I find out more?

• The economics of the gender pay gap : Video by Barbara Petrongolo for the What Economists Really Do series.
• Gender pay gap in the UK, 2022 : Data from the Office for National Statistics.
• Gender wage gap : Data and reports from the OECD.
• Search and compare gender pay gap data : GOV.UK.

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Work of the Fellows: Monographs

Gendering Labor History

By Alice Kessler-Harris (NHC Fellow, 2006–07)

Urbana: University of Illinois Press , 2007

From the publisher’s description:

This collection represents the thirty-year intellectual trajectory of one of today’s leading historians of gender and labor in the United States. The seventeen essays included in Alice Kessler-Harris’s  Gendering Labor History  are divided into four sections, narrating the evolution and refinement of her central project: to show gender’s fundamental importance to the shaping of U.S. history and working-class culture.

The first section considers women and organized labor; the second pushes this analysis toward a gendered labor history as the essays consider the gendering of male as well as female workers and how gender operates with and within the social category of class. Subsequent sections broaden this framework to examine U.S. social policy as a whole, the question of economic citizenship, and wage labor from a global perspective. While each essay represents an important intervention in American historiography in itself, the collection taken as a whole reveals Kessler-Harris as someone who has always pushed the field of American history to greater levels of inclusion and analysis, and who continues to do so today.

Kessler-Harris, Alice (NHC Fellow, 2006–07) . Gendering Labor History . The Working Class in American History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007.

THE EFFECT OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION ON LABOR SUPPLY

82 Pages Posted: 24 Jul 2024

Nickolas Gagnon

Aarhus University, Department of Economics and Business Economics; University of Arizona - Economic Science Laboratory

Kristof Bosmans

Maastricht University

Maastricht University; IZA Institute of Labor Economics; CESifo (Center for Economic Studies and Ifo Institute); Netspar

Date Written: July 11, 2024

We conduct experiments on an online platform to investigate the causal effect of gender discrimination on labor supply decisions. Controlling for the piece-rate wage, workers who face explicit negative gender-discriminatory wage inequality supply substantially less labor compared to workers who face gender-neutral wage inequality. We also examine the effect of positive discrimination, differences between men and women, and the impact of implicit rather than explicit discrimination. We identify decreased work morale as the underlying mechanism. In addition, we provide survey evidence showing that discrimination in the field reduces work morale and labor supply, corroborating our experimental results.

Keywords: D90, E24, J22, J31, J71, M5) Gender Discrimination, Labor Supply, Workplace Inequality, Gender Discrimination

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Nickolas Gagnon (Contact Author)

Aarhus university, department of economics and business economics ( email ).

Nordre Ringgade 1 DK-8000 Aarhus C, 8000 Denmark

University of Arizona - Economic Science Laboratory ( email )

Tucson, AZ 85721 United States

Maastricht University ( email )

Netherlands

HOME PAGE: http://https://sites.google.com/site/kristofbosmansmu/

Arno M. Riedl

Department of Microeconomics & Public Economics P.O. Box 616 Maastricht, 6200 MD Netherlands

HOME PAGE: http://www.arnoriedl.com

IZA Institute of Labor Economics

P.O. Box 7240 Bonn, D-53072 Germany

CESifo (Center for Economic Studies and Ifo Institute)

Poschinger Str. 5 Munich, DE-81679 Germany

Netspar ( email )

P.O. Box 90153 Tilburg, 5000 LE Netherlands

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• Published: 25 July 2024

Gender differences in job satisfaction among gig workers in Bangladesh

• Mou Rani Sarker 1 ,
• Tanjum Afrin Taj 2 ,
• Md Abdur Rouf Sarkar 3 , 4 ,
• Md. Fuad Hassan 2 ,
• Andrew M. McKenzie 5 ,
• Md. Abdullah Al Mamun 6 ,
• Dweep Sarker 7 &
• Humnath Bhandari 8  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  17128 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour
• Psychology and behaviour

The gig economy (temporary, contract, and freelance online jobs rather than permanent positions) is a component of the fourth industrial revolution and preview of future work. The rise of digital platforms has increased career opportunities and income potential, particularly for women. Yet, the sex-disaggregated evidence regarding platform usage, employment characteristics, and working motivations and satisfaction remains untapped. Using data from a quantitative survey of Bangladeshi gig workers (242 men and 201 women) conducted in 2022, this paper addresses these gaps between male and female workers. The gig economy appears to be gender-segregated across digital platform usages and working categories. Women tend to prioritize digital work options for managing multiple responsibilities, while men are often driven by the potential for higher income. This study conceptually utilized the two-factor theory and empirically ordered a probit model to identify gender differences in job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was significantly increased by work-life balance, monthly income, and social-media connection, while an increase in working hours, complexity in payment systems, and unstable networks all led to a decrease in job satisfaction. The findings have implications for the future growth of the gig economy, provide new insights into gender differences in job satisfaction, and underscore the need for gender-sensitive policies in the online labor market.

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Introduction.

The gig economy emerged as a characteristic of the Fourth Industrial Revolution 1 and is driven by digital platforms such as Uber and Upwork. It involves short-term, flexible work arrangements with minimal contractual commitments 2 , 3 . Workers perform tasks independently, either physically present or entirely online, facilitated by technology that connects them to clients and businesses 4 , 5 , 6 . This mode of work, also known as the “sharing economy”, the “on-demand economy”, the “platform economy”, “crowd-working”, and “freelancing” or ranges from large-scale crowdsourcing to micro-tasks in transportation and delivery 7 . Gig work is characterized by its temporary nature and lack of long-term employment relationships 2 , 8 . Companies increasingly use online labor platforms to hire and manage workers on a project or hourly basis, sidestepping traditional employment models but raises concerns about job security and worker rights 9 . This trend offers workers flexible income opportunities 10 , 11 , reflecting significant economic and technological shifts.

This digital economy significantly contributes to the global economy. The estimated market value of the digital workplace in 2024 is approximately USD50.19 billion, according to the Digital Workplace Global Market Report 12 , and it is growing at a global pace of 25% per year 13 . The expansion of the gig economy has been driven by reduced expenses (in terms of time and money), greater flexibility, and easy access to skilled labor 14 . There are roughly 19 million active online workers worldwide, with the majority living in low- and middle-income countries, with concentrations in India, the Philippines, Pakistan, and Bangladesh 15 . Bangladesh is currently the second largest provider of online labor globally, after India, with a 16% share of the worldwide online labor force 13 . In Bangladesh, roughly 0.65 million freelancers are registered, of which 9% are female 16 . Approximately 0.50 million freelancers perform continuous services and earn USD100 million annually 17 . The share of freelancers in Bangladesh's workforce may be small, but given the unmet demands on the international market, more young workers might opt to work in online jobs.

The digital revolution blessed women in developing countries with increased employment prospects, economic security, and empowerment. The platforms allow women to overcome cultural, social, and mobility restrictions. By utilizing digital marketplaces, women get greater flexibility and job satisfaction, enabling them to better manage their personal and professional life, even with family duties 7 , 18 , 19 , 20 . This advantage has a tremendous effect on the economy, enabling many female entrepreneurs to contribute directly to the country's economic growth. If the trend continues, increasing numbers of women will view digital work as a viable career choice.

Yet, existing gender inequalities in access to resources and services hinder women from maximizing their prospects from entering to staying in the digital workforce. According to the Global System for Mobile Communications Consumer Survey 2023, Bangladesh exhibited a 20% gender gap in mobile ownership and a 40% gender gap in mobile internet adoption 21 . Similarly, the majority of women still lack digital skills. There is, however, a considerable measure of debate over how the growth of idiosyncratic work and the digitization of the workforce will influence gender imbalance in pay and career trajectories 22 , 23 . According to data on occupational categories from online hiring platforms, women were considerably less likely to be hired for male-typed positions (e.g., software development) than equally competent men candidates 24 . The mechanism reinforces itself by maintaining gender gaps in the workplace and by encouraging occupational misogyny and the persistence of differences in job satisfaction.

The role of gender differences in job satisfaction is incredibly important in the rapidly changing labor market. This subjective well-being is directly associated with increased productivity and profitability 19 , 25 , 26 , better organizational performance 27 , decreased employee turnover 28 , 29 , and reduced absenteeism 30 . In the job satisfaction literature, one assumption was that the gender gap is driven by systematic disparities in job characteristics that women and men confront 31 . In the same way, others stress divergent attitudes between men and women regarding what is important in a job 32 . Evidence shows that, based on the context and profession, gender differences in job satisfaction depend on many factors such as individual characteristics (e.g., age, education, marital status, etc.), working quality (e.g., working hours, working schedule, type of contract, wages, tenure, safety and security, working conditions, skill and training opportunities, the chance of promotion, relationship with co-workers, and work-life balance) 7 , 9 , 19 , 26 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 . However, the available literature on job satisfaction was mostly centered on studies of health and academic professionals and there is still a dearth of convincing evidence about the digital workforce.

The gig economy has brought both opportunities and challenges to rapidly digitizing Asian economies. In Bangladesh, the increase in the unemployment rate to 3.51% is a major concern 39 . Absolutely, the rise of the gig economy can indeed be seen as a response to the challenges and limitations of traditional offline labor markets, including rising unemployment rates in Bangladesh. As traditional job opportunities become less accessible, individuals are turning to alternative sources of income through online platforms 40 . Online platforms provide flexible employment options for youths and low-income groups, which enables them to earn income on their terms and utilize their skills more effectively 41 . Additionally, the expanding service sector and increased female participation in the labor market makes Bangladesh an ideal setting to study the dynamics of online labor. However, it also raises concerns about persistent inequality in the form of gender and labor rights.

Bangladesh has a significant presence in the global gig economy with many engaged in online freelance work, but the context remains largely unexplored. This study fills this knowledge gap by examining gender disparities among gig workers in Bangladesh. Specifically, the study examines differences in the utilization of digital platforms and the nature of work, investigates the reasons for engaging with digital platforms, and analyzes the determinants of job satisfaction in the online labor market. From a policy perspective, governments in rapidly digitizing Asian economies such as Bangladesh face the challenge of regulating the gig economy to ensure that workers are not exploited while still allowing for innovation and flexibility. This may involve implementing labor protections for gig workers, such as minimum wage guarantees, secure payment methods, access to healthcare, and avenues for dispute resolution. However, striking the right balance between protecting workers, fostering entrepreneurship, innovations, and work-life balance can be complex and requires more research for feasible solutions. To meet the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 8 (decent work and economic growth) by 2030, better job satisfaction could lead to higher levels of gender equality and guarantee a secure, productive, and respectful workplace for all.

We begin in " Research in context " by providing a brief of the literature and theoretical background of gig worker job satisfaction. Next, this paper outlines the methodology in " Materials and methods ". " Results " gives an overview of gender statistics and activities on digital platforms, identifies motivations for engaging with these digital platforms, and examines the factors influencing job (dis)satisfaction in the contemporary labor market. The results are discussed in " Discussion ", followed by conclusions and recommendations in " Conclusions and recommendations ".

Evolution of digital platform and its function

Among the several digital working platforms, our survey in Bangladesh found seven of the most popular (Fig.  1 ). Chronologically, Guru.com, founded in 1998, was the earliest of these, followed by PeoplePerHour, 99Designs, Fiverr, and so on. These platforms were founded in different countries; Gurr.com, Designhill, and Upwork, for instance, are American companies. PeoplePerHour was primarily developed in the United Kingdom. Australia hosts the websites 99Designs and Freelancer. Fiverr is an internet marketplace based in Israel. Different activities are available across various platforms. Guru.com, Freelancer, Fiverr, Upwork, and PeoplePerHour, for instance, cover a comparatively wider range of tasks, including graphics and design, digital marketing, writing and translation, programming and technology, video and animation, etc. Platforms such as 99Designs and Designhill, on the other hand, are more focused on graphic design, e.g., branding and logos, online and app design, business and advertising, etc. (see details in Supplementary Table S.1 ).

Evolution of different digital platforms.

Research in context

Review of literature and hypotheses development.

Based on the Scopus database, which has approximately 787 academic papers about the gig economy from 2009 to 2022, Fig.  2 a shows the global scenario of scientific research on the gig economy, where dark blue means strong production and gray means no study. Australia, North America, Northwestern Europe, South Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific have higher study intensity regarding the gig economy. Notably, there was less scholarly focus on Europe, Central Africa and other sub-Saharan African nations.

Scientific publication and cross-national collaboration map ( a ), and country-citation and co-authors network in the subject areas of the gig economy ( b ). ( a ) Was generated by the authors using “Biblioshiny” package ( https://www.bibliometrix.org/home/index.php ) in RStudio (version 2024.04.2 + 764), and this open-source tool for quantitative research does not require any licensing 42 ; ( b ) was prepared using VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20), link: https://www.vosviewer.com/ . Data source: Scopus database (2023).

The majority of authors were from developed countries as depicted by the country-citation and co-authors network (Fig.  2 b). The United Kingdom, United States, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, Germany, and China were ranked higher than other nations based on the volume of published scientific research. Limited research was conducted in emerging economies such as Bangladesh, which contributed significantly to the gig economy and ranked 8th in the 2019 Global Gig-Economy Index 16 . This study will provide new dimensions of evidence to research literature on the gig economy in Bangladesh and contribute to the global digital knowledge hub.

According to tree mapping (Fig.  3 a), the most used term was gig economy, which is also referred to as platform economy, sharing economy, digital economy, and collaborative economy. The gig economy, employment, the labor market, and workers were the four major clusters generated by the co-occurrences of related key terms. Focusing on the job satisfaction of gig workers has significant promise, but insufficient research has been conducted in this domain. Figure  3 b illustrates the gender-specific research focus, such as employment, motivation, social security, mental health, flexibility, and working conditions. Further comprehensive research is needed to gain a better understanding of the multiple factors contributing to job (dis)satisfaction from a gendered perspective that has yet to be explored.

Visualized co-occurrence of ( a ) all keywords, and ( b ) gender-specific keywords in the subject areas of the gig economy. These figures were prepared using VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20). Data source: Scopus database, 2023.

The 2030 Sustainable Development Goals underscore the importance of gender equality. One way to achieve this is by increasing women's employment to make them financially independent 43 . Despite economic and social advances, significant gender disparities remain in society and the workplace 44 . To elaborate, we did a systematic review of gender research in the gig economy (Supplementary Table S.2 ). Online work provides women with new economic freedom but gender segregation still exists in the digital economy 45 , 46 , 47 . Fernandez and Campero highlighted that IT jobs are mostly male-dominated 48 . Galperin associated this with gender stereotyping in hiring 24 , where employers make rapid decisions based on limited information for short-term, lower-value jobs 49 . Hence, we set our first hypothesis as:

H1: Male gig workers in Bangladesh utilize digital platforms more frequently than female gig workers.

Scholars observed that women were less likely to be hired in male-dominated occupations such as transportation and software development, but more likely to be hired in female-dominated fields such as caregiving, writing, and translation 2 , 6 , 7 , 24 . Based on these, we conceptualize the second hypothesis:

H2: The nature of work on digital platforms varies significantly between male and female gig workers.

Past studies highlighted the gender disparities in career progression and wages. Scholars found women earn less per hour than men 6 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , with few exceptions 18 , 54 . Some studies noted that this gap is pronounced among migrant workers, working-class individuals, single mothers, and Asian and black women 23 , 49 , 54 , 55 . Dubey reported that men workers advanced in their careers much more quickly than female employees 50 . Anwar 56 and Anwar and Graham 45 found that the gig economy allows people to schedule work conveniently around their routines, unlike traditional jobs. Therefore, we conceptualized the third hypothesis:

H3: Women workers engage with digital platforms primarily for flexibility and work-life balance while men are driven by higher earnings and career advancement.

Studies reported that women often juggle multiple responsibilities, including household and caregiving duties, making flexible work options more attractive 47 , 52 , 56 . Even with the flexibility of working online, balancing unpaid care and domestic responsibilities posed difficulties for women 6 , 57 , 58 . Night work, job insecurity, and limited socialization exacerbate physical and mental stress not only for women but also for men 54 , 58 . Due to poor platform policies and inadequate work infrastructure, women were frequently harassed 49 , 59 , 60 , but there was also evidence of men’s harassment or verbal abuse 61 . However, Chesters and Wyn found that younger people often choose digital platforms for income over unemployment 46 . Additionally, several studies have identified factors such as autonomy 6 , 58 , 62 , 63 , passive income 64 , and work-life balance 10 , 36 , 57 , 65 motivate gig workers. In contrast, several studies indicate that precarious financial insecurity 60 , 65 , 66 , poor platform policies 59 , 67 , safety and security 68 , harassment 49 , 61 , emotional exhaustion 56 , 57 , 62 , 65 , and limited socialization 62 adversely affect gig workers' well-being. Therefore, there is a need for more support services, better platform policies, and training programs to address the challenges women face. To address this, the final hypothesis of the study is:

H4: Job satisfaction in the online labor market differs by gender among gig workers in Bangladesh.

However, the aforementioned literature review points out several gaps in the current research, including the need for a more in-depth exploration of the underlying reasons behind gender disparities and discrimination in the gig economy and the exploration of potential solutions to address these challenges. Additionally, we have identified a gap in the literature regarding the impact of gender on job satisfaction in Bangladesh, with no comprehensive studies addressing this issue. Thus, our research in this area could shed light on these gaps and provide more nuanced insights into the experiences of men and women workers in the gig economy.

Theoretical background

On the theoretical basis of the literature and our study nature, the Two-factor Theory introduced by Herzberg et al. 69 is appropriate to describe the job (dis)satisfaction of gig workers 70 . According to the theory, hygiene and motivation factors together account for both job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors are those aspects of a job that satisfy fundamental demands, such as job security and the working environment. When these necessities are met, employees are satisfied with their job. On the contrary, motivation factors, such as professional success and recognition, inspire employees to work and advance in their professions.

In the gig economy, we identified the motivating factors and hygienic criteria that ultimately determine how satisfied or not gig workers are with their work (Fig.  4 ). Online work may not be a regular job, but depending on economic circumstances, it can motivate gig workers to be employed full- or part-time. Gig workers may find tasks that they are passionate about, such as creative work like graphic design, as an alternative to the traditional desk job. However, working as an independent freelancer gives the individual satisfaction from the task itself. Other facets such as positive feedback from the customers, being able to support family income, and having personal growth or even societal recognition can be the reason for being satisfied with the gig job. Inversely, hygienic aspects of gig workers can be linked to uncertain revenue levels or a lack of job stability because gig work is a piecemeal endeavor. The dilemmas of flexibility and independence, maintaining excellent relationships with clients, the often-complicated mode of payment, and different time schedules, because the assignment would be delivered from a distant nation, are the reasons why working as a gigger is unsatisfying.

The two-factor theory-based conceptual framework for understanding the hygienic and motivational factors of gig-worker job (dis)satisfaction.

Materials and methods

The analysis was based on quantitative data collected from Bangladeshi digital platform workers. We used a nonprobability sampling design because the number of gig workers in Bangladesh is largely unknown and without official records. Recently, the use of nonprobability sampling for online surveys has significantly increased among scholars in social science and policy research 71 , 72 , 73 . From January to May 2022, data were collected by an online survey using a detailed structured questionnaire. The survey questionnaire (google link) was disseminated both inside and outside of the authors’ network, mainly posted on social media sites, i.e., Facebook groups and another extended networks, e.g., email. Participation in the survey was voluntary. Digital platform workers were identified as responding by answering ‘yes’ to the question, ‘Are you a Bangladeshi resident who works either part-time or full-time on a digital platform such as Fiverr, Upwork, or 99Designs?’. Participants were provided with a list of questions divided into three sections. The first section consisted of socio-demographic details. In the second section, respondents answered a variety of questions about online work, working platforms, tasks performed, obstacles, and so on. The final section contained questions regarding job satisfaction.

Initial responses came from 479 gig workers. We know there are around 650,000 registered gig workers in Bangladesh 16 . Taking into account the 5% margin of error, we applied the formula 74 to estimate the target total sample size, which yielded n =  \(\frac{N}{1+{Ne}^{2}}\)  = 400. Where, N and n stand for population and sample size, respectively, and e for margin of error (0.05). In order to avoid statistical noise, we gathered additional samples. However, the final sample consisted of 443 gig workers, 242 men and 201 women, which was statistically representative. The remaining 36 samples were excluded because of insufficient and inaccurate information. According to the preliminary investigation of the data, respondents from the sample were distributed over 16 districts of Bangladesh (Fig.  5 ). There was gender segregation between districts, with the majority of districts dominated by male workers. It is interesting to note that there was a concentration of gig workers in the Dhaka division from our sample because of better internet connectivity and banking facility than other remote regions of the country.

The study locations in Bangladesh. The authors used ArcGIS 10.8 ( https://www.arcgis.com/index.html ) to generate the map, employing the administrative shapefile of Bangladesh in the process. Shapefile republished from the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) database ( http://maps.barcapps.gov.bd/index.php ) under a CC BY license, with permission from Computer and GIS unit, BARC, original copyright 2014.

Empirical settings

Ordered probit model.

Our main goal of the study was to find the level of satisfaction of gig workers and the factors associated with job satisfaction. One way to measure job satisfaction was to record their responses in ordered categories, as shown in Fig.  6 . The ordered probit model is suitable to express the relationships between an ordinal dependent variable and a set of independent variables. In our study, the question, ‘How satisfied are you with your job?’ serves as the dependent variable of the ordered probit model that measures the job satisfaction of gig workers. Workers' responses were recorded using a scale of 1–5, where one indicated "Very dissatisfied" and five indicated "Very satisfied". According to the data, gig workers seem to be satisfied with their job. The average work satisfaction of men and women was 58.68 and 55.22%, respectively, although men were comparatively very satisfied with working on digital platforms than women. Women were more than twice as unsatisfied with their jobs as men (29.36 vs. 13.63%).

Weighted distribution of job satisfaction by gender.

To evaluate gig workers' job satisfaction, we performed an ordered probit model extensively used to assess ordinal and categorical data 19 , 75 . The ordered probit model is an appropriate method for gaining a greater insight into job satisfaction because multiple factors influence it to vary degrees. The ordered probit model used is formulated as follows (Eq.  1 ):

where, \({y}_{i}^{*}\) is an unobserved variable measuring the job satisfaction of ith gig workers; \({X}_{i}\) is the vector of the explanatory variables, such as age, education, marital status, experience, salary, working hours, working platform, sources of motivation, and problems faced (see Supplementary Table S.3 ); \({\alpha }_{0}\) is the intercept term, β is the vector of unknown parameters; and \({\varepsilon }_{i}\) is a random error term assumed to have a zero mean and unit variance, and is normally distributed across all observations (i.e., standard normal distribution).

Here, \({y}_{i}^{*}\) is unobserved and can only observe discrete satisfaction in the model in the form of censoring (Eq.  2 ):

where \({\mu }_{1}\) , \({\mu }_{2}\) , \({\mu }_{3}\) , and \({\mu }_{4}\) are unknown thresholds to be calculated with parameters. Then, the selection probability of job satisfaction can be estimated using \({\mu }_{i}\) and β. The selection probability for each satisfaction level (5-point Likert scale) can be represented as follows (Eq.  3 ):

Marginal effects

It is not advisable to interpret the parameters of an ordered probit model directly 76 because the signed coefficients can only reveal whether a change in explanatory variables increases or decreases the satisfaction level. To understand the magnitude of the changes, marginal effects are most often used to assess the probability of different outcomes in response to certain changes. The marginal effect of a continuous variable on satisfaction level j is calculated as follows (Eq.  4 ):

The marginal effect of a dummy (or categorical) variable on satisfaction level j can be determined by comparing the outcome when the variable changes from 0 to 1, while keeping the means of all other variables constant (Eq.  5 ).

Diagnostic statistics

The ordered probit model relies on several key assumptions including the proportional odds assumption, the independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA), and the normality and homoscedasticity of error terms. We addressed these assumptions to strengthen the validity and reliability of our findings. At first, the proportional odds assumption was tested using the Brant test. Our results indicated that the overall test was not significant (see details in Supplementary Table S.4 ), it suggests that the proportional odds assumption was not violated and the ordered probit model was appropriate for our data. The p-values for individual variables were also not significant, it confirms that each variable in our model satisfies the proportional odds assumption. Secondly, to address potential biases from the IIA assumption, we conducted robustness checks using multinomial logistic regression model. The results were consistent with those from the ordered probit model (see details in Supplementary Table S.5 ), suggesting that our findings were robust to violations of the IIA assumption. Finally, the residuals of the ordered probit model were examined for normality and homoscedasticity. Diagnostic Q–Q plots and normality test indicated no significant deviations (Supplementary Fig. S.1 and Supplementary Table S.6 ). Robust standard errors were used to address any minor heteroscedasticity detected, ensuring unbiased and efficient estimates in our analysis. The multicollinearity test of the regression revealed no evidence of serious correlation because the estimated variance inflation factors for all parameters were less than 5. The pseudo-R square value of the model indicated that the model had a good fit. Also, the estimated chi-square of the ordered probit model was significant, which indicates the estimated model is valid and significantly different than the null model with no predictor.

Compliance of ethical standard statement

The present study was approved by the Academic Committee of the Agricultural Economics Division of Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI). All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of BRRI and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Data collection was anonymous and involved no identifying information and no medical treatment. Participants were informed that their participation was voluntary, that they could leave the study at any time, and that their data would be treated anonymously. In addition, they were informed that by starting the survey, they would be considered to have read and accepted the informed consent.

Descriptive statistics

Most gig workers were young adults (see Supplementary Table S.3 ). The majority of them were from 26 to 30 years old. On average, men were 28 years old, while women were 27. The digital workers were highly educated. Women were more educated than men as shown in our survey; 47% of the women had a graduate degree compared to 25% of the men. However, men with a bachelor's degree were more likely to work online. Nearly two-thirds of men were single. Among married respondents, 38% of the women had children compared to 26% of the men. More men than women were employed in regular positions outside the gig economy. Men had a longer average career tenure than women across all platforms. On average, women worked longer hours (40.37 h/week vs. 35.90) but significantly earned less money than men (USD330.62 vs. 223.09). The details descriptive statistics of the gig workers were documented in Supplementary Table S.3 .

Gender-wise engagement in digital platforms

Fiverr and Upwork were the most widely used digital platforms among gig workers, accounting for 42.66 and 39.73% of respondents, respectively (Table 1 ). Around 19.41% of respondents reported that Freelancer was the third most popular digital platform for gig workers. Guru.com, PeoplePerHour, Designhill, and 99Designs were the least commonly used platforms for gig work in Bangladesh. The survey revealed significant gender variations in platform use. Men were most likely to use Upwork, while women were more likely to use Fiverr. Freelancer was used by 21.49% of men compared to 16.92% of women, a significant difference (4.57%, p < 0.10). After Freelancer, men were much more likely to be employed in Guru.com (15.29 vs. 3.48%) and PeoplePerHour (10.74 vs. 4.98%), both of which were statistically different from women. About 38% of men and 30% of women in the study areas of Bangladesh reported working on multiple platforms. They were usually less-experienced workers who had difficulty obtaining projects on a single platform, as well as graphic designers who routinely participated in contests across many platforms.

Nature of occupation on digital platforms

The gender disparity was pronounced in the different nature of activities on the digital platform (Table 2 ). The respondents were asked to explain their activities on each digital platform. Multiple responses were allowed. The most predominant category, with more than half of all respondents, was design and creativity, which seems comparable with the Online Labour Index 2020 77 . Gig workers in this category mainly worked on logo design, photoshop editing, web design, production and industrial design, and video editing. The second and third common categories were development and information technology, and administration and customer support, respectively.

There were also some obvious significant variations in the types of activities undertaken by men and women. A greater proportion of women worked in design and creative areas (54.23 vs. 47.52%, p < 0.05), and writing and translation (13.43 vs. 6.20%, p < 0.05). On the other hand, men outnumbered women in the categories of development and information technology (28.93 vs. 10.45%, p < 0.01) and sales and marketing (12.81 vs. 8.96%, p < 0.10).

Motivation for engaging in digital platforms

Work flexibility (21.44% of responses) was the primary reason for doing work on digital platforms in the study areas of Bangladesh (Table 3 ). However, when financial factors were considered as a whole, 18.96% reported that employment as a complement to their income, 17.83% reported the gig economy as their primary source of income, and 9.03% reported better payment. Lack of prospects and mismatching of skills in the traditional labor market account for 11.06 and 8.35% of those who report being motivated to work online. Interestingly, only 5.88% indicated a preference for working for digital platforms.

There was distinct gender-based patterns regarding motivations to participate in the gig economy. Men were primarily motivated by income to support their family members (27.27% of responses). When primary and supplemental income was combined, 43.99% of the men relied on the gig economy for a living, which was significantly different from women (28.86%). Work flexibility was 2.61 times higher for women than men, which particularly motivated women to work online. Lack of alternative employment options was the next most common reason for working in digital platforms and this motivation was comparable by gender. This group of gig workers did not find jobs in the public or private sector, hence grabbing crowdsourcing. However, the other motivating factors with significant differences between men and women have scheduled compatibility, and preference for working in a digital platform.

Determinants of job satisfaction of gig workers

The parameter estimates and average marginal effect of ordered probit models for job satisfaction among gig workers by gender were given in Table 4 and Fig.  7 . The probability of job satisfaction as ‘very satisfied’ increased by 11.7% (p < 0.01) for men workers aged group 21–25 but decreased by 13.9% (p < 0.01) among the 26–30 age group. Similarly, the probability that women workers under the age of 20 are highly satisfied with their job was 3.2% (p < 0.05), however in the 26–30 age group, the rate of job satisfaction as ‘very satisfied’ declined by 9.5% (p < 0.10). Men and women gig workers with less than a bachelor's degree was 6.7% and 3.7% more likely to report greater job satisfaction at a 10% probability level. The probability of job satisfaction as ‘satisfied’ and ‘very satisfied’ decreased by 20.3% (p < 0.01) and 8.4% (p < 0.01), respectively, for men workers with full-time employment in the gig economy.

Average marginal effects of the estimated coefficient of the ordered probit model for job satisfaction among gig workers.

There was a positive association between working experience and job satisfaction of men gig workers (p < 0.05). Men (p < 0.10) and women (p < 0.01) were significantly less satisfied with their jobs when working long hours increased. As expected, the likelihood of very satisfaction increased by 6.4% (p < 0.01) and 4.4% (p < 0.05), respectively, for men and women workers, as earnings increased. In the context of platform use, men's job satisfaction as ‘very satisfied’ significantly (p < 0.01) increased by 11.5 and 14.0% while using Fiverr and Upwork, respectively. In comparison, women worker job satisfaction increased by 9.7% (p < 0.05) for the Upwork platform.

Men who got motivation from family and friends, as well as social media, were associated with a 4.7 (p < 0.10) and 8.4% (p < 0.10) increased probability of expressing higher job satisfaction, respectively. On the contrary, self-motivated women and those who received motivation from social media were associated with a 7.2 (p < 0.10) and 5.1% (p < 0.05) increased likelihood of being highly satisfied with their jobs, respectively.

Higher probabilities of dissatisfaction were associated with payment mode among men (p < 0.01) and women (p < 0.05) workers. Network inconsistency was another prime issue that increased the probability of job satisfaction as ‘dissatisfied to very dissatisfied’ by 2.7% (p < 0.10) for men and by 13.1% (p < 0.05) for women. The probability of women workers' job satisfaction as ‘satisfied’ and ‘very satisfied’ decreased by 29.6 (p < 0.01) and 9.8% (p < 0.01), respectively, for additional work by buyers in the platform. Different time zones also cause difficulty and the predicted likelihood of job satisfaction as ‘satisfied to very satisfied’ decreased by 4.7 (p < 0.05) and 8.2% (p < 0.05) for men and women, respectively. Men and women workers who were satisfied with their work-life balance had 14.8 (p < 0.01) and 6.7% (p < 0.01) greater probabilities of being very satisfied, respectively. The details of the average marginal effect on the job satisfaction level of male and female gig workers are displayed in Supplementary Table S.7 .

With the rapid spread of information and communication technology (ICT), the traditional labor market has already undergone substantial shifts that have facilitated the rise of the gig economy. Greater social inclusion in terms of digital literacy, cheap broadband access, digital engagement (of technology), digital finance, and digital inclusion can assist Bangladesh in achieving a digital dividend 78 .

We found Bangladesh to be dominated by digital and multimedia works in the digital economy, irrespective of gender. According to the available evidence, different nations have achieved mastery in different fields. From a global survey, Kässi and Lehdonvirta noted that Indian and Pakistani workers dominated software development and technology tasks 13 . Conversely, Bayudan-Dacuycuy and Baje found that, in the Philippines, administration and customer service are the most common occupations in the gig market 54 . Among men in Australia, ridesharing was the most common task, while photography and design-related tasks were women’s most common choices reported by Churchill and Craig 7 . Hence, Bangladesh has enough scope for growth in software development, writing and translations, and finance-related tasks. At the same time, women have an incredible opportunity to engage in ridesharing. It would be advantageous if companies and governments supported gig workers by providing various educational and training programs and ensuring a safe working environment.

We found the most prominent digital markets in Bangladesh are Fiverr, Upwork, and Freelancer. Nonetheless, gender inequalities were apparent with around 50% of women preferring Fiverr and 42% of men preferring Upwork over other markets. According to Churchill and Craig, in Australia, regardless of gender, the most popular digital platform was the classified ads website and online market ‘Gumtree’ 7 . Shaw et al. 79 identified two prominent gig economy platforms Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT) and TaskRabbit (TR) in the US. The platform differences in various countries were based on language compatibility, payment methods, and customer support. Additionally, some workers prefer specific websites because of their reputation and the pool of jobs available.

This study investigated gender-driven motivations for participation in the digital market. Women's motivations for participating in the gig economy were more dynamic than men's, which were predominantly driven by the prospect of higher income. Digital markets allow men to take on more lucrative projects, access specialized opportunities and earn additional income while still maintaining their current job or career 64 , 80 . Given the cultural background, it was not surprising that work flexibility motivated women to choose the gig economy over the regular job market. Consistent with the results, studies from both developed and developing countries reported digital markets offer the ability to work from home, setting hours and working around the family's schedule while still having time to spend with children 47 , 52 , 58 . Berger et al. 81 and Wu and Huang 37 found that those valuing flexibility and autonomy have higher life satisfaction, while traditional employees report lower satisfaction and more anxiety, suggesting gig workers' well-being hinges on non-monetary factors. Besides, Doucette and Bradford reported this also provides more control and autonomy for women who are looking for a way to balance their career and family life 64 . In contrast, James reported that despite the flexibility afforded by platform work, workers often encounter difficulties in maintaining work-life balance and meeting familial obligations 67 .

The gig economy promotes women's inclusion in labor markets. Online work lessened women's unemployment rate 56 . According to Churchill and Craig 7 , and King-Dejardin 52 , women benefited economically by sustaining their means of sustenance or by supporting them in becoming self-employed and relieving financial strain on their families. Hence, income from the online labor market incentivized women to participate in the gig economy. However, Galperin 24 and Ticona and Mateescu 60 mentioned the prevalent gender stereotypes in the gig economy continue to hold women back in contravention of SDG 5.b, which promotes women's empowerment through technology access.

We observed significant digital participation inequalities in the gig economy of Bangladesh. Because of their financial independence at a young age, young workers were more content with their jobs than aged workers 46 . With continued education, they can take on short-term digital work or gigs, allowing them to get paid without any official contract. Similarly, Huđek et al. 82 found that higher levels of education increase dissatisfaction among Russian and Slovenian gig workers. On the contrary, Shaw et al. 79 reported that gig economy workers in the USA are generally younger, better educated, and more skilled in using the Internet.

Following the two-factor theory, we identified the factors that influenced the job satisfaction of gig workers. Among the hygiene factors, increasing working hours reduced gig workers' career satisfaction. Shevchuk et al. 83 reported that freelancers stay constantly active online to meet clients' needs. Long work hours have reduced workers' social time with family and friends 56 , 62 . In contrast, Dubey et al. 50 found that American women journalists who worked more hours earned more money and felt more satisfied with their freelancing work. This opposite results mainly due to skilled and unskilled workforce.

Our analysis also revealed that higher income significantly increased job satisfaction in Bangladesh. In this aspect, increasing income satisfied both men and women, despite a significant income difference 52 , 53 , 62 . Likewise, Alacovska et al. 84 found that tips and bonuses are seen as genuine appreciation for freelancers, acting as an emotional supplement to the wage. Crayne and Newlin 66 highlighted workers do better with high job satisfaction and worse with high financial stress. Keith et al. 85 also found that crowdsourcing workers relying on it for income had lower well-being, while those treating it as a job with community engagement enjoyed it more. In contrast, Berger et al. 81 found that, despite lower earnings, Uber drivers in London reported higher life satisfaction than those in traditional jobs.

Our study ascertained that men were satisfied with the platforms Fiverr and Upwork, whereas women were satisfied only with Upwork in recent times. This could be because Upwork has higher-paying projects, beginners are hired quickly, and it has a more diverse clientele, charges a fixed rate or an hourly rate, and so on. Although about half of the women respondents worked on Fiverr, the platform's lower hourly rate (starting at USD5), inconsistent payment (typically takes 14 days to access funds), and high commission were the reasons it lost the race in this context 52 . This can soon lead to a lack of job security and financial instability among workers.

Men and women gig workers were highly dissatisfied with the payment mode in Bangladesh. Because there is a lack of a quick, safe, and easy way of online payment systems that freelancers could use, for example, PayPal (a globally-acknowledged payment-transfer system). Using a third party's PayPal account appeared to be a double-edged sword because it entails a commission paid to the third party for using their account and a bank transfer fee. Without a choice, gig workers need to transact through banks, which is complicated in Bangladesh, especially for women 86 .

The income level for the gig tasks highly depends on the timely completion of the responsibilities. Poor internet connection, high cost of broadband, and power outages decreased the productivity level, hence increasing job dissatisfaction among both men and women in the study areas. According to the Speedtest Global Index 87 , Bangladesh placed 102nd by having only a 34.85-Mbps downloading speed through the mobile internet. Olorundare et al. 47 confirmed that slow internet affects the speed and quality of the work, making it difficult to meet deadlines and customer expectations. Additionally, it can make communication with employers more challenging, leading to delays in payment and a lack of clarity on job expectations. Expensive broadband costs are hard to manage when income is unpredictable. Power outages can also interfere with work schedules, preventing gig workers from getting the jobs they need.

Among motivational factors, full-time employment creates job dissatisfaction among male workers. Full-time engagement often leads to longer hours and more pressure to perform, which can be stressful and lead to burnout over time. Additionally, the lack of job security 18 , 54 , 64 , irregular pay 60 , 65 , 80 , and the fact that employers can easily replace workers can lead to a feeling of instability, which drives decreased job satisfaction levels among male workers in the gig economy. A UK study reported that gig workers have worse mental health and life satisfaction than full-time employees due to loneliness and financial instability, but they are better off than the unemployed 3 . Arriagada et al. 88 found that, in Chile, the lack of formal worker organizations for communication with platforms prevents workers from altering their working conditions. Besides adequate payment, platform workers seek a counterpart to offer guarantees and support during crises such as COVID-19.

As expected, self-motivation increases female workers' job satisfaction because it gives them a sense of control and autonomy in their work, which can increase job satisfaction and create a greater feeling of empowerment. Additionally, self-motivation leads to more creative problem-solving and higher productivity, leading to greater job satisfaction. For both sexes, social media have led to greater happiness in their gig jobs. With the help of social media, gig workers can now connect with their peers, find better-paying jobs, and receive feedback and support from customers. These benefits have increased satisfaction with their work, leading to better outcomes for the workers and the businesses that employ them. Wu and Zhou 34 identified key factors crucial for enhancing the well-being of DiDi drivers in China: respect, recognition, fairness, communication, and career planning. The research of Kim et al. 35 revealed that, among gig workers, economic benefits and self-esteem exerted the most significant influence on their overall quality of life.

Friends and family as a source of motivation influenced men's satisfaction significantly. Studies in developing countries reported economic insecurity and unemployment encouraged many to engage in digital jobs 89 , 90 . The traditional societal mindset of Bangladesh still does not recognize freelancers as breadwinners, subjecting them to physical and mental stresses. In this context, motivation from family and friends acts as a catalyst for a sense of support and understanding. Hence, the government initiatives through various social-media campaigns to increase online work's popularity and awareness against the conventional employment mentality boost job satisfaction, as evident in our study.

Work-life balance can provide gig workers with flexibility, particularly for women. Studies show that this balance can also help gig workers better manage their time and avoid burnout, making them more engaged and productive, which can lead to greater job satisfaction 45 , 54 , 91 . Low et al. 36 also found that job autonomy and work-life balance positively impact work performance. As the primary caregivers of the home and children, however, only women face difficult trade-offs between relaxation and leisure activities 20 , 62 , 65 .

Different time zones can make it difficult for gig workers to coordinate their work with colleagues and clients, leading to frustration and decreased job satisfaction. Most employers are from the United States and Europe, which occupy multiple time zones. Because of insufficient negotiating power, Wood et al. 6 found that the digital workforce has little control over working hours, hence job dissatisfaction increases. Women's capacity to work at night was constrained by household responsibilities 2 . Additionally, the stress of dealing with different time zones can lead to fatigue and burnout, both of which can negatively impact job satisfaction. Shevchuk et al. 83 reported that freelancers residing in different time zones other than their clients often face a disadvantage as they tend to work more nonstandard hours. Therefore, the government should support gig workers, especially women, by implementing regulations that protect their rights, such as minimum wage and health-care coverage, as well as providing a safe working environment.

Theoretical implications

The study enhances understanding of job satisfaction and engagement in digital platforms, offering insights for gender-sensitive labor-market theories. Applying Herzberg’s two-factor theory to gig workers significantly validates its relevance beyond traditional workplaces, as demonstrated in government service 92 , 93 , tourism 94 , medical laboratories 95 , and Airbnb 70 , 96 , showcasing its wide-ranging applicability. Our findings revealed that hygiene factors such as working status, different time zones, additional workload, payment methods, and network inconsistency led to dissatisfaction among gig workers regardless of gender. These identified factors contribute to the discourse on structural barriers within gig work, emphasizing the precarious nature of gig employment. This theoretical implication underscores the need for a reassessment of how digital platforms can better support gig workers in overcoming these structural hurdles.

Conversely, motivation factors such as income and family support garnered more attention from satisfied employees. Interestingly, we also observed that certain factors, including income, flexibility, work hours, and work-life balance, had the potential to increase satisfaction, contrary to the original theory's premise that they only prevent dissatisfaction. Additionally, we observed the platform preferences and task choices of men and women in digital labor markets highlight the continued influence of traditional gender roles and societal norms. Men tend to gravitate towards technical or high-skill tasks, while women often opt for desk-oriented work, reinforcing established gender-based divisions of labor. This finding aligns with feminist research, which emphasizes the traditional gender role 20 , suggesting that women often seek flexible work arrangements to manage multiple responsibilities, whereas men prioritize income in line with traditional breadwinning roles. These insights emphasize the importance of digital platform policies that accommodate these diverse motivations to improve job satisfaction for both genders.

Managerial contribution

The findings offer actionable insights for managers in digital platforms and the broader gig economy. Platform managers should tailor services to meet the specific needs of male and female workers. Addressing gender disparities in digital literacy and task types requires targeted training programs to enhance women's digital skills and mentorship to help them navigate the gig economy.

Gig workers have limited clarity of employment status so managers should define employment statuses clearly to grant workers benefits such as minimum wage, social protection, insurance, and regulated working conditions. For gig workers in Bangladesh, respect and recognition are crucial for improving well-being. Human-resource management should improve job security and working conditions (hygiene factors), while offering professional success and recognition opportunities (motivation factors) to increase job satisfaction. Ensuring that workers have clear information about assignments, remuneration, rights, and protections can prevent anti-competitive practices.

Based on the study findings, managers should focus on reliable, user-friendly payment systems to enhance job satisfaction. For inconsistent network connectivity, managers should collaborate with private and public sectors to extend consistent network coverage even in rural areas to attract more workers. Platforms should be designed to enable gig workers to provide feedback to optimize design and operation, adopt two-way scoring for credit investigations, and protect complaint channels for both consumers and service providers. Lastly, platform operators should design user-friendly setups, offer skill-development opportunities, and implement gender-sensitive policies to create a more inclusive and supportive work environment.

Conclusions and recommendations

Bangladesh has a prominent position regarding digital labor suppliers and digitalization contributes to the emergence of online work. Government initiatives through different projects enable people to use and participate in the digital platform. However, very little has been explored about the types of gigs, gender issues, and job satisfaction of the workers in Bangladesh. The study revealed distinct gender preferences for different platforms with men predominantly using Upwork, while women favored Fiverr. Additionally, there were marked gender differences in the types of tasks performed. Women were more involved in design and creative roles, whereas men engaged more in technical and diverse tasks such as IT and development. Flexibility emerged as a primary motivator for women, who often juggle multiple responsibilities, whereas men were more driven by income to support their families. Factors such as age, education, working hours, income, and platform usage were significant determinants of job satisfaction. Both men and women reported higher satisfaction with increased earnings and a balance between work and personal life. However, challenges, such as network inconsistency, payment modes, and time zone differences, negatively impacted job satisfaction levels.

Based on the study findings, we recommend the following to support gig workers:

Develop a robust regulatory framework to protect gig workers' rights, ensuring fair wages, and timely payments.

Introduce social security schemes specifically designed for gig workers, offering benefits such as health insurance, retirement plans, and unemployment benefits that will help mitigate financial instability as well as social recognized.

Fund vocational training and skill-development programs tailored to gig workers' needs that are aimed at attracting unemployed youth who can enhance their capabilities and income potential.

Given the recent artificial intelligence (AI) revolution, including tools such as ChatGPT, governments should provide tech-literacy programs for gig workers so that they can use these tools more effectively.

Integrate ICT as a mandatory subject within the primary to higher secondary levels of the education system. Despite concerns that AI may diminish demand for gig roles, it's vital to harness technology as opportunities rather than being controlled by it.

The government can also improve digital infrastructure in rural and underserved areas to ensure reliable internet connectivity and facilitate access to financial services, such as easy digital-payment systems such as PayPal. Awareness campaigns to educate gig workers about their rights and available government programs, along with encouraging platforms to adopt fair labor practices and provide transparent information, can empower workers and promote accountability. Promoting gender equality through grants and incentives for women's technical-skill training and creating inclusive environments on platforms will address gender disparities. These steps will create a more equitable and supportive environment for workers, addressing their specific challenges and improving job satisfaction and engagement.

The study has limitations despite offering valuable insights. The cross-sectional design and self-report surveys limit causal inferences and fail to capture temporal changes. Future research should use experimental approaches and panel data analysis to understand long-term effects. The non-probability sample limits generalizability. A larger quantitative survey and qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups could provide more representative and deeper insights. Since the ‘gig economy’ is highly heterogeneous, the study's overview lacks detail on platform-specific data. Future studies should collect platform-segregated data and compare it with regular jobs by incorporating gender inclusivity in platform policies. Our study used an ordered probit model to identify gender differences in job satisfaction. Future research should explore alternative modeling approaches, such as machine-learning algorithms, to address self-report biases and improve predictions. Additionally, research is needed to understand the future of gig workers amid AI advancements such as ‘ChatGPT’. The study overlooked psychological influences on gig workers' decision-making. Future studies should examine factors such as risk perception, attitudes, beliefs, and decision-making biases. Comparative studies across different countries, considering socio-cultural norms, can further elucidate gender disparities in the online labor market.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Mou Rani Sarker

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Tanjum Afrin Taj & Md. Fuad Hassan

School of Economics, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan, 430073, China

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Agricultural Economics Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, 1701, Bangladesh

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Agricultural Statistics Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, 1701, Bangladesh

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M.R.S.: Conceptualization; data curation; formal analysis; investigation; methodology; resources; software; visualization; roles/writing—original draft. T.A.T.: Data curation; formal analysis; visualization; roles/writing—original draft. M.A.R.S.: Conceptualization; methodology, supervision; validation; writing—review and editing. M.F.H.: Data wrangling; visualization; roles/writing—original draft. A.M.M.: Writing—review and editing. M.A.A.M.: Data curation. D.S.: Data curation. H.B.: Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Sarker, M.R., Taj, T.A., Sarkar, M.A.R. et al. Gender differences in job satisfaction among gig workers in Bangladesh. Sci Rep 14 , 17128 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68327-5

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This chapter, prepared for the Handbook of Labor Economics, presents a comprehensive overview of how labor economists understand job search among the unemployed and how job search is shaped by unemployment insurance (UI) and active labor market policies (ALMP). It focuses on synthesizing key lessons from the empirical research of the last decade and presents recent novel theoretical developments.

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113 Gender Roles Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for gender roles essay topics? This field is hot, controversial, and really worth exploring!

• 🔝 Top 10 Gender Topics
• 📝 Gender Essay: Writing Tips
• 🏆 Gender Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

✍️ Gender Argumentative Essay Topics

❓ research questions about gender roles.

In your gender role essay, you might want to focus on the issues of gender equality in the workplace. Another exciting option is to write about gender stereotypes in education. Finally, you can elaborate on how traditional gender roles are changing.

In this article, you’ll find a list of gender argumentative essay topics, ideas for papers on gender and society, as well as top gender roles essay examples.

🔝 Top 10 Gender Roles Topics

• Gender stereotypes and the way they affect people
• Fighting gender stereotypes and sexism
• Gender equality in the workplace
• Gender stereotypes in education
• Gender schema theory
• Is gender socially constructed?
• Social learning theory and gender
• Gender roles and sexual orientation
• Body image and gender
• Social gender construction in the media

📝 Gender Roles Essay: Writing Tips

Essays on gender roles present students’ understanding of the similarities, differences, and aspects of gender roles in society.

Writing gender roles essays helps learners to understand the significance of topics related to gender roles and the changes in societal norms. Students should be highly aware of the problems associated with traditional gender roles. For example, there are many periods in world history, in which people did not have equal rights.

Moreover, some aspects of gender roles may be associated with discrimination. To make an essay on this problem outstanding, you should discuss the problem in detail and present your points clearly. A useful tip is to develop a good structure for your paper.

Before starting to work on the paper, you should select the problem that is most interesting or relevant to you.

Gender roles essay topics and titles may include:

• The history of gender roles and their shifts throughout the time
• Male and female roles in society
• Gender roles in literature and media
• How a man and a woman is perceived in current society
• The causes and outcomes of gender discrimination
• The problem of ‘glass ceiling’
• The problem of social stratification and its outcomes
• The revolution in the concept of gender

After selecting the issue for discussion, you can start working on the essay’s structure. Here are some useful tips on how to structure your paper:

• Select the topic you want to discuss (you can choose one from the list above). Remember to pay attention to the type of essay you should write. If it is an argumentative essay, reflect on what problem you would want to analyze from opposing perspectives.
• Gender roles essay titles are important because they can help you to get the reader’s attention. Think of something simple but self-explanatory.
• An introductory paragraph is necessary, as it will present the questions you want to discuss in the paper. Remember to state the thesis of your essay in this section.
• Think of your gender roles essay prompts. Which aspects of the selected problem do you want to focus on? Dedicate a separate section for each of the problems.
• Remember to include a refutation section if you are writing an argumentative essay. In this section, you should discuss an alternative perspective on the topic in 1-2 paragraphs. Do not forget to outline why your opinion is more credible than the alternative one.
• Avoid making the paragraphs and sentences too long. You can stick to a 190 words maximum limit for one paragraph. At the same time, make sure that the paragraphs are longer than 65 words. Try to make all sections of the body paragraphs of similar length.
• Check out examples online to see how you can structure your paper and organize the information. Pay attention to the number of paragraphs other students include.
• Remember to include a gender roles essay conclusion. In this paragraph, you will discuss the most important claims of your paper.
• Do not forget to add a reference page in which you will include the sources used in the paper. Ask your professor in advance about the types of literature you can utilize for the essay.

Do not forget that there are free samples on our website that can help you to get the best ideas for your essay!

🏆 Gender Roles Essay Examples & Topic Ideas

• Conflict of Gender Roles in Munro’s “Boys and Girls” Munro’s “Boys and Girls” is a story about a puzzled girl who struggles to find the balance between the battles of her inner female-housewife side, like her mother, and a boyish character who likes to […]
• Gender Roles in Antigone Essay This will be seen through an analysis of the other characters in the play and the values of ancient Greeks. Indeed this central character appears to be at odds with the inclinations of the other […]
• Gender roles in the Wind in the Willows For instance, in the case where both the mole and the rat make comments to the toad that are full of women critics.
• Gender Roles Set in Stone: Prehistoric and Ancient Work of Arts In the prehistoric and ancient works of art, the representation of women and men reveals a massive imbalance in gender equity that favors men over women.
• Gender Roles and Stereotyping in Education Teachers should be trained to give clear and useful instruction to students on the issue of gender roles in modern society.
• Gender Roles in the 19th Century Society: Charlotte Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper However, the narrator’s developing madness can also act as the symbolical depiction of the effects of the men’s dominance on women and the female suppression in the 19th-century society.”The Yellow Wallpaper” was first published in […]
• Gender Roles in “The Glass Menagerie” by Tennessee Williams In the play The Glass Menagerie, Tennessee Williams has written the story of the Wingfield family that lived in St Louis during the 1940s.
• The Concepts of Gender Roles and Sexuality by John Money and Judith Butler These categories of feminists are united in the belief of existence of many children and little sex. This paper explains the concepts and ideologies relating to gender roles and sexuality.as advocated by John Money and […]
• Athena and Gender Roles in Greek Mythology According to Eicher and Roach-Higgins, the elements of her dress were important because they immediately communicated specific ideas about her character that was as contradictory as the physical gender of the birthing parent.”In appropriating the […]
• Gender Roles in “Bridge to Terabithia” by Paterson The theme of gender roles is consistently present in the novel, starting with character origins and becoming the central concept as they mature to defy archetypal perceptions of feminine and masculine expectations in order to […]
• Biology and Gender Roles in Society Thus, it may be more convenient for society to justify the imposition of certain gender roles on men and women using biology-related arguments, which, in reality, are more related to culture and social development.
• Changing Gender Roles Between Boys and Girls In the twenty-first Century, girls have greatly stepped up and assumed some of the roles that were considered to be boy’s while boys have done the same leading to an interchange of roles.
• Gender Roles Inversion: The Madonna Phenomenon At the same time partial narrowing of the gender gap in the context of economic participation did not lead to the equality of men and women in the field of their occupations.
• Gender Roles and Family Systems in Hispanic Culture In the Hispanic culture, amarianismo’ and amachismo’ are the terms used to determine the various behavioral expectations among the family members.
• Gender Roles in South Korean Laws and Society At the same time, all custody is traditionally granted to husbands and fathers in a case of a divorce” though the anxiety about the high divorce rate and the nasty endings of relationships is more […]
• Discussing Gender Roles in the Interaction Perspective It is the purpose of this issue to discuss the concept of gender roles using the sociological perspective of symbolic interaction.
• Gender Roles in Toy Stores According to Fisher-Thompson et al, two of the major differentiating factors in toys for girls and boys are color and nature.
• Gender Roles by Margaret Mead Once the a rift defining men and women develops this way, it goes further and defines the positions, which men and women occupy in the society, basing on these physical and biological differences, which form […]
• Gender Roles in Society One might think that a child is born with the idea of how to behave in relation to gender while in the real sense; it is the cultivation of the society that moulds people to […]
• Gender Roles in Brady’s and Theroux’s Works In the satire “Being a Man” by Paul Theroux, the author demonstrates to readers the essence of how a particular manifestation of masculinity is extolled in American society.
• Women’s Gender Roles in American Literature The stories written by Constance Woolson Fenimore, Mary Wilkins Freeman, and Jaqueline Bishop highlight the harmful gender roles and discrimination that still remains a major topic for disputes and illustrate the fate of oppressed women.
• Aspects of Gender Roles and Identity The breadth of her practice in transgender issues suggests that every choice Bowers makes is ethical, requiring her to be respectful and highly responsible.
• Changing Gender Roles in Families Over Time The division of labor and traditional gender roles in the family usually consists of men doing the work while women take care of the children, other relatives, and housekeeping.
• Gender Roles, Expectations, and Discrimination Despite Isaac being the calmest boy in the school, he had a crush on Grace, a beautiful girl in the school who was from a wealthy family.
• Gender Roles in Social Constructionism The reality, in the view of sociologists, is a social attitude in connection with which a personality is formed that adapts to the requirements of the world.
• Gender Roles and Stereotypes in Straightlaced Film One might conclude that gender neutrality and abstraction in offices are only a cover to maintain the basis of gender injustice.
• Children’s Views of Gender Roles Today, both parents and teachers see the positive impact of the attempts to integrate anti-biased gender-related education on young children as they get more freedom to express themselves and grow up less aggressive.
• The Construction of Gender Roles However, it is wrong to consider women exposed to the domestic work powerless, as they have the opportunity to informally or implicitly influence men and the decisions they make.
• Sociology of the Family: Gender Roles Thus, the societal predisposition and notion that women are lesser in the community should be abandoned, and greater emphasis should be placed on the critical functions they perform in the household. These assertions, equivocations, and […]
• Femininity and Masculinity: Understanding Gender Roles The understanding of how gender roles are portrayed in the media and the general perception of the expected behavior for men and women communicated non-verbally in the society is the basis on which children build […]
• Injustice Within Strict Gender Roles There is still no clear answer to how a person can find his or her destiny and place in the world, and understand the opportunities and prospects, considering the opinion of the dominant number of […]
• Gender Roles and Body Image in Disney Movies In this research, attention will be paid to gender roles and body images of Disney princesses to understand the popularity of the franchise and its impact on child development.
• Gender Roles and How People Perceive Them However, all of the survey participants indicated that their families would be inclined to differentiate between the toys for a child based on the latter’s sex and the corresponding perceived gender role.
• Gender Roles: From Prehistoric Era to Modern Society Since each gender was assigned a particular role in the past due to the differences in the biological makeup between a man and a woman in the prehistoric era, the modern process of communication between […]
• Gender Roles in TV Commercials and Values in the Society Each of them will watch, code, and analyze the TV commercials separately; at the end of the procedure, their results will be compared in order to ensure the inter-observer reliability of the chosen research method.
• Gender Roles in Contemporary Society The conditions of life are tough and it is presumed that only men are able to carry out such hardships and limitations of a soldier life.
• Gender Roles in ‘Mr. Green’ by Robert Olen Butler Green Butler uses the character of the grandfather to develop the theme of gender roles within the culture. The character of the grandfather is extremely sound for the cultural beliefs the author conveyed through all […]
• Culture and History: Gender Roles Over the Past 50 or So Years It is not that there were no women in the workforce; it was just that she had to choose one over the other, juggling the two was quite rare and unheard of.
• Gender Roles and Sexuality in Media: Cosmopolitan & Maxim The woman portrayed in these sites is supposed to look ‘hot’ and sexy in order to be attractive to a man.
• Gender Roles: Changes From the Late 1800’s to Today The definition of who is a male or a female depends on the types of gender roles one was exposed to during the early ages. In today’s society, we have a greater number of women […]
• Social Element in Gender Roles I learned of the origins of gay and lesbian studies, as well that of the confining of such studies in earlier times to specific institutions.
• Equality: The Use of TV to Develop Our Gender Roles In this sense, when it is the men who predominantly work outside of the home, they will usually see the home as a place of leisure and so use the TV as a source of […]
• Gender Roles in Brady’s “Why I Want a Wife” and Sacks’ “Stay-at-Home Dads” Yet, there are some distinctions Judy Brady believes that women are often viewed as unpaid house servants who have to take care of husbands’ needs, whereas Glenn Sacks argues that gender roles begin to transform […]
• Family Unit and Gender Roles in Society and Market The role of molding the infant into an adult belonged to the family in the ancient society. In the past, the father was expected to be the breadwinner of the family.
• Gender Roles and Social Classes in Wartime The message is as simple as “The women of Britain say ‘Go.’” It points to the role of both men and women in wartime.
• China’s Gender Roles in Mo Yan’s and Shen Fu’s Works Six Records of a Floating Life is a multi-faceted chronicle which helps to comprehend the difficulties and the features of Shen Fu’s life and the romance between him and his beloved Chen Yun.
• Nomadic Society’s Gender Roles and Warrior Culture On the one hand, it was clear that the 1100s and the 1200s included the period of male power. It was wrong to assume that all women were similar and treat them in the same […]
• “Beside Oneself” by Judith Butler: Gender Roles Following the views of the author, who states that choice in the formation of gender and sexuality is not transparent, and a key role is still played by others in the form of expectations and […]
• Gender Roles in Couples and Sex Stereotypes Altogether, the last reconsiderations of the nature of relations promoted the appearance of numerous debates related to the role of partners and their right to be the leader.
• Understanding the Social Element in Gender Roles When saying that gender is a binary construction, one implies that there are two genders, namely, the masculine and the feminine one, and two corresponding types of social behaviour, which are predetermined by the existing […]
• Gender Roles in Tango: Cultural Aspects However, one should not assume that the role of women in tango is inferior because they create the most aesthetic aspects of this dance.
• Women in Hip-Hop Music: A Provocative and Objectified Gender Roles It is one thing that men want women to be in music videos and play a particular role, but women are willing to participate in the videos.
• Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media In the critical analysis of the article, the point of disagreement is that of under-representation of women in the media. How do the media subordinate and relegate roles of women in society?
• Effects of Media Messages about Gender Roles Media articles, such as the Maxim Magazine and the Cosmopolitan Magazine, socialize individuals to believe that women are very different from men as regards to dressing, behaving, and eating.
• The Change of Gender Roles This similarity is one of the most important to focus on the structure of the narrative. In both plays, the main actions of the characters are not directly described by the authors.
• Gender Equality: Male Dominance The simple reason is that gender inequality exists in affluent societies wherein women are free to do what they want, have access to education, and have the capacity to create wealth.
• “The Odd Women” and “Women in Love”: Evolving Views of Gender Roles An effort is also made to track the changes of the roles of women in the social fabric in the Victorian era by considering The Odd Women by George Gissing written in 1893.
• Gender Roles: Constructing Gender Identity In the course of the twentieth century and at the threshold of the twenty-first century, the images and roles of gender have constantly been changing.
• Analysis of the Peculiarities of Gender Roles Within Education, Families and Student Communities Peculiarities of gender aspect within the education system and labour market Attitude for marriage of men and women as one of the major aspects within the analysis of gender roles Family relations as a significant […]
• Ideology of Gender Roles In the world of literature, ideology has played a vital role in depicting the condition of the society. In this scenario, Kingston reveals that the men out-live their roles in the society, and they are […]
• Concepts of Gender Roles As a result of these, the war on gender inequality and sexism has failed, because of the failure of these agents of change to promote gender equality and eliminate discriminative notions held by the society.
• Cohabitation and Division of Gender Roles in a Couple Cohabitation is perceived in the society as the form of relationships which is an effective alternative to the traditional marriage because of focusing on the principles of flexibility, freedom, and equality, but few couples can […]
• Gender Roles in the United States Over the Last Century The men’s perception towards this idea was negative, and this consequently resulted to a conflict with the men claiming that the roles of the women were in the kitchen.
• Fashions, gender roles and social views of the 1950s and 1960s Fashion was highly valued and this can be seen in the way the clothes worn by the wives of the presidential candidates in America hit the headlines. In the 1950s, the role of housekeeping and […]
• Cheating, Gender Roles, and the Nineteenth-Century Croquet Craze The author’s main thesis is, “Yet was this, in fact, how the game was played on the croquet lawns of the nineteenth century?” Whereas authors of croquet manuals and magazines emphasize so much on the […]
• Gender Roles in Cartoons Though the males are portrayed to be logical, but it is shown that the females are more successful because of simple blunders or miscalculations which males fail to understand, females are able to beat males […]
• The Industrial Revolution Impact on the Gender Roles The population growth combined with the increased productivity of small parts of the country and the migration of the now landless people in search of work opportunities led to the phenomena of urbanization.
• Gender Roles in The Yellow Wallpaper & Trifles The two texts; the short story ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ by Charlotte Perkins and the play ‘Trifles’ by Susan Glaspell strategically illustrate this claim since they both aim at attracting the reader’s attention to the poor […]
• How Does Aristophanes Represent Gender Roles in Lysistrata?
• Are Gender Roles and Relationships More Equal in Modern Family Life?
• How Do Children Develop Gender Roles?
• Does Men’s Fashion Reflect Changes in Male Gender Roles?
• How Did Colonialism Resonate With Gender Roles and Oppression?
• Are Gender Roles Damaging Society?
• How Did Revolutions Affect Gender Roles?
• Are Gender Roles Defined by Society or by Genetics?
• How Have Family Structure and Gender Roles Changed?
• Are Gender Roles Fluid When Dealing With Death and Tragedy?
• How Do Gender Roles Affect Communication?
• Are Gender Roles Natural?
• How Do Gender Roles Affect Immigrants?
• Are Gender Stereotyped Roles Correct?
• How Do Gender Roles Affect the Physical and Emotional Health?
• Have Gender Roles Played a Big Part in the History?
• How Do Gender Roles and Extroversion Effects How Much People Talk?
• What Are Gender Roles? How Are They Defined?
• How Are Gender Roles Predetermined by the Environment?
• What Drives the Gender Wage Gap?
• How Has Gender Roles Changed Over the Last Centuries?
• What Factors Influence Gender Roles?
• How Have Gender Roles in Japanese Theatre Influenced and Affected Societal View on Homosexuality and Masculinity?
• What Society Norms for Gender Roles Should Be Conceived?
• How Have Traditional Gender Roles Been Stressful?
• What Was Distinctive About Gender Roles in the Nineteenth Century?
• How Has Hegemonic Masculinity Set Ideas of Gender Roles?
• How Do Media and Politics Influence Gender Roles?
• Where Does the Truth on Gender Roles Lie in Nahua and Mayan Civilizations?
• How Radical Are the Changes to the Gender Roles in Carter’s “The Company of Wolves”?
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Essay on Gender Division of Labour

Students are often asked to write an essay on Gender Division of Labour in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Gender Division of Labour

Introduction.

Gender division of labour refers to the allocation of different tasks, roles and responsibilities to men and women based on their gender. It’s a social construct influenced by societal norms and expectations.

Origins of Gender Division of Labour

Impacts of gender division of labour.

This division often leads to gender inequality. Women are generally expected to handle unpaid work like household chores, limiting their opportunities for paid work.

While progress has been made, gender division of labour still exists. It’s crucial to challenge these norms to promote equality.

250 Words Essay on Gender Division of Labour

Historical perspective.

Historically, gender division of labour arose from the biological differences between men and women. Men, perceived as physically stronger, were assigned tasks requiring physical strength, while women, associated with nurturing roles, were confined to domestic chores and child-rearing.

Modern Times

In contemporary society, despite strides towards gender equality, this division persists. Women are still primarily responsible for unpaid care work, while men dominate sectors like technology and engineering. This division is not just unfair but also economically inefficient, as it fails to capitalise on the skills and talents of half the population.

Implications and the Way Forward

The gender division of labour perpetuates stereotypes, hampers women’s economic empowerment, and hinders societal development. To dismantle this division, we need equal opportunities in education and employment, flexible work policies, and shared domestic responsibilities.

In conclusion, the gender division of labour is a persistent issue that requires collective efforts to overcome. By promoting gender equality in all spheres, we can ensure a more balanced, inclusive, and prosperous society.

500 Words Essay on Gender Division of Labour

The gender division of labour is a sociological concept that refers to the allocation of tasks, roles, and responsibilities based on sex. This division is not biologically determined but is a social construct shaped by cultural, economic, and historical influences. It is intrinsically linked with societal perceptions of masculinity and femininity, and significantly impacts the economic, social, and political spheres of society.

Economic Implications

The gender division of labour has significant economic implications. Women’s work, often unpaid and undervalued, contributes to economic growth and development, yet is often excluded from national income accounts. Additionally, women’s limited access to paid employment and over-representation in low-wage sectors perpetuates economic inequality. The gender wage gap, a direct consequence of this division, remains a pervasive issue worldwide.

Societal and Cultural Factors

Societal and cultural norms play a crucial role in maintaining the gender division of labour. Gender stereotypes and biases often limit women’s participation in certain sectors, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Moreover, societal expectations regarding women’s primary role as caregivers often hinder their career progression and economic independence.

Globalization and Changing Dynamics

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Where Harris stands on Israel, abortion, climate change, education and the economy

[Editor's note: An earlier version of this story misstated Harris' proposed 2019 climate plan investment levels. The correct estimate is nearly seven times more than Biden's current proposal.]

Vice President Kamala Harris has emerged as the Democratic party’s presidential frontrunner after Joe Biden dropped his reelection bid Sunday.

Most Democrats have backed Harris, who announced her 2024 campaign for president shortly after Biden penned a letter explaining his decision to exit the 2024 race. Depending on who you ask, Harris is viewed as a moderate or a progressive reformer.

A former prosecutor, Harris was elected San Francisco’s district attorney with a “tough on crime” message in 2003 and worked in that role for seven years. She became the state’s attorney general in 2011 and served until 2017, when she was elected to represent California in the U.S. Senate.

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More: Election 2024 live updates: Endorsements rush in for Harris; Trump attacks begin

Harris launched her own unsuccessful presidential campaign at a rally in her hometown of Oakland, California in 2019. She dropped her bid for the White House and joined President Joe Biden’s ticket in August the following year. In 2021, she was sworn in as vice president.

Decades in the public spotlight and on the public record, here is what we know about where Harris stands on key issues:

Foreign Policy

As Biden’s second-in-command, Harris has largely stood behind his foreign policy positions, but there are signs she could be tougher on Israel over the war in Gaza than the president.

Harris has not given reason to believe she will deviate much from Biden on issues relating to China , for example. She is also unlikely to sway from supporting Ukraine. Harris said earlier this year that Russia has committed “crimes against humanity” in Ukraine over the last two years.

Harris has not directly opposed Biden’s staunch support for Israel, but has expressed sympathy for the more than 38,000 Palestinian lives lost during the conflict. She was one of the first high-profile members of his administration to call for an immediate temporary cease-fire in March. She acknowledged the “immense scale of suffering” in Gaza and said the Israel-Hamas war is a “humanitarian catastrophe” for innocent civilians.

Harris’ support for women’s access to abortions has been a focal point of her tenure as the country’s first female vice president. She embarked on a nationwide Reproductive Freedoms Tour earlier this year to draw attention to attacks on abortion access following the Dobbs decision . She attended her first stop in Wisconsin on Jan. 22, the 51st anniversary of Roe v. Wade .

Harris proposed federal protections that would limit state abortion restrictions during her first presidential campaign. Under her proposal, states would need to clear laws regulating abortion with the Department of Justice, which would need to confirm they are constitutional before taking effect, she explained in 2019 .

“How dare these elected leaders believe they are in a better position to tell women what they need, to tell women what is in their best interest?” Harris asked during a visit to a Minnesota Planned Parenthood clinic in March. “We have to be a nation that trusts women.”

Harris has traveled on an Economic Opportunity Tour this summer to defend the Biden administration’s economic policy and attack former President Donald Trump’s economic agenda.

While on tour, she touted legislation passed during Biden’s time in office, including the American Rescue Plan and Inflation Reduction Act . Harris has tried to emphasize that wage increases have outpaced inflation since the pandemic and made the case that Trump has plans to give more tax cuts to the rich.

“Donald Trump gave tax cuts to billionaires,” she said in a June social media post . “President Joe Biden and I are investing in the middle class and making sure billionaires and big corporations pay their fair share.”

The vice president has made clear that climate change is a key issue a Harris administration would seek to address.

While running for president in 2019, she proposed a climate plan with a $10 trillion price tag — nearly seven times more than the $1.6 trillion Biden has invested in addressing the issue. She also called for a ban on fracking.

As a senator, she co-sponsored the Green New Deal , which called for a dramatic increase in the production of renewable fuels, including wind, solar, and hydropower sources. The 10-year mobilization plan pushed for a transition to energy systems less reliant on generating greenhouse gases, which are the primary contributors to climate change.

Harris has been an advocate inside the Biden administration pushing for the president to forgive student loan debt , which became a staple of his domestic policy agenda.

As a senator, she co-sponsored Vermont Sen. Bernie Sanders’ legislation to make two-year college free for all students and waive tuition for middle-class students attending four-year public universities.

At a Pride Month event last year, she criticized Florida’s 2022 “Don’t Say Gay” law banning educators from discussing sexual orientation and gender identity in elementary and middle school classrooms. Shortly after she announced her presidential campaign Sunday, the American Federation of Teachers endorsed Harris.

Rachel Barber is a 2024 election fellow at USA TODAY, focusing on politics and education. Follow her on X, formerly Twitter, at @rachelbarber_

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State Street to allocate $4.2 million to adjust wages after alleged gender discrimination

• Zeninjor Enwemeka

State Street Corporation has agreed to allocate $4.2 million for future pay adjustments to resolve allegations of gender discrimination at four of its Boston-area offices, the U.S. Department of Labor announced Monday.

The department's Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) initially raised concerns about the base pay and bonuses for female managing directors during routine evaluations, dating back to 2017 and 2018.

The office found that the Massachusetts-based global financial services firm violated a rule that prohibits federal contractors from employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or national origin. State Street has contracts to provide financial services to the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corp, and has held more than $69 million in federal contracts since 2020.

"Federal contractors like State Street Corp. must make certain its employment practices comply with all federal law, including those that seek to eliminate gender-based barriers to equal employment," OFCCP acting director Michele Hodge said in a statement.

State Street has already made at least $483,000 in pay equity adjustments to the female managing directors who were part of the allegations. The company also agreed to set aside $4.2 million to ensure its compensation practices and policies are free of discrimination. State Street will work with a consultant to conduct a pay equity analysis across all of its offices nationwide.

"Because we already review for pay equity and make adjustments as part of our annual compensation process, we are pleased to continue doing so, and to providing reporting to OFCCP for a period of time," Ed Patterson, a State Street spokesperson, said in a statement. "The conciliation agreement with OFCCP clearly shows that the processes we have put in place to provide a fair compensation system are working."

State Street has faced federal scrutiny before over wage discrimination. In 2017, the company agreed to pay $5 million over allegations of pay disparities for women and people of color.

But the corporation has also made public efforts to promote pay equity in the past. The company has been part of the city of Boston's efforts to close the gender wage gap, and has for a long time worked to get more women and people of color into higher level positions .

Under the agreement with OFCCP, State Street will do annual trainings for recruiters and compensation personnel, and analyze whether employees are facing obstacles to advancement in the company.

• It's Equal Pay Day. Women earn 84 cents for every dollar men make — or even less
• Gender pay gap persists: How to close it, 15 years after Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act

Zeninjor Enwemeka Senior Business Reporter Zeninjor Enwemeka is a senior business reporter who covers business, tech and culture as part of WBUR's Bostonomix team, which focuses on the innovation economy.

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A Harris Economy Could Prove More Progressive Than ‘Bidenomics’

As a presidential candidate in the past, the former California senator pushed for higher taxes and bigger housing investments.

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By Alan Rappeport

Reporting from Washington

• Published July 21, 2024 Updated July 22, 2024

At the first Democratic presidential debate in 2019, Kamala Harris, then a senator from California, unleashed a scathing critique of the Trump economy.

The future vice president billed President Donald J. Trump’s tax cuts as a giveaway to the rich, argued that the booming stock market was leaving the middle class behind and warned that his reckless trade agenda was hurting farmers in the heartland.

“Frankly, this economy is not working for working people,” Ms. Harris said. “For too long the rules have been written in the favor of the people who have the most and not in favor of the people who work the most.”

As Ms. Harris prepares to potentially replace President Biden atop the Democratic ticket , she now faces the challenge of articulating her own vision for steering a U.S. economy that is still grappling with inflation while drawing sharp distinctions with Mr. Trump, who has promised more tax cuts and tariffs.

Ms. Harris has been an ardent defender for the White House’s economic agenda during the Biden administration, promoting the benefits of legislation such as the American Rescue Plan of 2021 and the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022. But as an attorney general and a senator, she was at times more progressive than the president, pushing for universal health care while calling for more generous tax benefits for working-class Americans and paying for them with bigger tax increases on companies.

In recent weeks, Ms. Harris has embarked on an economic “opportunity tour,” making the case that wage increases have been outpacing inflation, that manufacturing jobs are growing and that Democrats have been fighting to forgive student loan debt. Those arguments now foreshadow the case she will be making to voters as she runs against Mr. Trump.

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